now to kead a 8ook, v4.

0
aul n. Ldwards
School of lnformaLlon
unlverslLy of Mlchlgan
www.sl.omlcb.eJo/poe/
1bls ottlcle moy be fteely JlsttlboteJ fot ooy ooo-commetclol potpose,
ptovlJeJ tbot ootbloq ls oJJeJ ot temoveJ, locloJloq tbls copytlqbt ootlce.
commetclol ose of tbls motetlol ls exptessly ptoblblteJ .
Ooosl-petmooeot ukl. poe.people.sl.omlcb.eJo/lul/bowtoteoJ.pJf

CCkIGn1 2000-2008 AUL N. LDWAkDS. ALL kIGn1S kLSLkVLD.


lool N. JwotJs now to keoJ o 8ook 1



Pow can you learn Lhe mosL from a book - or any oLher plece of wrlLlng - when you're readlng
for lnformaLlon, raLher Lhan for pleasure?

lL's saLlsfylng Lo sLarL aL Lhe beglnnlng and read sLralghL Lhrough Lo Lhe end. Some books, such as
novels, bove Lo be read Lhls way, slnce a baslc prlnclple of flcLlon ls Lo hold Lhe reader ln
suspense. ?our whole purpose ln readlng flcLlon ls Lo follow Lhe wrlLer's lead, allowlng hlm or
her Lo spln a sLory blL by blL.

8uL many of Lhe books, arLlcles, and oLher documenLs you'll read durlng your undergraduaLe
and graduaLe years, and posslbly durlng Lhe resL of your professlonal llfe, won'L be novels.
lnsLead, Lhey'll be non-flcLlon: LexLbooks, manuals, [ournal arLlcles, hlsLorles, academlc sLudles,
and so on.

1he purpose of readlng Lhlngs llke Lhls ls Lo galn, and reLaln, lnformaLlon. Pere, flndlng ouL whaL
happens - as qulckly and easlly as posslble - ls your maln goal. So unless you're sLuck ln prlson
wlLh noLhlng else Lo do, nLvL8 read a non-flcLlon book or arLlcle from beglnnlng Lo end.

lnsLead, when you're readlng for lnformaLlon, you should ALWA?S [ump ahead, sklp around, and
use every avallable sLraLegy Lo d|scover, Lhen Lo understand, and flnally Lo remember whaL Lhe
wrlLer has Lo say. 1hls ls how you'll geL Lhe mosL ouL of a book ln Lhe smallesL amounL of Llme.

uslng Lhe meLhods descrlbed here, you should be able Lo read a 300-page book ln slx Lo elghL
hours. Cf course, Lhe more Llme you spend, Lhe more you'll learn and Lhe beLLer you'll
undersLand Lhe book. 8uL your Llme ls llmlLed.

Pere are some sLraLegles Lo help you do Lhls effecLlvely. MosL of Lhese can be applled noL only
Lo books, buL also Lo any oLher klnd of non-flcLlon readlng, from arLlcles Lo webslLes. 1able 1, on
Lhe nexL page, summarlzes Lhe Lechnlques, and Lhe followlng pages explaln Lhem ln more deLall.

lool N. JwotJs now to keoJ o 8ook 2
!"#$% '( )*++",- ./ ,%"0123 45,"5%31%4 "20 5%67218*%4

"#$%#&'(&) %*+ #&,-*(./&) 0%#(1*%2&
!"#$ &'" (')*" &'+,-
Ma[or argumenLs and evldence maLLer more Lhan deLalls.
Crasplng Lhe sLrucLure of Lhe whole ls more lmporLanL Lhan
readlng every word.
."/+$" ')( 01/' &+0" 2)1
(+** 34",$
8eal-world Llme ls llmlLed. lf you know exacLly how long you
can acLually spend on readlng, you can plan how much Llme
Lo devoLe Lo each lLem.
5#6" # 4174)3" #,$ #
3&7#&"-2
?ou'll en[oy readlng more, and remember lL beLLer, lf you
know exacLly why you're readlng.
!"#$ #/&+6"*2
never rely on Lhe auLhor's sLrucLures alone. Move around ln
Lhe LexL, followlng your own goals.
!"#$ +& &'7"" &+0"3
llrsL Llme for overvlew and dlscovery. Second Llme for
deLall and undersLandlng. 1hlrd Llme for noLe-Laklng ln your
own words.
8)/13 ), 4#7&3 (+&' '+-'
+,9)70#&+), /),&",&
1ables of conLenLs, plcLures, charLs, headlngs, and oLher
elemenLs conLaln more lnformaLlon Lhan body LexL.
:3" ;<=> ?4"73),#* &"@&
0#7A14 *#,-1#-"B
Mark up your readlng wlLh your own noLes. 1hls helps you
learn and also helps you flnd lmporLanL passages laLer.
C,)( &'" #1&')7?3B #,$
)7-#,+D#&+),3
AuLhors are people wlLh backgrounds and blases. 1hey
work ln organlzaLlons LhaL glve Lhem conLexL and depLh.
C,)( &'" +,&"**"/&1#*
/),&"@&
MosL academlc wrlLlng ls parL of an ongolng lnLellecLual
conversaLlon, wlLh debaLes, key flgures, and paradlgmaLlc
concepLs.
:3" 2)17 1,/),3/+)13 0+,$
Leave Llme beLween readlng sesslons for your mlnd Lo
process Lhe maLerlal.
!"'"#73"E #,$ 13" 01*&+4*"
0)$"3
1alklng, vlsuallzlng, or wrlLlng abouL whaL you've read helps
you remember lL.



lool N. JwotJs now to keoJ o 8ook 3
9%"0 57% :7.$% 57123;

ln readlng Lo learn, your goal should always be Lo geL all Lhe way Lhrough Lhe asslgnmenL.
lL's much more lmporLanL Lo have a general grasp of Lhe argumenLs or hypoLheses,
evldence, and concluslons Lhan Lo undersLand every deLall. ln facL, no maLLer how carefully
you read, you won'L remember mosL of Lhe deLalls anyway.

WhaL you can do ls remember ooJ tecotJ Lhe maln polnLs. And lf you remember Lhose, you
know enough Lo flnd Lhe maLerlal agaln lf you ever do need Lo recall Lhe deLalls.

<%610% 7.: +*67 51+% -.* :1$$ 4=%20

lf you know ln advance LhaL you have only slx hours Lo read, lL'll be easler Lo pace yourself.
8emember, you're golng Lo read Lhe whole book (or Lhe whole asslgnmenL).

ln facL, Lhe more dlrecLly and reallsLlcally you confronL your llmlLs, Lhe more effecLlve you
wlll be aL pracLlcally everyLhlng. SeLLlng Llme llmlLs and keeplng Lo Lhem (whlle
accompllshlng your goals) ls one of Lhe mosL lmporLanL llfe skllls you can learn. So never
sLarL Lo read wlLhouL plannlng when Lo sLop.

>"?% " =*,=.4% "20 " 45,"5%3-

8efore you begln, flgure ouL why you are readlng Lhls parLlcular book, and how you are
golng Lo read lL. lf you don'L have reasons and sLraLegles of your own - noL [usL Lhose of
your Leacher - you won'L learn as much.

As soon as you sLarL Lo read, begln Lrylng Lo flnd ouL four Lhlngs:

- Who ls Lhe auLhor?
- WhaL are Lhe book's argumenLs?
- WhaL ls Lhe evldence LhaL supporLs Lhese?
- WhaL are Lhe book's concluslons?

Cnce you've goL a grlp on Lhese, sLarL Lrylng Lo deLermlne:

- WhaL are Lhe weaknesses of Lhese argumenLs, evldence, and concluslons?
- WhaL do you Lhlnk abouL Lhe argumenLs, evldence, and concluslons?
- Pow does (or how could) Lhe auLhor respond Lo Lhese weaknesses, and Lo
your own crlLlclsms?

keep comlng back Lo Lhese quesLlons as you read. 8y Lhe Llme you flnlsh, you should be able
Lo answer Lhem all. 1hree good ways Lo Lhlnk abouL Lhls are:

a) lmaglne LhaL you're golng Lo revlew Lhe book for a magazlne.
b) lmaglne LhaL you're havlng a conversaLlon, or a formal debaLe, wlLh Lhe
auLhor.

lool N. JwotJs now to keoJ o 8ook 4
c) lmaglne an examlnaLlon on Lhe book. WhaL would Lhe quesLlons be, and how
would you answer Lhem?

9%"0 "651?%$-

uon'L walL for Lhe auLhor Lo hammer you over Lhe head. lnsLead, from Lhe very beglnnlng,
consLanLly generaLe hypoLheses (Lhe maln polnL of Lhe book ls LhaL...") and quesLlons
(Pow does Lhe auLhor know LhaL...?") abouL Lhe book.

Maklng brlef noLes abouL Lhese can help. As you read, Lry Lo conflrm your hypoLheses and
answer your quesLlons. Cnce you flnlsh, revlew Lhese.

9%"0 15 57,%% 51+%4

1h|s |s the key techn|que. ?ou'll geL Lhe mosL ouL of Lhe book lf you read lL Lhree Llmes -
each Llme for a dlfferenL purpose.

a) Cverv|ew: d|scovery (S-10 percent of tota| t|me)

Pere you read very qulckly, followlng Lhe prlnclple (descrlbed below) of
readlng for hlgh lnformaLlon conLenL. ?our goal ls Lo d|scover Lhe book. ?ou
wanL a qulck-and-dlrLy, unsophlsLlcaLed, general plcLure of Lhe wrlLer's
purpose, meLhods, and concluslons.

Mark - wltboot teoJloq cotefolly - headlngs, passages, and phrases LhaL
seem lmporLanL (you'll read Lhese more closely Lhe second Llme around.)
CeneraLe quesLlons Lo answer on your second readlng: whaL does Lerm or
phrase x mean? Why doesn'L Lhe auLhor cover sub[ecL ?? Who ls Z?

b) Deta||: understand|ng (60-70 percent of tota| t|me)

WlLhln your Llme consLralnLs, read Lhe book a second Llme. 1hls Llme, your
goal ls undersLandlng: Lo geL a careful, crlLlcal, LhoughLful grasp of Lhe key
polnLs, and Lo evaluaLe Lhe auLhor's evldence for hls/her polnLs.

locus especlally on Lhe beglnnlngs and ends of chapLers and ma[or secLlons.
ay speclal aLLenLlon Lo Lhe passages you marked on Lhe flrsL round. 1ry Lo
answer any quesLlons you generaLed on Lhe flrsL round.

c) Notes: reca|| and note-tak|ng (20-30 percent of tota| t|me)

1he purpose of your Lhlrd and flnal readlng ls Lo commlL Lo memory Lhe
mosL lmporLanL elemenLs of Lhe book. 1hls Llme, make brlef noLes abouL Lhe
argumenLs, evldence, and concluslons. 1bls ls oot ot oll tbe some tbloq os
text motkop, your goal here ls Lo process Lhe maLerlal by LranslaLlng lnLo
your own menLal framework, whlch means uslng your own words as much
as posslble. CuLLlng and pasLlng segmenLs of LexL from Lhe book wlll noL do

lool N. JwotJs now to keoJ o 8ook 3
as much for you as summarlzlng very brlefly ln your own words. lnclude Lhe
bare mlnlmum of deLall Lo leL you remember and re-locaLe Lhe mosL
lmporLanL Lhlngs. 3-3 pages of noLes per 100 pages of LexL ls a good goal Lo
shooL for, more Lhan LhaL ls ofLen Loo much. use some sysLem LhaL leLs you
easlly flnd places ln Lhe book (e.g., sLarL each noLe wlLh a page number.)

noLebooks, Lyped pages, handwrlLLen sheeLs Lucked lnLo Lhe book, can all
work. Powever, noLes wlll be useless unless you can easlly flnd Lhem agaln.
A very good sysLem - Lhe one l use - ls Lo Lype noLes dlrecLly lnLo
bllblography enLrles uslng sofLware such as LndnoLe or 8ookends (for Mac).
1hls way Lhe noLes and Lhe clLaLlon lnformaLlon always remaln LogeLher,
over Llme you accumulaLe a llbrary of noLes you can easlly consulL, even
when away from your paper flles. ?ou can also keep u8Ls and uls ln Lhese
programs.

Cn t|me and t|m|ng. llrsL, because human aLLenLlon fades afLer abouL an hour, you'll geL
more ouL of Lhree one-hour readlngs Lhan you could ever geL ouL of one Lhree-hour readlng.
8uL be careful: Lo geL one full hour of effecLlve readlng, you need Lo seL aslde aL leasL one
hour and flfLeen mlnuLes, slnce dlsLracLlon ls lnevlLable aL Lhe beglnnlng (seLLllng ln) and end
(re-arousal for your nexL Lask) of any readlng perlod.

Second, make a reallsLlc plan LhaL lncludes how much Llme you wlll devoLe Lo each of Lhe
Lhree sLages. lor a 230-page book, l mlghL spend 13 mlnuLes on overvlew, 4 hours on
deLalled readlng, and 1 hour on Laklng noLes, buL l'd ad[usL Lhese perlods up or down
dependlng on how dlfflculL Lhe LexL ls, how lmporLanL lL ls Lo me, and how much Llme l have.

@.6*4 .2 57% =",54 :157 7137 12/.,+"51.2 6.25%25

non-flcLlon books very ofLen have an hourglass" sLrucLure LhaL ls repeaLed aL several levels
of organlzaLlon. More general (broader) lnformaLlon ls Lyplcally presenLed aL Lhe beglnnlngs
and ends of:

- Lhe book or arLlcle as a whole (absLracL, lnLroducLlon, concluslon)
- each chapLer
- each secLlon wlLhln a chapLer
- each paragraph

More speclflc (narrower) lnformaLlon (supporLlng evldence, deLalls, eLc.) Lhen appears ln Lhe
mlddle of Lhe hourglass.



lool N. JwotJs now to keoJ o 8ook 6
General
General
Specific



3-& 41/$'2%)) 5*61$7%#(1* "#$/,#/$&

Cnce you know Lhls, you can make Lhe sLrucLure work for you. locus on Lhe followlng
elemenLs, ln more or less Lhe followlng order:

- Cover
- 1ab|e of contents
- Index: scan Lhls Lo see whlch are Lhe mosL lmporLanL Lerms
- 8|b||ography: Lells you abouL Lhe book's sources and lnLellecLual conLexL
- reface and/or Introduct|on and/or Abstract
- Conc|us|on
- |ctures, graphs, tab|es, f|gures: lmages conLaln more lnformaLlon Lhan LexL
- Sect|on head|ngs: help you undersLand Lhe book's sLrucLure
- Spec|a| type or formatt|ng: boldface, lLallcs, numbered lLems, llsLs

A4% B!CD E=%,4.2"$ 5%F5 +",G*= $"23*"3%H

Always mark up your readlng. underllnlng and maklng noLes ln Lhe marglns ls a very
lmporLanL parL of acLlve readlng. uo Lhls from Lhe very beglnnlng - even on your flrsL,
overvlew readlng. When you come back Lo Lhe book laLer, your marks reduce Lhe amounL
you have Lo look aL and help you see whaL's mosL slgnlflcanL.

Don't mark too much. 1hls defeaLs Lhe purpose of markup, when you consulL your noLes
laLer, lL wlll force you Lo re-read unlmporLanL lnformaLlon. As a rule, you should average no
more Lhan Lwo or Lhree shorL marks per page. 8aLher Lhan underllne whole senLences,
underllne words or shorL phrases LhaL capLure whaL you mosL need Lo remember. 1he
whole polnL of Lhls exerclse ls Lo dlsLlll, reduce, ellmlnaLe Lhe unnecessary. WrlLe words and

lool N. JwotJs now to keoJ o 8ook 7
phrases ln Lhe marglns LhaL Lell you whaL paragraphs or secLlons are abouL. use your own
words.

B"3% ?4( 46,%%2

rlnLed maLerlal has far hlgher resoluLlon (~600 dpl) Lhan even Lhe besL compuLer screens
(~72 dpl). lor Lhls reason you wlll read more accuraLely, and wlLh less faLlgue, lf you sLlck
wlLh Lhe paper verslon. SLlll, Lhe advanLages of porLablllLy and hlgh-volume sLorage mean
LhaL we lnevlLably read much more screen-based maLerlal now.


Figure 1. 300 dpi (left) vs. 600 dpi.

Us|ng 1ML on the screen: lL ls sLlll qulLe dlfflculL Lo mark up screen-based maLerlals
effecLlvely, Lhe exLra sLeps lnvolved are ofLen dlsLracLlng, as ls Lhe LempLaLlon Lo lnLerrupL
readlng Lo check emall or web-surf. Powever, lf you're dlsclpllned, Lhe mosL recenL verslons
of Adobe AcrobaL, Apple revlew, and a few shareware ul handlers such as ulpen allow
you Lo add commenLs and hlghllghLlng Lo uls. lf you don'L wanL Lo resorL Lo prlnLlng
everyLhlng, l suggesL lnvesLlng ln Lhe (expenslve) AcrobaL sofLware, buL even LhaL ls far from
perfecL. lor example, even AcrobaL sLlll (2008) wlll noL allow you Lo prlnL your marked-up
LexL ln any really usable way.

lL remalns far easler Lo mark up a prlnLed copy. An awkward buL workable soluLlon mlghL be
Lo prlnL, mark up Lhe LexL, Lhen scan lL back ln.

Note-tak|ng on the screen: When Laklng noLes abouL someLhlng you're readlng (as opposed
Lo marklng up Lhe LexL), you'll be LempLed Lo cuL and pasLe Lhe orlglnal LexL ln lleu of maklng
your own noLes ln your own words. CuL-and-pasLe coo someLlmes work well, especlally for
Lhlngs you mlghL wanL Lo quoLe laLer. nowever: ln general lL defeaLs Lhe Lwo maln purposes
of noLe-Laklng: (a) learnlng and rememberlng (by rephraslng ln your own Lerms), and (b)
condenslng lnLo a very shorL form. 1he same ls Lrue of hyperllnks: Lhough useful for keeplng
Lrack of sources, keeplng a u8L wlll noL by ltself help you remember or undersLand whaL's
Lhere, even Lhough lL may feel LhaL way.


lool N. JwotJs now to keoJ o 8ook 8
I2.: 57% "*57.,E4H "20 .,3"21J"51.24

knowlng who wroLe a book helps you [udge lLs quallLy and undersLand lLs full slgnlflcance.

AuLhors are people. Llke anyone else, Lhelr vlews are shaped by Lhelr educaLlons, Lhelr [obs,
Lhelr early llves, and Lhe resL of Lhelr experlences. Also llke anyone else, Lhey have
pre[udlces, bllnd spoLs, desperaLe momenLs, falllngs, and deslres - as well as lnslghLs,
brllllance, ob[ecLlvlLy, and successes. noLlce all of lL.

MosL auLhors belong Lo organlzaLlons: unlverslLles, corporaLlons, governmenLs, newspapers,
magazlnes. 1hese organlzaLlons each have culLures, hlerarchles of power, and soclal norms.
CrganlzaLlons shape boLh how a work ls wrlLLen and Lhe conLenL of whaL lL says. lor
example, unlverslLy professors are expecLed Lo wrlLe books and/or [ournal arLlcles ln order
Lo geL Lenure. 1hese pleces of wrlLlng musL meeL cerLaln sLandards of quallLy, deflned chlefly
by oLher professors, for Lhem, conLenL usually maLLers more Lhan good wrlLlng. !ournallsLs,
by conLrasL, are ofLen drlven by deadllnes and Lhe need Lo please large audlences. 8ecause
of Lhls, Lhelr sLandards of quallLy are ofLen dlrecLed more Loward clear and engaglng wrlLlng
Lhan Loward unlmpeachable conLenL, Lhelr sources are usually oral raLher Lhan wrlLLen.

1he more you know abouL Lhe auLhor and hls/her organlzaLlon, Lhe beLLer you wlll be able
Lo evaluaLe whaL you read. 1ry Lo answer quesLlons llke Lhese: WhaL shaped Lhe auLhor's
lnLellecLual perspecLlve? WhaL ls hls or her professlon? ls Lhe auLhor an academlc, a
[ournallsL, a professlonal (docLor, lawyer, lndusLrlal sclenLlsL, eLc.)? LxperLlse? CLher books
and arLlcles? lnLellecLual neLwork(s)? Cender? 8ace? Class? ollLlcal afflllaLlon? Why dld Lhe
auLhor declde Lo wrlLe Lhls book? When? lor whaL audlence(s)? Who pald for Lhe research
work (prlvaLe foundaLlons, governmenL granL agencles, lndusLrlal sponsors, eLc.)? Who
wroLe [ackeL blurbs" ln supporL of Lhe book?

?ou can ofLen (Lhough noL always) learn abouL much of Lhls from Lhe acknowledgmenLs, Lhe
blbllography, and Lhe auLhor's blographlcal sLaLemenL.

I2.: 57% 125%$$%65*"$ 6.25%F5

knowlng Lhe auLhor and hls/her organlzaLlon also helps you undersLand Lhe book's
lnLellecLual conLexL. 1hls lncludes Lhe academlc dlsclpllne(s) from whlch lL draws, schools of
LhoughL wlLhln LhaL dlsclpllne, and oLhers who agree wlLh or oppose Lhe auLhor's vlewpolnL.

A book ls almosL always parLly a response Lo oLher wrlLers, so you'll undersLand a book
much beLLer lf you can flgure ouL whaL, and whom, lL ls ooswetloq. ay speclal aLLenLlon Lo
polnLs where Lhe auLhor Lells you dlrecLly LhaL s/he ls dlsagreelng wlLh oLhers:
ConvenLlonal wlsdom holds LhaL x, buL l argue lnsLead LhaL y." (ls x really convenLlonal
wlsdom? Among whaL group of people?) lamous !ane Scholar says LhaL x, buL l wlll show
LhaL y." (Who's lamous !ane, and why do oLher people belleve her? Pow plauslble are x and
y? ls Lhe auLhor sLralnlng Lo flnd someLhlng orlglnal Lo say, or has s/he genulnely convlnced
you LhaL lamous !ane ls wrong?) Lqually lmporLanL are Lhe people and wrlLlngs Lhe auLhor
clLes ln supporL of hls/her argumenLs.


lool N. JwotJs now to keoJ o 8ook 9
A4% -.*, *26.2461.*4 +120

An awful loL of Lhlnklng and menLal processlng goes on when you're noL aware of lL. !usL as
wlLh wrlLlng or any oLher creaLlve LhoughL process, full undersLandlng of a book Lakes Llme
Lo develop.

Llke Lhe body, Lhe mlnd suffers from faLlgure when dolng [usL one Lhlng for many hours.
?our ablllLy Lo comprehend and reLaln whaL you read drops off dramaLlcally afLer an hour or
so. 1betefote, yoo sboolJ teoJ o book lo sevetol sbott sessloos of ooe to two boots oplece,
totbet tboo ooe looq mototboo.

ln beLween, your unconsclous mlnd wlll process some of whaL you've read. When you come
back for Lhe nexL sesslon, sLarL by asklng yourself whaL you remember from your prevlous
readlng, whaL you Lhlnk of lL so far, and whaL you sLlll need Lo learn.

9%7%",4%K "20 *4% +*$51=$% +.0%4

8eadlng ls exacLly llke marLlal arLs, baseball, or cooklng ln Lhe sense LhaL |earn|ng and
memory depend cruc|a||y on rehearsa|.

So - afLer you've read Lhe book, rehearse whaL you've learned. Culz yourself on lLs
conLenLs. Argue wlLh Lhe auLhor. lmaglne how you would defend Lhe auLhor's poslLlon ln
your own wrlLlng.

8eadlng, wrlLlng, speaklng, llsLenlng, and vlsuallzlng all engage dlfferenL parLs of Lhe braln.
lor Lhls reason, Lhe besL forms of rehearsal use mu|t|p|e modes of Lhlnklng and acLlon.
uon'L [usL conLemplaLe prlvaLely. lnsLead, Lalk abouL Lhe book wlLh oLhers. 8rlng lL up ln
classes. WrlLe abouL lL. vlsuallze anyLhlng LhaL can be vlsuallzed abouL lLs conLenLs. All of Lhls
helps flx your memory and lnLegraLe your new learnlng lnLo Lhe resL of your knowledge.


5#,- +, &'"7"F

When l glve presenLaLlons on Lhese ldeas, sLudenLs ofLen Lell me a few weeks laLer LhaL Lhey
Lrled lL a few Llmes and [usL couldn'L do lL," so Lhey sLopped. ou w||| have to pract|ce
Lhese Lechnlques for a conslderable lengLh of Llme - aL leasL a few monLhs - before Lhey
come Lo seem naLural, and Lhey wlll never be easler Lhan Lhe comforLable, passlve way
we've all been readlng for many years.

8uL hang ln Lhere. 1he rewards of Lhese Lechnlques are greaL. Learnlng Lo read llke Lhls can
be key Lo a successful career as a sLudenL, scholar, or professlonal ln almosL any fleld.