How Does Your Capacitor Work?

APFC Panels
A load & therefore its KVAR are in a dynamic state - generally. A matching KVAR output
of a capacitor bank must also be dynamic i.e. must adjust itself-instantly to its
requirement, if one is to obtain a uniform &set p.f. all along. !his is best achie"ed by an
automatic control that s#itches in & out, segments of a designed capacitor bank. A
control panel ser"ing this purpose is called on A$%& panel or Automatic $o#er %actor
&ontrolling panel. 't controls the load po#er factor by sensing "arious a"ailable
parameters.
A) Sensing Parameters :-
(. &urrent - )ensing based A$%& *- !he current magnitude through a feeder or bus is
sensed and fed to a relay. As this magnitude crosses a set band-#idth, the relay
operates a po#er controlling a section of a capacitor bank. !his is the simplest and
possibly the cheapest relay. 't has a disad"antage of functioning #ith no reference to
the actual load po#er factor - but assuming it.
+. $o#er %actor )ensing based A$%& *- !his relay senses the start of the "oltage
current #a"e forms on a gi"en feeder & measures the time difference bet#een them. 't
then con"erts this into a p.f. & compares this #ith a set "alue. ,pon finding a difference,
it operates the po#er contactor. !his type of relay is most #idely used. 't has an
ad"antage of being able to sho# the laod p.f. on an indicating meter. 'ts disad"antage *-
't has no relation to the load magnitude & its KVAR requirement. 't can lead to se"ere
hunting.
-. KVAR )ensing based A$%& *- !his relay senses the magnitudes of both the "oltage
& current #a"e forms & also the time or phase difference bet#een them. 't then
calculates the load KVAR & compares these #ith a possible combination of sections
#ithin a capacitor bank and operates their controlling contractors to add the required
capacitor KVAR to the electrical system. !his is the most sensiti"e relay - capable of
obtaining ma.imum benefit out of a gi"en capacitor bank.
'ts disad"antages *- 't is rather hard on the contractors and its related surge
suppression attachments.
B) Siing o! Capacitor Switc"ing Blocks :-
(/ $o#er %actors for the purposes of le"ying penalties are based on the monthly
consumption0s of KVA-1rs, K2-1rs & KVAR-1rs as recorded on a tri-"ector meter. 'f
the basic purpose of installing capacitors is to stay safely abo"e the penalty limit, then
a"erage po#er factor correction based on a +3 hour basis is sufficient and not an
elaborate 4instant to instant4 p.f. correction. !his helps one in setting as #ide a band-
#idth as possible before changing a step. 't pre"ents s#itching - too often.
't must be noted that KVA-1rs and KVAR-1rs do not subtract if e.cessi"e capacitor
KVAR are dumped into the system by o"er corrections into a leading 5one - say part of
the time. 't records this also as a lo# p.f. & subject to penalty. 6esides, leading p.f.s are
unhealthy for capacitors & the system itself.
a/ A simple straight for#ard method of si5ing the capacitor blocks #ould be to di"ide
them equally into targeted number of steps. 6esides simplicity it has an ad"antage of
standard si5es for replacement of #ork out contractors, blo#n fuses etc. 7any a
designer fa"our this.
b/ 'n ambitious method of si5ing the blocks, they are designed in a binary sequence so
that a large number of combinations is a"ailable for a gi"en set of contactors etc. 'f the
accessories are chosen properly, this can be an ideal method though slightly costlier
than method 8a/ abo"e.
c/ 9ach controls in an A$%& $anel adds considerably to o"erall costs.
't is ad"isable to keep as much capacitor KVAR out of the A$%& control as possible, for
e.ample, the first step i.e. load portion #hich is constant on a +3 hour basis, &ontinuous
#orking industries offer this.
'n the second step - di"ide the remainder in a number of steps. Keep this number of
step as small as possible, by studing the load pattern. !he portion that is likely to be
operated often, should be at the fag end. :arge si5e contactors should at the starting
end so that they operate as fe# times as possible.
C) #et"o$s o! Switc"ing %n & Switc"ing 'ut :-
(/ 2hen the bank is controlled in equal steps, as in 68a/ abo"e, some designers prefer
a first - in, first - out or %'%; method so that all contactors and steps ha"e uniform
period of operation & can together last longer.
+/ 'f method 68c/ abo"e is follo#ed, then the s#itching control should be on the basis of
%irst-in, :ast-out or %':;.
-/ 7ethod 6.8b/ abo"e, calls for random s#itching #hich requires careful selection of
po#er contactors or better still, opting out for thyristor s#itching - #hich has yet to pro"e
its mettle in 'ndia.
D) Structural Design o! an APFC Panel :-
(/ &apacitor bank step 8section/
+/ <ischarge resistance on indi"idual capacitor unit - e.ternal.
-/ 'ncoming s#itch fuse for the bank.
3/ &apacitor bank bus bar.
=/ &apacitor bank &!s.
>/ Ammeter selector s#itch.
?/ Ammeter for bank current.
@/ !hermal o"erload relay or sectional fuses.
A/ Automatic control relay & p.f. meter. !ime delay relays.
(B/ $o#er contactor.
((/ $ush 6utton sets.
(+/ 'ndicating lamps.
(-/ &abinet 8capacitor bus bars/
(3/ 9arthing bus bars.
(=/ 'solating transformer for contactor coils.
(>/ 1eater.
(?/ :amp, e.tra piano type s#itches & sockets.
(@/ &ooling fan.
(A/ Auto-manual change o"er s#itch.
() )ating o! Components :-
(/ )hould an A$%& panel de"elop a short from the main bus to body or bet#een
phases, a hea"y current #ill flo# till the back-up protection - like an 1R& fuse, isolates
this short.
!he system "oltage di"ided by the system impedance up to the point of a short, gi"es
the short circuit current. !his impedance consists main by of the step do#n transformer
impedance - generally 3C to >C. 'ncreasing this "alue by (BC takes care of
impedances of inter"ening items like a s#itch, a bus bar, a &.!. etc. !he short circuit
current di"ided by (>= Amps gi"es an acceptable conductor cross section, #hich can
safely hold for a s.c. duration of one second. Denerally, these sections are not unduly
large and fall #ithin a current density of +.= to - AmpsEmm+ of the full capacitor bank
current rating.
)hould the length of this panel be large - then the bus bars must be laterally & rigidly
supported to pre"ent fle.uring under s.c. forces.
+/ A capacitor shorted to its body restricts the s.c. current se"erely. <epending on the
inside construction and the #all thickness of the capacitor tank, this unit can #ithstand
the bursting forces till its protecti"e system takes o"er. !hus the double earthing of a
panel can be safely standardised on D.'. strip of =B . > mm+ si5e.
-/ A capacitor at the instance of being s#itched on, is a dead short circuit. !he inrush
current is limited in its peak "alue by system inductance0s upto that point, e.cept that
the circuit no# goes into a natural resonance. A po#er contactor, by nature of its
construction and contact material, can #ithstand a peak current of a gi"en magnitude -
beyond #hich, the contactor points #ill #eld on to themsel"es - leading to capacitor
failure.
'f a capacitor is being s#itched on against other steps #hich are already on, then the
other steps #ill discharge into this ne# - comer. !he inter"ening bus bars ha"e "ery lo#
inductance0s & these peak currents are "ery high - reaching (>B times the rated
capacitor current or more. !he capacitor should be able to handle this- #ithout #elding.
!here are three methods to deal #ith this *-
a/ ,se a liberal & pro"en rating for a kno#n contactor.
b/ ,se surge suppression choke coils on each capacitor, to introduce
e.tra inductance & thus limit the peak current. %or panels #ith 3 steps or
more & also for panels using 7$$ capacitors, this is essential.
c/ ,se a special contactor #ith au.illiary contacts #hich introduce a
starting resistance at the begining, then short it.
3/ A discharge resistor on a capacitor reduces the residual "oltage on it - after being
s#itched off to a safe "alue of =B "olts #ithin less than a minute and readies it for re-
s#itching should this be required. 'f this resistance #ere to burn out, the re-s#itching
#ill take place against a charged unit. !his #ill burn it out. 't is highly essential to
periodically check the condition of these e.ternally mounted discharge resistance0s.
=/ ;ther 'tems * 7ain s#itch fuse is substituted by air-breakers for large banks. <ra# -
out type, electrically operated breakers increase cost of a panel tremoundously.
>/ !ime <elay Relays * !ime <elay Relays #ith an adjustable one minute delay should
be incorporated - both in A$%& or 7anual mode to pre"ent re-s#itching of a
contactor #ithin less than one minute of s#itching it off.
W"at can go wrong in an APFC Panel*
(/ 2rong connections to the Automatic Relay *
!he &.!. feeding this relay is the mains &! & not the &! #ithin the panel itself. !he
"oltage connection to the relay should be from the same phase from #hich the current
is measured. !hese relays are single phase relays.
+/ !oo narro# a band-#idth, per step *
!he band-#idth can be set manually. A narro# band #idth leads to hunting bet#een
steps.
-/ &ontactor points #elding together.
3/ <ischarge Resistor &Eor choke coils burning out.
=/ !ime <elay Relays being bipassed or not #orking.
>/ %ailure of electronic components under the combined on slought of higher ambient
temperature and "oltage surges - particularly for outdoor pole- mounted type of panels.
?/ 'mproper "entilation, :oose cable joints & similar causes commonly found.
@/ ,nattended leaks on capacitors.
How Will You Design Your Capacitor Bank ?
A) KVAR DESIGN :-
1) Carry out a 24 hour load survey. Note down hourly KWs, P.F. and voltages.
2) Divide this into three sections
a) No load or light load ! "ut #i$ed KWs % its P.F.
") &verage load and its P.F.
c) Pea' load and its P.F.

() Design the "an' #or its, )ea' load conditions. *old your desired ).#. at +.,-. Wor' out the ca)acitor
"an' K.&/ "y re#erring to the ta"les.
4) 0# the load is s1all 2less than -+ KWs), then s)lit the "an' in two sections corres)onding to
conditions 22a) and 22").
-) 0# the load is o# 1ediu1 si3e and 2say u) to 2++ KWs), then s)lit the "an' in three sections
corres)onding to conditions 22a), 22") and 22c).
4) 0# the laod is large si3ed and co1)le$, then s)lit the "an' into a si1)le sections corres)onding to
22a) and co1"ine sections 22") and 22c) and rearrange the1 in a 1ulti ! ste), auto1atically controlled
"an'.
B) VOLTAGE CHOICE :-
1) Ca)acitor under &! 2a 1ust "e s)eci#ied at higher range o# voltages. 5hus an energised trans#or1er,
with )ractically no load ! e$ce)t #or 4!4 hours in a day, eg. 2trans#or1ers under 6arrison 7ngineers,
879) will re:uire a ca)acitor rated at -++ .olts.
2) Ca)acitors under &!2" and &!2c #all in two categories !
a. Category where electrical service is )oor and the "est voltages seldo1 cross
4++!4+-. 9)eci#y 41- voltage.
". Category where loads #luctuate and voltages vary and also where you sus)ect
har1onics, s)eci#y 44+ volts.
SPECIFYING 4! "#$%S F#& C'P'CI%#&S (E&E$Y %# GE% HIGHE&
)"'&* I&&ESPEC%I"E #F $#'D 'ND SYS%E( C#NDI%I#NS* IS SH#&%+
SIGH%ED+$E'DING %# SH#&%+$I"ED C'P'CI%#&S,
C) MODE OF OPERATION :-
1. Ca)acitors under &!2a should "e le#t on )er1anently, on a 24 hour "asis. &n
ade:uately rated switch!#use is good!enough #or this.
2. Ca)acitors under &!2", 1ay "e switched on and o##, once in twenty #our hour
"asis ! covering the duration o# the average load. 5hese need not "e switched o##
during recess!intervals since generally the load conditions on su))ly 1ains are #airy
sta"le.
(. Ca)acitors under &!2c serve 1ainly to reduce the 1a$i1u1 de1and in K.&
and 1ay "e switched on and o## 1ore than once during the day ! )ro"a"ly twice, i# the
)ea' load a))ears twice ! during the day.
4. Ca)acitors under &!2c 1ight not lead to satis#actory, relia"le, 1anual
o)eration.&uto1atic ca)acitor control ! co1"ining "oth 2" and 2c is 1ore
desira"le.While the control )anel will "e on #or twenty hour in a day, individual sections
1ight co1e on or go o## 1any ti1es in 24 hours as )er load conditions.
D) Design of swi!"es# f$ses MCCBS# !on%&!o%s &n' &(so )*es of
&$o+&i! !on%o(s &n' se*s KVAR si,es &%e 'is!$sse' in o$% se%i&(
on A$o+&i! Powe% F&!o% Con%o( P&ne(s-
How Does Your Capacitor Works ?
9el# *ealing 8PP Ca)acitors 2;ow 5ension 5y)e)
Self - Healing Process :-
0n the traditional ca)acitors, two or 1ore layers o# insulating, solid dielectric were wound "etween
individual layers o# thin alu1iniu1 #oil! to #or1 a ca)acitor. Now, no layer can have an a"solutely
uni#or1 thic'ness at every s)ot, nor can have 3ero )inholes % conducting )articles ! over several 9:.
1eters o# a sur#ace that goes into #or1ing today<s )ower ca)acitors. 0# a single layer o# a solid
dielectric were to "e used, it will #ail at several )oints. & second layer can cover the de#ects in the #irst
layer ! since de#ects on "oth o# the1 are li'ely to overla) at very #ew locations. 5his )ossi"ility #urther
increases "y a :uantu1 =u1) i# three layers are used "etween conducting layers o# alu1iniu1 #oil.
*owever one can vacuu1 de)osit a conducting 1etal o# low eva)oration te1)erature li'e 3inc or
alu1iniu1 % do away with a se)arate thic' alu1iniu1 #oil altogether. When a short occurs across a
de#ects, the short circuit current can instantly eva)orate this de)osit % #or1 alu1iniu1 or 3inc o$ide !
"oth o# which are non!conducting. 5hus the area around the de#ect is isolated % the ca)acitor can
rewor'. 5his )rocess is called 9el#!*ealing. 5he thic'ness o# the alu1iniu1 de)osit has to "e
accurately controlled so that the #il1 de#initely eva)orates % does not re:uire too high a te1)erature.
0# it #ails to eva)orate % isolate the de#ective s)ot, a )er1anent short circuit will #or1 % the ca)acitor
will go out o# service. 5his thic'ness is 1easured in resistance )er unit area. 0t is (!4 >h1s #or
alu1iniu1 % >h1s #or 3inc.
Advantages of Self Healing Capacitors :
9ince all the de#ects in a single layer o# 8etallised Poly)ro)ylene 28PP) can "e healed at the
1anu#acturing stage only, a single layer ca)acitor can "e #or1ed :uite co1#orta"ly at higher dielectric
o)erating voltage stresses. 5his gives a ca)acitor that re)laces a thic' alu1iniu1 #oil2-!4 1icron) with
a thin de)osit 2+.2 to +.( 1icron) % allows single layer o# thinner )oly)ro)ylene in )lace o# two or three
layers o# thic'er )oly)ro)ylene, the si3e % the costs go down drastically. 0t has re)laced the traditional
ca)acitors at a very #ast rate.
The Dry Capacitors :
& 8etallised #il1 has an edge clearance at one end ! usually 2.- 11 #or 44+ .olts ca)acitors.
8etallising reaches the edge at other end. &lternate layers are so #or1ed that the 8etallising on one
set co1es at one end & % 8etallising on #ollowing set co1es at end ?. /ound coils are wound % the
ends are s)rayed with 3inc. & conducting lead is soldered on to these sur#aces. 5here is a 1icrosco)ic
layer o# air "etween these layers. 5he coils are wound tight. 5hey are #urther shrun' under heat
treat1ent. 5his reduces the air thic'ness "etween layers very signi#icantly.
The Short Falls of S-H Capacitors :
a) 8oisture getting in "etween layers o$idises the thin de)osits in it thic'ness #ully.5he o$idising
"oundary detaches a healthy section o# a de)osit. 5his results in ra)id or continuous #all o# ca)acitor
current. 5his ha))ens 1ainly in "adly % loosely wound ca)acitors. 5he coil ends are nor1ally sealed
with an e)o$y or the coils are i11ersed in an insulating li:uid to )revent this.
") 5he 3inc!s)ray % the alu1iniu1 de)osit #or1 a "i! 1etallic )hysical =oint! which corrodes alu1iniu1
)re#erentially in the )resence o# 1oisture. 5his cuts o## the entire healthy 1etallisation "elow #ro1 the
conducting edge, resulting in ra)id #all o# ca)acitor current. 5o )revent this, the 1etallisation thic'ness
=ust at the edge conducting edge is increased "y what is called a heavy edge de)osit. &nother 1ethod
that hel)s is ! to de)osit 3inc on the lower de)osit o# alu1iniu1 ! in what is called an alu1iniu1 !alloy
de)osit.
c) Consider a large air ga) "etween layers % an irregularity in the #or1 o# a shar) )oint. &s the voltage
increases across the dielectric, at sa1e )oint there will "e electron strea1ers originating #ro1 this
shar) )oint % cutting through the air )ath. 5his is the "eginning o# a )artial discharge. 0t will create hot
s)ots % eventually #ail the coil. &ir has a "rea'down voltage o# 4 K.@11 % can easily )roduce %
sustain )artial discharges.
*owever i# the air )ath is 1icrosco)ic, air will "rea'down and esta"lish a short circuit )ath, rather than
sustain a )artial discharge. 5his will increase the lea'age current. ;ea'age current is >h1ic. 0t 1a'es
the coil hot.
d) 5he 1ost critical )ortion o# the 9 ! * Ca)acitor is the edge ga). 5he #ull coil voltage a))lies across
this ga). 0t is s)read on a very thin "ase +.2 @ +.( 1icron thic' as against -!4 1icron thic' in traditional
ca)acitors. 5he voltage stress is very high! leading to instant or even sustained )artial discharges,
should the voltages cross the air ga) strength.
Nor1ally a 2.- 11 ga) across a +.( 1icron "ase can sutain &.C. voltages u)to 44+ volts A 1+B. 5his
1a'es these ca)acitors unsuita"le where there are steady high voltages or sudden % continuous
voltage #luctuations.
Please note t-at European networks wit- .istri/ution at 012 3olts are 4uite co56orta/le
wit- S+H Capacitors,
& way to over co1e these de#ects would "e to #ill u) these ga)s with a suita"le oil under vacuu1. 5he
oil with "rea'down values o# 4+!C+ .@1icron increases the ga) strength considera"ly. Da)an is carrying
out #ield trails with 9!* Ca)acitors, #illed with 9F!4 gas, under )ressure, on networ's rated at ((++ %
44++ volts &C.
e) 0n 9!* Ca)acitor, current #lows #ro1 one end o# the coil to the other end a$ially along the cross!
section deter1ined "y the #ull length o# the wound #oil. ?y contrast, in a traditional ca)acitor, it #lows
circularly along the length o# the winding with a cross!section deter1ined "y the width o# the wound
#oil. 5his gives a very low sel# inductance to 9!* coils as co1)ared to traditional coils. 5hese sel#
inductance<s are inade:uate to inherently li1it starting or )aralleling currents "etween two ca)acitors
as co1)ared to traditional ca)acitors. 5hese unrestricted current #lows, create instant high voltages,
)uncture a dielectric % "low u) ca)acitors. Ca)acitor "ursting is 1ore co11on with 9!* Ca)acitors
than with traditional ca)acitors.
' c-oke coil in S+H capacitor takes care o6 t-is pro/le5 7 is a 5ust,
0n conclusion one can say that 9!* Ca)acitors are highly econo1ical % could "e used success#ully i# we
understand what their li1itations are % under which circu1stances ! not to use the1.
8adhav 9!* Ca)acitors are not tightly wound. 5hey are dried and i1)regnated under high vacuu1s
with ca)acitor oils. Further each unit has internal or e$ternal cho'e coil. ?esides, we study strictly
where they are "eing a))lied.
Where it is advantages to go for MPP Type Capacitors ?
1) Distri"ution lines where voltage and load variations over a 24 hour )eriod are 1oderate. 5y)ical
e$a1)le !8o#usil areas with a large s)read o# various loads served "y su"stations with auto1atic on
load ta) changes. >ne can down scale this to suit.
2) &uto1atically controlled ca)acitor "an's with "uilt ! in over voltage, under voltage, over current %
).#. correction controls % with current li1iting cho'es on each ste).
() /ural distri"ution lines ! heavily overloaded and su))lying )ower at )erennially low voltages. 5o
so1e e$tent, overloaded 3ones o# other distri"ution lines also.
4) &nd o# ! course where oneEs "udget #or ca)acitors is rather tight, "ut with attention to 21) % 2()
a"ove.
Where MPP Capacitors are not to e reco!!ended :
1) >n load with widely #luctuating currents such as stri) 1ills, arc #urnaces, wor'sho)s with heavy
)resses and si1ilar i1)ulse ty)e energy drawing 1achines, welding 1achines, etc.
2) ;ocations where higher incidence o# har1onics are e$)ected.
() *a3ardous areas F oil installation, new )ower generators or generator "us ductsG where e$)losions
are not allowed. 6enerally 8PP Ca)acitors are 1ore e$)losion ! )rone than other ty)es o# ca)acitors.
4) &reas with high short circuit level #or distri"ution networ's. 25his is li'ely to a##ect sel# healing).
-) 9u))ly syste1s with wide daily voltage #luctuations ! where the night ti1e voltages shoot u)
"eyond the guaranteed li1its.
Consistent I5pro3e5ents t-roug- Fiel. E8perience 7 Continuous Inno3ations
6or Custo5er Satis6action 99
How Does Your Capacitor Works ?
&PP and 8D Ca)acitors 2;ow 5ension 5y)e)
APP and MD Capacitors:-
5his grou) o# ca)acitors has a distinct #eature o# having se)arate alu1iniu1 #oil as an electrode. 5he
solid dielectric can "e two or 1ore layers o# )oly)ro)ylene as in &PP Ca)acitors or a co1"ination o#
condenser tissue )a)er and )oly)ro)ylene as in 8D or 8i$ed Dielectric Ca)acitors.
&nother distinguishing as)ect is the introduction o# a suita"le oil as a li:uid electric.
The "#ilding "loc$s :-
1) 5he )oly)ro)ylene Fil1 is s)eci#ied as ?>PP with ha3y sur#ace on one or "oth the sides. 5he
inherent strength is very high 24C+ ! 4++ .olts@1icron DC.). 5he 1olecules are "rittle though. 5he #il1
is stretched in "oth directions during 1anu#acture, thus orienting the crystals along the line o# stretch
i.e. "ia$ially. 5his i1)roves i1)regnation "y oil and increases itEs strength.
5he ha3iness, a"out +.2!+.( 1icrons average, is actually roughening o# a s1ooth sur#ace "y creating
1ulti)le, cross!connecting, 1icrosco)ic channels. 5his hel)s the i1)regnating oil to rise through wic'
action and gravity and #ill u) all )ossi"le e1)ty cavities.
.ery thin #il1s are costly and co1)aratively #ailure )rone, since the ha3iness co1es at the cost o#
overall thic'ness.
2) Condenser 5issue Pa)er is actually a 1ass o# thin )ul), rolled to desired thic'ness and dried. 5he
#i"res or 1icelle, 1esh into one another. 5his gives large cavities inside ! #ro1 which tra))ed air and
1oisture 1ust "e 1eticulously re1oved and su"stituted with oil.
5he )a)er 1olecules are #le$i"le co1)ared to PP 1olecules. 5hey can withstand sudden electrical
)ulses 1uch "etter and are ideal as dielectrics on networ's which )roduce all ty)es o# surges
continuously. 5hus 8i$ed Dielectric ca)acitors are suita"le #or a very rugged and e$acting service.
*owever, losses in )a)er are high. 5he voltage stresses are low. 5he si3e and cost o# 8D ca)acitors
are high.
() &lu1iniu1 #oil )lays the )art o# a conducting electrode. 0t does not )lay any )art as a dielectric
1aterial. *ence its thic'ness can "e conveniently reduced ! the co11on thic'ness availa"le today
"eing - 1icrons.
5he #oil edges are cut 1echanically. 0# e$a1ined under a 1icrosco)e they have irregular and shar)
)oints =utting out as shown. 5he voltage stresses on these shar) )oints rise very high and cause )artial
discharges into the edge ga).
5his is ta'en care o# "y ! Folding the edge on itsel# "y a #ew 81s or
! "y laser cutting!which is ideal!"ut very costly.
4) >il re)laces air and 1oisture in the voids within the dielectric )ortion. 0t gives strength and
increases the li#e o# a ca)acitors and as such is a very critical co1)onent o# the entire syste1. 0t itsel#
1ust "e #iltered to very #ine degree and degassed. 0t is rein#orced with anti!o$idants and scavengers.
5he scavengers loc' out acids and "ro'en chain lengths o# oil 1olecules arising out o# )artial
discharges.
-) Discharge /esistors Nor1ally e$ternally #itted on ;.5. Ca)acitors, they discharge the residual
voltage #ro1 the )ea' level to -+ volts or less, within one 1inute. ?urnt out resistors will not )er#or1
and )resent a ris' to hu1an li#e as well as to ca)acitors.
5hese resistors #or1 a si3ea"le ! )ortion o# the total heat loss de#ined #or a ca)acitor ! although this
)ortion o# the loss does not re#lect the dielectric :uality.
4) 0nternal #uses hel)s to isolate a #aulty ele1ent and 'ee) the ca)acitor going. 0n ;.5. ca)acitors, the
ele1ents in a )hase are all in )arallel. 5hus isolation o# an ele1ent 1ay cause )hase un"alance ! "ut
no har1#ul increase in voltage on re1aining ele1ents. Huite o#ten, in a well constructed unit, these
#uses "eco1e redundant.
Advantages of APP%MD &'T' Capacitors :-
1) Inli'e 8PP Ca)acitors 2in so1e cases), there is no deterioration o# out)ut current with )assage o#
ti1e.
2) ;osses in &PP Ca)acitors gather around 1.+ to 1.- Watts@K.&/.
in 8D Ca)acitors gather around 1.- to 2.+ Watts@K.&/.
in 8PP Ca)acitors gather around 2.+ to 2.- Watts@K.&/.
() 5hey are 1ore rugged and can withstand severe voltage surges. 5hey can also withstand u)to
certain a1ount o# har1onic loading.
Disadvantages of APP Capacitors :-
1) 5hey are 1ore "ul'y and heavier than 8PP Ca)acitors.
2) 5heir costs are in 1ulti)les o# two and 1ore, than the costs o# e:uivalent 8PP Ca)acitors.
() 5hey are )rone to develo)ing oil lea'age<s ! )articularly under higher te1)eratures. 5his reduces
their actual li#e.
4) /e)lace1ent o# a #aulty unit in a "an' is clu1sy.
:(a.-a3: Capacitors are 5anu6acture. wit- 6ull 4ualit; control at
eac- stage, %-e /asic /locks are in.i3i.uall; teste. wit- 6ull
un.erstan.ing o6 t-e weakness o6 eac- constituent, %-e
su/asse5/lies an. 6inal pro.ucts are teste. 6or co5pliance wit- in+
-ouse* as well as BIS Stan.ar.s, %-eir 6iel. per6or5ance o3er a
perio. o6 4! ;ears is outstan.ing, <Earlier t-ese were all paper
capacitors=,
W-ere it is a.3antages to go 6or 'PP Capacitors >+
1) 5hey are )re#era"le on networ's where the voltage #luctuations are wide and night ti1e voltages
rise considera"ly.
2) 5hey are )re#era"le in installations where current and voltage surges are )resent due 1ostly to the
nature o# 1achinery used.
() 5hey are )re#era"le where 1oderate har1onics are sus)ected.
4) 5hey are )re#era"le near generators, "us ducts, ha3ardous areas etc.
-) 5hey are ideal ! when they are not e$)ected to "e o"solete in a short ti1e, where longer trou"le !
#ree, least 1aintenance o)eration, is e$)ected and where o#!course, the "udgeting is li"eral and o)en!
1inded.
Consistent I5pro3e5ents t-roug- Fiel. E8perience 7 Continuous Inno3ations
6or Custo5er Satis6action 99
8adhav Ca)acitors Pvt ;td
How Does Your Capacitor Works ?
Basics
5o so1e e$tent, a si1ilarity can "e drawn "etween #low o# water and #low o# electric current. Water
re:uires a di##erence in height to cause a #low. 7lectricity, li'e J wise, re:uires a di##erence in )otential
"etween to )oints #or the current to #low. We call this di##erence in )otential as voltage o# one )oint
with res)ect to earth or =ust a voltage "etween to )oints. 7lectric current #lows in three di##erence
ways.
.- O"+i! C$%%en-
5hese are thousand o# loosely attached electrons in conducting 1etals li'e co))er,
alu1iniu1, silver, etc. even a s1all voltage "etween to )oints J say o# wire! will drive
these electrons #ro1 a higher level to lower level and cause a current #low. We can
1easure this current in &1)eres 2&1)s.). 0n its #low, so1e 1etals will have too 1any
o"stacles J which ta'e a higher voltage to drive and which dissi)ates heat in the 1etal
J li'e that in an electric "ul". 5his heat is ter1ed as >h1ic *eat.
/- Die(e!%i! C$%%en-
5hese are a class o# 1aterials called K0nsulatorsK which have very #ew loose electrons. 5hey )resent a
near )er#ect wall, "loc'ing #low o# loose electrons, i# a voltage is a))lied across these. 9o1e o# these
insulators have #ree di)oles at the end o# their o"stacle wall.
5hese di)oles get charged )ositively and negatively during each hal# cycle o# and &. C. su))ly. & whole
array o# such di)oles "etween two conducting )lates under an &. C. voltage carry, )ositive and
negative charges #ro1 one )late to another during each hal# cycles. 5his trans#or1er o# charge J also a
current J 1easured in a1)s, #or1s dielectric or ca)acitive current. 0t is entirely di##erent #ro1 the
>h1ic Current.
0- In'$!i1e C$%%en-
Dust as di)oles trans#er reactive )ower under an a))lied #ield, 1agnetic #ields )roduced "y a current
#lowing through a wire, grow and colla)se twice in each &.C. cycle and trans#er energy. 5hey trans#er
energy #ro1 a high level to lower level. Not only they trans#er electrical energy in to 1echanical
energy as in an electric 1otor. 5hese currents can "e ter1ed as 0nductive Currents. Without 0nductive
Currents, we would not have used electricity to the e$tent that we use it today. 5hey have a side
e##ect, they lower the )ower #actor and cause wastage o# )ower during trans1ission and distri"ution.
5he very )ur)ose o# e1)loying ca)acitors to )roduce dielectric currents is to i1)rove the )ower #actor
and reduce losses, while the inductive currents are doing their use#ul wor'.
2- Powe% F&!o% Co%%e!ion-
?y the nature o# generation, in a &.C. circuit, the ca)acitor gets charged as the current #lows. When the
#low sto)s, the current is 3ero and the ca)acitor is charged to #ull voltage. in other ter1s, the current
leads the voltage.
>n other hand, a cho'e coil which has "uilt u) #ull 1agnetic #ield, starts sending out the current as the
#ield colla)ses gradually. *ere the voltage leads the current or the current lags "ehind the voltage.
?oth the currents )roduce static or 1agnetic #ields ! "ut do not do use#ul wor' li'e heating a "ul".
*owever when they #low through the wire or a trans1ission line, they cause )ower loss. &s such, their
1agnitudes should "e 1ini1u1 )ossi"le. 9ince "oth #low o# )ositive ti1es with res)ect to voltage,
they nulli#y one another. 5hen we )roduce leading current "y using ca)acitors to cancel out the
lagging currents. 5his is ter1ed as Power Factor Correction ! which #inds large ca)acitor a))lication.
3- So+e Te!"ni!&( Te%+s-
&n ideal dielectric 1aterial will "e one with an a"solute resistance to )assage o# #ree electrons and a
large nu1"er o# di)oles at its 1olecular end. 5here is n such 1aterial. 9olid, li:uid and gas ty)e o#
dielectric 1aterials have "een used #or 1a'ing ca)acitors. 9o1e #ree electrons are to "e #ound in
s1all :uantities in these 1aterials. ?ut the "iggest source o# #ree electrons and ions co1es #ro1
i1)urities, 1oisture, #ree air etc. a dielectric 1aterial can "loc' e##ective )assage to #ree electrons
u)to its strength li1it. ?eyond this, so1e electrons )enetrate the resistance wall and wander through.
5he oh1ic )assage cerates heat and under the continuos attac' at higher and higher voltage levels
and heat, 1ore and 1ore oh1ic current #lows ! till a continuous )ath is esta"lished #ro1 one
conductive )late to the other ! through the dielectric. 0n other words, there is a )uncture and a short
circuit. Following technical ter1s are associated with this )heno1enon.
1. 5he 1easure o# #ree di)oles or the ca)acity to carry charged is ter1ed
as the dielectric constant. Pa)er has a dielectric constant o# 4 to - and carries
1ore di)oles than )oly)ro)ylene with a dielectric constant o# 2.2.
2. 5he 1easure o# #ree electrons availa"le #or an oh1ic #low o# current is
called tangent o# loss angle or tan delta. Free electrons can co1e #ro1 a "ad
dielectric 1aterial itsel# or #ro1 the conta1inants accu1ulated during
1anu#acturing )rocess or due to i1)er#ect re1oval or air and 1oisture during
the )rocess or re!entry o# these in service, due to her1etic seal "ra'ing down.
5he "ro'en down wall o# a dielectric with "ro'en 1olecules also su))lies large
nu1"er o# #ree electrons.
(. 5he voltage level u)to which a given thic'ness o# insulating 1aterial
holds "ac' e##ectively )assage o# #ree electrons is called the dielectric strength
o# the 1aterial. 5his 4C+ ! 4++ volts D.C. )er 1icron o# )oly)ro)ylene #il1 as
against 1C+ ! 2++ volts@1icron #or )a)er with oil in it. 0t "eco1es lower as we
go #ro1 solid to li:uid and to gas dielectric. For the )resently used PL7 oil it is
M+ ! C+ volts@1icron. For e)o$y )otting used, it is 1+ ! 12 volts@1icron and #or
9F!4 gas at at1os)heric )ressure, it is C !1+ volts@1icron.
4. 5he voltage level at which the wall is "reached and electrons start
#lowing in, is called the )artial discharge "eginning or ince)tion level. 0# this
level is reduced gradually, there is a )oint "elow which no 1ore dangerous
electrons wander through. 0t is called as the )artial discharge e$tinction 2or )ut
! out) level.
& ca)acitor or dielectric syste1 1ay "e li'ened to a 1edieval #ort under siege. &ssu1e that under
steady service conditions, the outside ene1y is 1aintaining a "loc'ade and a steady )ressure. & well
chal'ed out #ort will hold out #or ages. 5he ene1y now changes his tactics and sends wave a#ter wave
o# soldiers to ra1 down the gates ! =ust as voltage surges and har1onic will do to a ca)acitor. 0t 1ight
"rea' o)en the door and a #ew "ands o# ene1y will rush in ! creating hot s)ots. Co1e the night, and
surge levels dro) down. & good general within, will "ric' ! u) the "reach overnight and throw the
inside ene1y soldiers in the 1oat to the 1ercy o# the scavengers there.
*e is ready #or the ne$t onslaught. /e)eated onslaught will eventually destroy all the de#ence
)otential and the #ort will vanish in to history. 5he on ! slaught could "e tac'led on the outside in
di##erence ways. Dust li'e the #ort, ca)acitor can have an inner layer o# second and even third layer o#
de#ence. For the given cost to "uild u) the #ort, and de#end it, one has to select the "est o# all "uildings
"loc's, use the1 wisely, train and disci)line the soldiers during #or1ation and a"ove all, loo' #or the
conta1inating, inside ene1y. 0t ta'es a ca)a"le general to organise this.
So5e #6 %-e (ain &easons For Failure #6 Capacitors?
1. 9hort #alls in Design and 8anu#acturing
2. 0nade:uate ! Dielectric 5hic'ness.
1. ! 8argins at ends.
2. ! 0nsulation to "ody.
(. 0onic i1)urities in li:uid )ortion, 1oisture and air inco1)letely
re1oved.
4. De#ects in welding, in soldering o# "ushing to 1aterial. >ther
1echanicade#ects
-. 9hort #alls in transit
4. 9hort #alls in service conditions
M. *eavy inrush current during ! starting or )aralleling.
C. /esonance conditions during starting or during o)erations.
,. 9erver voltage #luctuations, high surges, arcing "ac' across #aulty
switches and #uses on ca)acitors, resulting in high surge voltages, arcing and
"us "ar shorts in vicinity o# the ca)acitor.
1+. *igh har1onic 1agnitudes in su))ly.
11. 0nade:uate ventilation, oil lea'age, loose connection, "urn out,
discharge resistors.
12. >ver ! correction leading to NleadingE )ower #actors arising 1ostly due
to non ! switching o# ca)acitors when not re:uired
Consistent I5pro3e5ents t-roug- Fiel. E8perience 7 Continuous Inno3ations
6or Custo5er Satis6action 99
Question
how to caluculate APFC panel rating, my running Load is
1320KW, Present PF 0!" to 0# we need 0$# p%
Question Submitted By :: Bhojaraja.k
I also faced this Question!!
Rank
Answer Posted
By

Re: how to caluculate APFC panel ratin! "y runnin #oad is $%&'()!
Present P.F '.*+ to '., we need '.-, p.f
Answer
# 1
Please re%ere Capacitor manu%acturers
catlogue where there
is ta&le to impro'e PF (s Load
5 .td

Is /his Answer Correct 0
%' .es 25 No

Re: how to caluculate APFC panel ratin! "y runnin #oad is $%&'()!
Present P.F '.*+ to '., we need '.-, p.f
Answer
# 2
&y using delsigma relations or %iuys charts
ap% panel rating
could &e determined

Is /his Answer Correct 0
$1 .es 23 No
0 Ci2i



Re: how to caluculate APFC panel ratin! "y runnin #oad is $%&'()!
Present P.F '.*+ to '., we need '.-, p.f
Answer
# 3
K(Ar ) KW*multiplication %actor +
1320*tan,1-tan,2+
cos,1-intial P%
cos,2-%inal P%
.'ar)1320*0/01+
K'ar)!1/

Is /his Answer Correct 0
%1 .es 7 No
3 Ak

Re: how to caluculate APFC panel ratin! "y runnin #oad is $%&'()!
Present P.F '.*+ to '., we need '.-, p.f
Answer
# 4
we re1uired runnig load and ma2imum demand
also
then only we will get per%ect K(A3

Is /his Answer Correct 0
&1 .es 4 No
0 Anjaneyulu

Re: how to caluculate APFC panel ratin! "y runnin #oad is $%&'()!
Present P.F '.*+ to '., we need '.-, p.f
Answer
# 5
Answer 3 is correct one

Is /his Answer Correct 0
$3 .es 5 No
0 Prakash 4uhane

Re: how to caluculate APFC panel ratin! "y runnin #oad is $%&'()!
Present P.F '.*+ to '., we need '.-, p.f
Answer
K'ar)K(A*1-PF+
0 5ijay
# 6
K(A)KW4PF
K'ar)Kw*1-PF+4PF
)1320*1-0$#+40$#
)2/0

Is /his Answer Correct 0
$& .es 15 No

Re: how to caluculate APFC panel ratin! "y runnin #oad is $%&'()!
Present P.F '.*+ to '., we need '.-, p.f
Answer
# 7
5nput 5nitial Power Factor 6 !"
5nput 7esired Power Factor6 $#
5nput Load KW *KW+ 6 1320 KW

89 K(A3 :;;7;7 <9 A<<AC=;7 6#"0 K(A3 5F >
WA:<8 $#
K(A3 :;;7;7 <9 A<<AC=;7 6$00 K(A3 5F >
WA:<8 $#
<=;8; 2 PA:;L8 > :;;7 <9 ?; 5:8<AL 9: <=58
C9::;C<;7 L9A7
A:7 AL89 7;@A:7 W5LL A9 79W:
(585<6 wwwsigmacontrolsnet

Is /his Answer Correct 0
3 .es 8 No
0 Ajeet 4inh

Re: how to caluculate APFC panel ratin! "y runnin #oad is $%&'()!
Present P.F '.*+ to '., we need '.-, p.f
Answer
# 8
APFC panel rating ) 000 K(A3

Is /his Answer Correct 0
1 .es 7 No
0 5ijay (u"ar

Re: how to caluculate APFC panel ratin! "y runnin #oad is $%&'()!
Present P.F '.*+ to '., we need '.-, p.f
Answer
# 9
K(A3 3ating ) #"0.'ar or !10.'ar

Is /his Answer Correct 0
% .es 4 No
0 6d.afta2 Ala"

Re: how to caluculate APFC panel ratin! "y runnin #oad is $%&'()!
Present P.F '.*+ to '., we need '.-, p.f
Answer
# 10
C=;CK;7 <=; W=9L; 7AB L9A7 CACL>LA<59:
C=;C=;7 <=; K(A3=, K(A, KW= 3;A75:A

Is /his Answer Correct 0
1 .es 1 No
0 /ejas 7oli

Re: how to caluculate APFC panel ratin! "y runnin #oad is $%&'()!
Present P.F '.*+ to '., we need '.-, p.f
Answer
# 11
please gi'e the details how much is your
inducti'e load *
motor + or gi'e the connected load list C
presently
connected capacitor* .'r+

Is /his Answer Correct 0
+ .es 0 No
0 4antosh

Re: how to caluculate APFC panel ratin! "y runnin #oad is $%&'()!
Present P.F '.*+ to '., we need '.-, p.f
Answer
# 12
.w)1320
present PF ) 0!"
.'a )132040!"
)1!3!
%or unity p% u re1uire capacitors Panel
)112$ .(Ar
%or 0$# p% u re1uire capacitors panel
)#/# .(Ar

Is /his Answer Correct 0
$ .es 3 No
0 /ajinder 4inh

Re: how to caluculate APFC panel ratin! "y runnin #oad is $%&'()!
Present P.F '.*+ to '., we need '.-, p.f
Answer
# 13
2$0 .'ar panel o% 10 stage
conected relay D%i%oE

Is /his Answer Correct 0
$ .es 0 No