CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In high performance aircrafts, spacecrafts, satellites, missiles and other aerospace
applications where size, weight, performance, ease of installation and aerodynamics profile are
the constraints, a low or flat/conformal profile antenna may be required. In recent years various
types of flat profile printed antennas have been developed such as Microstrip antenna (MS!,
strip line, slot antenna, cavity bac"ed printed antenna and printed dipole antenna. #hen the
characteristics of these antenna types are compared, the micro strip antenna is found to be more
advantageous.
Microstrip antenna are conformable to planar or non planar surface, simple and
ine$pensive to manufacture, cost effective compatible with MMI% designs and when a particular
patch shape and e$citation modes are selected, they are very versatile in terms of resonant
frequency, polarization, radiation patterns and impedance.
In this wor" &esign, 'abrication and (esting of linear polarized co)a$ial fed microstrip
rectangular patch antenna for aerospace applications is presented. Microstrip antennas have
several advantages compared to conventional microwave antennas and therefore have many
applications over the broad frequency range from *++M,z to -+.,z.
1.2 Definition of Antenna
n antenna (or aerial! is a transducer designed to transmit or receive electromagnetic
waves. In other words, antennas convert electromagnetic waves into electrical currents and vice)
versa. (hey are used with waves in the radio part of the electromagnetic spectrum, that is, radio
waves, and are a necessary part of all radio equipment. ntenna has many uses / communication,
radar, telemetry, navigation etc.
1
'igure *.* shows the output from a coherent source (e.g. an oscillator! is directed out into
free space using an antenna. (he signal source is lin"ed to the antenna by some "ind of
waveguide (microwave guide, light fibre, etc!.
(he antenna acts as a sort of transformer. It ta"es the electromagnetic field pattern,
moving along the guide and transforms it into some other pattern, which is radiated out into free
space.
Figure 1.1 Schematic of an antenna system
0sing this simple picture we can establish two basic properties of any antenna/
'irstly, the antenna doesn1t itself generate any power. So, unless the antenna is imperfect
and dissipates some power, the total powers carried by the guide and free space fields
must be the same. (In reality, all practical antennas tend to be slightly resistive so some
power is normally lost, but for now we can assume any loss is small enough to ignore.!
Secondly, the antenna is a reciprocal device 2 i.e it behaves in the same way
irrespective of which way we pass signal power through it. (his reciprocal behaviour is a
useful feature of a coherent antenna. It means that, in principle, the only real difference
between a 3transmitting4 and a 3receiving4 antenna is the direction we1ve chosen to pass
signals through it.
2
(heoretically one of the simplest types of antenna is a ,ertzian &ipole of the "ind
illustrated in figure *.5.
Figure 1.2 ,ertzian &ipole ntenna
(he dipole consists of a straight piece of wire of length L with a small brea" at its centre.
pair of wires are then used to connect the brea" to a generator which can produce a current
'or the sa"e of simplicity we can assume that
(his means that we can neglect the time it ta"es for any current to flow along the dipole.
#e can therefore assume that the current equals I6t7 everywhere along the dipole.
In reality, of course, the current would have to 8come from and go somewhere9 at the
wire ends since charge can1t appear and vanish into/out of nothing. #e can imagine two spheres
or discs placed at the ends of the wires to act as charge reservoirs. :y reference to a suitable
boo" on electromagnetics or antennas we can discover that a wire of length L carrying a uniform
current oscillation of amplitude I
+
will radiate an oscillating electric field
where, r is the radial distance from the centre of the antenna to the position where we wish to
determine the electric field; theta is the angle between the dipole wire and the line connecting the
3
point and the centre of the dipole; and lambda is the free space wavelength of the radiation. ((his
result is only true for the 3far field4 where !
1.3 Origin of Antennas
%ommunication is the process of transferring information from one entity to another.
%ommunication has e$isted since the beginning of human beings, but it was not until the 5+
th
century that people began to study the process. t first this was achieved by sound through
voice. s the distance of communicating increased, various devices were introduced, such as
drums, horns and so forth and for even greater distances visual methods were introduced such as
signal flags and smo"e signals in the daytime and firewor"s at night. (hese optical
communication devices, of course, utilize the light portion of electromagnetic spectrum. It has
only been recently in human history that the electromagnetic spectrum outside the visible region
has been employed for communication, through the use of radio.
Figure 1.2 <lectromagnetic spectrum
4
(he antenna is an essential component in any radio system which provides a means for
radiating or receiving radio waves that is it provides a transition from a guided wave on a
transmission line to a free)space wave.
1.4 History of Antenna Te!no"ogy
(he theoretical foundations for antennas rest on Ma$well4s equations. =ames %lar"
Ma$well in *>?@ presented his results before Aoyal Society, which showed that light and
electromagnetics were one in physical phenomenon and also predicted that light and
electromagnetic disturbances both can be e$plained by waves travelling at the same speed. nd
in *>>? ,einrich ,ertz verified the above and discovered that the electrical disturbances could
detected with a secondary circuit of proper dimensions for resonance and containing an air gap
for spar"s to occur.
.uglielmo Marconi built a microwave parabolic cylinder at a wavelength of 5- cm for
his original code transmission and wor"ed at longer wavelengths for improved communication
range. Marconi is considered as the father of amateur radio. ntenna developments in the early
years were limited by the availability signal generators. bout *B5+ resonant length antennas
were possible after the &e 'orest triode tube was used to produce continuous wave signals up to
*M,z.
t these higher frequencies antennas could be built with a physical size in resonant
region. =ust before #orld #ar II microwave (about * .,z! "lystron and magnetron signal
generators were developed along with hollow pipe waveguides. (hese lead to the development of
horn antennas, although =agadish %handra :ose in India produced the first electromagnetic horn
antenna many years earlier. (he first commercial microwave radiotelephone system in *BC@ was
between <ngland and 'rance and operated at *.>. ,z. &uring the war an intensive development
effort primarily detected toward radar, spawned many modern antenna types, such as large
reflectors, lenses and waveguide slot arrays.
1.# $asi Antenna C!arateristis
n antenna is a device that is made to efficiently radiate and receive radiated
electromagnetic waves. (here are several important antenna characteristics that should be
5
considered when choosing an antenna for application such as .ain, radiation pattern, bandwidth,
beam width etc., are as follows/
1.#.1 Ra%iation &attern
Dractically any antenna cannot radiate energy with same strength uniformly in all
directions. (he radiation from antenna in any direction is measured in terms of field strength at a
point located at a particular distance from antenna. Aadiation pattern of an antenna indicates the
distribution of energy radiated by the antenna in the free space. In general radiation pattern is a
graph which shows the variation of actual field strength of electromagnetic field of all the points
equidistant from antenna. (he two basic radiation patterns are field strength radiation pattern
which is e$pressed in terms of fie"% strengt! < (in E/m! and &o'er ra%iation pattern e$pressed
in terms of power per unit solid angle.
'ield radiation pattern is a C)dimensional pattern. (o achieve this it requires representing
the radiation for all angles of F and G which give <)plane (vertical plane! and ,)plane
(horizontal plane! pattern respectively.
1.#.2 (ain
ntenna gain relates the intensity of an antenna in a given direction to the intensity that
would be produced by a hypothetical ideal antenna that radiates equally in all directions
(isotropically! and has no losses. Since the radiation intensity from a lossless isotropic antenna
equals the power into the antenna divided by a solid angle of @H steridians, we can write the
following equation/
.ain I @H J Aadiation Intensity)ntenna Input Dower
1.#.3 Direti*ity
(he directive gain of the antenna is the measure of the concentration of radiated power in
a particular direction. It may be regarded as the ability of the antenna to direct radiated power in
6
a given direction. It is usually a ratio of radiation intensity in a given direction to the average
radiation intensity. .enerally & K *,e$cept in the case of an isotropic antenna for which & I *.
n antenna with directivity & KK * is directive antenna.
1.#.4 Po"ari+ation
Dolarization is the orientation of the electromagnetic waves far from the source. (here are
several types of polarization that apply to antennas. (hey are Linear (which comprises vertical
and horizontal!, oblique, <lliptical (left hand and right hand polarizations!, circular (left hand and
right hand! polarizations.
1.#.# ,-.R
ES#A is the ratio of the ma$imum to minimum values of the Mstanding waveM pattern
that is created when signals are reflected on a transmission line. (his measurement can be ta"en
using a Mslotted lineM apparatus that allows the user to measure the field strength in a
transmission line at different distances along the line.
(he voltage standing wave ratio is a measure of how well a load is impedance)matched to
a source. (he value of ES#A is always e$pressed as a ratio with * in the denominator (5/*, C/*,
etc.! It is a scalar measurement only (no angle!, so although they reflect waves oppositely, a
short circuit and an open circuit have the same ES#A value (infinity/*!. perfect impedance
match corresponds to a ES#A */*, but in practice you will never achieve it. Impedance
matching means you will get ma$imum power transfer from source to load.
1.#./ Ref"etion Coeffiient an% Return 0oss
Ref"etion oeffiient shows what fraction of an incident signal is reflected when a
source drives a load. ref"etion oeffiient magnitude of zero is a perfect match, a value of
one is perfect reflection. (he symbol for reflection coefficient is uppercase .ree" letter gamma
(N!. Oote that the reflection coefficient is a vector, so it includes an angle. 0nli"e ES#A, the
reflection coefficient can distinguish between short and open circuits. short circuit has a value
of )* (* at an angle of *>+ degrees!, while an open circuit is one at an angle of + degrees. Puite
often we refer to only the magnitude of the reflection coefficient.
7
Return 0oss shows the level of the reflected signal with respect to the incident signal in
d:. (he negative sign is dropped from the return loss value, so a large value for return loss
indicates a small reflected signal. (he return "oss of a load is merely the magnitude of the
reflection coefficient e$pressed in decibels. (he correct equation for return loss is/
Aeturn loss I )5+ $ log Qmag(N!R
(hus in its correct form, return loss will usually be a positive number. If it1s not, you can
usually blame measurement error. (he e$ception to the rule is something with negative
resistance, which implies that it is an active device (e$ternal &% power is converted to A'! and it
is potentially unstable (it could oscillate!.
1.#.1 $an%'i%t!
(he bandwidth of an antenna is defined as the range of frequencies within which the
performance of the antenna with respect to some characteristics conforms to a specific standard.
(he reason for this qualitative definition is that all the antenna parameters are changed
with frequency and the importance of the different parameters as gain, return loss, beamwidth,
side)lobe level etc., much depends on the frequency band.
(he bandwidth of an antenna for gain ()Cd: from the ma$imum! is defined as
:andwidth (S! I (fv-fl)*100 fc
#here fv is the upper frequency, fl is the lower frequency, and fc is the centre frequency.
1.#.2 $ea3'i%t!
ntenna bemwidth is defined as the angle between half power point on the main beam. In
case that we have a logarithm radiation power pattern in Qd:R units, it means that we measure the
angle between two Cd: points.
1./ Ty&es of Antennas
8
(here are two fundamental types of antenna directional patterns, which, with reference to
a specific two dimensional plane (usually horizontal Qparallel to the groundR or Qvertical
perpendicular to the groundR!, are either/
*. Tmni)directional (radiates equally in all directions!, such as a vertical rod (in the
horizontal plane! or
5. &irectional (radiates more in one direction than in the other!.
In colloquial usage MomnidirectionalM usually refers to all horizontal directions with
reception above and below the antenna being reduced in favor of better reception near the
horizon. directional antenna usually refers to one focusing a narrow beam in a single specific
direction such as a telescope or satellite dish, or, at least, focusing in a sector such as a *5+U
horizontal fan pattern in the case of a panel antenna at a cell site.
(he present antenna in the thesis i.e., Microstrip antenna is an omnidirectional antenna
which radiates normal to the patch surface into the upper hemisphere (*>+U in elevation plane!
and C?+U in azimuth plane.
1./.1 $asi 4o%e"s of Antennas
(here are many variations of antennas. :elow are a few basic models.
(he isotro&i ra%iator is a purely theoretical antenna that radiates equally in all
directions. It is considered to be a point in space with no dimensions and no mass. (his
antenna cannot physically e$ist, but is useful as a theoretical model for comparison with
all other antennas. Most antennas1 gains are measured with reference to an isotropic
radiator, and are rated in d:i (decibels with respect to an isotropic radiator!.
(he %i&o"e antenna is simply two wires pointed in opposite directions arranged either
horizontally or vertically, with one end of each wire connected to the radio and the other
end hanging free in space. Since this is the simplest practical antenna, it is also used as a
reference model for other antennas; gain with respect to a dipole is labeled as d:d.
9
(he 5agi6U%a antenna is a directional variation of the dipole with parasitic elements
added which are functionality similar to adding a reflector and lenses (directors! to focus
a filament light bulb.
(he random 'ire antenna is simply a very long (at least one quarter wavelength! wire
with one end connected to the radio and the other in free space, arranged in any way most
convenient for the space available. 'olding will reduce effectiveness and ma"e theoretical
analysis e$tremely difficult.
(he !orn is used where high gain is needed, the wavelength is short (microwave! and
space is not an issue. ,orns can be narrowband or wideband, depending on their shape.
horn can be built for any frequency, but horns for lower frequencies are typically
impractical. ,orns are also frequently used as reference antennas.
(he &ara7o"i antenna consists of an active element at the focus of a parabolic reflector
to reflect the waves into a plane wave. Li"e the horn it is used for high gain, microwave
applications, such as satellite dishes.
(he &at! antenna consists mainly of a square conductor mounted over a ground plane.
nother e$ample of a planar antenna is the tapered slot antenna ((S!, as the Eivaldi)
antenna.
1.1 Ai3 an% O78eti*e of t!e Pro8et9
(he main aim of the proVect is to design an aerospace wide beamwidth rectangular
microstrip antenna for an aerospace vehicle such as a missile, satellite, aircraft etc., by using
available Microstrip substrate (printed circuit board of type 'A@ with dielectric constant of @.@
and loss tangent of +.++5 and thic"ness of *.?mmof double clad copper!. #e calculated the
dimensions of the patch w (width! and l (length! and also theoretically calculated the antenna
bandwidth for ES#A of 5/* at a frequency of 55-+M,z in a s)band telemetry frequency. nd
then we calculated the C)d: beamwidth in principle <)plane and ,)plane.
(he Microstrip antenna has been designed by using the D%& software on a computer on
a size *+cm W *+cm and hI*.?mm (thic"ness!. (he fabrication process has been done with help
of Sravanthi <lectronic Industry by using the standard D%: techniques. fter the fabrication we
10
decided the feed point for it to polarize linearly and then connected sub miniature type) (SM!
female A' connector of type radial A*5-@+C++ with the centre conductor of diameter *.5Xmm.
(his has been soldered on the Microstrip patch at a point where -+Y4s impedance is achieved.
(he ground plane is also soldered with the outer conductor of coa$ial.
nd then the centre conductor is chec"ed to not have short circuit with the ground plane
by an ohm meter and it is found that there was no short circuit. (he antenna has been tested for
impedance, band width and return loss measurement by using an automatic vector networ"
analyzer of type O-C5+ DO)L series at Ms dvanced %ommunication &ivision, %harlapally,
,yderabad, a sister concern of dvanced Aadio Mass (AM!. (he test has been conducted for
the following/
*. ES#A
5. Aeturn Loss
C. Impedance
@. .ain
-. Aadiation Dattern
11
CHAPTER 2
O,ER,IE. OF 4ICRO-TRIP ANTENNA
2.1 History of 4irostri& Antenna
(he concept of microstrip radiators was first proposed by &eschamps as early as *B-C.
(he first practical antennas were developed in the early *BX+4s by ,owell and Munson. Since
then, e$tensive research and development of microstrip antennas and arrays, e$ploiting the new
advantages such as light weight, low volume, low cost, low cost, compatible with integrated
circuits, etc., have led to the diversified applications and to the establishment of the topic as a
separate entity within the broad field of microwave antennas.
2.2 Definition of 4irostri& Antenna
microstrip antenna in its simplest configuration consists of a radiating patch on one
side of a dielectric substrate (Zr [ *+!, which has a ground plane on the other side. (he patch
conductors, normally of copper and gold, can assume virtually any shape, but conventional
shapes are generally used to simplify analysis and performance prediction. patch antenna is a
narrowband, wide)beam antenna. 'eeding in microstrip is achieved through use of coa$ial line
with an inner conductor that terminates on the patch. (he placement of the feed is important for
proper operation of the antenna.
12
Figure 2.1 Structure of a Microstrip Datch ntenna
2.3 A%*antages an% Disa%*antages of 4irostri& Antenna
Microstrip antennas have several advantages compared to conventional microwave
antennas and therefore many applications over the broad frequency range from *++M,z to
-+.,z. Some of the principle advantages are/
Light weight, low volume, low profile planar configurations which can be made
conformal/
Low fabrication cost ; readily amenable to mass production;
%an be made thin ; hence, they do not perturb the aerodynamics of host aerospace
vehicles;
(he antennas can be easily mounted on missiles, roc"ets and satellites without maVor
alterations;
(hese antennas have low scattering cross section;
Linear, circular (left hand or right hand! polarizations are possible with simple changes in
the feed positions;
&ual frequency and dual polarization antennas can be easily made;
Oo cavity bac"ing required;
13
%an be easily integrated with microwave integrated circuits;
Microstrip antennas are compatible with modular designs (solid state devices such as
oscillators, amplifiers, variable attenuators, switches, modulators, mi$ers etc. can be
added directly to the antenna substrate board!;
'eed lines and matching networ"s are fabricated simultaneously with the antenna
structure;
,owever, Microstrip antennas also have some disadvantages compared to conventional
microwave antennas are/
Oarrow bandwidth and associated tolerance problems;
Loss, hence somewhat lower gain(\ ?d:!;
Large ohmic loss in the feed structure of arrays;
%omple$ feed structure required for high performance arrays;
Dolarization purity is difficult to achieve;
<$traneous radiation from feeds and Vunctions;
Low power handling capability
<$citation of surface waves
Aeduced gain and efficiency as well as unacceptably high levels of cross)polarization and
mutual coupling within an array element at high frequencies
(here are ways to minimize the effect of some of the limitations. 'or e$ample,
bandwidth can be increased to more than ?+Sby usage of special techniques;
lower gain and lower power handling limitations can be overcome through an array
configuration;
14
surface wave associated limitations poor efficiency, increased mutual coupling, reduced
gain and radiation pattern degradation can be overcome by the use of photonic band gap
structures;
2.4 Ra%iation 4e!anis3 of 4irostri& Antenna
(he radiation from a Microstrip line, a structure similar to Microstrip antenna, can be
reduced considerably if the substrate employed is thin and has a higher relative dielectric
constant. Aadiation from Microstrip antenna, on the other hand, is encouraged for better radiation
efficiency. (herefore, thic" substrates with low permittivity are used in Microstrip antennas.
Aadiation from Microstrip antenna can be determined from the field distribution between patch
metallization and the ground plane.
lternatively, radiation pattern can be described in terms of surface current distribution
on the patch metallization. n accurate calculation of the field or current distribution of the patch
is very complicated. ,owever, crude appro$imations and simple arguments can be used to
develop a wor"able model for a Microstrip antenna. %onsider a Microstrip antenna that has been
connected to a microwave source. (he energization of the patch will establish a charge
distribution on upper and lower surfaces of the patch, as well as on the surface of the ground
plane as shown in figure below/
Figure 2.2 <lectric field distributions in microstrip cavity
(he ]ve and ^ve nature of the charge distribution arises because the patch is about a half)
wave long at the dominant mode. (he repulsive forces between li"e charges on the bottom
15
surface, around its edges, to its top surface. (his movement of charge creates corresponding
current densities and at the bottom and top surface of the patch as shown in figure below/
Figure 2.3 %harge distribution and current density on a microstrip antenna
'or most microstrip antennas, the ratio h/W is very small. (herefore, the attractive force
between the charges dominates and most of the charge concentration and the current flow remain
underneath the patch. small amount of current flows around the edges the edges of the patch to
its top surface and are responsible for wea" magnetic field tangential to the edges. ,ence, we can
ma"e a simple appro$imation that the magnetic field is zero and one can place magnetic walls all
around the periphery of the patch. (his assumption has the greater validity for thin substrates
with high Z
r
. lso, since the substrate used is very thin compared to the wavelength (h<<! in the
dielectric, the field variations along the height can be considered to be constant and electric field
nearly normal to the surface of the patch.
%onsequently, the patch can be modeled as a cavity with electric walls (because the
electric field is near normal to the patch surface! at the top and below and four magnetic walls
along the edges of the patch (because the tangential magnetic field is very wea"!. Tnly (M
modes are possible in this cavity.
(he four sidewalls of the cavity represent four narrow aperture or slots through which
radiation ta"es place. 0sing the ,uygens field equivalent principle, the microstrip patch can be
represented by an equivalent current density at the top surface to account for the presence of
the patch metallization. (he four side slots is represented by equivalent current densities and
16
corresponding to the magnetic field and , respectively in the slots. (he equivalent
currents are given by Q*R/
2.# ,arious 4irostri& Antenna Configurations9
Microstrip antennas are characterized by large number of physical parameters than are
conventional microstrip antennas. (hey can be designed to have many geometrical shapes and
dimensions. ll Microstrip antennas can be divided into four basic categories Q*R/
1. Microstrip patch antennas
5. Microstrip dipoles
C. Drinted slot antennas
@. Microstrip travelling)wave antennas.
2.#.1 4irostri& &at! antenna
Microstrip patch antenna (MD! consists of a conducting patch of any planar geometry
on one side of dielectric substrate bac"ed by a ground plane on the other side. (here are virtually
an unlimited number of patch patterns for which radiation characteristics may be calculated. (he
basic configurations used in practice are/
17
Figure 2.4 Microstrip patch antenna shapes commonly used in practice
18
Figure 2.# Tther possible geometries of Microstrip patches
2.#.2 4irostri& or Printe% Di&o"e Antennas
Microstrip or printed dipole differs geometrically from rectangular patch antennas in their
length)t)width ratio. (he width of a dipole is typically less than +.+-_o. (he radiation patterns o
the dipole and patch are similar owing to similar longitudinal current distributions. ,owever, the
radiation resistance, bandwidth, and cross)polar radiation differ widely. (hese are well suited for
higher frequencies for which the substrate can be electrically thic" and therefore can attain
significant bandwidth. (he choice of feed mechanism is very important in the microstrip dipoles
and should be included in the analysis.
2.#.3 Printe% -"ot Antennas
Drinted slot antennas comprise a slot in the ground plane of a grounded substrate. (he slot
can have virtually any shape. (heoretically, most of the microstrip patch shapes can be realized
in the form of a printed slot. Li"e microstrip patch antennas, the slot antennas can be fed either
by a microstrip line or a coplanar waveguide.
19
Slot antennas are generally bidirectional radiators/ that is they radiate on both ides of the
lot. 0nidirectional radiation is obtained by using reflector plate on one side of the slot.
Figure 2./ :asic printed slot antennas with feed structures
2.#.4 4irostri& Tra*e""ing6.a*e Antennas
microstrip travelling)wave antenna (M(! may consist of chain)shaped periodic
conductors or a long microstrip line sufficient width to support a (< mode. (he other end of the
traveling)wave antenna is terminated in a matched resistive load to avoid the standing wave on
the antenna.
20
(ravelling) wave microstrip antennas can be designed so that the main beam lies in any
direction from broadside to endfire. Earious configurations for M(s are shown in the figure
below/
Figure 2.1 Some of printed microstrip travelling)wave antenna configurations
21
CHAPTER 3
RECTAN(U0AR PATCH ANTENNA
3.1 Intro%ution
Microstrip antennas are among the most widely used types of antennas in the microwave
frequency range, and they are often used in the millimeter)wave frequency range as well Q*, 5,
CR. (:elow appro$imately * .,z, the size of a microstrip antenna is usually too large to be
practical, and other types of antennas such as wire antennas dominate!. lso called patch
antennas, Microstrip patch antennas consist of a metallic patch of metal that is on top of a
grounded dielectric substrate of thic"ness h, with relative permittivity and permeability Zr and `r
as shown in 'igure C.* (usually `r I *!. (he metallic patch may be of various shapes, with
rectangular and circular being the most common, as shown in 'igure C.*.
Figure 3.1 Aectangular a %ircular Datch ntennas
Most of the discussion in this section will be limited to the rectangular patch, although
the basic principles are the same for the circular patch. (Many of the %& formulas presented
will apply appro$imately for the circular patch if the circular patch is modeled as a square patch
of the same area!. Earious methods may be used to feed the patch, as discussed below. Tne
advantage of the microstrip antenna is that it is usually low profile, in the sense that the substrate
is fairly thin.
22
If the substrate is thin enough, the antenna actually becomes 8conformal,9 meaning that
the substrate can be bent to conform to a curved surface (e.g., a cylindrical structure!. typical
substrate thic"ness is about +.+5 _+. (he metallic patch is usually fabricated by a
photolithographic etching process or a mechanical milling process, ma"ing the construction
relatively easy and ine$pensive (the cost is mainly that of the substrate material!.
Tther advantages include the fact that the microstrip antenna is usually lightweight (for
thin substrates! and durable. &isadvantages of the microstrip antenna include the fact that it is
usually narrowband, with bandwidths of a few percent being typical. Some methods for
enhancing bandwidth are discussed later. lso, the radiation efficiency of the patch antenna
tends to be lower than some other types of antennas, with efficiencies between X+S and B+S
being typical.
3.2 $asi Prini&"es of O&eration
(he metallic patch essentially creates a resonant cavity, where the patch is the top of the
cavity, the ground plane is the bottom of the cavity, and the edges of the patch form the sides of
the cavity. (he edges of the patch act appro$imately as an open)circuit boundary condition.
,ence, the patch acts appro$imately as a cavity with perfect electric conductor on the top and
bottom surfaces, and a perfect 8magnetic conductor9 on the sides. (his point of view is very
useful in analyzing the patch antenna, as well as in understanding its behavior. Inside the patch
cavity the electric field is essentially z directed and independent of the z coordinate. ,ence, the
patch cavity modes are described by a double inde$ (m, n!. 'or the (m, n! cavity mode of the
rectangular patch the electric field has the form
bbbbbbb..(C.*!
#here L is the patch length and W is the patch width. (he patch is usually operated in the
(*,+! mode, so that L is the resonant dimension, and the field is essentially constant in the y
direction. (he surface current on the bottom of the metal patch is then $ directed, and is given
by/
bbbbbbbbbbbb..(C.5!
23
'or this mode the patch may be regarded as a wide microstrip line of width W, having a
resonant length L that is appro$imately one)half wavelength in the dielectric. (he current is
ma$imum at the centre of the patch, x I L/5, while the electric field is ma$imum at the two
8radiating9 edges, x I + and x I L. (he width W is usually chosen to be larger than the length
(WI *.- L is typical! to ma$imize the bandwidt. ((he width should be "ept less than twice the
length, however, to avoid e$citation of the (+, 5! mode.!
It might appear that the microstrip antenna will not be an effective radiator when the
substrate is electrically thin, since the patch current will be effectively shorted by the close
pro$imity to the ground plane. If the modal amplitude A*+ were constant, the strength of the
radiated field would in fact be proportional to h. ,owever, the P of the cavity increases as h
decreases. ,ence, the amplitude A*+ of the modal field at resonance is inversely proportional to h.
,ence, the strength of the radiated field from a resonant patch is essentially independent of h, if
losses are ignored. (his e$plains why a patch antenna can be an effective radiator even for very
thin substrates, although the bandwidth will be small.
3.3 Resonant Fre:ueny
(he resonance frequency for the (*, +! mode is given by
bbbbbbbbb.(C.C!
#here c is the speed of light in vacuum. (o account for the fringing of the cavity fields at
the edges of the patch, the length, the effective length Le is chosen as
LeI L ^ 5cL
(he ,ammerstad formula for the fringing e$tension is Q*R
(C.@!
#here,
bbbbbbbbb(C.-!
24
3.4 Ra%iation Patterns
(he radiation field of the microstrip antenna may be determined using either an 8electric
current model9 or a 8magnetic current model9. In the electric current model, the current in (C.5!
is used directly to find the far)field radiation pattern. 'igure C.5a shows the electric current for
the (*, +! patch mode. If the substrate is neglected (replaced by air! for the calculation of the
radiation pattern, the pattern may be found directly from image theory. If the substrate is
accounted for, and is assumed infinite, the reciprocity method may be used to determine the far)
field pattern Q-R.
(a) <lectric %urrent for (*, +! patch
(b! Magnetic %urrent for (*, +! patch
Figure 3.2 <lectric a Magnetic %urrent &istributions
In the magnetic current model, the equivalence principle is used to replace the patch by a
magnetic surface current that flows on the perimeter of the patch. (he magnetic surface current is
given by/
bbbbbbbbbbb..(C.?!
25
#here E is the electric field of the cavity mode at the edge of the patch and n is the
outward pointing unit)normal vector at the patch boundary. 'igure C.5b shows the magnetic
current for the (*, +! patch mode. (he far)field pattern may once again be determined by image
theory or reciprocity, depending on whether the substrate is neglected or not Q@R. (he dominant
part of the radiation field comes from the 8radiating edges9 at x I + and x I L. (he two non)
radiating edges do not affect the pattern in the principle planes (the < plane at d ! + and the ,
plane at d I H/5!, and have a small effect for other planes.
It can be shown that the electric and magnetic current models yield e$actly the same
result for the far)field pattern, provided the pattern of each current is calculated in the presence
of the substrate at the resonant frequency of the patch cavity mode Q-R. If the substrate is
neglected, the agreement is only appro$imate, with the largest difference being near the horizon.
ccording to the electric current model, accounting for the infinite substrate, the far)field
pattern is given by Q-R/
bbbbbbb(C.X!
#here,
"x ! "0 #inG co#d
"y ! "0 #inG #ind
and $ih is the far)field pattern of an infinitesimal (,ertzian! unit)amplitude x) directed electric
dipole at the centre of the patch.
(his pattern is given by Q-R/
(he radiation patterns (<) and ,)plane! for a rectangular patch antenna on an infinite
substrate of permittivity Zr I 5.5 and thic"ness h /_+I +.+5 are shown in 'igure C.C.
26
(he patch is resonant with W/ L I *.-. Oote that the <)plane pattern is broader than the
,)plane pattern. (he directivity is appro$imately ? d:.
Figure 3.3 Simulated Aadiation Dattern (< a , plane!
3.# Ra%iation Effiieny
(he radiation efficiency of the patch antenna is affected not only by conductor and
dielectric losses, but also by surface)wave e$citation ) since the dominant (M mode of the
grounded substrate will be e$cited by the patch. s the substrate thic"ness decreases, the effect
of the conductor and dielectric losses becomes more severe, limiting the efficiency. Tn the other
hand, as the substrate thic"ness increases, the surface)wave power increases, thus limiting the
efficiency. Surface)wave e$citation is undesirable for other reasons as well, since surface waves
contribute to mutual coupling between elements in an array, and also cause undesirable edge
diffraction at the edges of the ground plane or substrate, which often contributes to distortions in
the pattern and to bac" radiation.
'or an air (or foam! substrate there is no surface)wave e$citation. In this case, higher
efficiency is obtained by ma"ing the substrate thic"er, to minimize conductor and dielectric
losses (ma"ing the substrate too thic" may lead to difficulty in matching, however, as discussed
above!. 'or a substrate with a moderate relative permittivity such as Zr I 5.5, the efficiency will
be ma$imum when the substrate thic"ness is appro$imately _+ I +.+5. (he radiation efficiency is
defined as
27
#here %#p is the power radiated into space, and the total input power %total is given as
the sum of %c ) the power dissipated by conductor loss, %&) the power dissipated by dielectric
loss, and %#' ) the surface)wave power. (he efficiency may also be e$pressed in terms of the
corresponding P factors as Q?R
plot of radiation efficiency for a resonant rectangular patch antenna with W / L I *.- on
a substrate of relative permittivity Zr I 5.5 or Zr I *+.> is shown in 'igure 5.-. (he result is
plotted efficiency versus normalized (electrical! thic"ness of the substrate, which does not
involve frequency.
Figure 3.4 Aadiation <fficiency for a rectangular patch ntenna
(he conductivity of the copper patch and ground plane is assumed to be e I C.+W*+X
QS/mR and the dielectric loss tangent is ta"en as tanfd I +.++*. (he resonance frequency is - .,z.
,owever, a specified frequency is necessary to determine conductor loss. 'or h / _+ g +.+5, the
conductor and dielectric losses dominate, while for h /_+ K +.+5, the surface)wave losses
dominate. (If there were no conductor or dielectric losses, the efficiency would approach *++S
as the substrate thic"ness approaches zero.!
28
3./ $an%'i%t!
(he bandwidth increases as the substrate thic"ness increases (the bandwidth is directly
proportional to h if conductor, dielectric, and surface)wave losses are ignored!. ,owever,
increasing the substrate thic"ness lowers the ( of the cavity, which increases spurious radiation
from the feed, as well as from higher)order modes in the patch cavity. lso, the patch typically
becomes difficult to match as the substrate thic"ness increases beyond a certain point (typically
about +.+- _+!. (his is especially true when feeding with a coa$ial probe, since a thic"er
substrate results in a larger probe inductance appearing in series with the patch impedance.
,owever, in recent years considerable effort has been spent to improve the bandwidth of the
microstrip antenna, in part by using alternative feeding schemes. (he aperture)coupled feed of
'igure 5.5c is one scheme that overcomes the problem of probe inductance, at the cost of
increased comple$ity QXR.
Lowering the substrate permittivity also increases the bandwidth of the patch antenna.
,owever, this has the disadvantage of ma"ing the patch larger. lso, because of the patch cavity
is lowered, there will usually be increased radiation from higher)order modes, degrading the
polarization purity of the radiation.
:y using a combination of aperture)coupled feeding and a low)permittivity foam
substrate, bandwidths e$ceeding 5-S have been obtained. (he use of stac"ed patches (a parasitic
patch located above the primary driven patch! can also be used to increase bandwidth even
further, by increasing the effective height of the structure and by creating a double)tuned
resonance effect Q>R. %& formula for the bandwidth (defined by S#A g 5.+! is
#here the terms used have been defined in the previous section on radiation efficiency.
(he result should be multiplied by *++ to get percent bandwidth. Oote that neglecting conductor
and dielectric loss yields a bandwidth that is proportional to the substrate thic"ness h.
29
Figure 3.# %alculated a Measured :andwidth
'igure 5.? shows calculated and measured bandwidth for the same patch in 'igure 5.-. It
is seen that bandwidth is improved by using a lower substrate permittivity, and by ma"ing the
substrate thic"er.
3.1 In&ut I3&e%ane
variety of appro$imate models have been proposed for the calculation of input
impedance for a probe)fed patch. (hese include the transmission line method, the cavity model,
and the spectral)domain method. (hese models usually wor" well for thin substrates, typically
giving reliable results for h / _+ g +.+5.
%ommercial simulation tools using '&(&, '<M, or MoM can be used to accurately
predict the input impedance for any substrate thic"ness. (he cavity model has the advantage of
allowing for a simple physical %& model of the patch to be developed, as shown in 'igure C.?
30
Figure 3./ <quivalent %ircuit of Datch ntenna
In this model the patch cavity is modeled as a parallel AL% circuit, while the probe
inductance is modeled as a series inductor. (he input impedance of this circuit is appro$imately
described by
31
CHAPTER 4
DE-I(N OF RECTAN(U0AR 4ICRO-TRIP ANTENNA
(his chapter deals with the procedure for practically designing a rectangular microstrip
antenna. (he overall goal of a design is t achieve specific performance characteristics at a
stipulated operating frequency. (he design of a rectangular microstrip antenna involves the
following process/
*. Selection of substrate and
5. %alculating length, width and feed point of the patch
C. Selection of connector
4.1 -e"etion of -u7strate
(he selection of a substrate material is a balance between the required electrical,
mechanical and environmental performance required by a design versus economic constraints.
.enerally, if one has the available design volume to use air as a substrate for a Microstrip
antenna, this is a good choice. (he antenna efficiency is high, the gain is ma$imized as is the
impedance bandwidth of a conventional Microstrip antenna. (he surface wave loss when air is
used as a substrate is minimal.
#hen a dielectric substrate is selected, one is interested in a material with the lowest
tangent (tan ! available. (he loss tangent is a metric of the quantity of electrical energy which is
converted to heat by a dielectric. (he lowest possible loss tangent ma$imizes the antenna
efficiency (decreases the losses!.
(he relative dielectric constant Zr of the substrate determines the physical size of a patch
antenna. (he larger the dielectric constant the smaller the element size, but also the smaller the
impedance, bandwidth and directivity and the surface wave loss increases. (he use of the
substrates with higher dielectric constants also tightens fabrication tolerances.(he tolerance of
the dielectric value is also of significant importance in manufacturing yield.
32
Monte)%arlo type analysis using the cavity model is a good method of estimating
antenna manufacturing yield for a rectangular Microstrip antenna when an etching tolerance,
substrate thic"ness tolerance, feed point location tolerance and dielectric tolerances are "nown.
Substrate electrical and physical parameters also vary with temperature. Aecent wor" by
habaci" and :ial"ows"i indicates that (eflon/'iberglass substrates can have a significant
variation of dielectric constant for many airborne and space borne applications. (he dielectric
constant and loss tangent of (eflon fiberglass often differed from what was quoted by
manufacturers in their datasheets compared with measurements and were valid over a much
narrower temperature range that encountered in many aerospace applications. (he performance
variations are due to changes in the material dielectric properties]thermal e$pansion had a minor
effect on Microstrip antenna performance.
.enerally the metal cladding to the dielectric substrate material is copper. (wo types of
copper foil are used as cladding, rolled foil and electrodeposited foil. Aolled foil is passed
through a rolling mill a number of times until the desired physical dimensions are obtained and
bonded the substrate. Aolled copper has a polished mirror)li"e appearance. <lectrodeposited foil
is created by electrodeposition of copper onto an inert form. thin layer of copper is
continuously removed from the form then bonded to the substrate.
(he computation of characteristic impedance and losses of a Microstrip transmission line
depend on the copper foil thic"ness. (he copper cladding is described in terms of weight per
square yard. (he thic"ness of the cladding may then be derived and is listed in the table below/
Foi" 'eig!t Foi" t!i;ness
i oz (*@gms! +.+++X in (+.+*XX>mm!
* oz (5>gms! +.++*@ in (+.+C--?mm!
5 oz (-Xgms! +.++5> in (+.+X**5mm!
@ oz (*@5gms! +.++-? in (+.*@55@mm!

Ta7"e 4.1 (hic"ness of cladding for different materials
33
4ateria" <r Tan
(eflon (D('<! 5.* +.+++-
Ae$olite *@55 5.-- +.+++X
Ooryl 5.? +.++**
'A@ @.* +.+5
lumina B.> +.+++C
Ta7"e 4.2 &ielectric and Loss tangent for different materials
.enerally, dielectric constant Zr and loss tangent tanf increase with temperature. In space
applications moisture outgassing produces a lower dielectric constant and loss tangent.
Tef"on (Dolytetrafluoroethylene! has very desirable electrical qualities but is not
recommended for many space applications. n e$tensive discussion of D('< substrates and their
fabrication may be found in the literature.
Re=o"ite is a very good material for space applications and has many desirable
mechanical properties. Ae$olite is easily machined and its dielectric constant remains stable up
to *++ .,z.
Nory" is suitable for many commercial microwave applications. It has a much lower loss
than 'A@ and is relatively cost effective, but it is soft and melts at a relatively low temperature
which can create soldering complications, and sometimes has unsuitable mechanical properties
for some applications.
FR4 is ine$pensive and find use in many commercial applications below * .,z. (he
material can be used for some wireless applications, but great care must be ta"en to budget and
minimize the losses when it is used as a substrate of D('< and <po$y glass ('A@! which has the
desirable properties of 'A@ with lower loss.
A"u3ina has desirable microwave properties for applications which require a relatively
high dielectric constant Zr \ *+.+ and low loss tangent. Its drawbac"s are the difficulty involved
in machining it and its brittleness. lumina has good thermal conductivity and in some aerospace
34
applications it more readily dissipates heat and remains cooler than other common microwave
substrates. In some missile applications where high temperatures may compromise solder Voints
alumina is a viable option for the dissipation of heat. lumina4s dielectric constant is very
sensitive to the processing used to produce the alumina.
ll substrates and laminates have different requirements for the processing. &etails of
fabrication issues and methods may be found in the literature and directly from manufacturers.
Tther fabrication options such as screen printing conductive in"s directly on substrates have also
been investigated.
4.2 Design &roe%ure for Retangu"ar 4irostri& Antenna
4.2.1 Consi%ere% ,a"ues
(he three essential parameters for the design of a rectangular Microstrip Datch ntenna/
Fre:ueny of o&eration >f
o
?9 (he resonant frequency of the antenna must be selected
appropriately. Since we developing antenna for microwave applications we choose design an
antenna in s)band which ranges from 5 .,z to @ .,z. #e designed microstrip antenna at 5.5-
.,z..
Die"etri onstant of t!e su7strate ><
r
?9 (here are many dielectric substrates available
in the mar"et having different dielectric constant and thic"ness. Tf them A( &uroidd provides
the best results but is highly costly and hence the dielectric material selected for our design is
'A@ ('iber)reinforced plastic! which has a dielectric constant of @.@. (his substrate is selected
since it can obtain better results and is cost effective.
Heig!t of %ie"etri su7strate >!?9 (he height of the selected dielectric material is
*.?mm which is optimal for having ma$imum radiation and has less lea"y waves. (his
provides a balance between conductor and dielectric loss and hence we choose 'A@
material dielectric substrate with *.?mm thic"ness.
4.2.2 Initia" Design ,a"ues
(here are many analysis methods for the design of antenna which are discussed later.
'rom them we use transmission line analysis method for our antenna.
35
-te& 19 Ca"u"ation of t!e .i%t! >.?
(he width of the Microstrip patch antenna is given as/
bbbbbbbbbbb (@.*!
#here, c is velocity of light
f
o
is Aesonant 'requency
Z
r
is Aelative &ielectric %onstant
Figure 4.1 Eariation of #idth with 'requency
Tf course other widths may be chosen but for widths smaller than those selected
according to equation (@.*!, radiator efficiency is lower while for larger widths, the efficiency are
greater but for higher modes may result, causing field distortion. s a result design aid, equation
36
(@.*! is plotted for the common dielectric substrates. If other materials are employed equation
(@.*! should be used with appropriate value of Z
r
. In this wor" upon Substituting
cIC.+W*+j(**!mm/s, Z
r
I @.@ and f
o
I 5.5- .,z, we get/
. @ 4A.#1 33
-te& 29 Ca"u"ating t!e 0engt! >0?
Effeti*e %ie"etri onstant ><
eff
?
Tnce # is "nown, the ne$t step is the calculation of the length which involves several
other computations; the first would be the effective dielectric constant. (he dielectric constant of
the substrate is much greater than the unity, the effective value of Z
eff
will be closer to the value
of the actual dielectric constant Z
r
of the substrate. (he effective dielectric constant is also a
function of frequency.
s the frequency of operation increases the effective dielectric constant approaches the
value of the dielectric constant of the substrate is given by/

bbbbbbb.. (@.5!
In our design for the above mentioned values the effective dielectric is found to be
<
eff
@ 4.1AA
Effeti*e "engt! > 0
eff
?
(he effective length is/
bbbbbbbbb.. (@.C!
#hich is found to be 0
eff
@ 32.B1233
0engt! E=tension >C0?
:ecause of fringing effects, electrically the micro strip antenna loo"s larger than its actual
physical dimensions. 'or the principle < ] plane ($)y plane!, where the dimensions of the path
along its length have been e$tended on each by a distance, kL, which is a function of the
37
effective dielectric constant and the width)to)height ratio (#/h!.(he length e$tension is/
..b.bbbbbbbbb (@.@!
Substituting Z
eff
I @.@, # I @+.-X mm and h I *.? mm we get/
C0 @ A.13B 33
Ca"u"ation of atua" "engt! of &at! >0?
:ecause of inherent narrow bandwidth of the resonant element, the length is a critical
parameter and the above equations are used to obtain an accurate value for the patch length L.

Figure 4.2 Eariation of Length with the 'requency
'ig @.5 which is a plot of L versus frequency for the various substrates and for chosen
substrate may then be used to verify the design.
(he actual length is obtained by/
38
bbbbbbbbbb.. (@.-!
Substituting L
eff
I C@.@+> mm and kL I +.XCB* mm we get/
0 @ 31.4433
Fee% Point 0oation
fter selecting the patch dimensions L and # for a given substrate, the ne$t tas" is to
determine the feed point ($, y! so as to obtain a good impedance match between the generator
impedance and the input impedance of the patch element. It is observed that the change in feed
location gives rise to a change in the input impedance and hence provides a simple method for
impedance matching.
bbbbbbb.. (@.?!
'rom the equation (@.?! we see that if the feed is located at $ I $f and + [ yf ) W* the
input resistance at resonance for the dominant (M*+ mode can be e$pressed as
bbbbbbb.. (@.X!
#here $f is the inset distance from the radiating edge and A
r
is the radiation resistance at
resonance when the patch is fed at a radiating edge. (he inset distance $f is selected such that Ain
is equal to the feed line impedance, usually ta"en to be -+l. lthough the feed point can be
selected anywhere along the patch width, it is better to choose yf I W/5 if W m L so that (M+n (n
odd! modes are not e$cited along with the (M*+ mode. &etermination of the e$act feed point
requires an iterative solution for equation (@.?!. <quation (@.X! provides a useful guideline for
the purpose. hara has suggested an e$pression for $f that does not need calculation of radiation
resistance. It is appro$imately given by
................................................. (@.>!
-te& 39 Ca"u"ation of t!e (ain >(?
(he gain of the micro strip antenna is given by the following formula
( @ bbbbbb..bbbbbbbb. (@.B!
39
where I LJ# I C5.BCJ@5.@- I*CBX.>X>
bbb..bbbbbbbb..b. (@.*+!
I I ??.-* mm
:y substituting the above values we get
( @ #.B2 %$
Figure 4.3 Eariation of .ain with the 'requency
-te& 49 Ca"u"ation of t!e $ea3 .i%t! > ?
(he beam width of a micro strip element can be increased by choosing a smaller element,
thus reducing # and L. 'or a given resonant frequency, these dimensions may be changed by
40
selecting a substrate having a higher relative permittivity. In many applications, a decrease in
physical size is desirable.
$ea3 .i%t! in H6P"ane
I5 bbbbbbbb....... (@.**!
):eam #idth in ,) Dlane
Substituting # I @+.-X mm and we get/
@ 13./# %egrees
$ea3 .i%t! in E6P"ane
I 5 bbbbbbbbb (@.*5!
):eam #idth in <) Dlane
Substituting # I @+.-X mm, hI*.?mm and we get/
@ 11#.12 %egrees
s beam width increases, element gain and consequently directivity decrease, however
the antenna efficiency remains unaffected.
-te& #9 Ca"u"ation of t!e $an% .i%t! Perentage >$. D?
(he bandwidth of the microstrip antenna gives the range of frequencies for which the
microtrip antenna wor"s that is either transmits or receive and it s given by the following
equation/
:# I bbbbbbbbbbbbb (@.*C!
Substituting , hI*.?mm and SI5/*, Z
r
I @.@ we get/
:# I +.-*@S
41

Figure 4.4 Eariation of :andwidth with 'requency for different dielectric substrate antennas
4.3 4iro'a*e Coa=ia" Connetor
'or high frequency operation the average circumference of a coa$ial cable must be
limited to about one wavelength, in order to reduce multimodal propagation and eliminate erotic
reflection coefficients, power losses and signal distortion. (he standardization of coa$ial
connectors during #orld #ar II was mandatory for microwave operation to maintain a low
reflection coefficient or a low voltage standing wave ratio (ES#A!. Since that time many
modifications and new designs for microwave connectors have been proposed and developed.
Seven types of microwave coa$ial connectors are described below.
APC63.#9 (he D%)C.- (mphenol Drecision %onnector)C.-mm! was originally developed by
,ewlett)Dac"ard, but is now manufactured by mphenol. (he connector provides the repeatable
connections and has very low voltage standing)wave ratio (ES#A!. <ither the male or female
end of this -+l connector can mate with the opposite type of SM type connector. (he D%)C.-
connector can wor" at frequencies up to C@ .,z.
42
APC619 (he D%)X (mphenol Drecision %onnector)Xmm! was also developed by ,ewlett)
Dac"ard in the mid *B?+s, but it was recently improved and is now manufactured by mphenol.
(he connector provides a coupling mechanism without male or female distinction and is the most
repeatable connecting device used for very accurate -+l measurement applications. Its ES#A is
e$tremely low, in the range of *.+5 to *> .,z.
Figure 4.# D%)X %onnector
$NC9 (he :O% (:ayonet Oavy %onnector! was originally designed for military system
applications during #orld #ar II. (he connector operates very well at frequencies up to about
@.,z, beyond that it tends to radiate electromagnetic energy. (he :O% can accept fle$ible
cables with diameters of up to ?.C-mm (+.5-inches! and characteristic impedance of -+ to X-l.
It is now the most commonly used connector for frequencies under * .,z.
Figure 4./ :O% %onnector
-4A9 (he SM (Sub)Miniature ! was originally by :endi$ Scintilla %orporation, but it has
been manufactured by Tmni)Spectra Inc. (as the TSM connector! and many other electronic
companies. (he main application of SM connector is on component for microwave systems.
(he connector is seldom used above 5@ .,z because of higher order modes.
43
Figure 4.1 SM %onnector
-4C9 (he SM% (Sub Miniature %! is a -+l connector that is smaller than the SM. (he
connector is manufactured by Sealectro %orporation and can accept fle$ible cables with
diameters of up to C.*Xmm (+.*5- inches! for a frequency range of up to X .,z.
Figure 4.2 SM% %onnector
TNC9 (he (O% ((hreaded Oavy %onnector! is merely a thread :O%. (he function of thread is
to stop radiation at higher frequencies, so that the connector can wor" at frequencies up to
*5.,z.
Figure 4.B (O% %onnector
Ty&e N9 (he (ype O (Oavy! connector was originally designed or military systems during
#orld #ar II and is the most popular measurement connector for the frequency range of * to
*>.,z. It is -+ or X-l connector and its ES#A is e$tremely low, less than *.+5.
44
Figure 4.1A (ype O %onnector
Size Series %oupling Impedance
( !
'requency
(.,z!
ES#A
(ma$!
Eoltage
(E!
Subminiature
Miniature
Medium
Large
SM
SM:
SM%
:O%
(O%
S,E
:O
M%
%
O
O%
PM
PL
Screw
Snap on
Screw
:ayonet
Screw
:ayonet
Screw
Screw
:ayonet
Screw
Screw
Screw
Screw
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
O%
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
*5.@/*>
@
*+
@
**
O
+.5
+.-
**
**
**
@
-
*.C
*.@*
*.?
*.C
*.C
*.C
*.C
*.C
*.C-
*.C
*.C
*.C
*.C
-++
-++
-++
-++
-++
-+++
5++
5++
*-++
*+++
*+++
-+++
-+++
Ta7"e 4.3 :asic 'eatures Tf the most %ommon %onnector Series
CHAPTER #
45
FEEDIN( 4ETHOD- AND ANA05-I- OF 4ICRO-TRIP
ANTENNA
#.1 Fee% Te!ni:ues
Microstrip patch antennas can be fed by a variety of methods. (hese methods can be
classified into two categories) contacting and non)contacting. In the contacting method, the A'
power is fed directly to the radiating patch using a connecting element such as a microstrip line.
In the non)contacting scheme, electromagnetic field coupling is done to transfer power between
the microstrip line and the radiating patch Q-R. (he four most popular feed techniques used are
the microstrip line, coa$ial probe (both contacting schemes!, aperture coupling and pro$imity
coupling (both non)contacting schemes!.
#.1.1 4irostri& 0ine Fee%
In this type of feed technique, a conducting strip is connected directly to the edge of the
Microstrip patch as shown in 'igure -.*. (he conducting strip is smaller in width as compared to
the patch and this "ind of feed arrangement has the advantage that the feed can be etched on the
same substrate to provide a planar structure.
Figure #.1 Microstrip Line 'eed
(he purpose of the inset cut in the patch is to match the impedance of the feed line to the
patch without the need for any additional matching element. (his is achieved by properly
46
controlling the inset position. ,ence this is an easy feeding scheme, since it provides ease of
fabrication and simplicity in modeling as well as impedance matching. ,owever as the thic"ness
of the dielectric substrate being used, increases, surface waves and spurious feed radiation also
increases, which hampers the bandwidth of the antenna Q-R. (he feed radiation also leads to
undesired cross polarized radiation.
#.1.2 Coa=ia" Fee%
(he %oa$ial feed or probe feed is a very common technique used for feeding Microstrip
patch antennas. s seen from 'igure -.5, the inner conductor of the coa$ial connector e$tends
through the dielectric and is soldered to the radiating patch, while the outer conductor is
connected to the ground plane. (he main advantage of this type of feeding scheme is that the
feed can be placed at any desired location inside the patch in order to match with its input
impedance.
Figure #.2 Drobe fed Aectangular Microstrip Datch ntenna
(his feed method is easy to fabricate and has low spurious radiation. ,owever, a maVor
disadvantage is that it provides narrow bandwidth and is difficult to model since a hole has to be
47
drilled in the substrate and the connector protrudes outside the ground plane, thus not ma"ing it
completely planar for thic" substrates (h K +.+5_o!. lso, for thic"er substrates, the increased
probe length ma"es the input impedance more inductive, leading to matching problems QBR. It is
seen above that for a thic" dielectric substrate, which provides broad bandwidth, the microstrip
line feed and the coa$ial feed suffer from numerous disadvantages. (he non)contacting feed
techniques which have been discussed below, solve these issues.
#.1.3 A&erture Cou&"e% Fee%
In this type of feed technique, the radiating patch and the microstrip feed line are
separated by the ground plane as shown in 'igure -.C. %oupling between the patch and the feed
line is made through a slot or an aperture in the ground plane. (he coupling aperture is usually
centered under the patch, leading to lower cross)polarization due to symmetry of the
configuration. (he amount of coupling from the feed line to the patch is determined by the shape,
size and location of the aperture
Figure #.3 perture)coupled feed
. Since the ground plane separates the patch and the feed line, spurious radiation is
minimized. .enerally, a high dielectric material is used for bottom substrate and a thic", low
dielectric constant material is used for the top substrate to optimize radiation from the patch Q-R.
48
(he maVor disadvantage of this feed technique is that it is difficult to fabricate due to multiple
layers, which also increases the antenna thic"ness. (his feeding scheme also provides narrow
bandwidth.
#.1.4 Pro=i3ity Cou&"e% Fee%
(his type of feed technique is also called as the electromagnetic coupling scheme. s
shown in 'igure -.@, two dielectric substrates are used such that the feed line is between the two
substrates and the radiating patch is on top of the upper substrate. (he main advantage of this
feed technique is that it eliminates spurious feed radiation and provides very high bandwidth (as
high as *CS! Q-R, due to overall increase in the thic"ness of the microstrip patch antenna. (his
scheme also provides choices between two different dielectric media, one for the patch and one
for the feed line to optimize the individual performances.
Figure #.4 Dro$imity)coupled 'eed
Matching can be achieved by controlling the length of the feed line and the width)to)line
ratio of the patch. (he maVor disadvantage of this feed scheme is that it is difficult to fabricate
because of the two dielectric layers which need proper alignment. lso, there is an increase in
the overall thic"ness of the antenna.
49
Ta7"e #.1 %haracteristics of the different feed techniques.
#.2 4et!o%s of Ana"ysis
(he preferred models for the analysis of Microstrip patch antennas are the transmission
line model, cavity model, and full wave model (which include primarily integral
equations/Moment Method!. (he transmission line model is the simplest of all and it gives good
physical insight but it is less accurate. (he cavity model is more accurate and gives good
physical insight but is comple$ in nature. (he full wave models are e$tremely accurate, versatile
and can treat single elements, finite and infinite arrays, stac"ed elements, arbitrary shaped
elements and coupling. (hese give less insight as compared to the two models mentioned above
and are far more comple$ in nature.
50
#.2.1 Ana"ytia" 4o%e"s
(here are many methods of analysis and are divided into two types)
*. Model ] :ased nalysis (echnique
5. 'ull ] #ave nalysis (echnique
(he various model ] based and full ] wave analysis techniques that have been used for the
analysis of the Microstrip ntenna are/
#ire .rid Model
%avity Model
Modal &ispersion Model
(ransmission Line Model
Integral <quation Method
Eector Dotential pproach
&yadic .reen4s 'unction (echnique
Aadiating perture Method
In .ire (ri% 4o%e" the antenna is modeled as a fine grid of wire segments. (he
currents on the wire segments are solved using the Aichmond4s reaction theorem to get all the
antenna characteristics of interest.
(he Ca*ity 4o%e" offers both simplicity and physical insight. In this model the antenna
is treated as a cavity whose fields are computed using the full model e$pansions. (he importance
of this model is that it includes the effects of non resonant modes.
(he 4o%a" E=&ansion 4et!o% is similar to cavity model but differs in impedance
boundary conditions that are imposed at the four radiating walls to obtain a solution. (hough the
method does not lead to an e$act solution, it provides a good insight into the physics of antenna.
(he Trans3ission 0ine 4o%e" considers the antenna as two radiating slots
perpendicular to the feed line of length L. (his model is easy to analyze due to its simplicity but
suffers from some disadvantages. (his model is limited to square and rectangular geometries.
51
(he Integra" e:uation 3et!o% is general method and can treat patches of arbitrary
shapes including those with thic" substrate. (he method requires considerable analytical and
computational efforts and provides little physical insight.
In ,etor Potentia" A&&roa!, the field produced by a horizontal electric dipole is
determined and the antenna characteristics are then evaluated by numerical techniques. (hough
the solution obtained is rigorous, it is less attractive due to lac" of closed form e$pressions.
In Dya%i (reenEs Funtion 4et!o% the characteristics of the micro strip antenna are
evaluated and the field from an arbitrary source distribution may be found by means of a super
position integral.
In Ra%iating a&erture 3et!o% the Eector hirchoff relation is used. (his method is
mathematically precise if the aperture fields are "nown e$actly.
(ransmission model is adapted in this wor" for the analysis of the rectangular microstrip
antennas and is e$plained in detail below.
#.2.2 Trans3ission 0ine 4o%e"
(his model represents the microstrip antenna by two slots of width W and height h,
separated by a transmission line of length L. (he microstrip is essentially a non)homogeneous
line of two dielectrics, typically the substrate and air. ,ence, as seen from 'igure 5.>, most of the
electric field lines reside in the substrate and parts of some lines in air.
Figure #.# Microstrip Line Figure #./ <lectric 'ield Lines
52
s a result, this transmission line cannot support pure transverse)electromagnetic ((<M!
mode of transmission, since the phase velocities would be different in the air and the substrate.
Instead, the dominant mode of propagation would be the quasi)(<M mode. ,ence, an effective
dielectric constant (Zreff! must be obtained in order to account for the fringing and the wave
propagation in the line. (he value of Zreff is slightly less then Zr because the fringing fields around
the periphery of the patch are not confined in the dielectric substrate but are also spread in the air
as shown in 'igure 5.> above. (he e$pression for Zreff is given by :alanis QBR/
#here Zreff I <ffective dielectric constant
Zr I &ielectric constant of substrate
h I ,eight of dielectric substrate
W I #idth of the patch
%onsider 'igure 5.B below, which shows a rectangular microstrip patch antenna of length
L, width W resting on a substrate of height h. (he co)ordinate a$is is selected such that the length
is along the $ direction, width is along the y direction and the height is along the z direction.
Figure #.1 Microstrip Datch ntenna
53
In order to operate in the fundamental +,*+ mode, the length of the patch must be slightly
less than _/5 where _ is the wavelength in the dielectric medium and is equal to _o/nZreff where
_o is the free space wavelength. (he +,*+ mode implies that the field varies one _/5 cycle along
the length, and there is no variation along the width of the patch. In the 'igure 5.*+ shown
below, the microstrip patch antenna is represented by two slots, separated by a transmission line
of length L and open circuited at both the ends. long the width of the patch, the voltage is
ma$imum and current is minimum due to the open ends. (he fields at the edges can be resolved
into normal and tangential components with respect to the ground plane.
Figure #.2 (op Eiew of ntenna Figure #.B Side Eiew of ntenna
It is seen from 'igure 5.** that the normal components of the electric field at the two
edges along the width are in opposite directions and thus out of phase since the patch is _/5 long
and hence they cancel each other in the broadside direction. (he tangential components (seen in
'igure 5.**!, which are in phase, means that the resulting fields combine to give ma$imum
radiated field normal to the surface of the structure. ,ence the edges along the width can be
represented as two radiating slots, which are _/5 apart and e$cited in phase and radiating in the
half space above the ground plane. (he fringing fields along the width can be modeled as
radiating slots and electrically the patch of the microstrip antenna loo"s greater than its physical
dimensions. (he dimensions of the patch along its length have now been e$tended on each end
by a distance cL, which is given empirically by ,ammerstad Q*R/
54
(he effective length of the patch is given by/
'or a given resonance frequency fo, the effective length is given by/
'or a rectangular Microstrip antenna, the resonant frequency for any +,mn is given by =ames
and ,all /
#hen m and n are modes along L and W respectively.
'or efficient radiation, the width is given by/
55
CHAPTER /
FA$RICATION PROCEDURE
/.1 FA$RICATION PROCEDURE
(he first step in the fabrication process is to generate the art wor" from drawings.
ccuracy is vital at this stage and depending on the comple$ity and dimensions of the antenna,
either full or enlarged scale artwor" should be prepared on Stabiline or Aubilith film. 0sing the
precision cutting blade of a manually operated coordinagraph, the opaque layer of the Stabiline
or Aubylith film is cut to the proper geometry and can be removed to produce either a positive or
negative representation of the Microstrip antenna. (he design dimensions and tolerances are
verified on a %orda$ measuring instruments using optical scanning.
<nlarged artwor" should be photo reduced using high precision camera to produce a high
resolution negative, which is later used for e$posing the photo resist. (he laminate should be
cleaned using the substrate manufacturer recommended procedure to insure proper adhesion of
the photo resist and the necessary resolution in the photo development process. (he photo resist
is now applied to both sides of the laminate using laminator. fterwards, the laminate is allowed
to stand to normalize to room temperature prior to e$posure and development.
(he photographic negative must be now held in very close contact with the polyethylene
cover sheet of the applied photo resist using a vaccum frame copy board or other technique, to
assure the fine line resolution required. #ith e$posure to theproper wavelength light, a
polymerization of the e$posed photo resist occurs, ma"ing it insoluble in the developer solution.
(he bac"side of the antenna is e$posed completely without a mas", since the copper foil is
retained to act as a ground plane.
(he protective polythene cover sheet of the photo resist is removed and the antenna is
now developed in a developer which removes the soluble photo resist material. Eisual inspection
is used to assure proper development. #hen these steps have been completed, the antenna is now
ready for etching. (his is a critical step and requires considerable care so the proper etch rates are
achieved.
56
fter etching, the e$cess photo resist is removed using a stripping solution. Eisual and
optical inspections should be carried out to insure a good product and to insure conformance
with dimensional tolerances, with final acceptance or reVection being based on resonant
frequency, radiation pattern and impedance measurement. 'or acceptable units the edges are
smoothened and the antenna is rinsed in water and dried.
If desired, a thermal cover bonding may be applied by placing a bonding film between
the laminates to be bonded and placing these between tooling plates. &owel pins can be used for
alignment and the assembly is then heated under pressure until the bond line temperature is
reached. (he assembly is allowed to cool under pressure below the melting point of the bonding
film and the laminate is then removed for inspection.(he above procedure comprises the general
steps necessary in producing a Microstrip antenna. (he substances used for the various processes
e$ample cleaning, etching, etc., are the tools used for machining, etc., depending on the substrate
chosen. Most manufacturers provide informative brochures on the appropriate choice of
chemicals, cleaners, etchants, etc., for their substrates.
Figure /.1 Dhotographic Oegative 0sed 'or 'abrication Drocedure
57
/.2 -TEP $5 -TEP DE-I(N PROCEDURE
58
DE-I(N
4A-TER DRA.IN(
A( #TAh Lo T0(
D,T(T A<&0%(ITO
O<.(IE< &<E<LTDM<O(
LMIO(< %L<OIO.
A<SIS( DDLI%(ITO
A<SIS( <pDTS0A<
A<SIS( &<E<LTDM<O(
<(%,IO.
:TO&IO.
'IOIS,IO.
IOSD<%(ITO
&<SI.O
MS(<A &A#IO.
Figure /.2 'low chart showing the fabrication process
59
IOSD<%(ITO
&rilling hole of diameter *.Cmm by
using precision drilling machine
STL&<AIO.
%hec"ing with ohm meter for the patch
a centre conductor continuity
Eisual inspection of solder point which
should be blister
CHAPTER 1
4EA-URE4ENT- F TE-TIN(
1.1 4E-URE4ENT-
(esting of antenna involves measurement of e"etria" and e"etro3agneti parameters.
E"etria" parameters involve measurement of Return "oss or ,-.R, I3&e%ane and
e"etro3agneti parameters involves the measurement of (ain and Ra%iation &attern. (hese
measurements have been carried out for the designed microstrip antenna.
Oetwor" nalyzer has been used to measure the return loss, ES#A and impedance
shown in figures X.* a X.5. Aadiation patterns and gain of the antenna at the designed frequency
are preferably done in an anechoic chamber which is e$plained in section *.5.
1.2 TE-TIN(
,ere is a description of some of the components used to test various antenna parameters
Aeturn Loss, ES#A, impedance measurements using Smith %hart has been obtained using the
Eector Oetwor" nalyzer. Aadiation Datterns can be obtained using the e$perimental set up
containing nechoic %hamber.
1.2.1 Net'or; Ana"y+er
(he testing of antenna is done using O-5C+ which is a (wo Dort Eector Oetwor"
nalyzer. (he ,D / gilent O-5C+ DO)L vector networ" analyzer provides the best
combination of speed and accuracy for measuring multi)port and balanced components such as
filters, duple$ers and A' modules up to 5+ .,z. vector analyzer provides simple and
complete vector networ" measurements in a compact, fully integrated A' networ". O-5C+
vector networ" analyzer offers built)in source, receiver and s)parameter test set covering
frequencies from *+ M,z to 5+ .,z.
(he O-5C+1s automatic port e$tension feature automatically measures and corrects for
fi$tures, ma"ing measurements of in)fi$ture devices simple and accurate. (he configurable test
60
set provides access to the signal path between the internal source and the analyzer1s test ports.
(his option provides the capability to improve instrument sensitivity for measuring low)level
signals, to reverse the directional coupler to achieve even more dynamic range or to add
components or other peripheral instruments for a variety of applications such as high)power
measurements. (he e$tended power range adds a ?+ d: step attenuator internally to the A'
source path. (his attenuator e$tends the source output power range to over >+ d:, allowing for
ma$imum fle$ibility when stimulating the device under test.
SD<%I'I%(ITOS T' O-5C+
%hannels / 5
'requency Aange / *+M,z to 5+.,z
'requency resolution / * ,z
&ynamic Aange / **+d:
Source Tutput / )C+d:m to 5+d:m
&isplay / Dolar, Aectangular, Smith %hart
1.2.2 E"e3ents of Net'or; Ana"y+er
Figure 1.1 MaVor elements of Oetwor" nalyzer
61
Oetwor" analyzer measurement system consists of four maVor parts/ a signal source
providing the incident signal, signal separation devices to separate the incident, reflected and
transmitted signals, a receiver to convert the microwave signals to a lower intermediate
frequency (I'! signal, and a signal processor and display section to process the I' signals and
display detected information. (he receiver performs the full S)parameters.
-igna" -oure9 (he signal source (A' or microwave! produces the incident signal used to
stimulate device under test (&0(!. (he &0( responds by reflecting part of the incident energy
and transmitting the remaining part. :y sweeping the frequency of the source the frequency
response of the device can be determined. 'requency range, frequency stability, signal purity and
output power level and level control are factors which may affect the accuracy of a measurement.
(he source used for networ" analyzer measurements is a synthesizer, which is characterized by
stable amplitude frequency and high frequency resolution (less than *++ ,z at microwave range!.
-igna" -e&aration9 (he ne$t step in the measurement process is to separate the incident,
reflected and transmitted signals. Tnce separated, their individual magnitude and/or phase
differences can be measured. (his can be accomplished through the use of wideband directional
couplers, bridges, power splitters.
directional coupler is a device that consists of two transmission lines that are
configured to couple energy to an au$iliary port if it goes through the main port in one direction
and not in the opposite direction. &irectional couplers usually have relatively low loss in the
mainline path and present little loss to the incident power. In a directional couple structure the
coupled arm samples a signal travelling in one direction only. (he coupled signal is at a reduced
level and the relative amount of reduced level is called the coupling factor. 'or instance a 5+ d:
directional coupler means that the coupled port power level is 5+ d: below the input, which is
equivalent to * percent of the incident power. (he remaining BB percent travels through the main
arm. (he other "ey characteristic of a directional coupler is directivity. &irectivity is defined as
the difference between a signal detected in the forward direction and the signal detected in the
reverse direction (isolation between the forward and reverse signals!.
62
(he two resistor power splitter is used to sample either the incident or transmitted signal.
(he input signal is split equally between the two arms, with the output signal (power! from each
arm being ? d: below the input. primary application of the power splitter is for producing a
measurement with a very good source match. If one side of the splitter output is ta"en to a
reference detector and the other side goes through the device under test to a transmission
detector, a ratio display of transmitted to incident has the effect of ma"ing the resistor in the
power splitter determine the equivalent source match of the measurement. Dower splitters are
very broadband, have e$cellent frequency response and present a good match at the test device
input requires a directional device. Separation of the incident and reflected signals can be
accomplished using either a dual directional coupler or Splitter.
Figure 1.2 'undamental and harmonic mi$ing receiver
Reei*er9 (he receiver provides the means for converting and detecting the A' or Microwave
signals to a lower I' or &% signal. (here are basically two receiver techniques used in networ"
analysis. (he receivers are broadband tuned receivers that use either a fundamental mi$ing or
harmonic mi$ing input structure to convert A' signal to a lower frequency I' signal. (he tuned
receivers provide a Oarrowband pass I' filter to reVect spurious signals and minimized the noise
floor of the receiver. (he vector measurement systems (tuned receivers! have the highest
dynamic ranges are less suspect from harmonic and spurious responses, they can measure phase
relationships of input signals and provide the ability to ma"e comple$ calibrations that lead to
more accurate measurements.
63
1.2.3 Front &ane" of a Net'or; Ana"y+er
Figure 1.3 Oetwor" nalyzer) 'ront panel tour
*. (he analyzer4s %A( display.
2. $egin6 (he :egin "ey simplifies measurement steps. (he :egin "ey allows quic" and
easy selection basic measurement parameters.
3. 4EA-6 (he measure "ey select the measurements for each channel. (he analyzer4s
measurement capabilities include transmission, reflection, power, conversion loss.
4. -OURCE6 (he source "eys select the desired source output signal to the device under
test, for e$ample, selecting source frequency or output power. (he source "eys also
control sweep time, number of points and sweep triggering.
5. CONFI(URE6 (he configure "eys control receiver display parameters. (hese
parameters include receiver bandwidth and averaging, display scaling and format, mar"er
functions, and instrument calibration.
6. -5-TE46 (he system "eys control level functions. (hese include instrument preset,
save/recall and hard output.
64
7. Nu3eria" ;ey&a%6 0se the number "eys to enter a specific number value for a chosen
parameter. 0se the ENTER "ey or the soft"eys to terminate the numeric entry with the
appropriate units.
8. -oft;eys6 Soft"eys are "eys whose labels are determined by the analyzer4s firmware. (he
labels are displayed on the screen ne$t to the > blan" "eys ne$t to the display screen o the
analyzer
1.2.4 Ref"etion 4easure3ent
(he return loss is the measure of power reflected and is related to the reflection
coefficient 3N4 given by
Aeturn Loss in d: I 5+ logqqrNr
(he relation between reflection coefficient and ES#A is given by
ES#A (S! I *^rNr *^rNr
Net'or; Ana"y+er Ca"i7ration9
n gilent O-5C+% vector networ" analyzer is employed in the present measurements.
:efore measuring the return loss of the antenna, the networ" analyzer should be calibrated as
e$plained below/
*. (he terminal at the test port at which the test antenna is to be mounted is short circuited.
Oow the power fed to the test port travels bac" through the short circuits so that there
will be no radiation at all. (he reflected power will be equal to the incident power and so
the reflection coefficient is equal to *, which in turn leads to a return loss of zero d:,
therefore, when the test port terminals are short circuited, we must get a zero d: line on
the display.
2. (he terminals at the test port are now open circuited. (he power fed to the test port
cannot be radiated because there is no load. So all the power reflects bac". (he reflection
coefficient is * and therefore leads to a return loss of + d:. ,ence when the terminals at
the test port are open circuited the screen should display a + d: line.
65
&uring short circuit of test port terminals the power reflects bac" with phase reversal.
&uring the open circuit the reflected power is in) phase with respect to the incident power. (hese
two settings are stored in memory and the setup is ready for practical measurements. (he antenna
is then connected at the test port and the observed plot is the return loss of the antenna. (he
percentage bandwidth at )*+d: return loss is
S :andwidth I (f--f1!/fr W *++
#here (f--f1! is the frequency band for which the return loss is less than *+ d:.
Ref"etion 4easure3ent
0nder Aeflection measurement we measure Aeturn Loss, ES#A and impedance.
*. Dress :egin, filter and Aeflection, the return loss of the antenna is displayed.
5. Dress freq and then start 5 .,z to 5.- .,z, scale, utoscale reflection coefficient in d:
as a function of frequency is displayed. oou can save and print the data observed.
3. Dress 'ormat, Line Mag, to get the absolute value of reflection coefficient as a function
of frequency is displayed.
-tan%ing .a*e Ratio an% I3&e%ane
*. Dress 'ormat, and S#A. (he S#A as a function of frequency is displayed. #e can save
and print the data.
2. Dress 'ormat, More format, Impedance Magnitude to get qqrs+ras a function of
frequency. Save and print the data.
3. Dress 'ormat and Smith %hart for getting display of the real and imaginary values of the
impedance of the impedance as a function of frequency. Set the start frequency to 5 .,z
and stop frequency to 5.- .,z, the impedance is about -+l4s in the passband and then
save and print the data.
66
(he results are shown below/
Figure 1.4 Dlot of Aeturn Loss measurement for resonant frequency
67
Figure 1.# Dlot of S#A for resonant frequency
68
Figure 1./ Dlot of Impedance on a Smith %hart
69
1.2.# RADIATION PATTERN 4EA-URE4ENT-
(he radiation patterns of an antenna are usually represented graphically by plotting the
electric field of the antenna as a function of direction. (his electric field strength is e$pressed as
volts per meter or normalized field in d:.
complete radiation pattern comprises the radiation for all the angles of and and
really requires three dimensional presentations. (his is quite complicated. 'or the practical
purposes, the pattern is measured in planes of interest. %ross sections in which the radiation
patterns are the most frequently ta"en are the horizontal ( IB+ degrees! and vertical
( Iconstant! planes. (hese are called the horizontal patterns and vertical patterns respectively.
(he terms commonly used are the <) plane and ,)plane and they are the planes passing through
the antenna in the direction of beam ma$imum and parallel to the far)field < and , vectors.
(hese patterns are "nown as the 3Drincipal Dlanes4 patterns. (he radiation patterns of the antenna
are measured with the scientific tlanta instrumentation in an anechoic chamber. (he
instrumentation consists of the following four maVor parts as shown in below figure.
1. (ransmitting System
5. Dositioning and %ontrolling System
C. Aeceiving System
@. Aecording System
Trans3itting -yste39
(he transmitting or source instrumentation consists primarily of the A' signal source and
associated transmitting antenna.
-igna" -oure9 (he model 5*-+ signal source provides A' power in the +.* to *> .,z
frequency range. (he control unit is located near the operator4s console. (he A' oscillators are
installed in the main frame assembly which is mounted near the source antenna.
70
-oure Antenna9 Several types of antennas designed especially for the antenna test range can be
used. (hese include standard gain horns, dipoles, parabolic reflector antennas, log periodic arrays
and circularly polarized antennas depending upon the requirement.
Positioning F Contro""ing -yste39
(he antenna to be tested is mounted on the turntable of the antenna test positioner. (he
speed and direction of the rotation of the test antenna can be controlled from the operator4s
console by a direct current motor. synchro transmitter is mechanically coupled to the
positioner turntable and electrically to a position indicator. (he antenna test positioner is
controlled by the series @*++ positioner control unit. <lectrical cables are used to supply power
from control system to test positioner.
In%iator syste39 position indicator allows remote angle read out of the test positioner. (he
synchro transmitter in the test positioner provides the position data to operate the position
indicator.
Reei*ing -yste39
(he antenna under test usually tested in the receive mode. (herefore a receiving or
detecting system must be connected to the test antenna to convert A' signals to a low frequency
signals which can drive the pen system of pattern recorder. (hus the antenna must receive an A'
signal i.e modulated with an audio signal. (he model 5*-+ signal source has an audio oscillator
as a standard feature. (he two types of detectors commonly used for ma"ing antenna
measurements are crystal detector and :olometer. Scientific tlanta antenna pattern recorders
will operate crystal detectors or :olometer detectors directly.
Antenna Pattern Reor%er9
(he radiation patterns of the antenna are recorded as relative amplitude and / or phase as
a function of the position (or angle!. (he synchro position data from the test positioner is
connected to the recorder4s chart servo system. (he resultant graph is a plot of the relative
amplitude of the received signal as a function of the antenna position (or angle!.
71
Dolarization positioner zimuth positioner
Figure 1.1 <$perimental Set 0p 'or Dlotting Aadiation Dattern
72
SI.OL
ST0A%<
Source
control
S 5*-+
Aemote
Dositioner
%ontrol 0nit
S @**+)*+
Dosition indicator
IO&I%(TA
Dosition
%ontrol
0nit S
@*++
Dattern
recorder
A<%<IE<A

O<%,TI% %,M:<A

Figure 1.2 nechoic chambers when enclosed
Figure 1.B nechoic %hamber
73
Figure 1.1A Dlot of Aadiation pattern in < and , plane
74
1.2./ (ain 4easure3ent
(he setup used for measurement of gain is the same as that used for radiation pattern
measurement given in figure (X.X!. (he gain of the antenna is measured by replacing the test
antenna with a standard antenna (horn antenna in this case! and ta"ing the pattern of the same.
(he gain is then calculated by comparing the power level differences of the test antenna with that
of the standard antenna.

Figure1.11 .ain Measurement
75
CHAPTER 2
-I4U0ATIN( THE 4ICRO -TRIP ANTENNA
2.1 PRO(RA4 IN 4AT0A$
2.1.14erits of Progra33ing
(he design of the microstrip antenna involves many lengthy and tedious calculations such
as width, length, feed locations, and dimensions of the feed. s these calculations are cumber
some and time consuming when done by hand a computer programming approach is adopted to
simplify the tas".
2.1.2 Progra3 to fin% .i%t!G 0engt! F Fee% Point
(he width and length of the micro strip antenna are to be calculated from the
corresponding equations as given in chapter @. (he ne$t parameter to be found is the feed point
location. In the proVect, the coa$ial type of feed is chosen to feed the antenna. (he impedance of
the feed is -+t. ,ence in the program the importance of the antenna is found at every point
along the length of the antenna according to the standard formulae given in the chapter @ and the
point of feed is hence found.
(hus the program in M(L: to find the length, width of the micro strip antenna and
also the feed location is given below. It ta"es the input as frequency of operation(.,z!, substrate
thic"ness (in cm! and dielectric constant.
2.1.3 4AT0A$ Progra3
erI@.@
frI5.5-eB
rinI-+
cICe**
hI*.?
llI+
ulIpi
iIpi/-
76
e+I>.>@*Be)+*5
m+I@JpiJ*e)X
sgmI-.>J*eX
ltI+.+++5
et+I*5+Jpi
vswrI5
S"oI5pi/lam
S#I&(, T' (,< O(<OO
wIc/(5Jfr!Jsqrt(5/(er^*!!
ereffI((er^*!/5!^((er)*!/5!J(sqrt(*/(*^(*5J(h/w!!!!!
lamIc/fr;
lamgIlam/sqrt(ereff!
SL<O.(, T' (,< O(<OO
uI(w/h!
dellI+.@*5JhJ(ereff^+.C!J(u^+.5?@!/((ereff)+.5->!J(u^>!!;
lI(lamg/5!)(5Jdell!
S'<<& DTIO( %L%0L(ITO
"+I5Jpi/lam
ansI+
for pIll/i/ul
fI(sin("+JwJcos(p!/5!/cos(p!!j5Jsin(p!jC
if pIIll
ansIans^f
else
ansIans^5Jf
end
end
sumIi/5Jans
glIsum/(*5+Jpij5!
ans*I+;
for $Ill/i/ul
77
f*I(sin("+Jw/5Jcos($!/cos($!!j5!
f5IbesselV(+,"+JlJsin($!!
fCIsin($!jC;
fIf*Jf5JfC;
if $IIll
ans*Ians*^f
elseif $IIul
ans*Ians*^f
else
ans*Ians*^5Jf
end
end
gl5I*/(*5+Jpij55!Ji/5Jans*
rinI*/(5J(gl^gl5!!
y+I*/piJcos(sqrt(-+/rin!!
feedpointI*/(5J(erj+.-!!
S:<M #I&(, %L%0L(ITO
:u,I5Jcos(sqrt(*/(5^"+Jw!!!J(*>+/pi!
:u<I5Jcos(sqrt(X.+C/(CJ"+j5Jwj5^("+Jh!j5!!!J(*>+/pi!
S&IA<%(IEI(o %L%0L(ITO
grI*/rin
dirI@J("+Jw!j5/(piJet+Jgr!
dirdbI*+Jlog*+(dir!
SA&I(ITO <''I%I<O%o
prCI*+J"+j5Jhj5J(l)l/er^(5/(-Jerj5!!!
$+Ilam/lamg
$*I$+j5)*
$5Ier)$+j5
psur*IC+JpiJ"+j5JerJ$*
psur5IerJ(*/sqrt($*!^sqrt($*!/$5!^"+JhJ(*^erj5J$*/$5!
psurCIpsur*/psur5
78
efficiencyIprC/(prC^psurC!
efficiencypIefficiencyJ*++
S.IO %L%0L(ITO
gainIefficiencyJdir
gaindbI*+Jlog*+(gain!
79
CHAPTER B
ANA05-I-G CONC0U-ION- F FUTURE -COPE
B.1 ANA05-I-
(his section deals with the comparing the measured values with the obtained values.
(hus we can analyze the differences between them. (he comparison is as follows/
ANTENNA
PARA4ETER-
4EA-URED O$TAINED
Length C*.@@ mm C5 mm
#idth @+.-X mm @* mm
(hic"ness *.? mm *.? mm
.ain -.B d: @.-> d:
:andwidth ?+ M,z -C M,z
:eam #idth ,) plane X?.-(degrees! >+(degrees!
:eam #idth <) Dlane **-.> (degrees! **+(degrees!
Ta7"e B.1 %omparison of Measured and Tbserved values
'rom the above we finally conclude that the measured values and the obtained values are
appro$imately equal. (hus this proVect has been carried out successfully. (he efficiency can be
improved by decreasing the dielectric constant of the material. 'or erospace vehicles smaller
bandwidth is required which have been seen in the Microstrip ntenna.
80
B.2 CONC0U-ION
rectangular micro strip antenna is designed using the appropriate design formulae and
is fabricated using the quic" fabrication procedure and is tested using the vector networ"
analyzer O-5+C. (he antenna design is wor"ed out at frequency 55-+M,z frequency. <ven
though the antenna is desired to operate at this frequency, when tested practically it is found that,
it is resonating at 5*-+M,z.
(he dielectric constant plays a maVor role in the overall performance of a patch antenna.
It affects both the width, in turn the characteristic impedance and the length resulting in an
altered resonant frequency. #e have used the fiber glass substrate but the permittivity (Zr! alters
from batch to batch some times even between different sheets of substrates. In addition 'AD)@
has a high loss tangent and is highly frequency dependent. (his has become an issue for A'I&
applications above >++M,z.
(he bandwidth of the patch antenna depends largely on the permittivity (Zr!and thic"ness
of the dielectric substrate. Ideally a thic" dielectric lower permittivity (Zr! low insertion loss is
preferred for broad band purpose.
'rom the result * observed that the beam width of the micro strip element can be
increased by choosing a smaller element, thus reducing # and L. 'or the given resonant
frequency these dimensions will be changed by selecting a substrate having a higher relative
permittivity. (he advantages of the micro strip antenna are that they are low cost, conformable,
light weight and low profile, while both linear and circular polarization is easily achieved. (hese
attributes are desirable when considering A'I& A&A systems.
(his antenna material is also ideal for antenna arrays. Longer ranges, larger areas, faster
assembly line speeds will all benefit from the focused energy and directionality available through
antenna array beam forming. (he print and etch process of printed circuit board is very
repeatable and highly cost effective. It eliminates the labor and the technician wor" required to
insure proper phase matching between elements. It also reduces energy requirements of the
system. (he reduced side lobe emissions reduce false alarms, reduce interference between other
antennas and minimize emission in unwanted directions.
81
B.3 FUTURE -COPE
(he thesis provides the complete overview of Aectangular Microstrip antenna and also provides
the necessary equations to design a rectangular Microstrip antenna and also provides the
fabrication process of a rectangular Microstrip antenna. (his also gives the necessary
information for choosing substrate and their properties for getting better results.
'uture challenges of a Microstrip antenna are/
:andwidth <$tension (echniques
%ontrol of Aadiation Datterns
Aeducing Losses / increasing efficiency
Improving feed networ"s
Size reduction techniques
(he band width can be increased as follows
:y increasing the thic"ness of the substrate
:y use of high dielectric constant of the substrate so that physical dimensions of the
parallel plate transmission line decreases.
:y increasing the inductance of the micro strip by cutting holes or slots in it.
:y adding reactive components to reduce the ES#A
In order to increase the directivity of the micro strip antennas multiple micro strip
radiators are used to cascade to form an array.
82
REFERENCE-
$oo;s
Q*R A. .arg, D. :hartia, I. :ahl, and . Ittipiboon, Microstrip ntenna &esign ,andboo",
rtech,ouse, 5++*.
Q5R h. '. Lee, <d., dvances in Microstrip and Drinted ntennas, =ohn #iley, *BBX.
QCR &. M. Dozar and &. ,. Schaubert, Microstrip ntennas/ (he nalysis and &esign of
Microstrip ntennas and rrays, I<<< Dress, *BB-.
Q@R '. <. .ardiol, 8:roadband Datch ntennas,9 rtech ,ouse.
Q-R S h :ehera, 8Oovel (uned Aectangular Datch ntenna s a Load for Dhase Dower
%ombining9 Dh.& (hesis, =adavpur 0niversity, hol"ata.
Q?R &. A. =ac"son and =. (. #illiams, 8 comparison of %& models for radiation from
rectangular microstrip patches,9 Intl. =ournal of Microwave and Millimeter)#ave %omputer
ided &esign, Eol. *, Oo. 5, pp. 5C?)5@>, pril *BB*.
QXR &. A. =ac"son, S. . Long, =. (. #illiams, and E. :. &avis, 8%omputer) aided design of
rectangular microstrip antennas9, ch. - of dvances in Microstrip and Drinted ntennas, h. '.
Lee, <ditor, =ohn #iley, *BBX.
Q>R &. M. Dozar, 8 reciprocity method of analysis for printed slot and slot) coupled microstrip
antennas,9 I<<< (rans. ntennas and Dropagation, vol. D)C@, pp. *@CB)*@@?, &ec. *B>?.
QBR %. . :alanis, 8ntenna (heory, nalysis and &esign,9 =ohn #iley a Sons, Oew oor",
*BBX.
Q*+R ,. Dues and Ean de %apelle, 8ccurate transmission)line model for the rectangular
microstrip antenna,9 Droc. I<<, vol. *C*, pt. ,, no. ?, pp. CC@)C@+, &ec. *B>@.
Q**R #. '. Aichards, o. (. Lo, and &. &. ,arrison, 8n improved theory of microstrip antennas
with applications,9 I<<< (rans. ntennas and Dropagation, vol. D)5B, pp, C>)@?, =an. *B>*.
83
.e7sites
1. http/// www.ecs.umass.edu/ece/pozar/aperture.pdf
2. http/// www.abasabs.hardvard.edu/abs/5++5lnph(.@C.CC-c
3. http/// www.mitre.org/wor"/techupapers
4. http/// www.wi"ipedia.com
5. http/// www.mentorg.com/seamless

84