ANALOGUE

- I



PRINCIPLES - II
IN THIS SESSION , YOU WILL
LEARN
COMPARISON OF PHASE MODULATION AND
FREQUENCY MODULATION
FM SIGNAL IN TIME AND FREQ DOMAINS
NOISE CONSIDERATIONS IN FM
PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE-EMPHASIS
CAPTURE EFFECT
THRESHOLD EFFECT
NARROWBAND AND WIDEBAND FM
ADVANTAGES OF FM OVER AM
AMPLITUDE LIMITERS

TYPES OF ANGLE MODULATION
ANGLE MODULATION IS OF TWO TYPES :
1. FREQUENCY MODULATION
2. PHASE MODULATION
THESE TWO TYPES ARE INTERDEPENDENT i. e . IF
WE DO FREQUENCY MODULATION , INDIRECTLY
PHASE MODULATION TAKES PLACE AND VICE
VERSA .

COMPARISON OF FM AND PM
WAVEFORMS

COMPARISON OF FM AND PM SIGNAL
WAVEFORMS IS SHOWN
FM AND PM WAVEFORMS ARE IDENTICAL
EXCEPT FOR THEIR TIME (PHASE )
RELATIONSHIP
IN FM , MAX FREQ DEVIATION OCCURS
DURING +VE AND VE PEAKS OF
MODULATING SIGNAL
IN PM , IT HAPPENS DURING ZERO
CROSSINGS OF MODULATING SIGNAL
BECAUSE FREQ DEV IS PROPORTIONAL TO
FIRST DERIVATIVE ( SLOPE ) OF
MODULATING SIGNAL

COMPARISON OF FM AND PM SIGNALS
FM WAVE
PM WAVE
MODULATING SIGNAL
FREQUENCY MODULATION
PROCESS OF VARYING THE INSTANTANEOUS
FREQUENCY OF A CARRIER ACCORDING TO
THE AMPLITUDE OF THE MODULATING
SIGNAL
WAVEFORM OF FM SIGNAL IS SHOWN IN FIG
1
TOTAL FREQUENCY DEVIATION ALLOWED
RADIO BROADCASTING -------- +/- 75 kHz
TV SOUND -------- +/- 50 kHz
TOTAL FREQ SWING = 150 kHz

Fig 1. FM SIGNAL WAVEFORM
FM SIGNAL IN TIME
DOMAIN
FM SIGNAL WHEN SEEN ON A CRO WILL
LOOK LIKE FIG 1
AMPLITUDE REMAINS CONSTANT BUT
FREQUENCY VARIES ACCORDING TO THE
AMPLITUDE OF MODULATING SIGNAL
NO EXTERNAL ENERGY IS REQUIRED TO BE
FED TO THE SYSTEM WITH INCREASING
MODULATION .
TOTAL POWER OF THE SIGNAL REMAINS
THE SAME WITH OR WITHOUT
MODULATION
A BIG ADVANTAGE OF FM OVER AM



FM SIGNAL IN FREQUENCY
DOMAIN
MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS OF FM SIGNAL SHOWS
THAT IN FREQUENCY DOMAIN , THE NUMBER OF
SIDEBANDS ARE INFINITE .
ANALYSIS IS DONE WITH THE HELP OF BESSEL
FUNCTIONS TO GET AN INFINITE SERIES .
SIDEBANDS ARE EQUALLY SPACED WITH SPACING
EQUAL TO THE MODULATING SIGNAL FREQUENCY .
BESSEL CURVES ARE SHOWN IN FIG 2
VALUES OF BESSEL FUNCTIONS J0 , J1 ETC FOR
MODULATION INDEX OF 5 ARE PLOTTED IN
FIG 3

FM SIGNAL IN FREQUENCY
DOMAIN(CONTD)
IT IS CLEAR THAT THE AMPLITUDE OF SIDEBAND
PAIR DECREASES FOR PAIRS OF ORDER GREATER
THEN 5
AMPLITUDE BECOMES LESS THAN 1% OF THE
UNMODULATED CARRIER AMPLITUDE BEYOND THE
8TH SIDEBAND PAIR.
A TYPICAL FREQUENCY SPECTRUM OF FM SIGNAL
FOR MODULATION INDEX OF 5 IS SHOWN IN FIG 4

FIG 2 . BESSEL FUNCTIONS J
0
TO J
8
FIG 3 AMPLITUDES OF CARRIER AND SIDEBAND PAIRS FOR
A MODULATION INDEX OF 5 .

J
0
(5) J
3
(5) J
6
(5) J
9
(5)
+0.5
0
-0.5
ORDER OF SIDEBAND PAIR
A
M
P
L
I
T
U
D
E

O
F

C
A
R
R
I
E
R

&

S
I
D
E
B
A
N
D

P
A
I
R
S

FIG 4. TYPICAL SPECTRUM OF FM WAVE FOR
MODULATION INDEX OF 5

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0.5
ORDER OF SIDEBAND PAIR
A
M
P
L
I
T
U
D
E

O
F

C
A
R
R
I
E
R

&

S
I
D
E
B
A
N
D

P
A
I
R
S

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
m
f
= 5 CARRIER
SIDEBAND POWER
IN FM SIGNAL, THE CARRIER POWER DIMINISHES
DURING MODULATION
IT IS POSSIBLE FOR ONE OR MORE SIDEBANDS TO
CONTAIN MORE POWER THAN THE CARRIER.
POWER WITHDRAWN FROM THE CARRIER DURING
MODULATION IS DISTRIBUTED AMONG THE
VARIOUS SIDEBANDS.
IT IS THEREFORE, POSSIBLE FOR THE CARRIER,
DURING ONE OF THESE MODULATION SWEEPS, TO
CONTAIN NO ENERGY AT ALL.
THIS IS QUITE LOGICAL BECAUSE THE FM SIGNAL
DOES NOT VARY IN AMPLITUDE.
POWER TRANSFER IS A CHARACTERISTIC OF
FREQUENCY MODULATION.
SIDEBAND POWER (CONTD )
WHEN THE INTENSITY OF AUDIO SIGNAL IS
INCREASED , TOTAL NUMBER OF SIDEBANDS ALSO
INCREASES
THE ENERGY OF THE FM WAVE IS SHIFTED AWAY
FROM THE CARRIER WITH EVERY SIDEBAND AND
THE CARRIER IS AFFECTED.
THUS, ENERGY IS TAKEN BY SOME AND GIVEN UP
BY OTHERS.
THE TOTAL ENERGY UNDER ALL CONDITIONS
REMAINS CONSTANT.

NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT SIDEBANDS
THE NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT SIDEBANDS
CORRESPONDING TO SOME OF THE COMMON
VALUES OF MODULATION INDEX IS GIVEN IN TABLE
1
WITH AN INDEX OF 5, THERE ARE 8 IMPORTANT
SIDEBANDS ON EACH SIDE OF THE CARRIER
WITH AN INDEX OF 7, THE SIDEBANDS INCREASE TO
10.
Modulation
Index
Number of significant
sidebands
Bandwidth Required
(fm = frequency of audio
signal)
Above carrier Below carrier
0.1 1 1 2 fm
0.4 1 1 2 fm
0.5 2 2 4 fm
1.0 3 3 6 fm
2.0 4 4 8 fm
3.0 6 6 12 fm
4.0 7 7 14 fm
5.0 8 8 16 fm
6.0 9 9 18 fm
7.0 10 10 20 fm
TABLE 1 . NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT SIDEBANDS AND
BANDWIDTH FOR DIFFERENT MODULATION
INDICES
WHEN MODULATION INDEX IS OF
THE ORDER OF 0.5 OR LESS, ONLY TWO
SIDEBANDS ARE FORMED
THIS IS SIMILAR TO AM CASE WITH
ONE MODULATING FREQUENCY AND
IS CALLED NARROWBAND FM ( USED
IN POINT TO POINT SPEECH
COMMUNICATION )
IF MODULATION INDEX IS MORE
THAN 0.5 , IT IS CALLED WIDEBAND
FM
( USED IN BROADCASTING ).


NARROWBAND AND
WIDEBAND FM
BANDWIDTH OF FM SIGNAL
IF THE NUMBER OF SIDEBANDS IS INFINITE , A
QUESTION ARISES AS TO HOW MUCH BANDWIDTH
WILL BE REQUIRED TO ACCOMMODATE AN FM
SIGNAL ? WILL IT ALSO BE INFINITE ?
THEORETICALLY , THE BANDWIDTH REQUIRED IS
INFINITE
BUT SINCE THE NUMBER OF SIGNIFICANT
SIDEBANDS IS ABOUT 8 OR 9 ( THESE SIDEBANDS
CONTAIN 98 % OF THE TOTAL POWER ) , THE BAND
WIDTH REQUIRED BECOMES FINITE .
CARSONS RULE FOR BANDWIDTH
BANDWIDTH = 2 ( MAX FREQ DEVIATION +
HIGHEST MODULATING FREQ )
= 2 ( f + f
m
)
BANDWIDTH OF FM SIGNAL ( CONTD )
SIGNAL BANDWIDTH
SINCE IN FM RADIO BROADCASTING , FREQ
DEVIATION IS 75 kHz AND HIGHEST MODULATING
SIGNAL FREQ IS 15 kHz , BY CARSONS RULE
BW = 2 ( 75 + 15 )
= 180 kHz

CHANNEL BANDWIDTH
A GUARD BAND OF 10 kHz IS PROVIDED ON EACH
SIDE TO PREVENT ADJACENT CHANNEL
INTERFERENCE

THUS TOTAL CHANNEL BANDWIDTH IS 200 kHz
( FIG 5 )
FIG 5. BANDWIDTH OF FM SIGNAL

Guard band
fc-100 kHz fc-90 kHz fc fc+90 kHz fc+100 kHz
MODULATION INDEX
MODULATION INDEX IS DEFINED AS THE
RATIO OF FREQ DEVIATION TO THE MODULATING
SIGNAL FREQUENCY
MODULATION INDEX = f / f
m
FOR A GIVEN FREQ DEVIATION , THE MODULATION INDEX
IS INVERSELY PROPORTIONAL TO MODULATING FREQ.
EXAMPLE IF MODULATING FREQ IS 100 Hz , AND FREQ
DEVIATION IS 75 kHz , , THE MODULATION INDEX WILL BE
750 . BUT IF MODULATING FREQ IS INCREASED TO 15 kHz ,
MODULATION INDEX WILL BECOME AS LOW AS 5 .
THUS MODULATION INDEX VARIES OVER A LARGE RANGE AS
FREQ IS VARIED .
WHAT IS MEANT BY 100 % MODULATION IN FM ?
IN RADIO BROADCASTING , MAXIMUM
FREQUENCY DEVIATION OF 75 kHz
CORRESPONDS TO 100 % MODULATION
EXERCISE A MODULATING SIGNAL OF 5 kHz FREQUENCY
MODULATES A CARRIER UPTO 80 % MODULATION . FIND
(a) FREQUENCY DEVIATION
(b) MODULATION INDEX
(c) BANDWIDTH
(d) TOTAL FREQUENCY SWING
ANS (a) FREQ DEVIATION = ( 75 / 100 ) X 80 = 60 kHz
(b) MODULATION INDEX = f / f
m
= 60 / 5 = 12
(c) BW = 2 ( f + f
m
) = 2 ( 60 + 5 ) = 130 kHz
(d) TOTAL FREQ SWING = 2 X f = 2 X 60 = 120 kHz
NOISE CONSIDERATIONS IN
FM
FM HAS A MUCH BETTER NOISE
PERFORMANCE THAN AM, THE REASONS
FOR WHICH ARE ANALYSED HERE.

THE CHANNEL NOISE AFFECTS THE SIGNAL
IN TWO WAYS :
1. CHANGES AMPLITUDE OF THE SIGNAL
RESULTING IN AM NOISE
2. CHANGES PHASE OF THE SIGNAL
RESULTING IN PM NOISE AND THEREBY FM
NOISE


FIG 6. NOISE PRODUCES BOTH AMPLITUDE AND
PHASE MODULATION

90
Es + En
Es - En Es
En
B
90
A


C
NOISE CONSIDERATIONS IN FM
(CONTD)
AM NOISE CAN BE FILTERED OUT BY USING
AMPLITUDE LIMITER AFTER I.F. AMPLIFIERS IN THE
FM RECEIVER
BUT NOTHING CAN BE DONE ABOUT THE FM NOISE
HOWEVER , IT WILL BE SHOWN BELOW THAT THE
FM NOISE IS ALMOST NON-EXISTENT
ALTHOUGH NOISE HAS RANDOM AMPLITUDE AND
PHASE , FOR SIMPLICITY LET THE AMPLITUDE OF
NOISE BE FIXED AND ITS PHASE BE RANDOM WRT
THE SIGNAL ( FIG 6 )
ALSO LET US TAKE THE WORST CASE OF S / N RATIO
AT THE INPUT OF FM DISCRIMINATOR AS
2 : 1 ( WHICH IS VERY RARE IN PRACTICE) .

NOISE CONSIDERATIONS IN FM
(CONTD)
THEN IN THE RIGHT ANGLED TRIANGLE ABC ( FIG 6 ),
sin = 1 / 2 ,
THEREFORE MAX PHASE CHANGE DUE TO NOISE
WILL BE
= 30 DEG = 0.5 RADIANS
THUS IN THE WORST CASE , THE PHASE DEVIATION
DUE TO NOISE OF 0.5 RADIANS WILL BE EQT TO FM
NOISE OF
f
n
= X f
m
--------------- ( 1 )
= 0.5 X 15 = 7. 5 kHz

NOISE CONSIDERATIONS IN FM
(CONTD)
BUT WE HAVE ASSUMED THE S/N AT THE INPUT OF
FM DETECTOR AS 2 : 1


THEREFORE INPUT S / N OF 2:1 HAS IMPROVED TO
10:1 AT THE OUTPUT DUE TO PROCESSING GAIN OF
THE FM DETECTOR

THUS FM POSSESSES INHERENT NOISE SUPPRESSION
CAPABILITY

FM DETECTOR PROCESSING GAIN

THE PROCESSING GAIN OF THE DETECTOR IS
DEFINED AS
K
R
= ( S / N ) / ( C / N ) ----------- (2)
WHERE S/N IS SIGNAL-TO-NOISE POWER RATIO AT
THE OUTPUT OF THE DETECTOR AND C/N IS THE
CARRIER TO NOISE POWER RATIO AT THE
DETECTOR INPUT.
IT CAN BE SHOWN THAT
K
R
= 3(1+ m
f
) m
f

2 -------------
(3)

WHERE m
f
IS THE MODULATION INDEX FOR THE
HIGHEST MODULATING FREQUENCY.

DETECTOR PROCESSING GAIN
(CONTD)
IF m
f
>> 1, THEN K
R
= 3 m
f

3


IF m
f
<< 1, THEN K
R
= 3 m
f

2

AS SHOWN BY EQUATION (2), THE OUTPUT SIGNAL-
TO-NOISE (S/N) RATIO CAN BE INCREASED BY
INCREASING THE PROCESSING GAIN, THE C/N
REMAINING CONSTANT.

EQUATION (3) SHOWS THAT A HIGH PROCESSING
GAIN CAN BE ACHIEVED BY HAVING A HIGH
MODULATION INDEX

FIG 7 NOISE CHARACTERISTICS AT DETECTOR
OUTPUT

R
(a)
FM
Detector
f
c
-w
f
c

E
S

S/N
f

f
c
+w
f
n

f
C/N
(b)
NOISE
FREQUENCY f
n
FM
NOISE
NOISE IN NARROWBAND FM

ASSUMING THAT NOISE IS UNIFORMLY SPREAD
OVER THE RECEIVER BANDWIDTH, THE NOISE
OUTPUT OF AN AM RECEIVER REMAINS CONSTANT
AND WILL BE A RECTANGLE.
BUT IN FM, THE NOISE OUTPUT IS TRIANGULAR AND
INCREASES AS WE MOVE AWAY FROM THE
CARRIER FREQUENCY AS SHOWN IN FIG.8
FIG. 8 SHOWS THE COMPARISON OF NOISE
PERFORMANCE OF FM OVER AM
THE AVERAGE IMPROVEMENT FOR NARROW BAND
FM OVER AM (POINT A) WILL BE 2 : 1 AT THE
AVERAGE AUDIO FREQUENCY OF 7.5 KHZ

NOISE IN NARROWBAND FM
(CONTD)
AT POINT A FM NOISE APPEARS TO BE HALF OF THE
AM NOISE VOLTAGE.
BUT IN REALITY, THE PICTURE IS MORE COMPLEX
AND IN FACT THE FM IMPROVEMENT IS 3 : 1 AS
A VOLTAGE RATIO.
THIS GIVES AN INCREASE OF 3 : 1 IN POWER
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO FOR NARROWBAND FM AS
COMPARED TO AM.
THIS IS EQUIVALENT TO 4.75 dB IMPROVEMENT,
WHICH IS QUITE WORTHWHILE.

NOISE IMPROVEMENT IN WIDEBAND FM

IN AM, THE MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE MODULATION
INDEX m = 1, BUT IN FM THERE IS NO SUCH LIMIT.

MAXIMUM FREQUENCY DEVIATION IS LIMITED TO
75 KHZ IN WIDEBAND VHF SOUND BROADCASTING
SERVICE.
AT THE HIGHEST AUDIO FREQUENCY OF 15 KHZ ,
MODULATION INDEX IS 5.
IT WILL BE MUCH HIGHER AT LOWER AUDIO
FREQUENCIES e.g. IF MODULATING FREQUENCY IS 1
KHZ, THE MAXIMUM VALUE OF MODULATION
INDEX IN FM WILL BE 75.
NOISE IMPROVEMENT IN WIDEBAND FM
(CONTD)
IN FIGURE 9 , IF MODULATION INDEX IS INCREASED FROM mf
=1 TO mf = 4, THE SIGNAL-TO-NOISE VOLTAGE RATIO WILL
INCREASE PROPORTIONATELY.
THUS THE S/N POWER RATIO IN A FM RECEIVER IS
PROPORTIONAL TO THE SQUARE OF THE MODULATION INDEX.
FOR mf = 5 AND MODULATING FREQUENCY OF 15 KHZ, THERE
WILL BE A 25:1 (14 DB) IMPROVEMENT THAN WHEN
mf = 1.
NO SUCH IMPROVEMENT IS POSSIBLE IN AM.

FOR AN ADEQUATE C/N RATIO AT THE DETECTOR INPUT, AN
OVERALL IMPROVEMENT OF 18.75 (4.75 + 14) dB IS ACHIEVED
WITH WIDEBAND FM AS COMPARED WITH AM.

FIG 8 COMPARISON OF NOISE PERFORMANCE OF
AM AND FM DETECTORS

FM Noise
Triangle
Fc fc+15 fc-75 fc-15 fc fc+15 fc+75
Rectangular AM
distribution
a) Narrow band FM (mf=1) b) wideband FM (mf =5)
A
FIG 9 FM NOISE INCREASES WITH DECREASING
MODULATION INDEX

+60 f
c
+15
INAUDIBLE
FM NOISE
AUDIBLE
FM NOISE
AM
NOISE
+45 f
c
+15 +30 f
c
+15 f
c
+15
m
f
= 4 m
f
= 3 m
f
= 2 m
f
= 1
TRIANGULAR NOISE SPECTRUM AND
NEED FOR PRE-EMPHASIS
FROM EQ ( 1 ) , WE SEE THAT FM NOISE IS
DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO THE MODULATING
SIGNAL FREQUENCY
THEREFORE , FM NOISE IS MORE AT HIGHER AUDIO
FREQUENCIES AS COMPARED TO LOWER ONES
BUT IN ANY COMPLEX AUDIO SIGNAL , THE
AMPLITUDES OF HIGHER AUDIO FREQUENCIES ARE
MUCH LESS THAN THAT OF THE LOWER ONES
THEREFORE THE S / N RATIO AT HIGHER AUDIO
FREQUENCIES BECOMES POOR
PRE-EMPHASIS OF AUDIO SIGNAL BEFORE
MODULATION IS DONE TO SOLVE THIS PROBLEM
( FIG 10 )


PRE - EMPHASIS
THE PROCESS OF BOOSTING THE HIGHER AUDIO
FREQS ( SAY ABOVE 2 kHz ) WRT THE LOWER
ONES IS CALLED PRE-EMPHASIS
TWO INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS ARE IN VOGUE
:
1. 50 SEC CURVE N WHICH A BOOST OF ABOUT 13
dB IS GIVEN AT 15 kHz WRT LOW FREQS ---
MOSTLY USED IN ASIA AND EUROPE ( FIG 10 )
2. 75 SEC HAVING A BOOST OF APPROX 18 dB
AT 15 KhZ ----------- POPULAR IN AMERICA

FIG 10 50 MICROSECOND PRE-EMPHASIS AND
DE-EMPHASIS CURVES

2kHz kHz 15 kHz


+3dB

0dB

-3dB
Pre-emphasis
3.180 kHz
13 dB
De-emphasis
-13 dB
Frequency
PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE-EMPHASIS
(CONTD)
AIR HAS ADOPTED 50 SEC CURVE WHICH GIVES
ABOUT 13 DB BOOST AT 15 KHZ
FIGURE 11 (a) & (b) ILLUSTRATE THE EFFECT OF PRE-
EMPHASIS ON THE MODULATING SIGNAL
FREQUENCY RESPONSE AT THE TRANSMITTER
FIG 11(c) & (d) SHOW THE EFFECT OF DE-EMPHASIS
ON THE MODULATING SIGNAL AND NOISE AT THE
FM RECEIVER.
THE DE-EMPHASIS CANCELS OUT THE PRE-
EMPHASIS ON THE SIGNAL AND ALSO ATTENUATES
THE NOISE AT THE RECEIVER.

FIG 11 EFFECT OF PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE-
EMPHASIS ON MODULATING SIGNAL

Output
before
de-
emphasis
Modulating
Signal
f
V
a) b)
Modulating Signal
after pre-emphasis
f
V
Signal
f
V
Noise
Output
after
de-
emphasis
Signal
f
V
Noise
c) d)
PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE-EMPHASIS
(CONTD)
THE OVERALL EFFECT IS TO LEAVE THE POST
DETECTION SIGNAL LEVELS UNCHANGED WHILE
THE HIGH FREQUENCY NOISE IS ATTENUATED.

SUBJECTIVE TESTS WITH 50 SEC PRE-EMPHASIS
AND DE-EMPHASIS GIVE AN IMPROVEMENT OF
ABOUT 4.5 DB.

TYPICAL PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE- EMPHASIS
CIRCUITS ARE SHOWN IN FIG. 12

FIG 12 PRE-EMPHASIS AND DE-EMPHASIS
CIRCUITS

Pre-emphasised
AF output
L/R = 50 sec.
AF in from FM
Detector
C
c

L
R
AF in
+V
AF output
R
RC = 50 sec.
a) Pre-emphasis circuit b) De-emphasis circuit
C
CAPTURE EFFECT
FM IS A SUPERIOR TYPE OF MODULATION SYSTEM
MAINLY BECAUSE OF ITS NOISE SUPPRESSING
QUALITIES.
IN AN AM SYSTEM ,NOISE CAN INTERFERE EVEN
WITH THE DESIRED SIGNAL 100 TIMES STRONGER
AND RENDER THE RECEPTION POOR
BUT IN FM A NOISE SIGNAL HALF AS STRONG AS
THE DESIRED SIGNAL CAN BE SUPPRESSED
COMPLETELY.
THIS EFFECT BECOMES MORE AND MORE
PRONOUNCED AS THE FREQUENCY OF THE
INTERFERING SIGNAL APPROACHES THAT OF THE
DESIRED SIGNAL

CAPTURE EFFECT
(CONTD)
THE WEAKER NOISE SIGNAL IS COMPLETELY
OVERPOWERED WHEN THEIR FREQUENCIES
BECOME EQUAL. THIS IS KNOWN AS
CAPTURE EFFECT.
Suppose we are carrying a FM receiver
and moving from the coverage area of
one transmitter towards that of another
co-channel transmitter. The interesting
phenomenon of capture will be noted in
this case.


THRESHOLD EFFECT IN FM

WE SEE THAT THE BEST POSSIBLE OUTPUT SNR
OF AN AM DETECTOR EVEN AT 100 % MODULATION
CANNOT BE BETTER THAN THE INPUT CNR
BUT THE OUTPUT OF AN FM DETECTOR EVEN FOR A
MODULATIN INDEX OF 1 IS BETTER THAN AM
DETECTOR BY 4.75 dB
FOR A MODULATION INDEX OF 5 , THERE IS AN
IMPROVEMENT OF 14 dB AND WITH PRE-EMPHASIS
, WE GET AN AVERAGE IMPROVEMENT OF 4.5 dB .
THUS THERE IS AN ADVANTAGE OF 23.5 dB SNR IN
FM RECEIVER OVER AN AM RECEIVER AT 100 %
MODULATION ( FIG 14 )
FIG 13 THRESHOLD EFFECT IN FM

40
50
30
20
10
10 20 30 40 50
INPUT CNR, dB
O
U
T
P
U
T

S
N
R
,

d
B

4.75dB
AM, m
a
= 1
THRESHOLD (13dB)
4.5
dB
14
dB
FM, m
f
= 1
FM, m
f
= 5 FM, m
f
= 5
With 13dB
Pre-emphasis
Not to scale
All levels are in terms
of power ratio
THRESHOLD EFFECT IN FM
(CONTD)
TO GET THE BENEFIT OF IMPROVED SIGNAL
TO NOISE RATIO IN AN FM RECEIVER , THE
CNR AT THE INPUT OF THE DETECTOR
SHOULD BE BETTER THAN ABOUT 12 DB
IF CNR IS LESS THAN THIS VALUE , THERE IS
A SHARP DEGRADATION IN SNR , EVEN SO IF
CNR IS LESS THAN 8 dB, THE PERFORMANCE
OF AN FM RECEIVER WOULD BE WORSE
THAN AN AM RECEIVER . ( FIG 13 )
THIS IS CALLED THRESHOLD EFFECT
FIG 14 S/N IMPROVEMENT IN FM OVER AM

2.83 times increase due to pre
emphasis at TX & DE at receiver
25 times increase due to
wider modulation pass
band (mf = 5)
3 times increase due to
phase modulation by noise
Amplitude Modulation S/N
Improvement
in S/N Power
Ratio
Improvement
(dB)
Fig. 16 S/N Improvement due to FM Transmission
212
75
3
1
0
4.75
18.75
23.25
ADVANTAGES OF FM OVER AM

1. AMPLITUDE AND HENCE POWER OF FM
WAVE IS CONSTANT AND INDEPENDENT OF
DEPTH OF MODULATION.

BUT IN AM, MODULATION DEPTH
DETERMINES THE TRANSMITTED POWER.

THUS ADDITIONAL ENERGY IS NOT
REQUIRED AS MODULATION IS RAISED.

ADVANTAGES OF FM OVER AM
(CONTD)
2. FM IS MORE ECONOMICAL THAN AM DUE TO
FOLLOWING REASONS :

(A) IT IS POSSIBLE TO HAVE LOW LEVEL
MODULATION IN FM UNLIKE IN AM

(B) ALL THE TRANSMITTED POWER IN FM IS USEFUL
WHEREAS IN AM MOST OF IT IS IN THE CARRIER
WHICH CONTAINS NO USEFUL INFORMATION.

(C) ANTENNA GAIN IS POSSIBLE IN FM BECAUSE VHF
ANTENNAS CAN BE MADE DIRECTIVE DUE TO THEIR
SMALLER SIZE
ADVANTAGES OF FM OVER AM
(CONTD)
3. BETTER NOISE PERFORMANCE
AMPLITUDE VARIATIONS CAUSED BY NOISE
ARE REMOVED BY HAVING LIMITER IN FM
RECEIVER.
NOISE CAN FURTHER BE REDUCED IN FM BY
INCREASING THE FREQUENCY DEVIATION.
THIS IS NOT POSSIBLE IN AM AS
MODULATION CANNOT EXCEED 100 %
WITHOUT CAUSING SEVERE DISTORTION .
ADVANTAGES OF FM OVER AM
(CONTD)
LESS ADJACENT- CHANNEL INTERFERENCE
DUE TO BETTER PLANNING AS THE
COMMERCIAL FM BROADCASTS BEGAN IN
1940S (MUCH LATER THAN AM)
A GUARD BAND HAS BEEN PROVIDED AS
PER CCIR STANDARD FREQUENCY
ALLOCATIONS.
FM BROADCASTS OPERATE IN THE VHF AND
UHF RANGES IN WHICH THERE HAPPENS TO
BE LESS NOISE THAN IN THE MF AND HF
RANGES OCCUPIED BY AM BANDS.
ADVANTAGES OF FM OVER AM
(CONTD)
DUE TO THE USE OF SPACE WAVE PROPAGATION
IN WHICH THE RANGE OF OPERATION IS LIMITED
TO SLIGHTLY MORE THAN LINE OF SIGHT, IT IS
POSSIBLE TO OPERATE SEVERAL INDEPENDENT
TRANSMITTERS WITH MUCH LESS CO-CHANNEL
INTERFERENCE.
4. STEREO TRANSMISSION IS POSSIBLE WITH FM DUE
TO ITS WIDER BANDWIDTH
5. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION SUCH AS RDS, SCA
CAN BE SENT ALONGWITH THE STEREO SIGNAL

AMPLITUDE LIMITERS AND FM
THRESHOLDING
AN AMPLITUDE LIMITER IS A CIRCUIT THAT
PRODUCES A CONSTANT AMPLITUDE
OUTPUT FOR ALL INPUT SIGNALS ABOVE A
CERTAIN MINIMUM INPUT LEVEL CALLED
THRESHOLD , QUEITING OR CAPTURE
LEVEL .
WITH AMPLITUDE LIMITERS , SNR AT THE
OUTPUT OF FM DETECTOR CAN BE
IMPROVED UPTO 20 dB
AMPLITUDE LIMITERS AND
FM THRESHOLDING
(CONTD)
AN AMPLITUDE LIMITER IS BASICALLY
AN OVERDRIVEN I. F. AMPLIFIER
LIMITING BEGINS WHEN I.F. SIGNAL IS
LARGE ENOUGH TO DRIVE THE
AMPLIFIER ALTERNATELY INTO
SATURATION AND CUTOFF . ( FIG 15 )
LIMTER REMOVES ALL AMPLITUDE
VARIATIONS FROM THE SIGNAL
ABOVE THE THRESHOLD .
FIG 15. AMPLITUDE LIMITER WAVEFORMS
(a) INPUT (b) OUTPUT
AMPLITUDE LIMITERS AND
FM THRESHOLDING
(CONTD)
WHEN THE NOISE AMPLITUDE IS GREATER
THAN SIGNAL , NOISE CAPTURES THE
LIMITER ( FIG 16 (a) )
WHEN THE SIGNAL IS SUFFICIENTLY
GREATER THAN NOISE , SIGNAL HAS
CAPTURED THE LIMITER ( FIG 16 (b) )
IMPROVEMENT IN SNR OBTAINED THIS WAY
IS CALLED FM THRESHOLDING , FM
QUIETING OR FM CAPTURE EFFECT
AMPLITUDE LIMITERS AND
FM THRESHOLDING
(CONTD)
THREE CONDITIONS SHOULD BE SATISFIED FOR FM
THRESHOLDING TO OCCUR :
CNR AT INPUT OF FM DETECTOR MUST BE
GREATER THAN 10 dB
I.F. SIGNAL MUST BE LARGE ENOUGH TO
OVERDRIVE THE LIMITER
m
f
SHOULD BE 1
TYPICAL FM THRESHOLDING CURVES FOR LOW (m
f

= 1 ) AND MEDIUM (m
f
= 4 ) INDICES ARE SHOWN
IN FIG 17 .

FIG 16. OUTPUT OF LIMITER
(a) CAPTURED BY NOISE (b) CAPTURED BY SIGNAL
FIG 17 THRESHOLD EFFECT IN FM
LIMITER CIRCUITS
A SINGLE - STAGE CLASS A BIASED TUNED I.F.
AMPLIFIER LIMITER CIRCUIT WITH A BUILTIN
OUTPUT FILTER IS SHOWN IN FIG 18.
HARMONIC AND INTER MODULATION DISTORTION
DUE TO HARD LIMITING ARE REMOVED BY
FILTERING
EFFECT OF FILTERING IS SHOWN IN FIG 19.
IN FIG 18 (b) , LIMITER ACTION IS SHOWN . WHEN Vm
REACHES Vthreshold, LIMITING BEGINS .
AND FOR INPUT LEVELS GREATER THAN Vmax , Vout
DECREASES COLLECTOR CURRENT PULSES BECOME
NARROWER THEREBY DEVELOPING LESS TANK
CIRCUIT POWER
AMPLITUDE LIMITERS AND
FM THRESHOLDING
(CONTD)
FOR CNR BELOW THRESHOLD , RECEIVER
IS SAID TO BE CAPTURED BY NOISE
FOR CNR ABOVE THRESHOLD , RECEIVER IS
SAID TO BE CAPTURED BY NOISE
FM QUIETING BEGINS WITH CNR OF 10 dB
BUT FULL 17 dB IMPROVEMENT IN
OUTPUT SNR IS PRODUCED UNTIL INPUT
CNR REACHES 13 dB
THIS IS CALLED THRESHOLD MARGIN


FIG 18. (a) SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF SINGLE STAGE
TUNED LIMITER (b) LIMITER ACTION
FIG 19. FILTERED OUTPUT OF LIMITER
LIMITER CIRCUITS
(CONTD)
FOR INPUT LEVELS GREATER THAN Vmax ,
Vout DECREASES BECAUSE COLLECTOR
CURRENT PULSES BECOME NARROWER
THEREBY DEVELOPING LESS TANK CIRCUIT
POWER
IF TWO STAGES ARE USED , IT IS CALLED
DOUBLE LIMITING
IF THREE STAGES ARE USED , IT IS CALLED
TRIPLE LIMITING ( FIGS 20 AND 21 )

FIG 20 THREE STAGE CASCADED LIMITER
FIG 21. RESPONSE CURVES OF THREE-STAGE
LIMITER


THANK YOU