MOUNTAINEERING TECHNIQUES (BASIC)

BILL LYDE GS9/E. LIVINGSTON GS12

SUBCOURSE NO. IN 0486
UNITED STATES ARMY INANTRY SCHOOL
ORT BENNING! GEORGIA "190#$##9"
6 Credit Hours
SUBCOURSE OVERVIE%
This subcourse is designed to teach you the techniques you must know in order to cope
with mountainous terrain. The subcourse contains information on identifying the different
types of terrain; characteristics of weather and climate; acclimatization and conditioning;
and basic mountaineering techniques.
Mountains eist in almost e!ery country in the world. "lmost e!ery war has included
some type of mountain operations. This pattern will not change; therefore# you will fight
in mountainous terrain in future conflicts. Mountain operations ha!e not changed# but the
equipment and transportation a!ailable today ha!e changed. The helicopter allows access
to terrain that was once unreachable or could be reached only by slow methodical
climbing. $f bad weather eists# you must still use mountain climbing techniques to reach
an ob%ecti!e.
There are no prerequisites for this subcourse.
This subcourse reflects the doctrine which was current at the time it was prepared. $n your
own work situation# always refer to the latest publications.
TERMINAL LEARNING OB&ECTIVE
T"&'( )emonstrate a comprehension and knowledge of terrain# weather# climate#
acclimatization and conditioning# and basic mountaineering techniques.
C*+)$T$*+&( ,i!en the subcourse material# a combat -training. scenario# and etracts#
as applicable# the student will complete the eamination at the end of this subcourse.
&T"+)"/)&( The student will successfully answer 012 of the questions on a multiple3
choice based eamination for subcourse $+ 1456 demonstrating an understanding of
terrain# weather# and climate# acclimatization and conditioning# and basic mountaineering
techniques.
TABLE O CONTENTS
67&&*+ 8( M*9+T"$+77/$+, C*+)$T$*+&
:art "( Terrain
:art ;( Climate
:art C( "cclimatization and Conditioning
:art )( $llness and $n%ury
:ractice 7ercise
67&&*+ <( M*9+T"$+77/$+, 7=9$:M7+T
:art "( Climbing /opes and Types of 'nots
:art ;( Types of &naplinks
:art C( 7quipment and Maintenance
:art )( Types of :itons and :iton Hammers
:ractice 7ercise
67&&*+ >( C6$M;$+, T7CH+$=97&
:art "( ,eneral Techniques
:art ;( ;elays
:art C( /appelling
:ractice 7ercise

ADMINISTRATIVE INSTRUCTIONS
8. +umber of lessons in this subcourse. Three.
<. &uper!isory requirements( +one.
GRADING AND CERTIICATION INSTRUCTIONS
7amination( This subcourse has a multiple3choice test co!ering the material contained in
the three lessons. "fter studying the lessons and working through the practice eercises#
complete the eamination. " score of 01 or abo!e is passing. &i credit hours will be
awarded for successful completion of this eamination.
?hen used in this publication @he#@ @him#@ @his#@ and @men@ represent both the masculine
and feminine genders# unless otherwise stated.

LESSON ONE MOUNTAINEERING CONDITIONS
OVERVIEW


TASK DESCRIPTION:
In this lesson, you will learn to identify terrain, cliate, weather, and accliati!ation and
conditionin"#
$EARNIN% O&'ECTI(E:
TASKS: )nderstand terrain, cliate, weather, and accliati!ation and conditionin"#
CONDITIONS: %i*en the su+course aterial for this lesson, a trainin" scenario, and
e,tracts, as a--lica+le, the student will co-lete the -ractical e,ercise to show an
understandin" of terrain, cliate, weather, and accliati!ation and conditionin"#
STANDARDS: The student will deonstrate his co-rehension and .nowled"e of the
tas. +y dis-layin" an understandin" of terrain, cliate, weather, and accliati!ation and
conditionin"#
RE/ERENCES: The aterial contained in this lesson was deri*ed fro the followin"
-u+lication: TC 012324
INTRODUCTION
5ou 6ust consider the effects terrain and weather will ha*e on your o-erations, -riarily
the effects on you and your lo"istics effort# 7elico-ters are a *alua+le asset for use in
o*in" en and su--lies, +ut you should ne*er -lan to use the as the only eans of
o*eent and resu--ly# Alternate ethods ust +e -lanned due to the *aria+ility of
weather# If you are scheduled to de-loy to ountainous en*ironents, you should
+ecoe self2sufficient and train under *arious conditions#
PART A - TERRAIN
4# %eneral# O-erations in the ountains re8uire you to +e -hysically fit and e,-erienced
in ountain o-erations# Pro+les arise in o*in" en and trans-ortin" loads u- and
down stee- and *aried terrain in order to acco-lish the ission# Accliati!ation,
conditionin", and trainin" are i-ortant factors in successful ilitary ountaineerin"#
Terrain affects the rate at which units can o*e en and e8ui-ent# 6ountainous terrain
-oses an o+stacle to those units not trained for ountain o-erations# The terrain ust +e
analy!ed in the conte,t of: ountains, roads, and trails, cross2country o*eent,
ountain ha!ards, co*er and concealent, o+ser*ation, and fields of fire# Each of these
will +e discussed se-arately#
9# 6ountains# 6ountains are defined as landfors that rise ore than :11 eters a+o*e
the surroundin" -lain and are characteri!ed +y stee- slo-es# 6ountains ay consist of an
isolated -ea., sin"le rid"es, "laciers, snowfields, co-artents, or co-le, ran"es,
e,tendin" for lon" distances and o+structin" o*eent# 6ountains usually fa*or the
defense, howe*er, attac.s can succeed +y usin" detailed -lannin", rehearsals, sur-rise,
and well2led troo-s#
;# Roads and Trails# There are usually few roads in the ountains# 6ost are easily
defended, since they follow the easiest a*enues of tra*el in the *alleys and throu"h
-asses# 7owe*er, trails seldo su--ort *ehicular traffic and are o+ser*a+le# Success
de-ends on a force<s a+ility to control these routes and the -ea.s surroundin" the#
Detailed a-s show roads and any of the trails# 5ou ay o+tain additional inforation
fro terrain analysis, -hoto"ra-hic inter-retation, and local residents#
=# Cross2Country 6o*eent# 5ou ust .now the terrain to deterine feasi+le routes for
cross2country o*eent when there are no roads or trails# The followin" "uidelines are
necessary when you are -lannin" ountain o-erations#
As -art of a -re-arations intelli"ence effort, you should include to-o"ra-hic and
-hoto"ra-hic a- co*era"e as well as detailed weather data for the area of
o-erations# >hen -lannin" ountain o-erations, it ay +e necessary to o+tain
additional inforation on si!e, location, and characteristics of landfors and
draina"e, ty-es of roc. and soil, and the density and distri+ution of *e"etation#
5ou ust decentrali!e control to lower le*els +ecause of *aried terrain, erratic
weather, and counication -ro+les inherent to ountainous re"ions#
6o*eent is often restricted due to terrain and weather# &ecause of erratic
weather, you ust +e -re-ared for wide *ariations in te-erature, and ty-es and
aounts of -reci-itation# 5ou ust +e self2sufficient to co-e with noral weather
chan"es usin" aterials fro your ruc.sac.# 6o*eent durin" a stor is difficult
due to -oor *isi+ility and +ad footin" on stee- terrain# The da-ness of rain and
snow, and the -enetration of wind ay cause you to chill 8uic.ly#
>hen the tactical situation re8uires continued o*eent durin" a stor, you
should ta.e the followin" -recautions#
6aintain *isual contact#
Kee- war# 5ou should aintain ener"y and +ody heat +y eatin" and
drin.in" often? you ust carry food that can +e eaten 8uic.ly and while on
the o*e#
Kee- dry# 5ou should wear wet2weather clothin" when a--ro-riate, +ut do
not o*erdress, which can cause e,cessi*e -ers-iration and da-en
clothin"# As soon as the o+@ecti*e is reached and shelter secured, you ay
-ut on dry clothin"#
Do not rush# 7asty o*eent durin" stors leads to +rea.s in contact and
accidents#
If you are lost, stay war, dry, and cal#
Do not use ra*ines as routes of a--roach durin" a stor as they often fill
with water and are -rone to flash floods#
5ou should a*oid hi"h -innacles and rid"e lines durin" electrical stors#
5ou should a*oid areas of -otential a*alanche or roc.fall dan"er#
:# 6ountain 7a!ard#
7a!ards can +e tered natural Acaused +y natural occurrenceB, an2ade Acaused +y an
indi*idual<s lac. of -re-aration, carelessness, i-ro-er diet, e8ui-ent isuseB, or
co+ination Ahuan tri""erB# The se*en ty-es of ha!ards that you should +e failiar with
are: roc.fall? icefall? a*alanches? co+ination of roc.fall, icefall, and a*alanche? factors
affectin" the snow-ac.? li"htnin"? and cre*asses Each of these ha!ards will +e discussed
se-arately#
Roc.fall# This is the ost coon ha!ard encountered +y the ilitary
ountaineer# 5our understandin" of its causes, and easures used to lessen its
i-act, is essential# 5ou should +ecoe failiar with the structure and
co-osition of a roc. area# Roc. that has +een su+@ected to se*ere weatherin" is
ore -rone to roc.fall &eware of CsoftC and stratified roc.s? these roc.s are -rone
to roc.fall, and can +e loose and unsta+le# As a ilitary ountaineer, you should
do e*erythin" -ossi+le to a*oid dan"er# A*oid areas where roc.fall is li.ely to
occur, and if necessary, enter those areas at the ost suita+le tie of day,
a*oidin" "ullies in fa*or of rid"es#
Indicators of roc.fall ust +e learned and o+ser*ed in the field# /resh de+ris at the
+otto of the cliff or scree at the +otto of "ullies are indicators of roc.fall# It is also
i-ortant to .now at what ties roc.fall is ost li.ely to occur# Roc.fall usually occurs
early in the day on east and south ountain faces as the sun first wars the, and it in
late afternoon on west and north faces# There is, howe*er, no a+solute rule to +e followed#
Icefall# This coon ha!ard ay +e tri""ered +y natural, an2ade, or
co+ination factors# It is a coon ha!ard when conductin" o-erations in snow,
ice, or "laciated terrain# The -araeters of roc.fall a--ly to ice as well#
A*alanches: Terrain, cliate and weather are the +asic eleents for the a*alanche
-henoenon# The two ain causes of a*alanches are: the wei"ht of lar"e aounts
of accuulated snow, and stee- slo-es that e,ceed the cohesi*e forces within the
snow-ac. or +etween the snow-ac. and "round# There are two ty-es of snow, and
they are classified as -owder snow Aloose, snowB and co-act snow Asla+B# The
effects of an a*alanche can +e disastrous to the ilitary ountaineer# Chances for
you to sur*i*e after +urial +y an a*alanche are a+out :1 -ercent after ;1 inutes#
After two hours, chances for sur*i*al are reote#
Co+ination factors Aroc.fall, icefall, and a*alancheB# This ty-e of ha!ard consists
of the -re*iously entioned factors#
$i"htnin"# The dan"er fro li"htnin" is "reater on roc. than on snow or ice#
$i"htnin" can +e e,-ected when static electricity is "reat enou"h to cause tic.lin"
of the scal-, the hair to stand u-, and a sli"ht crac.lin" and a--earance of a +lue
li"ht ASt# Elo<s fireB on etal o+@ects# Durin" a thunderstor, the followin"
"uidelines can hel- you reduce in@uries due to li"htnin"#
A*oid suits and rid"es#
Stay away fro -roinent o+@ects, ainly etal o+@ects#
A*oid "ullies filled with water#
A*oid o*erhan"s and recesses#
A*oid crac.s in wet roc.? li"htnin" "round currents follow the#
Ta.e u- a s8uattin" -osition on dry "round or a ruc.sac. with .nees
drawn u-#
Kee- the hands and u--er torso insulated fro the "round# A*oid etallic
o+@ects e,tendin" fro the u--er +ody to the "round#
Cre*asses# Cre*asses are fored when a "lacier flows o*er a slo-e and a.es a
+end, or when a "lacier se-arates fro the roc. walls that enclose it# A slo-e of
only 9 to ; de"rees is enou"h to for a cre*asse# As a "lacier a.es a +end, it is
li.ely that cre*asses will for at the outside of the +end# Therefore, the safest
route on a "lacier would +e to the inside of +ends, and away fro stee- slo-es and
icefalls# E,ercise e,tree care when o*in" off of or onto the "lacier +ecause of
the oat that is li.ely to +e -resent#
3# Co*er and Concealent# >hen o*in" in the ountains, co*er can +e -ro*ided +y
outcro--in"s, +oulders, hea*y *e"etation, and interediate terrain features that as.
aneu*er# /i"htin" and te-orary fortification -ositions are often difficult to di" +ecause
of thin or stony soil, and selection of these -ositions re8uires detailed -lannin"# One
easily e,ca*ated roc. ty-e is *olcanic tuff# In other areas you ay find +oulders and other
loose roc.s that can +e used for +uildin" hasty fortifications# In al-ine en*ironents,
snow and ice +loc.s ay +e cut and stac.ed to su--leent du"2in -ositions# As in all
o-erations, -ositions and routes ust +e caoufla"ed to +lend in with the surroundin"
terrain and -re*ent aerial detection#
D# O+ser*ation# &ecause of weather and "round co*er, o+ser*ation in the ountains
*aries# The doinatin" hei"ht of ountainous terrain -erits e,cellent lon"2ran"e
o+ser*ation# 7owe*er, ra-idly chan"in" weather with fre8uent -eriods of hi"h wind, rain,
snow, sleet, hail, and fo" can liit *isi+ility# The ru""ed nature of the terrain often
-roduces dead s-ace at idran"es#
Due to low cloud co*er at hi"her ele*ations, o+ser*ation -osts AOPsB esta+lished on -ea.s
or ountain to-s ay +e ineffecti*e# On hi"her ele*ations, hi"h wind s-eeds often as.
the noises of troo- o*eent# In order to -ro*ide *isual co*era"e of the +attle area, OPs
ay need to +e esta+lished laterally, in de-th, and at *aryin" altitudes#
In order to o+tain concealent fro o+ser*ation, you ay consider the nature of the
terrain A-re*iously entioned dead s-aceB# >hen the sun is low and in relati*ely clear
s.ies, ountainous re"ions are su+@ect to intense shadowin"# The contrast fro li"hted to
shaded areas is such that *isual acuity in the shaded re"ions is considera+ly reduced#
Those shadowed areas can -ro*ide increased concealent when co+ined with other
caoufla"in" disci-lines and should +e considered in aneu*er -lans#
>hen o-eratin" in ountainous re"ions, you should +e well trained in the use of ni"ht
o+ser*ation de*ices ANODsB# If you are .nowled"ea+le in the use of ni"ht *ision "o""les,
-eriods of dar.ness will -ro*ide e,cellent o--ortunities for uno+ser*ed o*eent# These
NODs can +e used in static or o*in" a--lications in +oth offensi*e and defensi*e
o-erations#
E# /ields of /ire# /ields of fire, li.e o+ser*ation, are e,cellent at lon" ran"es# 7owe*er,
dead s-ace is a -ro+le at short ran"es# >hen forces cannot +e -ositioned to co*er dead
s-ace with direct fire, ines and o+stacles, or indirect fire ust +e used# Ran"e
deterination is dece-ti*e in ountainous terrain# 5ou ust routinely train in ran"e
estiation in ountainous re"ions to aintain your -roficiency#
PART B - CLIMATE
4# %eneral#
The -hysiolo"y and -atholo"y of the huan +ody is affected +y the ountain cliate#
The huan +ody is sensiti*e to weather chan"e and differin" cliates# Analysis of
ountain weather and how it is affected +y ountain terrain shows that weather chan"es
are su+@ect to -atterns +ut are less o+*ious in ountainous terrain than other areas#
Conditions "reatly chan"e with altitude, latitude, and e,-osure to atos-heric winds and
air asses# 6ountain weather can +e e,treely erratic? within a short tie or inor shift
in locality, the wind ay *ary fro story to cal, and fro e,tree cold to warth#
The se*erity and *ariance of the weather causes it to ha*e a a@or i-act on ilitary
o-erations#
9# Considerations for Plannin"#
6ountain weather can +e either a dan"erous o+stacle to o-erations or a *alua+le aid,
de-endin" on how well it is understood and to what e,tent ad*anta"e is ta.en of its
-eculiar characteristics#
The success or failure of a ission is often deterined +y the weather# >hen
-lannin" airo+ile and air+orne o-erations, ilitary -lans ust +e fle,i+le# 5ou
ust antici-ate the weather as -art of your -lannin" in order to turn an i-ortant
weather factor in your fa*or# The clouds that often co*er the to-s of ountains
and the fo"s that co*er *alleys are an e,cellent eans of concealin" o*eents
that are norally ade durin" dar.ness or in so.e# $iited *isi+ility can +e
used as a co+at ulti-lier#
The safety or dan"er of alost all hi"h ountain re"ions de-ends on the weather,
es-ecially in winter# A chan"e of a few de"rees in te-erature a+o*e or +elow the
free!in" -oint ay affect the ease and s-eed of tra*el# Terrain that can +e crossed
swiftly and safely one day ay +ecoe i-assa+le or hi"hly dan"erous the ne,t
due to snowfall, rainfall, or a rise in te-erature# The re*erse can ha--en @ust as
8uic.ly# The -re*alence of a*alanches de-ends on terrain, snow conditions, and
weather factors#
Soe ountains, such as those found in desert re"ions, are dry and +arren with
te-eratures ran"in" fro e,tree heat in the suer to e,tree cold in the
winter# In tro-ical re"ions, ountains are often co*ered +y lush @un"les with
hea*y seasonal rains and little te-erature *ariations# 7i"h roc.y cra"s with
"laciated -ea.s can +e found in ountain ran"es at ost latitudes alon" the
western -ortion of the Aericas and Asia#
Se*ere weather ay decrease orale and increase +asic sur*i*al -ro+les# These
-ro+les can +e inii!ed when you ha*e +een trained to acce-t the weather +y
+ein" self2sufficient# As a ountain soldier, -ro-erly e8ui--ed and trained, you
can use the weather to your ad*anta"e in co+at o-erations#
;# 6ountain Air#
6ountain air is relati*ely -ure# The hi"her the ele*ation, the ore -ure it +ecoes#
A+o*e =,:11 eters, air is alost "er2free# The co-osition of the air of hi"h altitudes
is different than air at sea le*el# /allin" snow also -urifies the air +y ca-turin" and
holdin" any of the i-urities in the air#
Pressure is low in ountainous areas due to the altitude# The +aroeter usually
dro-s 9#: centieters A4 inchB for e*ery ;11 eters "ained in ele*ation# This
e8uates to a ; -ercent dro- in -ressure for an increase of ;11 eters in ele*ation#
This decreased -ressure causes the air to e,-and, decreasin" the aount of o,y"en and
oisture in a "i*en *olue# Conse8uently, o,y"en decreases with ele*ation#
7i"h ountain air is dry and ay +e drier in the winter# Due to this increased
dryness, e8ui-ent does not rust as 8uic.ly and or"anic aterial deco-oses
slowly# The dry air also re8uires you to increase consu-tion of water# The
reduced water *a-or in the air causes an increase in e*a-oration of oisture fro
the s.in and in loss of water throu"h trans-iration in the res-iratory syste# Due
to the cold, you do not naturally consue the 8uantity of fluids that you would at
hi"her te-eratures, hence you are encoura"ed to consciously increase your fluid
inta.e#
The air is thinner as atos-heric -ressure dro-s with the increasin" altitude# At
hi"her altitudes, the thinner, drier air has a reduced olecular content and,
conse8uently, a reduced filterin" effect on the sun<s rays# &oth *isi+le and
ultra*iolet ray intensities are "reater with increased altitude# These conditions
increase the chance of sun+urn, es-ecially when co+ined with a snow co*er that
reflects the rays u-ward#
=# Characteristics#
The followin" characteristics of weather are the results of the life cycle of a local stor or
fro the o*eent of tra*elin" stors:
>eather is erratic#
7urricane winds and "entle +ree!es ay occur within two to three .iloeters of
each other#
>eather in e,-osed areas contrasts shar-ly with the weather in sheltered areas#
>eather chan"es in one day can +e so *aria+le that in the sae locality there ay
+e hot sun and cool shade, hi"h winds and cal, "usts of rain or snow, and then
intense sunli"ht a"ain#
In addition, the effects of stors are odified +y the followin" local influences, which
doinate suer stors:
(ariation in altitude#
Differences in e,-osure#
Distortion of stor o*eents and the noral winds +y irre"ular ountain
to-o"ra-hy#
:# Te-erature# /or air o*in" u- a ountain with condensation occurrin" Aclouds, fo",
and -reci-itationB, the te-erature of the air dro-s ;#: de"rees / with e*ery ;112eter
rise in altitude# /or air o*in" u- a ountain with no clouds forin", the te-erature of
the air dro-s :#: de"rees / for e*ery ;112eter rise in altitude# 6ountain te-eratures
ay +e affected +y te-erature in*ersions, solar heatin", and weather -atterns#
Te-erature in*ersions occur when ountain air is cooled +y ice, snow, and heat
loss throu"h theral radiation# This cooler, denser air settles into the *alleys and
low areas# Durin" a troo- o*eent or cli+ started in a *alley, hi"her
te-eratures ay often +e encountered as altitude is "ained# This re*ersal of the
noral coolin" with ele*ation is called te-erature in*ersion# The in*ersion
continues until the sun wars the surface of the earth or a oderate wind causes a
i,in" of the war and cold layers# These in*ersions are coon in the
ountainous re"ions of the arctic, su+arctic, and id2latitudes#
At hi"h altitude, solar heatin" is res-onsi+le for the "reatest te-erature contrasts#
6ore sunshine and solar heat are recei*ed a+o*e the clouds than +elow# The
i-ortant effect of altitude is that the sun<s rays -ass throu"h less of the
atos-here and ore direct heat is recei*ed than at lower le*els, where solar
radiation is reflected and a+sor+ed +y dust and water *a-or# There ay +e
differences fro =1 to :1 de"rees / +etween surface te-eratures in the shade
and surface te-eratures in the sun# This is -articularly true for dar. etallic
o+@ects# The difference in te-erature felt on the s.in +etween the sun and shade
is norally D de"rees /# 5ou ust e,ercise s-ecial care to a*oid sun+urn and
snow +lindness# Snow +lindness results fro the co+ination of intense sunli"ht
and ultra*iolet rays reflected fro snowfields or clouds# At hi"h altitudes, the
te-erature rises fast after sunrise and dro-s 8uic.ly after sunset# 6uch of the
chilled air drains downward, due to con*ection currents, so that the differences
+etween day and ni"ht te-eratures are "reater in *alleys than on slo-es#
The heatin" and coolin" of the air affects -lannin" considerations, ainly the
clothin" and e8ui-ent needed for an o-eration# $ocal weather -atterns force air
currents u- and o*er ountain to-s# Air is cooled on the windward side of the
ountain as it "ains altitude, +ut ore slowly A;#: de"rees / -er ;11 etersB if
clouds are forin" due to heat release when water *a-or +ecoes li8uid# On the
leeward side of the ountain, this heat "ained fro the condensation on the
windward side is added to the noral heatin" that occurs as the air descends and
air -ressure increases# Therefore, air and winds on the leeward slo-e are
considera+ly warer than that on the windward slo-e, which is referred to as
chinoo. winds#
3# Ty-es of Clouds#
Clouds are indicators of weather conditions# Pro-er readin" of cloud sha-es and -atterns
-ro*ide weather forecasters with little need for additional e8ui-ent such as a +aroeter,
wind eter, and theroeter#
Clouds are classified +y sha-e and hei"ht#
Sha-e -ro*ides inforation a+out the sta+ility of the atos-here and chance for
-reci-itation#
7ei"ht Aa+o*e "round le*elB -ro*ides an indication of the distance of a tra*elin"
stor and the chance for -reci-itation#
/i"ure 424 shows the ty-es and estiated hei"hts of clouds, hei"hts ay *ary +ased on
"eo"ra-hical locations#
The two a@or ty-es of clouds, as classified +y sha-e, are cuulus and stratus#
Cuulus clouds are so2called C-uffyC clouds, they rese+le tufts of cotton# Their
for fro +otto to to- is often e8ual to or "reater than its width# They ha*e
shar-, distinct ed"es, +ecause they are co-osed of water dro-lets# Air
te-eratures within the cloud is warer than 2;1 de"rees# These clouds are
usually indicators of insta+ility at the altitude where they are found, and story
weather associated with these clouds is usually *iolent with hea*y rain or snow
and stron" "usty winds# A -reci-itatin" cuulus cloud is called a cuuloni+us
cloud#
Stratus clouds are layered and a--ear flat, e,-andin" ore in the hori!ontal -lane
than the *ertical# They are indicators of a sta+le atos-here, +ut ay indicate the
a--roach of a stor#
Story weather associated with these clouds does not include *iolent winds, and
-reci-itation is usually li"ht +ut steady lastin" for u- to ;3 hours# $i"htnin" is *ery rare,
+ut sleet and fo"s are also associated with these clouds# A -reci-itatin" stratus cloud is
called ni+ostratus# If a cloud cannot +e deterined cuulus or stratus, it ay +e
e*ol*in" fro one ty-e to another, indicatin" a chan"e in atos-heric sta+ility# This is
called a stratocuulus cloud#
Clouds are classified into three hei"ht Aa+o*e "round le*elB cate"ories, and they are low,
iddle, and hi"h#
$ow Clouds# These clouds are +elow 9,111 eters, and are either cuulus or
stratus, or their -reci-itatin" counter-arts22ni+ostratus or cuuloni+us# 6ost
-reci-itation ori"inates fro low clouds +ecause rain or snow usually e*a-orates
+efore reachin" the "round fro hi"her clouds# These clouds are indicators of
i-endin" -reci-itation, es-ecially if the clouds a--ear dar. at their +ases, which
indicates that they are ore than 4,111 eters thic.#
6iddle clouds# These clouds are -ositioned +etween 9,111 and 3,411 eters#
They ha*e a -refi, of alto, and are called either altostratus or altocuulus# These
clouds a--ear less distinct than lower clouds +ecause of their hei"ht# Alto clouds
with shar- ed"es are warer +ecause they are co-osed ainly of water dro-lets#
Cold clouds, co-osed ainly of ice crystals and usually colder than 2;1 de"rees
/, ha*e indistinct ed"es# 6iddle clouds usually indicate fair weather, es-ecially if
they are risin" o*er tie# $owerin" iddle clouds indicate -otential stors,
thou"h usually hours away# >hen altocuulus clouds are scattered and une*en in
a +lue s.y they are called Cfair weatherC cuulus and su""est arri*al of hi"h
-ressure and clear s.ies# >hen altostratus clouds are lowerin" with winds fro
the south, they indicate war front conditions and lowerin" air -ressure, and the
a--roach of rain or snow and a tra*elin" stor syste within 49 to 9= hours#
7i"h clouds# These clouds are -ositioned ore than 3,411 eters a+o*e "round
le*el# They are cirrus, cirrostratus, and cirrocuulus# These clouds are usually
fro!en, indicatin" air te-eratures at that ele*ation +elow 2;1 de"rees /, with a
fi+rous structure and +lurred outlines# The thin *eil of cirrus often co*ers the s.y
and -artly o+scures the sun, or at ni"ht -roduces a rin" of li"ht around the oon#
Its arri*al indicates oisture aloft and the a--roach of a tra*elin" stor syste#
Preci-itation is often 9= to ;3 hours away#
As the stor a--roaches, the cirrus thic.ens and lowers, +ecoin" altostratus and
e*entually stratus# Te-eratures are war, huidity rises, and winds +ecoe southerly
or south easterly#
Towerin" cuulus clouds are the ost dan"erous of all ty-es and usually ne*er occur
when te-eratures at the surface are +elow ;9 de"rees /#
They indicate e,tree insta+ility in the atos-here# These clouds ha*e +ases +elow 9,111
eters, and to-s o*er 3,411 eters a+o*e "round le*el# >hen these clouds are ature,
they e,hi+it fro!en stratus clouds at their to-s that -roduce an Can*il headC a--earance#
These clouds ay +e local stors or they ay +e associated with the cold front of a
tra*elin" stor# They -roduce hi"h, "usty winds? li"htnin"? hea*y showers? and
occasionally hail and tornados2thou"h the latter are rare in ountainous terrain# Such
thunderstors are usually short li*ed and +rin" clear weather#
Cloud ca-s often for a+o*e -innacles and -ea.s, and usually indicate hi"her winds
aloft# Cloud ca-s with a lens sha-e, siilar to a Cflyin" saucer,C are called lenticular and
indicate *ery hi"h winds Ao*er =1 .notsB# Cloud ca-s should always +e watched for
chan"es# If they "row and descend, +ad weather can +e e,-ected#
Serious errors can occur in inter-retin" the e,tent of cloud co*er, es-ecially when cloud
co*er ust +e re-orted to another location# S.y co*er always a--ears "reater on or near
the hori!on, es-ecially if the s.y is co*ered with cuulus clouds, since the o+ser*er is
loo.in" ore at the sides of the clouds rather than +etween the# Cloud co*er estiates
should +e restricted to s.y areas ore than =1 de"rees a+o*e the hori!on2that is, to the
local s.y#
Clouds and -reci-itation increase with hei"ht until a !one of a,iu -reci-itation is
reached? a+o*e this !one they decrease# They occur near 4,E11 eters ele*ation in iddle
latitudes and at lower le*els as the -oles are a--roached# )sually a dense forest ar.s the
!one of a,iu rainfall#
Slo-es facin" the -re*ailin" wind recei*e hea*ier -reci-itation than those
-rotected fro the wind2on the leeward side, es-ecially when lar"e +odies of
water lie to the windward side# At ni"ht and in fall and winter, *alleys are colder
and fo""ier than hi"her slo-es, -articularly when surroundin" waters li.e ri*ers
and streas ha*e not yet fro!en# RE6E6&ERF /o" can +e used for concealent
durin" o*eent#
A+o*e 4,:11 eters, de-endin" on the re"ion, snow can fall at any tie of the
year# E,cessi*e snowfall creates a*alanche ha!ards to e,-osed slo-es and can
force chan"es in selected routes#
D# >ind#
In hi"h ountains, the rid"es and -asses are seldo cal, howe*er, stron" winds in
-rotected *alleys are rare# Norally, wind s-eed increases with altitude since the earth<s
frictional dra" is stron"est near the "round# >inds are accelerated when they con*er"e
throu"h ountain -asses and canyons# &ecause of these funnelin" effects, the wind ay
+last with "reat force on an e,-osed ountainside or suit# )sually, the local wind
direction is controlled +y to-o"ra-hy#
>ind +lowin" at =1 .nots -ushes four ties harder than a wind +lowin" at 91
.nots# >hen wind stren"th increases to a hurricane force of 3= .nots or ore, you
should lay on the "round durin" "usts and continue o*in" durin" lulls# If a
hurricane2force wind +lows where there is sand or snow, dense clouds fill the air#
Durin" the winter season, or at hi"h altitudes, you ust +e constantly aware of the wind
chill factor Afi"ure 429B and associated cold2weather in@uries# 5ou ay easure the wind
chill factor +ased on the followin" instructions:
6easure local te-erature and wind s-eed if -ossi+le? if not, estiate# Enter the chart at
the closest : de"rees / inter*al alon" the to- and with a--ro-riate wind s-eed alon" the
left side# The intersection "i*es an a--ro,iate e8ui*alent chill te-erature? the rate at
which an o+@ect or an cools, under cal conditions, to the a+ient te-erature Afi"ure
429B#
NOTE: This chart was constructed usin" iles -er hour A-hB, howe*er, a scale "i*in"
the e8ui*alent ran"e in .nots has +een included on the chart to facilitate its use with either
unit#
>ind ay +e cal +ut free!in" dan"er is "reat if a -erson is e,-osed in a o*in"
*ehicle, under helico-ter rotors, in -ro-eller +last, and so on# It is the rate of
relati*e air o*eent that counts, and the coolin" effect is the sae whether you
are o*in" thou"h the air or if it is +lowin" -ast you#
Effect of wind will +e less if a -erson has e*en sli"ht -rotection for e,-osed -arts
such as li"ht "lo*es on hands or a -ar.a hood or +alacla*a shieldin" the face#
ACTI(IT5: Dan"er is less if the soldier is acti*e# A an -roduces a+out 411 watts A;=4
&T)sB of heat standin" still +ut u- to 4,111 watts A;,=4; &T)sB in *i"orous acti*ity li.e
cross2country s.iin"#
PROPER )SE O/ C$OT7IN% and ADEG)ATE DIET are +oth i-ortant#
CO66ON SENSE: There is no su+stitute for it# The chart ser*es only as a "uide to the
coolin" effect of the wind on +are s.in when first e,-osed# %eneral +ody coolin" and
any other factors affect the ris. of free!in" in@ury#
>inds in tra*elin" stors are ore -ersistent in s-eed than those acco-anyin"
local stors# There are two winds that result fro the daily cycle of solar heatin":
(alley or u-2*alley +ree!es de*elo- on durin" cal, clear days in *alleys that are su+@ect
to intense solar radiation#
6ountain or down2*alley +ree!es de*elo- on clear ni"hts, the ountainsides lose heat
ra-idly and cool the surroundin" air, which settles downslo-e#
E# Thunderstors#
Althou"h indi*idual thunderstors are norally local and are o*er 8uic.ly, they can +e
-art of a lar"e weather syste that ay hinder ountain o-erations#
In the al-ine !one, a+o*e the ti+erline, thunderstors ay +e acco-anied +y free!in"
-reci-itation and sudden, s8ually winds# Rid"es and -ea.s are focal -oints for
concentrated electrical acti*ity, which is dan"erous#
$ocal thunderstors de*elo- fro risin" air coluns, and occur ost often in the
iddle or late afternoon# Scattered, fair2weather cuulus clouds are harless, +ut
when they continue to "row lar"e and reach hi"h altitudes of se*eral thousand
eters they ay turn into thunderstors#
Thunderstors that occur at ni"ht or in the early ornin" are associated with
a@or chan"es in the weather, resultin" in story weather +efore clearin" on the
hi"h suits#
Thunderstors occurrin" at these ties ay also +e -art of a stor line, which is
followed +y a -rolon"ed -eriod of cool, dry weather#
0# $i"htnin"#
6any casualties ha*e +een re-orted due to li"htnin" durin" ountain o-erations, which
in*ol*e an increased ris. of +ein" struc.# $i"htnin" .ills ore -eo-le in the )nited States
than any other weather -henoenon# 6ountain cli+ers are often on -roinent -ea.s
and e,-osed rid"es, which are su+@ect to li"htnin" stri.es and lesser dischar"es#
The +est way to a*oid li"htnin" in the ountains is to stay off e,-osed -ea.s or
rid"es, and stay out of an un-rotected flat e,-anse durin" an electrical stor# If
such a stor can +e -redicted, it is +est not to cli+# 5ou should a*oid +ein"
under -roinent or isolated trees# If you are cau"ht in an e,-osed -lace and ha*e
tie +efore the stor reaches you, you should "et as far down the ountain and
away fro the e,-osed rid"es as -ossi+le# 5ou should a*oid rid"es that doinate
the s.yline2the iddle of a rid"e is -referred to the end of a rid"e#
If li"htnin" stri.es see iinent or are stri.in" near+y, you should see.
-rotection fro direct stri.es and "round currents# A flat shelf slo-e, or sli"htly
raised area doinated +y a near+y hi"h -oint "i*es -rotection fro li"htnin"
stri.es# If -ossi+le, you should stay away fro da- or lichen2co*ered roc.# 5ou
should tie yourself to a -oint of -rotection if a se*ere shoc. would cause you to
fall#
$i"htnin" .ills +y -assin" throu"h the u--er torso and the heart, causin" cardiac
arrest# Kee- your hands and u--er +ody ele*ated away fro the "round to hel-
deny electricity a -ath throu"h the u--er +ody to the heart# To increase the
chances for sur*i*al if near a stri.e, you should a*oid u--er +ody -ro,iity to the
"round and .ee- o+@ects attached to you away fro the "round#
41# /o"#
On windward slo-es, -ersistent fo", cloudiness, and -reci-itation often continue for days#
They are caused ainly +y the local +arrier effect of the ountains on -re*ailin" winds#
Any cloud +an. a--ears as a fo" fro within# /o" liits *isi+ility and causes white2out
conditions that ha-er o-erations +y increasin" the chance of accidents# It does,
howe*er, aid sur-rise attac.s# >hen e*er tra*elin" without landar.s, it is necessary to
use a co-ass, altieter, and a- to aintain direction# If fo" and -reci-itation occur at
the sae tie, you ay need e,tra clothin" for -rotection a"ainst cold and wetness#
44# Tra*elin" Stors#
The ost se*ere conditions, stors with stron" winds and hea*y -reci-itation, are due to
wides-read atos-heric distur+ances, which usually tra*el easterly in the iddle and
hi"h latitudes# If a tra*elin" stor is encountered in the al-ine !one durin" winter, all the
e8ui-ent and s.ills of a ilitary ountaineer are tested a"ainst low te-eratures, hi"h
winds, and +lindin" snow#
The stors result fro the interaction of cold and war air# The se8uence of
weather e*ents, with the a--roach and -assin" of a tra*elin" stor, de-ends on
the stors de*elo-ent, and whether its -ath is to the north or south of a "i*en
ountain area# Cirrus clouds er"e and lower "radually until they +ecoe
altostratus# Tra*elin" stors do not usually occur in tro-ic re"ions#
A stor -assin" to the north ay +rin" war te-eratures with southerly winds#
Preci-itation ay o*e in fro the northwest, and local cloudiness often
o+scures frontal -assa"es in the ountains# The stor ay "o so far to the north
that only the cold front -henoenon of hea*y clouds, s8ualls, thundershowers,
and cold weather are e,-erienced# The sae stor -assin" to the south would +e
acco-anied +y a "radual wind shift fro northeasterly to northwesterly, with a
steady te-erature fall and continuous -reci-itation#
Ra-idly chan"in" weather conditions often create "la!e, a coatin" of ice that
fors on e,-osed o+@ects# %la!e occurs with in*ersions when li"ht rain or dri!!le
falls throu"h air +elow ;9 de"rees /, and stri.es a surface that is also +elow ;9
de"rees /, free!in" to the surface in the for of "la!e, and only -ersists if colder
weather follows#
49# >eather /orecastin"#
The use of a -orta+le aneroid +aroeter, theroeter, wind eter, and hy"roeter hel-
in a.in" local weather forecasts# Re-orts fro other localities and any weather ser*ice,
includin" )SA/, )SN, or the National >eather &ureau, are also hel-ful# )se these
weather re-orts in con@unction with the local weather forecast, since weather at *arious
ele*ations ay +e 8uite different due to cloud hei"ht, te-erature, and +aroetric
-ressure differences# /orecasts ust reach the sall2unit leaders who are e,-ected to
a.e use of weather conditions for assi"ned issions#
4;# &ad >eather#
6ost of the +ad weather e,-erienced in ountain re"ions is due to:
$ocal stors in the for of thunderstors, with or without showers#
Tra*elin" stors, which ay +e acco-anied +y radical and se*ere weather
chan"es o*er a +road area# )sually each ty-e of stor ay +e identified +y the
clouds associated with it#
Seasonal oisture2+earin" winds AonsoonsB, which +rin" +ad weather to soe
ountain ran"es and ay last for se*eral wee.s#
4=# >eather Predictions#
>eather -redictions are +ased on educated estiation or on eteorolo"ical e*idence#
Nati*es of an area ay su--ly weather .nowled"e that is accurate# An indi*idual
reainin" in one ountain re"ion for se*eral wee.s in any season can add indications for
that area +ased on his own e,-erience#
Chan"in" >eather# This chan"e ay +e indicated +y a ar.ed shift in -ressure,
wind *elocity, or wind direction? an a+noral chan"e in te-erature? or in the
oisture content of the air within a 492hour -eriod#
Tra*elin" Stors# The a--roach of a tra*elin" stor is indicated when:
A thin *eil of cirrus clouds s-reads o*er the s.y, thic.enin" and lowerin"
until altostratus clouds are fored# The sae trend is shown at ni"ht when
a halo fors around the oon and then dar.ens until only the "low of the
oon is *isi+le# >hen there is no oon, cirrus clouds only di the stars
+ut altostratus clouds co-letely hide the#
$ow clouds, which ha*e +een -ersistent on lower slo-es, +e"in to rise at
the tie u--er clouds a--ear#
(arious layers of clouds o*e in at different hei"hts and +ecoe
a+undant#
$ens2sha-ed clouds acco-anyin" stron" winds lose their strealined
sha-e and other cloud ty-es a--ear in increasin" aounts#
A chan"e in the direction of the wind is acco-anied +y a ra-id rise in
te-erature not caused +y solar radiation# This ay also indicate a war,
da- -eriod#
A li"ht "reen ha!e is o+ser*ed shortly after sunrise in ountain re"ions
a+o*e the ti+erline#
$ocal Distur+ances# Indications of local thunderstor showers or s8ually weather
are:
An increase in si!e and ra-id thic.enin" of scattered cuulus clouds
durin" the afternoon#
The a--roach of a line of lar"e cuulus or cuuloni+us clouds with an
ad*ance "uard of altocuulus clouds# At ni"ht, increasin" li"htnin"
windward of the -re*ailin" wind "i*es the sae warnin"#
6assi*e cuulus clouds han"in" o*er a rid"e or suit at ni"httie or
daytie#
Stron" >inds# Indications of a--roachin" stron" winds ay +e:
Plues of +lowin" snow fro the crests of rid"es and -ea.s or ra""ed
shreds of cloud o*in" ra-idly#
Persistent lens2sha-ed clouds? or a +and of clouds o*er hi"h -ea.s and
rid"es, or downwind fro the#
A tur+ulent and ra""ed +anner cloud that han"s to the lee of a -ea.#
/air >eather# /air weather ay +e associated with:
A cloudless s.y and shallow fo", or layers of so.e or ha!e at *alley
+ottos in early ornin"#
A cloudless s.y that is +lue down to the hori!on or down to where a le*el
ha!e layer fors a secondary hori!on#
Conditions under which sall cuulus clouds a--earin" in the forenoon
do not increase +ut decrease or *anish durin" the day#
Clear s.ies e,ce-t for a low cloud dec. that does not rise or thic.en durin"
the day#
Si"ns of &ad >eather Awithin 9= to =E hoursB# This ay include:
A "radual lowerin" of the clouds# This ay +e the arri*al or foration of a
new lower strata of clouds# It can also indicate the foration of a
thunderhead#
An increasin" halo around the sun or oon#
An increase in huidity and te-erature#
Cirrus Aares tailsB clouds#
A decrease in +aroetric -ressure Are"istered as a "ain in ele*ation on an
altieterB#
Si"ns of %ood >eather# This ay include:
A "radual risin" and diinishin" of the clouds#
A decreasin" halo around the sun or oon#
Dew on the "round in the ornin"#
Sall snowfla.es, ice crystals, or dri!!le, which indicate that the clouds
are thin and fair weather ay e,ist at hi"her altitudes#
An increase in +aroetric -ressure Are"istered as a loss in ele*ation on an
altieterB#
Preci-itation# >hen there is -reci-itation and the s.y cannot +e seen:
Sall snowfla.es or ice crystals indicate that the clouds a+o*e are thin, and fair weather
e,ists at hi"h altitudes#
A steady fall of snowfla.es or raindro-s indicate that the -reci-itation has +e"un at hi"h
le*els, and +ad weather is li.ely to +e encountered on rid"es and -ea.s#
PART C - ACCLIMATIZATION AND CONDITIONING
4# %eneral#
&efore underta.in" e,tensi*e ilitary o-erations in hi"h ountainous ele*ations, as a
soldier, you re8uire a -eriod of accliati!ation# It is unrealistic to thin. that a freshly
de-loyed, unaccliati!ed unit can -erfor well in action# This could +e disastrous if the
o--osin" force is accliati!ed# E*en the -hysically fit soldier e,-eriences -hysiolo"ical
and -sycholo"ical de"radation when thrust into hi"h ele*ations#
Tie ust +e allocated to allow for accliati!ation, conditionin" and trainin"# Trainin"
in ountains of low or ediu ele*ation A4,:11 to 9,:11 etersB does not re8uire s-ecial
conditionin" and accliati!ation -rocedures, howe*er, i-airent of o-eratin"
efficiency on soe soldiers ay occur#
A+o*e ;,111 eters Ahi"h ele*ationB, ost unaccliati!ed soldiers ay +e e,-ected to
dis-lay soe altitude effects# A+out 41 -ercent ay e,-erience sy-tos of acute
ountain sic.ness AA6SB# Conduct trainin" at a hi"h altitude of a+out 9,:11 eters
"radually increasin" it and endin" at :,111 eters? accliati!ation +eyond :,111 eters
will result in de"radation of the +ody "reater than the +enefits "ained# E-loyent of the
local -o-ulation ay +e ad*anta"eous +ecause they ha*e li*ed at hi"her ele*ations, and
can +e e,-ected to out -erfor the ost fit and accliati!ed soldier#
9# Sy-tos and Ad@ustents#
5ou are accliati!ed to hi"h altitudes when you are a+le to effecti*ely -erfor -hysically
and entally# The accliati!ation -rocess +e"ins iediately u-on arri*al at the hi"her
ele*ation, and if the chan"e is a+ru-t, it is e,-ected that ost of you will suffer the
sy-tos of acute ountain sic.ness#
These sy-tos will disa--ear fro four to se*en days, +ut their disa--earance does not
indicate co-lete accliati!ation# The -rocess of ad@ustent continues for wee.s or
onths# Co-lete accliati!ation is achie*ed at a+out :,111 eters#
Iediately u-on arri*al at hi"h ele*ations, only inial -hysical wor. can +e
-erfored +ecause of -hysiolo"ical chan"es# The a+ility to wor. decreases as you
"o hi"her, a+out a 41 -ercent reduction for e*ery 4,111 eters "ained a+o*e
41,111 eters#
)naccliati!ed soldiers will dis-lay soe or all of the followin" +eha*ioral
effects:
Increased errors in -erforin" si-le ental arithetic#
Decreased a+ility for sustained concentration#
Deterioration of eory#
Decreased *i"ilance#
Increased irrita+ility in soe indi*iduals#
I-airent of ni"ht *ision and soe constriction in -eri-heral *ision Au-
to ;1 -ercent at 9,111 etersB#
$oss of a--etite#
Slee- distur+ances#
Irre"ular +reathin"#
5our @ud"eent and self2e*aluation are i-aired the sae as if you were
into,icated# &ecause of the hi"h altitude ad@ustent, durin" the first few days your
unit will e,-erience difficulties aintainin" a coordinated, o-erational unit# The
terrain and weather will contri+ute to the -ro+les of unaccliati!ed soldiers# If
you cannot wal. a strai"ht line and you ha*e a loss of +alance, you should +e
e*acuated to a lower altitude# To wal. a strai"ht line, -lace one foot in front of the
other#
;# Personal 7y"iene and Sanitation#
The -rinci-les of -ersonal hy"iene and sanitation that "o*ern o-erations in low terrain
also a--ly in the ountains#
%ood health is -riarily a -ersonal res-onsi+ility, and ins-ections ust +e conducted
fre8uently to ensure that -ersonal ha+its of hy"iene are not ne"lected# 5ou ust aintain
standards as a deterrent to disease, and as a reinforceent to disci-line and orale#
Personal hy"iene# Durin" -eriods of cold weather, your -ersonal hy"iene is *ery
i-ortant in the hi"h ountains# Due to the cold weather and scarcity of water,
you ay ne"lect washin", which can result in s.in infection and *erin
infestation# 5ou should chec. your s.in and clean it as often as -ossi+le# To hel-
reduce s.in infections you should ta.e snow +aths in lieu of water +aths#
Durin" cold weather, snow ay +e used instead of toilet -a-er# 5ou ust a*oid water2
+ase creas and lotions since their use will further dehydrate tissues and induce frost+ite
+y free!in"# If -ossi+le, use nonwater2+ase creas to sha*e in lieu of soa-# It is essential
that you use cha-stic.s on your li-s, nose, and eyelids# 6a.e sure you carry to-ical
ointents for rashes# In order to -re*ent tooth decay and "u disease your teeth should
+e +rushed daily# Chan"e your underwear as often as -ossi+le, +ut do not su+stitute it for
+athin"# If -ossi+le, you should carry a co-lete chan"e of clothin", and you should wash
your unifor at least once a wee., or if launderin" is difficult, your unifor should +e
sha.en and air dried# To -rotect yourself, clean and air your slee-in" +a" on a re"ular
+asis#
To -rotect your feet fro cold in@uries, you ust follow the -rinci-les of foot hy"iene#
>hen cli+in", your +oots should +e laced ti"htly to -ro*ide needed su--ort# To a*oid
+listers on your feet, wear your soc.s with no wrin.les, wash your feet daily, and if
-ossi+le, .ee- the dry and clean# If you cannot wash your feet on a re"ular +asis, try to
chan"e your soc.s daily durin" halts and rest -eriods# 6assa"e, dry, and s-rin.le the
with talc or anti2fun"al -owder, +rushin" off the e,cess -owder to a*oid clu-in", which
ay cause +listers# 5ou ay use snow to clean your feet, +ut dry the 8uic.ly# >hen you
chan"e your soc.s, chec. your feet for wrin.les, crac.s, +listers, and discolorations# Tri
your nails Alon" nails wear out soc.sB +ut not too short +ecause they will not -ro*ide
-ro-er su--ort for the ends of your toes# See. edical attention for any -ro+les#
5ou should s-ray your feet two or three ties a day with an aluinu chlorohydrate
anti-ers-irant for a wee. and then once a day for the rest of the winter#
This -rocess controls a+out D1 -ercent of the sweatin" in the feet# If fissures or crac.s
occur in the feet, then discontinue s-rayin" until they are healed or s-ray less often to
control the sweatin"#
Durin" -eriods of e,tree cold weather, you ay +ecoe consti-ated# Ade8uate water
inta.e -lus a low -rotein, hi"h rou"ha"e diet can +e hel-ful in -re*entin" consti-ation#
Sanitation# If you ha*e to di" latrines, a.e sure they are located downwind fro
your -ositions and are +uried or co*ered iediately after use# >hen usin" a
CcatholeC latrine, a.e sure it is located away fro water sources# Since waste
free!es, it can +e co*ered with snow and ice or -ushed down a cre*asse# In roc.y
areas you ay co*er waste with stones#
=# >ater Su--ly#
5ou should ne*er assue that ountain water is safe for consu-tion# 5ou ust drin.
water only fro a--ro*ed sources# In order for you to o-erate efficiently, fluids lost
throu"h res-iration, -ers-iration, and urination ust +e re-laced#
In ountain o-erations, hy-er*entilation and the cool, dry atos-here +rin" a+out
a three2to2four2fold increase in water loss +y e*a-oration throu"h the lun"s# 5ou
ust a.e an effort to drin. li8uids e*en when you do not feel thirsty# 5ou
should drin. one 8uart of water, or the e8ui*alent, e*ery four hours# If your unit is
conductin" ri"orous -hysical acti*ities, you should drin. ore water#
5ou should drin. at least four 8uarts of water each day# A loss of two 8uarts of
+ody fluid A9#: -ercent of +ody wei"htB decreases -hysical efficiency +y 9:
-ercent# A loss of 49 8uarts A4: -ercent of +ody wei"htB is usually fatal# In your
eals you should re-lace the salt lost +y sweatin" to a*oid deficiency and
cra-in"# Salt ta+lets are not necessary and ay contri+ute to dehydration# 5our
ilitary rations Athree eals a dayB -ro*ide sufficient sodiu re-laceent#
Drin. sall aounts of water often, a lar"e *olue ay slow you down# If you
are hot, and the water is cold, se*ere cra-in" ay result# Kee- -ure water in
reser*e for first aid use# 5ou ust -lace e-hasis on the three rules of water
disci-line#
Drin. only treated water#
Conser*e water for drin.in"# Pota+le water in the ountains ay +e in
short su--ly#
Do not containate or -ollute water sources#
Other sources of water are snow, ountain streas, s-rin"s, rain, and la.es# 5ou
ust a.e sure the water has +een -urified, no atter how clear it a--ears# After
the water has +een -urified, you ay add fruits, @uices, and -owdered +e*era"es to
su--leent and encoura"e water inta.e# If the water su--ly is insufficient, reduce
your -hysical acti*ities# Any te-orary deficiency ust +e re-laced to aintain
a,iu -erforance#
All water that is to +e consued ust +e -ota+le# 6a.e sure that you drin. water
only fro a--ro*ed sources or -urify it to a*oid containation and disease# Do
not drin. non-ota+le water# >ater that is unfit to drin., +ut is not dan"erous, ay
+e used for +athin"# 5ou ust a*oid wastin" water# To stay cool and aintain a
functionin" +ody it is +est to drin. water as often as -ossi+le#
Since water is scarce a+o*e the ti+erline, waterin" -arties should +e esta+lished#
Snow and ice ay +e a*aila+le for eltin" after sundown# 5ou ay di" a shallow
reser*oir to collect water in areas where it tric.les off roc.s# Purify water +y usin"
iodine or calciu hy-ochlorite ta+lets, or +y +oilin" for 41 inutes Alon"er at
hi"her ele*ationsB# /ilterin" will reo*e sedient# Protect the water fro free!in"
+y storin" it ne,t to you or +y -lacin" it in a slee-in" +a"#
:# Nutrition#
Success in ountain o-erations de-ends on -ro-er nutrition# 7i"her altitudes affect
eatin" ha+its, therefore, you should ta.e -recautions# If -ossi+le, you should eat at least
one hot eal each day, which ay re8uire heatin" of indi*idual rations#
The followin" eleents are characteristics of nutritional accliati!ation in
ountain o-erations:
>ei"ht loss durin" the first two to three days at hi"h ele*ation#
A loss of a--etite with sy-tos of ountain sic.ness#
$oss of wei"ht usually sto-s with accliati!ation#
At -ro"ressi*ely hi"her ele*ations A"reater than =,;11 etersB, the tolerance of fatty foods
ra-idly decreases# A hi"h car+ohydrate diet ay lessen the sy-tos of acute ountain
sic.ness and is di"ested +etter than fat at hi"h altitudes#
6alnutrition ay result fro the lac. of eatin" -ro-erly due to increased fati"ue,
and the un-leasant taste of cold rations# To increase orale and a sense of well2
+ein", you should ensure that fuel ta+lets and s8uad sto*es as well as flaa+le
aterial are a*aila+le and used for heatin" foods# Since you will e,-erience loss
of wei"ht due to dehydration, eta+olic chan"es, and loss of a--etite, it is
necessary that you increase consu-tion of car+ohydrates, ener"y, and li8uids +y
drin.in" car+ohydrate2containin" +e*era"es, such as fruit @uices and cocoa#
There are three a@or co-onents re8uired to aintain a well2functionin" +ody:
-roteins, fats and oils, and car+ohydrates# They -ro*ide ener"y, aino acids,
*itains, fi+er, and inerals# To aintain a healthy +ody, all three co-onents
ust +e -ro*ided in the correct -ro-ortions#
Proteins consist of a lar"e nu+er of aino acid units that are lin.ed to"ether to for the
-rotein# The aino acids are a+sor+ed throu"h the intestine into the +lood# They a.e or
re-lace +ody -roteins, uscle, and +ody tissue# Soe of the usa+le anial -roteins
include e""s, il., cheese, -oultry, fish, and eats? other foods such as cereals,
*e"eta+les, and le"ues also -ro*ide aino acid, +ut are not as +alanced in essential
aino co-ositions# As a daily -rotein re8uireent, the iniu is E ounces A99D
"rasB for a 4:=2-ound AD12."B an# Protein re8uires water for di"estion and ay
facilitate dehydration#
/ats and oils are the ost concentrated for of food ener"y# 6ain sources of fats and oils
are eat, nuts, +utter, e""s, il., and cheese# /ats re8uire ore water and o,y"en, and
are harder to di"est at hi"her altitudes#
Car+ohydrates are an i-ortant source of calories, and can +e found in the ost
i-ortant ener"y2-roducin" cycles in the +ody<s cells# If the inta.e e,ceeds ener"y needs,
oderate aounts are stored in the uscles and li*er? lar"er aounts are con*erted into
fat and stored# The ost useful sources of car+ohydrates are foods such as unrefined
"rains, *e"eta+les, and fruits#
There are two "rou-s of *itains# They are distin"uished +y their a+ility to dissol*e in
either fat or water# /at2solu+le *itains include A, D, E, and K? water2solu+le *itains
are &, and C, which are found in cereals, *e"eta+les, fruits, and eats# It is necessary that
you aintain a -ro-er and well2+alanced diet which -ro*ides all of the re8uired *itains,
includin" fat2 and water2solu+le *itains# If a de-loyent is to e,ceed 41 days, you
should consider ta.in" *itain su--leents to -re*ent the occurrence of an i-ro-er and
un+alanced diet#
6ineral eleents can +e di*ided into two "rou-s: those needed in the diet in aounts of
411 illi"ras or ore a day such as calciu, -hos-horous, and a"nesiu? and trace
eleents needed in aounts of only a few illi"ras a day such as iodine, iron, and !inc#
Re8uired inerals are contained in a +alanced diet of eats, *e"eta+les, and fruits#
A +alanced diet containin" ade8uate aounts of *itains and inerals ensures an
efficient eta+olis, and will -roote the hi"h le*el of ener"y needed to conduct
daily acti*ities in ountainous o-erations#
De-endin" on you, the efficiency of your +ody to wor. a+o*e the +asal eta+olis ay
*ary fro 91 to =1 -ercent# O*er :1 -ercent of caloric inta.e is released as heat and is not
a*aila+le when you wor.? a+out =,:11 calories are e,-ended for strenuous wor. and
;,:11 calories for "arrison acti*ity# Pers-iration causes e,cessi*e +odily heat loss# 5our
eta+olis ay not -ro*ide enou"h heat durin" inacti*e -eriods in cold weather,
initiatin" the Cinternal therostatC and causin" the uscles to shi*er# This releases heat
and re8uires +urn u- of ener"y? u- to 991 calories -er hour is estiated for a 4112-ound
an#
Durin" ascent to hi"h altitudes, your +ody e,-eriences -hysiolo"ical accliati!ation, and
your circulatory syste la+ors to -ro*ide the needed o,y"en to the +ody# >hile
accliati!in" at hi"her ele*ations, you should eat li"ht eals that are hi"h in
car+ohydrates# $ar"e eals re8uire the di"esti*e syste to wor. harder, and ay +e
acco-anied +y indi"estion, shortness of +reath, cra-s, and illness# Car+ohydrates,
+e"innin" in the ornin" and continuin" throu"h id2afternoon, are i-ortant in
aintainin" ener"y le*els# If -ossi+le, you should eat oderately, and rest +efore
strenuous -hysical acti*ity#
5ou should carry e,tra, li"htwei"ht food that can +e eaten hot or cold in case resu--ly
o-erations fail# 6eals Ready to Eat A6REsB eet this criteria and -ro*ide all of the +asic
food "rou-s#
As a leader, you ay want to su--leent 6REs with +rea.fast +ars, @uices, fruits, and
candies, cereal +ars, and chocolate# Also, to re-lace water and salt you ay use +ouillon
cu+es which war u- cold +odies and stiulate a--etites# 5ou ay consider hot
+e*era"es of sou-, @uices, -owdered il., and cider# &ecause coffee, tea, and hot
chocolate are diuretics, do not rely on the for hydration and rehydration of the +ody#
Kee- e8ui-ent and aunition away fro coo.in" areas and ree+er at hi"her
ele*ations coo.in" tie ay +e dou+led# 5ou ay conser*e fuel, sto*es, fires, and e,tra
fuel ta+lets +y shieldin" the fro the wind while coo.in"# Store e,tra fuel in ti"htly
sealed, ar.ed, etal containers# To -urify water and war food, you should use sto*es
and heat ta+s# 5ou should clean all utensils and canteen cu-s after use, and your unit ust
carry all food ites and "ar+a"e# If -ossi+le, "ar+a"e should +e +urned or dee-2+uried to
-re*ent anials fro fora"in"# As all issions are tactical, no trace of a unit should +e
detected#
>hen o-eratin" in e,treely cold conditions or at hi"h altitudes, you should a*oid
certain dru"s and edications, alcohol, and so.in"# These su+stances will affect your
circulation, -ers-iration, hydration, and @ud"eent#
3# Physical and Psycholo"ical Conditionin"#
To ensure the success of ountain o-erations, as a leader, you ust i-leent and
-rioriti!e a conditionin"Htrainin" -ro"ra in your unit#
)#S# forces do not routinely train in ountainous terrain# To achie*e indi*idual
and unit effecti*eness, the unit ust +e -hysically and -sycholo"ically
conditioned, and ad@usted +efore underta.in" ri"orous ountain o-erations, as
well as trained as a tea to co-e with the terrain, en*ironent, and eney
situation#
The followin" factors ust +e considered:
>hat are the cliatic and terrain conditions of the area of o-erationsI
7ow uch tie is a*aila+le for conditionin" and trainin"I
>ill the unit conduct o-erations with other )#S# or Allied /orcesI Are
there lan"ua"e +arriersI >hat assistance will +e re8uiredI >ill trainin"
and conditionin" +e re8uired for attached -ersonnelI
>hat additional -ersonnel will acco-any the unitI >ill they +e a*aila+le
for trainin" and conditionin"I
>hat is the current le*el of -hysical fitness of the unitI
>hat is the current le*el of indi*idual e,-ertise in ountaineerin"I
>hat ty-e of o-erations can +e e,-ectedI
>hat is the co-osition of the ad*ance -artyI >ill they +e a*aila+le to
assist in trainin" and accliati!ationI
>hat areas in the )#S# ost closely rese+le the area of o-erationsI
Are -rede-loyent areas and ran"es a*aila+leI
Does the unit ha*e 8ualified instructors in ountain warfareI
>hat ty-e e8ui-ent will +e re8uired Ato fit the season, ission, terrainBI
Does the unit ha*e enou"h of the re8uired e8ui-entI Do -ersonnel .now
how to use the e8ui-entI >ill the e8ui-ent "o with the ad*ance -arty,
with the unit, or follow after the unit<s arri*alI
Are any odifications to e8ui-ent re8uiredI
Are there any s-ecial aintenance re8uireents for wea-ons and
e8ui-entI
)-on arri*al at the area of o-erations, all -ersonnel will re8uire a -eriod of
conditionin" and accliati!ation? the tie schedule should allow for lar"er and
ore fre8uent -eriods of rest initially# >ater, food, and rest ust +e considered as
-riorities, ensurin" enou"h aounts, while indi*idual eta+oliss and +odies
+ecoe accustoed to functionin" at hi"her ele*ations#
Since the accliati!ation -rocess cannot +e shortened, and the a+sence of
accliati!ation ha-ers the successful e,ecution of o-erations, de-loyent to
hi"her ele*ations ust consider the followin":
6o*e u-ward +y sta"es, s-endin" two or three days at each sta"e# The first sta"e +e"ins
at the 9,:112eter le*el, and su+se8uent daily sta"es are at each succeedin" ;112eter
increent until the destination is reached# &y this tie, soe accliati!ation will ha*e
occurred, ountain sic.ness reduced, and the o-erational -otential increased#
A unit should rest after each 4,111 eters of ele*ation "ain to recu-erate and accliati!e
fro the lower ele*ations# )nits can lea-fro", ta.in" an e,tended rest -eriod e*ery third
ni"ht#
>hen a*aila+le fro the edical su--ort channels, -retreat with car+onic anhydrase
inhi+itors Asuch as aceta!olaideB# This reduces the incidence and se*erity of acute
ountain sic.ness fro =1 -ercent to 31 -ercent, de-endin" u-on the hei"ht of
de-loyent#
Initially, accliati!e at a hi"h altitude in the continental )#S#, or other safe area? then
de-loy to the o-erational site +y ra-id trans-ort# Do not "o down to lower altitudes A9=2 to
=E2hour -eriodsB +efore de-loyent since reentry to altitude can cause -ro+les in
accliati!ation#
6o*e troo-s directly to hi"h altitudes if allowances can +e ade for inacti*ity for the first
three to fi*e days +efore ission coitent# 6o*in" troo-s directly to hi"h altitude can
increase the -ro+a+ility of altitude sic.ness# E*en if there is inacti*ity followin"
de-loyent the incidence of altitude sic.ness is ore li.ely than with a "radual ascent#
Personnel in*ol*ed in ountaineerin" ay ha*e -reconcei*ed +eliefs a+out the
harful effects of hi"h altitude# Psycholo"ical ad@ustent is an i-ortant factor in
the success of the o-eration# Ill effects of hi"h altitude can +e -re*ented throu"h
i-leentation of educational -ro"ras, "radually introducin" -ersonnel to the
new terrain and encoura"in" confidence when ne"otiatin" stee- slo-es of cliffs#
Personnel will o*ercoe the fear of hei"hts +y +ecoin" failiar with the
-ro+le, and learnin" the any cli+in" techni8ues and -rinci-les of ountain
o*eent#
Re"ardless of -re*ious flat cross2country Ary trainin", -ersonnel will find
ountain o*eent hard and tirin"# Durin" the o-eration, new techni8ues of
rhythic o*eent ust +e learned, and different "rou-s of uscles will +e
used, de*elo-ed, and hardened# The +ac. and le"s will +e conditioned +y
fre8uently archin", carryin" Ta+le of Or"ani!ation and E8ui-ent ATOEB and
s-ecial e8ui-ent loads# Pro-er -hysical conditionin" results in decreased
e,haustion#
To increase endurance and -hysical conditionin", a -hysical trainin" -ro"ra
should include: lon"2distance runnin" for aero+ic conditionin"? calisthenics and
wei"ht trainin" to stren"then the heart, lun"s, a+doen, le"s, +ac., ars, and
hands? a swiin" -ro"ra to increase lun" efficiency? and road arches o*er
ountainous terrain with all co+at e8ui-ent# Once de-loyed to hi"h
ele*ations, the heart rate, eta+olis, and lun"s ust +ecoe accustoed to the
ele*ation and thinner air# Therefore, set u- a conditionin" -ro"ra on site and
inte"rate in "radual sta"es where accliati!ation, conditionin", and
ountaineerin" s.ills are reali!ed#
The conditionin" -ro"ra should +e"in with +asic cli+in" -rocedures# The .ey
to learnin" and aintainin" cli+in" -roficiency and technical s.ills is re-etiti*e
and reinforceent -ractice until an instincti*e reaction is ac8uired#
D# 6ountain $i*in"#
/or the o-eration to +e successful, trainin" should +e conducted as realistically as
-ossi+le# The units in*ol*ed ust recei*e ad*anced trainin" to sur*i*e in the harsh
ountain en*ironent# Trainin" should include acti*ities that re8uire s-eciali!ed
techni8ues such as na*i"ation, counications, and o*eent, and should +e conducted
under se*ere conditions so the indi*idual soldier "ains confidence#
Durin" the de*elo-ent of trainin", the followin" factors should +e considered:
Te-erature e,trees#
7y"iene and sanitation#
$iited li*in" s-ace Adifficulty of +i*ouacB#
Air Adehydration and +reathin"B#
Clothin" re8uireents#
E# 6ountain Na*i"ation#
Na*i"ation in the ountains is ore difficult than on flat terrain +ecause of inaccurate
a--in", a"netic attraction affectin" co-ass accuracy, and irre"ular -ace# Soldiers
ust +e trained to use a *ariety of e8ui-ent and techni8ues as aids to na*i"ation:
co-asses, altieter, -ace, ro-e len"ths, a-, celestial na*i"ation, terrain association,
dead rec.onin", resection, and artillery ar.in"#
S.ill in na*i"ation de*elo-s throu"h e,-erience# To ensure that directions and
routes are correctly deterined, the indi*idual soldier ust dis-lay an effecti*e
use of lensatic, li8uid2filled, -risatic, and other co-asses# Also, "rid2a"netic
A%6B an"les ust +e considered when deterinin" a!iuths for direction,
intersection, and resection# Do not rely on a co-ass alone for deterinin" a
location +ecause hidden a"netic anoalies ay deflect the earth<s a"netic
field# Pace counts should +e used in con@unction with a a- and altieter throu"h
terrain association, and deterined +efore o*eent#
Altieters are useful in deterinin" altitude and *erifyin" location, +ut they are
only as accurate as the s.ill and e,-erience of the indi*idual soldier# Altieters
are usually accurate to within 41 eters of their indicated altitude#
6a-s -ro*ide a -riary source of inforation concernin" the area of o-erations,
4:9:,111 a-s de-ict uch ore detail than 4::1,111 a-s, and should +e used
when choosin" routes#
All a*aila+le inforation a+out the friendly and eney situations ust +e re*iewed
+efore selectin" a route# Aerial -hoto"ra-hs -ro*ide details norally not shown on a-s#
Do not rely on s.etch a-s< accuracy, +ut they ay +e used as a su--leent to other
sources of inforation, and if a*aila+le, you ay use forest ser*ice and hunters< a-s#
Standard, ilitary to-o"ra-hic a-s are a*aila+le and are usually accurate "ra-hic
descri-tions of the area of o-erations#
0# Sur*i*al#
Sur*i*al trainin" should include -sycholo"ical -re-aration, locatin" water, shelter
considerations, fire +uildin", health ha!ards, and techni8ues for o+tainin" food# An
indi*idual soldier well trained and -re-ared to fi"ht and sur*i*e in a ountain
en*ironent will ha*e increased confidence in hiself#
41# Counications# Durin" ountainous o-erations, all eans of counication
should +e considered: /6, A6, ultichannel, wire, satellite, *isual, and essen"er# They
re8uire -recise -lannin" and e,tensi*e coordination aon" all o-erational eleents# All
-ersonnel should recei*e counications trainin"#
To aintain counications, s-ecial antennas and retransission -rocedures ay ha*e
to +e used# >eather ay cause -ro+les with counications e8ui-ent and
aintenance#
44# 6edical Considerations#
After accliati!ation, -ersonnel in@uries such as s-rains, strains, fractures, frost+ite,
hy-otheria, and trench foot -ose any -ro+les for edical -ersonnel +ecause
facilities and su--lies ay +e inade8uate to treat all -atients# E*acuation of the sic. and
wounded is co-ounded +y the terrain and weather#
PART D - ILLNESS AND INJURY
To -ro*ide effecti*e su--ort durin" ountainous o-erations, certain edical as-ects
ust +e considered# Personnel ay suffer in@uries and illnesses that are not associated
with other areas#
4# E*acuation and Treatent#
Since unit<s aid stations cannot norally +e reached +y *ehicle, due to rou"h terrain, it
ay +e necessary to use litter +earers to o*e casualties to the rear where they can +e
e*acuated +y "round or air to clearin" stations# Trainin" ust +e acco-lished with all
litter +earers on e*acuation techni8ues and first aid# The ost i-ortant course of action
is to -ro*ide in@ured soldiers with edical aid as soon as -ossi+le#
9# Cold2>eather In@uries#
Cold2weather in@uries can occur durin" any season of the year# 6ost of these accidents
can +e -re*ented +y -ro-er -lannin", to include: tiely re8uisition and recei-t of su--lies
and -ro-er clothin"? thorou"h trainin" of -ersonnel with res-ect to the ha!ards of cold
weather? effecti*e ethods for the recei-t, disseination, and use of cold weather data?
-eriodic ins-ections of clothin", -ersonnel, and e8ui-ent? and -ersonnel recei*in" a
+alance of water, rest, and nutrition# As a soldier, you ust +e -re-ared to sur*i*e, o*e,
and fi"ht in winter conditions#
There are two ty-es of cold2weather in@uries: free!in" and nonfree!in"# The
free!in" ty-e is .nown as frost+ite# The nonfree!in" ty-e includes hy-otheria,
dehydration, trench foot, and iersion foot#
Si"nificant in@uries ay occur when the te-erature falls +elow 41 de"rees C A:1 de"rees
/B# Cold in@uries result fro i-aired circulation, and the action of ice foration and
cold u-on the tissues of the +ody#
6any other factors, in *arious co+inations, deterine if cold in@uries will occur#
These factors include huidity, wind s-eed, e,-osure tie, acti*ity, ty-e and
condition of clothin", and nuerous host factors such as: -re*ious cold in@uries?
race? "eo"ra-hic ori"in? a+ient te-eratures? wind chill factor? ty-e of ission?
terrain? clothin"? oisture? dehydration? a"e? fati"ue? concoitant in@ury?
disci-line, trainin", and e,-erience? nutrition? e,cess acti*ity? and radical chan"es
in the weather#
As a leader, you should ensure that:
Soldiers< unifors are .e-t as dry as -ossi+le and are -rotected fro the eleents#
Soldiers .now -ro-er use of clothin" systes to a*oid the effects of o*erheatin" and
-ers-iration Alayer dressin" and *entilateB#
The +uddy syste is used to o+ser*e for early si"ns of cold2weather in@uries#
All soldiers water-roof their e8ui-ent#
The rate of o*eent should +e slow, deli+erate, and careful# Soldiers should not o*e
out at a force arch -ace and then +e stationary after they ha*e -ers-ired hea*ily# They
should not wear e,cessi*e cold2weather clothin" while o*in"#
(entilate2insulate2-rotect A(IPB#
The followin" edical -rocedures ust +e i-leented when sic.ness and
in@uries occur:
Assess the situation Atactical and en*ironentalB#
A--roach the *icti safely Aa*oid roc. or snow slideB#
Perfor eer"ency first aid#
Treat for shoc. Aalways assue that shoc. is -resentB#
Chec. for other in@uriesHcold in@uries#
De*elo- a course of action Adecide on a eans of e*acuationB#
E,ecute the -lan and onitor the -atient<s condition#
&ody heat ay +e lost throu"h fi*e different echaniss:
Radiation# The direct heat loss fro the +ody to its surroundin"
atos-here is called radiation heat loss#
Conduction# The direct transfer of heat fro one o+@ect in contact with
another A+ein" rained on or sittin" in snowB is called conduction#
Con*ection# Con*ection is the loss of heat due to o*in" air or water in
contact with the s.in# The layer of war air ne,t to the s.in ust +e
controlled +y clothin" that *entilates, insulates, and -rotects#
E*a-oration# The e*a-oration of -ers-iration causes heat loss# Dressin" in
layers allows reo*al or addin" of clothin" as needed#
Res-iration# Res-iration also cools the +ody# Placin" a wool scarf or as.
o*er the outh and nose wars inhaled air and assists in .ee-in" the +ody
war#
Soe of the ost coon cold2weather in@uries are shoc.? dehydration?
hy-otheria? iersion or trenchfoot? +listers? frost+ite? consti-ation? car+on
ono,ide -oisonin"? and snow +lindness#
Shoc.# Shoc. is a sy-to or the result of other in@uries, and is the de-ressed state of
*ital or"ans due to the cardio*ascular AheartB syste not -ro*idin" enou"h +lood# Initial
si"ns of shoc. include a--rehension, shortness of +reath, sweatin", cold s.in, ra-id and
faint -ulse, and e,cessi*e thirst# Pro*ide iediate and ade8uate first aid +ecause e*en
inor in@uries can -roduce shoc. resultin" in incoherence, slower heart +eat,
unconsciousness, and -ossi+ly death# >hen treatin" a -atient you should a.e hi as
coforta+le as -ossi+le and try to relie*e the -ain# If needed -ro*ide artificial res-iration
or cardio-ulonary resuscitation# Kee- the -atient war +ut do not o*erheat hi# If there
are no a+doinal in@uries, and the -atient is conscious, you ay adinister water# O+tain
-ro-er edical attention as soon as -ossi+le#
Dehydration# Dehydration is the loss of your +ody fluids# It -recedes all cold2weather
in@uries and is a a@or sy-to in acute ountain sic.ness# Cold weather re8uireents
for water are no different than in the desert# 5ou need a+out 3 liters of water each day to
-re*ent dehydration when li*in" and -erforin" -hysical la+or in a cold or ountainous
en*ironent# 5ou should a*oid drin.in" lar"e 8uantities of coffee and tea since they
cause e,cessi*e urination#
The contri+utin" factors for dehydration are:
The thirst echanis does not function -ro-erly in cold weather#
>ater is often incon*enient to o+tain and -urify#
There is a lac. of oisture in the air in cold cliates and at hi"h altitudes#
Cold causes fre8uent urination#
The si"ns of dehydration include dar.enin" urine, decreased aounts of urine +ein"
-roduced, dry outh, tiredness, ental slu""ishness, lac. of a--etite, headache, faintin",
ra-id heart2 +eat, di!!iness, hi"her te-erature, u-set stoach, unconscious2 ness and
diarrhea# The sy-tos of dehydration are siilar to those of hy-otheria# To
distin"uish +etween the, o-en the *icti<s clothes and feel the stoach wall# If the
stoach is cold, the *icti is -ro+a+ly hy-otheric? if it is war, he is -ro+a+ly
dehydrated#
To treat dehydration, you ust consue = to 41 liters of fluids each day, and a*oid
caffeine and alcohol# See. shelter fro wind and cold# Do not eat snow? eatin" snow uses
+ody heat# /luid re-laceent, rest, and -ro-t edical attention are critical to your
reco*ery#
7y-otheria# 7y-otheria is a "eneral coolin" of your +ody# It ay +e caused +y
e,-osure or +y sudden iersion of the +ody, such as fallin" into a la.e or +ein" s-rayed
with fuel or other li8uid# 7y-otheria is classified as ild Acore te-erature +e2 low 0:
de"rees / or ;9 de"rees CB or se*ere Acore te-erature +e2 low 01 de"rees / or ;9
de"rees CB# An indi*idual is considered to +e Cclinically hy-othericC when the core
te-erature is less than or e8ual to 0: de"rees /#
The contri+utin" factors for hy-otheria are:
Dehydration#
Poor nutrition#
Diarrhea#
Decreased -hysical acti*ity#
Accidental iersion in water#
Chan"e in weather#
7i"h winds#
Inade8uate ty-es or aounts of clothin"#
The ain si"n of hy-otheria is when the +ody core ArectalB te-erature falls to a+out 03
de"rees /# Other sy-tos are: shi*erin", which +e"ins after a dro- in +ody te-erature
of 4 to 9 de"rees, a.in" it hard for an indi*idual to ta.e care of hiself? +ody
te-erature dro- fro 0: de"rees / to 01 de"rees /, which can cause slu""ish thin.in" in
"eneral? +ody te-erature dro- fro 01 de"rees to E: de"rees /, which causes total
incoherence? and +ody te-erature dro- fro E: de"rees / and +elow, which causes a
coatose state, and related si"ns#
To "uard a"ainst hy-otheria, you should -air u- with a +uddy to o+ser*e each other for
si"ns, consue ade8uate aounts of li8uids daily, rest, and eat -ro-erly# 5ou ay a*oid
hy-otheria +y dressin" in layers to -erit easy additions or deletions? to -re*ent
o*erheatin", +ecoin" too cold, "ettin" wet or wind+lown#
Treatent of hy-otheria de-ends u-on whether the case is ild or se*ere#
6ild cases: If there are si"ns of hy-otheria in a +uddy, -re*ent additional heat loss +y
"ettin" the *icti into a shelter, and re-lace wet clothin" with dry, insulated clothin" or a
slee-in" +a"# 5ou should rewar the +ody e*enly and without delay# Rehydrate the
*icti with war li8uids, sweets, and food, howe*er, you ust ne*er force 4li8uids on
an unconscious or seiconscious -erson +ecause you i"ht cho.e hi# Kee- the *icti
conscious until his *ital si"ns are noral, and see. edical assistance#
Se*ere cases: If the *icti is unconscious or a--ears dead without any o+*ious in@ury,
-re*ent further heat loss# It is e,treely dan"erous to atte-t to rewar a *icti in the
field, and ra-id rewarin" of an unconscious *icti ay create -ro+les and should4d
not +e atte-ted# It is +est to sta+ili!e the *icti<s te-erature? to atte-t to a*oid
further heat loss? to handle the *icti "ently? to -ro*ide artificial res-iration if +reathin"
sto-s? to +e aware that se*ere co-lications ay arise as the +ody te-erature rises,
which ay result in cardiac arrest e*en thou"h the *icti sees to +e doin" well? and
e*acuate the *icti iediately to the nearest edical treatent facility#
Iersion or Trench foot# This is daa"e to the circulatory and ner*ous systes of the
feet, which occurs fro -rolon"ed e,-osure to cold and wet at a+o*e free!in"
te-eratures# This can ha--en wearin" +oots or not# 5ou ay not feel uncoforta+le
until the in@ury has already +e"un#
Contri+utin" factors for iersion or trench foot are:
Ste--in" into water o*er the +oot to-s#
Not chan"in" soc.s often#
I-ro-er hy"iene#
Trench warfare#
$ac. of -lannin"#
Prolon"ed e,-osure Athree to fi*e daysB#
The ain si"ns of iersion or trench foot include the sensation of tin"lin", nu+ness,
and then -ain# As sy-tos -ro"ress and daa"e a--ears, the s.in +ecoes red and then
+luish or +lac.# Swellin" ay occur#
To treat iersion or trench foot, you should .ee- your feet dry and clean# 5ou should
chan"e soc.s often, dry the inside of +oots, and use foot -owder# 5ou ust o*e your
feet "ently and you ust not oisten or assa"e the s.in# 5ou ust ele*ate and e,-ose
your feet to roo te-erature# 5ou ust stay off your feet and see. edical attention#
>hen a se*ere case does not allow the feet to dry, you ust +e e*acuated as a litter
casualty# Dryin" the feet for 9= hours usually heals ild cases# 6oderate cases usually
heal within three to fi*e days# To -re*ent it, ta.e "ood care of your feet#
&listers# &efore its foration or once a +lister has fored, co*er it with a dressin" lar"e
enou"h to fit o*er the +lister, and then ta-e it# 5ou ust not drain a +lister unless it is red
or -us is detected? if this occurs, drain the +lister usin" a clean sterile needle, and "ently
-ress out the fluid fro the side lea*in" the s.in intact# 6a.e a dou"hnut of oles.in to
"o around the +lister and a--ly to the s.in# Toe +listers ay +e wra--ed entirely with
adhesi*e ta-e o*er the oles.in#
/rost+ite# /rost+ite is the free!in" or crystali!ation of li*in" tissues# The e,treities of
the +ody are the first to +e affected? e,-osure tie can +e inutes or instantaneous#
Da- hands and feet ay free!e 8uic.ly since oisture conducts heat away fro the
+ody and destroys the insulatin" *alue of clothin"# 7eat loss is co-ounded with intense
cold and inacti*ity# 5our clothin" and e8ui-ent are one of the ost i-ortant factors in
-re*entin" frost+ite# /rost+ite is one of the a@or nonfatal cold2weather in@uries
encountered in ilitary o-erations#
There are two cate"ories of frost+ite: su-erficial AildB and dee- Ase*ereB# Su-erficial
frost+ite in*ol*es only the s.in# The layer iediately +elow usually a--ears white to
"rayish# The surface feels hard, while the underlyin" tissue is soft# Dee- frost+ite e,tends
+eyond the first layer of s.in and ay include the +one# Discoloration continues fro
"ray to +lac.# The te,ture +ecoes hard as the tissue free!es dee-er# This case re8uires
iediate e*acuation to a edical facility#
The contri+utin" factors for frost+ite are:
Dehydration#
&elow2free!in" te-eratures or wind chill#
S.in contact with su-ercooled etals or li8uids#
)se of caffeine, to+acco, or alcohol#
Ne"lect#
The si"ns or sy-tos of frost+ite *ary and ay include a cold feelin", -ain, +urnin",
nu+ness, and in the final sta"es a false sense of warth# There will +e a redness of s.in,
turnin" -ale? the color ay +e +luish, and then ay a--ear frosty or wa,y white? the s.in
ay feel hard, ay not +e o*a+le o*er the @oints and +ony -roinences, or ay +e
fro!en# Dee- frost+ite is difficult to identify, and often re8uires three to se*en days after
rewarin" for edical -ersonnel to dia"nose# &listers, swellin", and -ain ay occur after
thawin"#
The C+uddy systeC is one of the -riary -re*enters of frost+ite# As +uddies, you ust
watch each other for si"ns and -ro*ide utual aid if frost+ite occurs# 5ou ust ensure
that -ro-t first aid care is a--lied in order to -re*ent further daa"e# Early si"ns ay +e
treated +y iediately rewarin" the +ody with s.in2to2s.in contact or +y shelterin" the
+ody -art under the clothin" ne,t to the +ody# If tissues are allowed to free!e, you should
not atte-t to thaw any -arts of the +ody# Thawin" of a frost+itten *icti is a hos-ital
-rocedure# 5ou ust e*acuate the *icti +efore the -art thaws, -rotect the fro!en -arts
fro further in@ury, and see. edical treatent as soon as -ossi+le# If fro!en e,treities
are in*ol*ed, e*acuate as a litter casualty#
If frost+ite is not reco"ni!ed +efore it thaws, you should not let the area refree!e since this
causes ore daa"e and ay re8uire a-utation# The -arts of your +ody ost often
affected +y frost+ite are the hands, fin"ers, toes, feet, ears, chin, and nose# If e*acuation
as a litter case is not -ossi+le, and you ust wal. to see. additional treatent, you should
not atte-t to thaw your feet2it is +etter to wal. on fro!en feet than to ha*e the thaw
and refree!e#
5ou ust always .ee- the -erson war and co*ered usin" +anda"es to se-arate toes and
fin"ers# If reheatin" is ine*ita+le, you should not o*erheat the affected +ody -arts near
flae# 6a.e sure the warin" te-erature is not "reater than the noral +ody
te-erature# 5ou should not ru+ the in@ured -arts +ecause the tissues ay +rea. internally
causin" ore daa"e# &listers should +e co*ered with a sterile dressin"# >hen
6EDE(AC is not -ossi+le, you ay ha*e to self2e*acuate# 5ou can wal. any iles on
fro!en feet, +ut thawed feet are i-ossi+le to wal. on#
Consti-ation# Consti-ation is the infre8uent or difficult -assa"e of stools#
Contri+utin" factors for consti-ation are:
$ac. of fluids#
I-ro-er nutrition#
Not defecatin" when needed#
The ain si"ns of consti-ation include headaches, cra-in", -ainful +owel o*eent,
and loss of a--etite#
To treat consti-ation, you ust consue ade8uate aounts and *arieties of food# 5ou
should drin. fro = to 3 liters of li8uid each day, and if -ossi+le, see. edical attention#
Car+on ono,ide -oisonin"# This is the re-laceent of o,y"en in the +lood with car+on
ono,ide#
A contri+utin" factor is the inhalation of fues fro +urnin" fuel without -ro-er
*entilation such as fires, sto*es, heaters, and runnin" en"ines#
The ain si"ns are headaches, fati"ue, e,cessi*e yawnin", nausea, di!!iness, drowsiness,
confusion, and unconsciousness# In soe cases death ay occur# The one *isi+le si"n is
+ri"ht red li-s, outh, and inside of the eyelids#
To treat car+on ono,ide -oisonin", if -ossi+le, reo*e the *icti fro the
containated area and adinister CPR# O,y"en ay +e used, if a*aila+le# 5ou ust
e*acuate the *icti to a edical facility +ecause se*ere co-lications ay de*elo- e*en
in casualties who a--ear to ha*e reco*ered#
Snow +lindness# Snow +lindness is a sun+urn of the cornea of the eye due to e,-osure to
ultra*iolet radiation# 5ou ay -re*ent it +y usin" 8uality sun"lasses# In an eer"ency,
you ay a.e a su+stitute fro aterials such as card+oard or +irch+ar.#
The contri+utin" factors for snow +lindness are:
Reflection of sunli"ht fro all directions off the snow, ice, and water#
)ltra*iolet rays can cause *ision -ro+les e*en on cloudy days# They are less
filtered at hi"her altitudes than at low altitudes#
The ain si"ns of snow +lindness are -ainful, red, watery eyes? sensation of "rit in your
eyes? +lurred *ision? a -in. cast to the *ision? and a headache#
To treat snow +lindness, you ay -atch +oth eyes with cold co-resses for 9= hours and
ta.e two as-irins e*ery si, hours# If -ossi+le, see. shelter in a dar. -lace# 5ou ust not
ru+ your eyes# Kee- your eyes -atched until e*acuation as a litter -atient is -ossi+le#
;# 7eat In@uries#
Althou"h associated with hot weather, these in@uries can occur in cold2weather
en*ironents# 6ost of these accidents can +e -re*ented +y -ro-er -lannin", -eriodic
ins-ection of -ersonnel clothin" and e8ui-ent, a +alance of water and food inta.e, and
-ro-er rest#
Soe of the ost coon heat in@uries are sun+urn, heat cra-s, heat
e,haustion, and heat stro.e#
Sun+urn# This is the +urnin" of e,-osed s.in surfaces +y ultra*iolet radiation#
The contri+utin" factors for sun+urn are:
/air s.in#
Not accustoed to direct sunli"ht#
E,-osure to intense ultra*iolet rays for e,tended -eriods#
The ain si"ns of sun+urn are -ainful, +urnin" red or +listered s.in with a sli"ht
swellin", the s.in ay +e war to the touch# In se*ere cases chills, fe*er, and headaches
ay occur#
To treat sun+urn, you should .ee- the s.in co*ered with clothin" or sun+urn crea e*en
on cloudy days# Ta.e two as-irins e*ery two to si, hours to sto- the +urnin" sensation#
5ou ay a--ly cool saline dressin"s to alle*iate -ain and swellin"# 5ou should not -o-
any +listers? if they +rea., wash and use +anda"es, and see. edical attention#
7eat cra-s# They are caused +y an accuulation of lactic acid in the uscles and a loss
of salt throu"h -ers-iration#
The ain contri+utin" factor is that the strenuous e,ertion causes the +ody to heat u- and
to -roduce hea*y -ers-iration#
The ain si"ns include -ain and cra-in" in the ars, le"s, +ac., and stoach# The
*icti sweats -rofusely and cannot 8uench his thirst#
To treat heat cra-s, you ust rest in a cool shady area, +reathe dee-ly and stretch the
cra-ed uscle as soon as -ossi+le to o+tain relief# $oosen your clothes and drin. cool
water# If -ain and cra-s continue, see. edical attention#
7eat e,haustion# Strenuous acti*ities in any en*ironent ay o*erheat the +ody# The
+lood *essels in the s.in +ecoe so dilated that the +lood flow to the +rain and other
or"ans is reduced#
The contri+utin" factors for heat e,haustion are:
Strenuous acti*ity in hot areas#
)naccliati!ed troo-s#
Inade8uate diet#
Not enou"h water or rest#
The ain si"ns of heat e,haustion are siilar to faintin" +ut ay also include wea.ness,
di!!iness, confusion, headache, cold clay s.in, nausea, and a ra-id +ut wea. -ulse#
To treat heat e,haustion, you ust rest in a cool shady area, loosen your clothes and
+oots, and drin. water# 5ou should ele*ate your le"s to hel- restore -ro-er circulation# If
the sy-tos -ersist, see. edical attention#
7eat Stro.e# This is a life2threatenin" situation caused +y o*ere,-osure to the sun# The
+ody is so de-leted of li8uids that its internal coolin" echaniss fail to function#
The contri+utin" factors for heat stro.e are -rolon"ed e,-osure to direct sunli"ht and
o*ere,ertion#
The ain si"ns of heat stro.e include hot and dry s.in, di!!iness, confusion and
incoherency, headache, nausea, sei!ures, +reathin" difficulty, a slow -ulse, and loss of
consciousness#
To treat heat stro.e, you should cool the *icti at once, and restore +reathin" and
circulation# If the *icti is conscious, adinister water# If -ossi+le, su+er"e the *icti
in water to reduce his te-erature, treat for shoc., and -re-are for iediate e*acuation#
=# Acute 6ountain Sic.ness#
Acute ountain sic.ness AA6SB is a te-orary illness that affects +oth the +e"inner and
e,-erienced cli+er# 5ou ay e,-erience this sic.ness in altitudes as low as 9,=11
eters# A+out :1 to E1 -ercent of the troo-s suffer disa+ility and ineffecti*eness when
they are ra-idly +rou"ht to altitudes a+o*e =,111 eters# At lower altitudes, or where
ascent to altitudes is "radual, ost -ersonnel can co-lete assi"nents with oderate
effecti*eness and little discofort#
Se*ere sy-tos ay +e"in = to 49 hours after your arri*al at hi"her altitudes of
;,111 to =,111 eters# These sy-tos are:
Sic.ness#
Slu""ishness#
/ati"ue#
7eadache#
Di!!iness#
Insonia#
De-ression#
)ncarin" attitude#
Ra-id and la+ored +reathin"#
>ea.ness#
$oss of a--etite#
A headache is the ost noticea+le sy-to and ay +e se*ere# E*en without the
headache, you ay lose your a--etite, and e,-erience nausea, leadin" to less food
inta.e# (oitin" ay occur and contri+ute to dehydration# Des-ite e,tree
fati"ue, you will +e una+le to slee-# The sy-tos usually de*elo- and increase
for a -eriod of fi*e to se*en days# The headache ay -ersist until you are returned
to a lower ele*ation# A6S is nonfatal#
Treatent for A6S includes:
Ta.e as-irin or an e8ui*alent# >ear sun"lasses since +ri"ht sunli"ht
a""ra*ates a headache#
Rest#
Consue li8uids and li"ht foods in sall aounts often#
6o*e to lower altitudes A311 to 011 etersB to alle*iate sy-tos, which
-ro*ides for a ore "radual accliati!ation#
Reali!e -hysical liitations and -ro"ress slowly#
Practice dee-2+reathin" e,ercises#
:# 7i"h2Altitude Pulonary Edea A7APEB#
This is a swellin" and fillin" of the lun"s with fluids, caused +y ra-id ascent to altitude# It
occurs at hi"h altitudes and liits the o,y"en su--ly to the +ody#
7APE occurs under conditions of low o,y"en -ressure encountered at hi"h
ele*ations of ;,111 eters, and ay occur in healthy soldiers# 7APE ay +e
considered a for of or anifestation of A6S since it occurs durin" the -eriod of
susce-ti+ility to this disorder#
7APE can cause death# E,ce-t for accliati!ation to altitude, there are no .nown
factors to indicate resistance or iunity# /ew cases ha*e +een re-orted after 41
days at hi"h altitudes# >hen reainin" at the sae altitude, the incidence of
7APE is less fre8uent than that of A6S# There is no coon indicator that
dictates how you will react fro one e,-osure to another#
The contri+utin" factors for 7APE are:
A history of hi"h2altitude -ulonary edea#
A ra-id or a+ru-t transition to hi"h altitudes#
Strenuous -hysical e,ertion#
E,-osure to cold#
An,iety#
The ain si"ns of 7APE are:
Pro"ressi*e dry cou"hin" with frothy white or -in. s-ectu Athis is
usually a later si"nB and then cou"hin" u- +lood#
Cyanosis? a +lue color to the face, hands, and feet#
Sy-tos of A6S can as. early -ulonary difficulties#
An increased ill feelin", la+ored +reathin", di!!iness, faintin", re-eated
clearin" of the throat, and de*elo-ent of a cou"h#
Res-iratory difficulty ay +e sudden, acco-anied +y cho.in" and ra-id
deterioration#
Pro"ressi*e shortness of +reath, ra-id heart +eat A-ulse 491 to 431B, and
cou"hin" Ain contrast to others who arri*ed at the sae tie to that
altitudeB#
Crac.lin", cello-hane2li.e noises AralesB in the lun"s Aa stethosco-e is
usually needed to hear theB caused +y fluid +uildu-#
If untreated, the *icti +ecoes unconscious# &u++les for in the nose
and outh, and death results#
7APE is -re*ented +y "ood nutrition, hydration, and "radual ascent to altitude or
cli+in" no ore than ;11 eters each ni"ht for slee-in"# A rest day, with no
"ain in altitude or hea*y -hysical e,ertion is -lanned for e*ery 4,111 eters of
altitude "ained# After all -recautions ha*e +een ta.en, and a soldier still de*elo-s
sy-tos, iediate descent is andatory where he recei*es -ro-t treatent,
rest, warth, and o,y"en# E*acuation to a lower altitude as a litter -atient is
re8uired# A descent of ;11 eters ay hel-# 6anual descent ust not +e delayed
to await air e*acuation# If untreated, 7APE ay +ecoe irre*ersi+le and cause
death# Cases that are reco"ni!ed early and treated -ro-tly ay reco*er with no
after effects# Soldiers who ha*e had -re*ious attac.s of 7APE are -rone to second
attac.s#
3# 7i"h2Altitude Cere+ral Edea A7ACEB#
This is the accuulation of fluid in the +rain, which results in swellin" and a de-ression
of +rain function that ay result in death# It is caused +y a ra-id ascent to hi"her altitudes
without -ro"ressi*e accliati!ation# 7APE and 7ACE ay occur in e,-erienced well2
accliati!ed ountaineers without warnin" or o+*ious -redis-osin" conditions# They can
+e fatal? when the first sy-tos occur, iediate descent is andatory#
The contri+utin" factors for 7ACE are ra-id ascent to hei"hts o*er 9,=11 eters
and a""ra*ation +y o*ere,ertion#
The ain si"ns of 7ACE include ild -ersonality chan"es, -aralysis, stu-or,
con*ulsions, coa, ina+ility to concentrate, headaches, *oitin", decrease in
urination, and lac. of coordination# The ain sy-to is a se*ere headache#
>hen this headache is associated with any other distur+ances, it should +e
assued to +e anifestations of 7ACE# The headache ay +e acco-anied +y a
loss of coordination, confusion, hallucinations, and unconsciousness, co+ined
with sy-tos of 7APE# If these sy-tos occur, do not lea*e the -erson alone
e*en thou"h you ay thin. he is irrita+le or te-eraental# The sy-tos ay
ra-idly -ro"ress to death# Pro-t descent to a lower altitude is *ital# See. edical
attention as soon as -ossi+le#
To -re*ent 7ACE, you ust aintain "ood eatin" ha+its, hydration, and use
"radual ascent to hi"her altitudes# Rest, warth, and o,y"en at lower ele*ations
enhance reco*ery# RE6E6&ERF Due to the se*erity of hi"h2altitude sic.ness, the
+est treatent is iediate descent#
Conclusion# 5ou ha*e now co-leted the instructional aterial for $esson 4# &efore you
co-lete the -ractice e,ercise for this lesson, you should re*iew the aterial -resented in
this lesson# Answers and feed+ac. for the 8uestions in the -ractice e,ercise are -ro*ided
to show you where further study is re8uired#

LESSON 1 PRACTICAL EXERCISE
Instructions
The followin" ites will test your understandin" of the aterial co*ered in this lesson#
There is only one correct answer for each ite# >hen you ha*e co-leted the e,ercise,
chec. your answers with the answer .ey that follows# If you answer any ite incorrectly,
re*iew that -art of the lesson which contains the -ortion in*ol*ed#
Situation#
Durin" the ountainous e,ercise all e+ers of the unit are re8uired to deonstrate
their a+ilities +y identifyin" the +asic cli+in" techni8ues and ethods ac8uired durin"
trainin"#
4# Durin" a ountainous e,ercise, your unit is o*in" throu"h an a*alanche area# 5ou
should
a# +e aware that the +asic eleents for the a*alanche -henoenon are terrain,
cliate, and weather#
+# .now that the only factor affectin" a*alanches are snow-ac.ed re"ions#
c# +e aware of the dan"er and only enter the area in the ornin"#
d# follow your co2wor.ers since they are e,-erienced in a*alanches#
9# >hen o*in" throu"h a slo-e where cre*asses and "laciers are fored, you would
a# -roceed as trained +ut o*e *ery slowly#
+# o*e to the inside of +ends and away fro stee- slo-es and icefalls#
c# call the unit to a sin"le colun and o*e to the outside of +ends#
d# a*oid all crac.s in roc.s and icefalls#
;# >hile in the ountains, weather chan"es are so *aria+le and erratic that in one day
hurricane winds occur one after another, and e,-osed weather contrasts with sheltered
weather# These characteristics are the result of
a# ty-ical ountainous weather in hi"h altitudes#
+# -oor weather forecast +y the ilitary ountaineerin"#
c# The life cycle of a local stor or fro the o*eent of a tra*elin" stor#
d# the life cycle of a local stor forecasted +y the local residents#
=# 5ou .now that the a--roach of cuulus clouds are associated with
a# a sta+le atos-here +ut ay indicate the a--roach of a stor#
+# oderate weather such li"ht winds, oderate rain, and li"htnin"#
c# te-eratures +elow ;1 de"rees /, -roducin" hail and tornados#
d# *iolent weather such as hea*y rains or snow and stron" "usty winds#
:# >hile in the ountains and durin" story weather, the unit disco*ers that the a--roach
of li"htnin" is iinent# 5ou should
a# not cli+, and "et as far down the ountain and away fro the e,-osed rid"es,
and see. -rotection fro direct stri.es and "round current#
+# continue cli+in" +ut tie yourself to a -oint of -rotection to a*oid fallin"#
c# add another layer of clothin" for -rotection a"ainst cold and wetness#
d# stay cal and hel- your co2wor.ers aintain a steady cli+#
3# >hile in ountainous re"ions, you ust ree+er that -ota+le water su--lies are
liited, and water inta.e ust +e only fro a--ro*ed sources# To follow the three rules
of water disci-line, you ust
a# disinfect the water, o+tain a--ro*al fro the leader of the water -arty, and
a.e sure all utensils are clean +efore use#
+# drin. only treated water, conser*e water for drin.in", and do not containate
water sources#
c# drin. only treated water, use iodine ta+lets to dou+le chec. for "ers, and +oil
the water for a+out 91 inutes#
d# drin. only treated water, use two iodine ta+lets to dou+le chec. for "ers, and
+oil the water for a+out ;1 inutes#
D# One of the e+ers of your unit ay +e sufferin" fro trench foot# To treat hi, you
would
a# chec. to see if his feet ha*e +listers and a tin"lin" sensation#
+# chan"e his clothes and his soc.s iediately and see. edical attention#
c# as. hi if he has -ain, dou+le chec. the +listers on his feet and drain the -us if
detected#
d# .ee- his feet dry and with clean soc.s, dry the inside of the +oots, use foot
-owder and chan"e soc.s as often as -ossi+le#

LESSON ONE
PRACTICE EXERCISE
ANSWER KEY AND FEEDBACK

Ite Correct Answer and /eed+ac.

4# a# +e aware that the +asic eleents for the a*alanche -henoenon
are terrain, cliate and weather#

Accuulated snow and stee- slo-es can cause a*alanches# An
understandin" of the +asic eleents is re8uired in order to increase
sur*i*al chances#

9# +# o*e to the inside of +ends and away fro stee- slo-es and
icefalls#

Care ust +e e,ercised when tra*elin" throu"h slo-es that ha*e
"laciers or cre*asses to a*oid the -ossi+ility of in@uries in the unit#

;# c# the life cycle of a local stor or fro the o*eent of a
tra*elin" stor#

The success of the ission de-ends on your a+ility to -redict
chan"in" weather# Durin" the o-eration, it is i-erati*e that you
antici-ate weather chan"es and turn the in your fa*or#

=# d# *iolent weather such as hea*y rains or snow and stron" "usty
winds#

Pro-er readin" of cloud forations and -atterns is an in*alua+le
tool to weather forecasters since it reduces the need for additional
weather e8ui-ent
#

:# a# not cli+ and "et as far down the ountain and away fro the
e,-osed rid"es, and see. -rotection fro direct stri.es and "round
current#

5ou ust +e aware that li"htnin" .ills ore -eo-le in the )#S#
than any other weather -henoenon# 'ust +ecause you are in the
ilitary, you are not an e,ce-tion# It is your res-onsi+ility to ta.e
whate*er -recautions are necessary to a*oid a li"htnin" stri.e#


3# +# drin. only treated water, conser*e water for drin.in" and do not
containate water sources#

As a -recaution, ne*er assue that ountain water is safe for
consu-tion# Only drin. water fro a--ro*ed sources to a*oid
containation and disease# In order for you to function effecti*ely,
you ust drin. -lenty of water#

D# d# .ee- his feet dry and with clean soc.s, dry the inside of the
+oots, use foot -owder and chan"e soc.s as often as -ossi+le#

One of the ost i-ortant factors is your -ersonal hy"iene# This
disease is the result of ne"lect and carelessness of your +ody# To
-re*ent it ta.e "ood care of your feet #
LESSON TWO MOUNTAINEERING EQUIPMENT
OVERVIEW


TASK DESCRIPTION:
In this lesson, you will learn to identify cli!in" ro#es, $nots, and sna#lin$s%
&EARNIN' O()ECTI*E:
TASKS: +nderstand and identify cli!in" ro#es, $nots, and sna#lin$s%
CONDITIONS: 'i,en the su!course aterial for this lesson, a trainin" scenario, and
e-tracts as a##lica!le, the student will co#lete the #ractical e-ercise to show an
understandin" of ro#es, $nots, and sna#lin$s%
STANDARDS: The student will deonstrate a co#rehension and $nowled"e of the tas$
!y dis#layin" an understandin" of ro#es, $nots, and sna#lin$s%
RE.ERENCES: The aterial contained in this lesson was deri,ed fro the followin"
#u!lication: TC /01213
INTRODUCTION
The ro#e is the sin"le ost i#ortant ite of e4ui#ent for the ountaineer% Ro#es
#ro,ide access u#, down, and across ountain o!stacles% They are desi"ned to withstand
se,ere force while ensurin" your indi,idual safety% The construction standards of these
ro#es are #rescri!ed !y the +nion of International Al#ine Association 5+IAA6 or !y
ilitary s#ecifications%
PART A - CLIMBING ROPES AND TYPES OF KNOTS
3% Cli!in" Ro#es%
No one ro#e is ideal for all a##lications% The coander ust deterine the situation in
which ro#es ay !e used 5such as: ur!an, roc$, ice, cli!in", ra##ellin", ro#e
installations6 and in what ty#e of terrain and cliate%
Ro#e selection is affected !y the followin" factors:
.all factor easures the se,erity of a fall% This is calculated !y di,idin" the len"th
of a fall !y the aount of ro#e #aid out at the !elay #oint% The hi"her the fall
factor, the "reater the aount of force "enerated% Ro#e dra", interediate
#rotection, and other factors of the safety chain reduce the se,erity of a fall%
I#act force is the sudden stress #ut on the safety chain 5!elay anchor, attachent
to !elayer, !elayer, ro#e, interediate #rotection, attachent to cli!er, and
cli!er6 when a fall is held% The whole syste is only as stron" as the wea$est
lin$% If there is a wea$ness at any #oint, the shoc$ loadin" fro the i#act force
can cause a failure of the syste% The i#act force occurs once the fall has
sto##ed 5usually with a sudden 7er$ on the cli!er8s !ody6% It is the a-iu
load #laced on a ro#e after all of the ener"y fro a fall has !een a!sor!ed in the
ro#e8s stretch%
Knota!ility is the ease in tyin" and untyin" $nots in the ro#e, as well as the a!ility
to hold a $not once tied%
Elon"ation or stretch dissi#ates the ener"y #roduced durin" a fall, throu"hout the
ro#e rather than directly to the cli!er8s !ody% Other than in a fall, the ro#e should
stretch as little as #ossi!le%
The ro#e should !e soft, fle-i!le, resistant to $in$in", dura!le, water re#ellant,
ha,e a hi"h fall ratin", and ha,e no sheath sli##a"e 5$ernantle only6%
There are two ty#es of ro#es a,aila!le to you durin" a ountainous o#eration:
Static ro#es are desi"ned for ra##ellin", rescue o#erations, load haulin", and ro#e
installations% They allow for inial elon"ation or stretch of the ro#e% They
stretch a!out 9 to 39 #ercent at the #oint of failure and a!out : #ercent under a
wor$in" load% The iniu tensile stren"th for 33 5;<32 inch6 static ro#es
for ilitary use is =,900 #ounds% They ran"e in diaeter fro > to 33 %
static ro#es are called ?$ernantle? 5$ern eans core and antle eans sheath6%
Due to the internal #arallel strand construction of these ro#es, there is less
s#innin" and $in$in" than with a dynaic ro#e% These ro#es can !e used for
slin"s, harnesses, etriers 5stirru#s6, ra##ellin", ro#e installations, haulin" lines,
and where,er elon"ation of the ro#e is not desired% @ou should not conduct a lead
cli! with a static ro#e since the force e-erted in a fall is transferred to the
cli!er rather than a!sor!ed throu"h the ro#e%
Dynaic ro#es are desi"ned for cli!in", and allow stretch or elon"ation within
the fi!ers of the ro#e% This de"ree of elasticity allows the ener"y #roduced in a fall
to !e dissi#ated throu"h the ro#e rather than !ein" a!sor!ed directly !y the
cli!er8s !ody% This elon"ation can !e a disad,anta"e in ra##ellin", Prusi$
cli!in", and other a##lications% Dynaic ro#es are ore susce#ti!le to a!rasion
and wear% Ahere the fall factor ay !e hi"h 5such as lead cli!in"6 it is i#ortant
to use a dynaic ro#e% They ha,e a!out 9 to 30 #ercent wor$in" elon"ation% The
iniu tensile stren"th for 33 5;<321inch6 ro#es for ilitary use is =,900
#ounds%
There are two ty#es of dynaic ro#es:
Nylon1laid ro#es% Synthetic fi!ers ha,e #ro,en to !e su#erior to any other cli!in"
aterial% Nylon has !ecoe the standard aterial for cli!in" ro#es and has re#laced
anila, fla-, he#, and sisal% Bilitary ountaineerin" critical a##lication ro#e is
constructed in a ?laid? fashion with continuous ultifilaent nylon fi!er yard twisted
into strands% Three strands are twisted into a cli!in" ro#e of a s#ecific diaeter 5.i"ure
:136% The followin" s#ecifications #ertain to the standard ilitary nylon1laid cli!in"
ro#e:
>2 3<: eters 53:0 feet6 lon"%
33 5;<321inch6 wide%
At least a =,9001#ound tensile stren"th%
Ri"ht1hand lay%
One1third stretch factor%
Bay lose as uch as 39 #ercent of its stren"th when wet%
Aei"hs 2 #ounds when dry%
@ou should ins#ect these ro#es for ser,icea!ility !y twistin" the fi!ers% &aid ro#es tend to
untwist sli"htly when under a load, causin" $in$in" and s#innin"% They are also
susce#ti!le to a!rasion%
Kernantle ro#es% These ro#es are siilar to their static counter#arts in that they consist
of an inner core and an outer sheath% The core is constructed of continuous twisted nylon
filaents, which are laid or !raided to"ether and enclosed in a ti"htly !raided outer
sheath% It is well suited for cli!in" on roc$, snow, or ice where a !rief elastic elon"ation
of the ro#e occurs durin" a fall% Dynaic $ernantle ro#es ha,e an elon"ation of a!out
=0 #ercent at the #oint of failure% The !rea$in" stren"th is hi"h, and there are no e-#osed
strands for roc$ crystals to wor$ !etween, which daa"es the ro#e 5.i"ure :1:6% There is
less slidin" friction throu"h the sna#lin$ and o,er other surfaces, since the outer sheath is
sooth% Kernantle ro#es coe in a ,ariety of siCes, len"ths, stretch factors, tensile
stren"ths, and fall ratin"s%
Kernantle ro#es are not readily identifia!le as dynaic or static and ust !e ar$ed
accordin"ly%
The selection of ro#e for ilitary o#erations usually re4uires ro#es for ,arious ty#es,
len"ths, and diaeters% It is unsafe to use a ro#e for other than its intended use% Ro#es
that do not ha,e ilitary s#ecifications should eet +IAA1a##ro,ed standards%
Durin" a ountainous o#eration, the use of a ro#e ay not !e necessaryD howe,er, on
stee#, un!ro$en cliffs where e-#osure is "reat, cli!in" with a ro#e is necessary%
The ost coon ters used in ilitary ountaineerin" are:
A !i"ht of ro#e is a si#le !end of ro#e in which the ro#e does not cross itself 53,
.i"ure :1>6%
A loo# is a !end of ro#e in which the ro#e does cross itself 5:, .i"ure :1>6%
A half hitch is a loo# that runs around an o!7ect and loc$s itself 5>, .i"ure :1>6%
The runnin" end 5wor$in" end6 of the ro#e is the free end of the ro#e that can !e
used%
The standin" #art of the ro#e is the #art that is static 5anchored, coiled6D the
reainin" #art of the ro#e not !ein" used 5also called static end6%
The lay of the ro#e is the sae as the twist of the ro#e%
The round turn is a sin"le co#lete wra# of the ro#e around an o!7ect #ro,idin"
>201de"ree contact% The runnin" end lea,es the co#leted circle in the sae
direction as the standin" #art% In a round turn, the ro#e is wra##ed around an
o!7ect 3 3<: ties 5=, .i"ure :1>6%
The #i"tail is the short len"th of ro#e reainin" at the end after tyin" a $not or
coilin" a ro#e%
(ac$ feedin" 5or stac$in"6 is ta$in" off one wra# at a tie fro a coil, and lettin"
it fall naturally to the "round%
After you ha,e selected a ro#e, you should a$e #re#arations% (efore startin" an
o#eration, ro#es ust !e cut to the desired len"ths and frayed ends should !e !ound or
seared% Ahi##in" is the ost secure eans of fastenin" ends% A less satisfactory eans is
ti"htly !indin" ro#e ends with electrical ta#e% The ends 5nylon1laid and $ernantle6 ay
!e fused !y heatin" o,er a flae until the fi!er elts and flows% To #rotect the ro#e end,
you should di# the ends in fi!er"lass or lac4uer and allow := hours to dry% Ba$e sure you
di# only the ends since lac4uer wea$ens ro#es%
The ends of a new ro#e or ends caused !y a cut should !e whi##ed with thread or cord
and fused !y heat% Nylon thread used in #arachute re#air is ideal for this #ur#ose 5.i"ure
:1=6%
Ahen in areas of loose roc$s, you should ins#ect the ro#es as often as #ossi!le to detect
cuts and a!rasions !efore they render the ro#e unsafe%
Ahen usin" a ro#e, there are two ethods of coilin" that you should follow:
Bountaineer8s Coil% One of the techni4ues is to "ras# the ro#e a!out > feet fro
the end with the left hand% The ri"ht hand is then #laced ne-t to the left hand and
runs alon" the ro#e until !oth ars are outstretched% 'ras#in" the ro#e firly, the
hands are !rou"ht to"ether forin" a loo#, which is laid in the left hand% This is
re#eated, forin" unifor loo#s that run in a cloc$wise direction until the ro#e is
co#letely coiled% If the ro#e tends to twist or for fi"ure ei"hts, it ay !e "i,en
a sli"ht twist with the ri"ht hand when each loo# is fored% The ro#e is coiled in a
cloc$wise direction to confor with the lay%
In co#letin" the hasty coil, a !i"ht a!out >0 centieters 53: inches6 lon" is fored with
the startin" end of the ro#e and laid alon" the to# of the coil% The last loo# is uncoiled%
+sin" the len"th of the ro#e thus o!tained, wra#s are ade around the coil and the !i"ht%
Ara##in" is ade toward the closed end of the !i"ht, a$in" the first wra# !ind across
itself to loc$ it in #lace% Si- to ei"ht wra#s should !e ade to ade4uately secure the coil%
The end of the ro#e is #ushed down throu"h the closed end of the !i"ht% The runnin" end
of the !i"ht is then #ulled ti"ht to secure the coil% This coil ay !e carried either in the
#ac$ 5!y forin" a fi"ure ei"ht, then !y dou!lin" it and #lacin" it under the fla#6D or !y
#lacin" it o,er the shoulder and under the o##osite ar% If the ro#e to !e coiled is
anchored as in coilin" a !elay or ra##el line, the coil should start near the end closest to
the anchor so that the $in$s can wor$ thesel,es out of the free end 5.i"ure :196%
.arer8s Coil% This ethod is !est for carryin" a ro#e when you want a-iu
use of your u##er !ody% This coil is also easier and faster than the ountaineer8s
coil% The center of the ro#e is esta!lished either !y locatin" its center ar$ or !y
"ras#in" !oth ends of the ro#e and feedin" the out until a !i"ht coes u# that is
the center of the ro#e% Coilin" !e"ins with the dou!led ro#e the sae as the
ountaineer8s coil ethod% A!out =%2 eters 539 feet6 of ro#e are left uncoiled,
then the coils are s4ueeCed to"ether and four to si- wra#s are ade around the
iddle of the coil, ensurin" that the first wra# is held in #lace !y the other wra#s%
A !i"ht is fored with the two runnin" ends and is #laced throu"h the !i"ht fored !y
the to# of the coil% The two runnin" ends are then run o,er the to# of the coil and throu"h
the !i"ht that they fored and dressed down% The runnin" ends are se#arated, #lacin" the
coil in the center of the !ac$ of the carrier% The two ends are run o,er the shoulders to
for shoulder stra#s% The runnin" ends are then !rou"ht under the ars, crossed in the
!ac$ o,er the coil, !rou"ht around the !ody of the carrier, and tied off with a s4uare $not
at his stoach 5.i"ure :196%
Ins#ection of a ro#e is necessary and in,ol,es the followin" #rocedure:
Each dynaic cli!in" ro#e should ha,e a corres#ondin" ro#e lo" 5.i"ure :126,
which is a record of the usa"e, history and life of a ro#e% On this for, you should
annotate use, terrain, weather, a##lication, nu!er of falls, dates, and other
#ertinent data as re4uired or necessary to assist other e!ers of the cli!in"
#arty% This for is a safety record%
@ou should ins#ect the ro#e on a daily !asis, !efore, durin", and after use% They
ust !e color coded or ar$ed to identify its use such as leader cli!in" ro#e,
ro#e installation, or ra##ellin" ro#e%
Ahen handlin" ro#es, you should o!ser,e the followin" rules:
The ro#e should !e $e#t clean since dirt can daa"e a ro#e throu"h a!rasion% The
ro#e should not !e ste##ed on or dra""ed on the "round since it could cause sall
#articles of dirt to !e "round !etween the strands and slowly cut the% Cli!in"
ro#es should !e washed in cold water with a ild nylon1safe soa# without !leach
or fa!ric softeners, rinse thorou"hly% The ro#e should !e air1dried out of direct
sunli"ht%
The ro#e should ne,er coe in contact with shar# ed"es% Nylon ro#e is easily cut
when under tension% If a ro#e ust !e used around a shar# ed"e, the ed"e should
!e #added%
The ro#e should !e $e#t as dry as #ossi!le% If it should !ecoe wet, it should !e
hun" in lar"e loo#s on round wooden #e"s a!o,e the "round to air dry% A ro#e
should ne,er !e dried ne-t to an o#en flae or in an autoatic clothes drier%
The ro#e should not !e $notted or ti"htly stretched for lon" #eriods% It should not
!e hun" on shar# ed"es such as nails%
Ahen usin" ro#es in installations, they should not ru! a"ainst each other% This
causes frayin"% Allowin" ro#e1on1ro#e contact with nylon ro#e is dan"erous since
the heat #roduced !y the friction ay cause the nylon to elt% The ro#e ust !e
e-ained iediately after it has !een hit !y a fallin" o!7ect 5roc$, helet,
ruc$sac$, #iton haer6% If a sudden strain has !een a##lied to the ro#e while
#assin" o,er a shar# ed"e, it should !e ins#ected%
The ro#e ust !e #rotected fro cheicals, #aints, oils, sol,ents, acids,
corrosi,es, #etroleu #roducts, or e-cessi,e heat since these wea$en and daa"e
ro#e fi!ers%
Throwin"% To ensure that the ro#e does not snarl when thrown, it is !ac$fed% The ro#e is
!ac$fed 5stac$ed6 !y ta$in" off one wra# at a tie and lettin" it fall to the "round,
ensurin" that there are no $in$s, $nots, or twists that ay hinder the ro#e fro feedin"
out% Ahen the ro#e is !ac$fed, one end of the ro#e is anchored off%
The o##osite end of the ro#e is #ic$ed u# and si- to ei"ht coils are ade in the
left hand and set on the "round ne-t to the cli!er% A second set of coils is ade
with the reainin" ro#eD two se#arate stac$s of coils should !e #resent% The stac$
with si- to ei"ht coils is #ic$ed u# and #laced in the left hand% The other stac$ of
coils is #laced in the ri"ht hand%
There are two ethods in which to throw the ro#e1underhand and o,erhand% The
o,erhand ethod should !e used when trees or shru!s are on or near the ra##el
#oint% Once the ethod of throwin" has !een deterined, a few #reliinary
swin"s are ade with the ri"ht ar 5this ar holds the second set of coils6% )ust
!efore the ro#e lea,es the hand, the warnin" ?Ro#e? is shouted to alert #ersonnel
at the !otto of the cliff% As the coils are "oin" down the cliff face, the cli!er
feels a tu"% At that tie, the coils in the left hand are thrown down% Throwin" the
ro#e this way is !est to ensure that the ro#e reaches the !otto without sna""in"%
:% Ty#es of Knots:
A $not is a fastenin" ade !y intertwinin" or tyin" #ieces of strin", cord, ro#es, or
we!!in"% All $nots used !y a cli!er are di,ided into four classes:
Class I 1 )oinin" $nots
Class II 1 Anchor $nots
Class III 1 Biddle ro#e $nots
Class I* 1 S#ecial $nots
These classes of $nots are intended only as a "eneral "uide since the ,ariety of $nots,
!ends, !i"hts, and hitches is alost endless% The $nots discussed ay !e a##ro#riate in
ore than one class%
Class I 1 )oinin" $nots includes the s4uare $notD dou!le sheet !endD fisheran8s $notD
dou!le fisheran8s $notD and the water $not% Each of these $nots is discussed as follows:
S4uare Knot% This $not is used to tie the end of two ro#es of e4ual diaeter 5.i"ure :1;6%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a four1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 Eoldin" one wor$in" end in each hand, #lace the wor$in" end in the ri"ht hand
o,er the one in the left hand%
STEP : 1 Pull it under and !ac$ o,er the to# of the ro#e in the left hand%
STEP > 1 Place the wor$in" end in the left hand o,er the one in the ri"ht hand and re#eat
STEP :%
STEP = 1 Dress the $not down and secure it with an o,erhand $not on each side of the
s4uare $not%
Chec$#oints% There are two interloc$in" !i"hts% The standin" #arts are on the sae side
and #ro#erly secured with o,erhand $nots%
Dou!le Sheet (end% This $not is used to tie the ends of two or ore ro#es of e4ual or
une4ual diaeter 5.i"ure :1F6% Ahen a sin"le ro#e is tied to ulti#le ro#es, the !i"ht is
fored with the ulti#le ro#es%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a four1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 .or a >01centieter !i"ht in the left hand with the ro#e or ro#es% Ensure that
the short end of the !i"ht is facin" to the inside%
STEP : 1 Place the inde- fin"er of the left hand on to# of the !i"ht% (rin" the ro#e in the
ri"ht hand u# throu"h the !i"ht and o,er the inde- fin"er of the left hand, so the wor$in"
end is away fro the !ody%
STEP > 1 Reach throu"h the loo# and "ras# the wor$in" end of the ro#e and !rin" it !ac$
towards the !ody% Place it !etween the inde- fin"er and the !i"ht, forin" a round turn%
Re#eat this one ore tie, wra##in" toward the ti# of the inde- fin"er%
STEP = 1 Reo,e the fin"er and dress the $not down%
Chec$#oints:
The two wra#s around the !i"ht are held in #lace !y a loc$in" !ar%
The two standin" #arts of the ro#es e-it #arallel and fro o##osite ends of the
$not% The two wor$in" ends for an ?&? and e-it the $not at a /01de"ree an"le
and on o##osite sides of the $not%
.isheran8s Knot% This $not is used to tie two ro#es of siilar or dissiilar aterials
5.i"ure :1/6%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a three1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 Tie an o,erhand $not in one end of the ro#e%
STEP : 1 Pass the wor$in" end of the other ro#e throu"h the first o,erhand $not% Tie an
o,erhand $not around the standin" #art of the first ro#e with the wor$in" end of the
second ro#e%
STEP > 1 Ti"htly dress down each o,erhand $not and ti"htly draw the $nots to"ether%
Chec$#oints:
The two se#arate o,erhand $nots are tied ti"htly around the lon" standin" #art of
the o##osin" ro#e%
The two o,erhand $nots are drawn snu"%
Dou!le .isheran8s Knot% This $not is also called dou!le En"lish or "ra#e,ine, and it is
used to tie two ro#es of siilar or dissiilar aterials 5.i"ure :1306%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a four1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 Aith the wor$in" end of one ro#e, tie two wra#s around the standin" #art of
another ro#e%
STEP : 1 Insert the wor$in" end 5STEP 36 !ac$ throu"h the two wra#s and draw it ti"ht%
STEP > 1 Aith the wor$in" end of the other ro#e, which contains the standin" #art
5STEPS 3 and :6, tie two wra#s around the standin" #art of the other ro#e 5the wor$in"
end in STEP 36% Insert the wor$in" end !ac$ throu"h the two wra#s and draw ti"ht%
STEP = 1 Pull on the o##osin" ends to !rin" the two $nots to"ether%
Chec$#oints:
Two wra#s with the wor$in" end runnin" throu"h and drawn ti"ht%
(oth wra#s are drawn to"ether with all the slac$ out of the $not%
Aater Knot% This $not is also called a rin" !end, o,erhand retrace, or ta#e $not% It is used
to attach two we!!in" ends, and it is also used in runners and harnesses 5.i"ure :1336%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a three1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 Tie an o,erhand $not in one of the ends%
STEP : 1 .eed the other end !ac$ throu"h the $not, followin" the #ath of the first ro#e in
re,erse%
STEP > 1 Draw ti"ht and #ull all of the slac$ out of the $not% The reainin" tails ust
e-tend at least 9 centieters 5: inches6 !eyond the $not in !oth directions%
Chec$#oints:
There are two o,erhand $nots, one retracin" the other%
There is no slac$ in the $not, with the wor$in" ends coin" out of the $not in
o##osite directions 5at least 9 centieters G: inchesH lon"6%
Class II 1 Anchor Knots includes the !owline $notD round turn and two half hitches $notD
fi"ure ei"ht retrace $notD and de#endin" on its use, the clo,e hitch $not% Each of these
$nots are discussed as follows:
(owline Knot% This $not is used to tie a sin"le fi-ed loo# in the end of a ro#e% It is always
used when there is alternatin" tension, and ay also !e used to tie the end of a ro#e to an
anchor 5.i"ure :13:6% It does not sli# under strain and is easily untied%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a fi,e1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 (rin" the wor$in" end of the ro#e around the anchor, fro ri"ht to left 5as the
cli!er faces the anchor6%
STEP : 1 .or an o,erhand loo# in the standin" #art of the ro#e 5on a cli!er8s ri"ht6
toward the anchor%
STEP > 1 Reach throu"h the loo# and #ull u# a !i"ht%
STEP = 1 Place the wor$in" end of the ro#e 5on the cli!er8s left6 throu"h the !i"ht, and
!rin" it !ac$ onto itself% Now dress the $not down%
STEP 9 1 .or an o,erhand $not with the tail fro the !i"ht%
Chec$#oints:
The loo# is loc$ed into #lace !y a !i"ht%
The short #ortion of the !i"ht is on the inside and on the loo# around the anchor
5or inside the fi-ed loo#6%
Round Turn and Two Ealf Eitches Knot% This $not is used to tie the end of a ro#e to an
anchor, and it ust ha,e constant tension 5.i"ure :13>6%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a four1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 Route the ro#e around the anchor fro ri"ht to left and wra# down 5ust ha,e
two wra#s in the rear of the anchor, and one in the front6% Run the loo# around the o!7ect
to #ro,ide >201de"ree contact, distri!utin" the load o,er the anchor%
STEP : 1 (rin" the wor$in" end of the ro#e left to ri"ht and o,er the standin" #art,
forin" a half hitch 5first half hitch6%
STEP > 1 Re#eat Ste# : 5last half hitch has a 391centieter G2 inchH #i"tail6%
STEP = 1 Dress the $not down%
Chec$#oints:
A co#lete round turn should e-ist around the anchor with no crosses%
Two half hitches should !e held in #lace !y a loc$in" !ar with no less than a 391
centieter tail reainin"%
&oo$ at the to# of the half hitchesD the ro#e should a##ear to !e one continuous
ro#e%
.i"ure Ei"ht Retrace Knot% This $not is also called rerouted fi"ure ei"ht% This $not
#roduces the sae result as a fi"ure ei"ht loo# discussed in ?Class III 1 iddle ro#e
$nots%? (y tyin" the $not in a retrace, it can !e used to fasten the ro#e to trees or to #laces
where the loo# cannot !e used 5.i"ure :13=6%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a si-1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 +se a len"th of ro#e lon" enou"h to "o around the anchor, lea,in" enou"h ro#e
to wor$ with%
STEP : 1 Tie a fi"ure ei"ht $not in the standin" #art of the ro#e, lea,in" enou"h ro#e to
"o around the anchor%
To tie a fi"ure ei"ht $not1
.or a loo# in the ro#e%
Ara# the wor$in" end around the standin" #art%
Route the wor$in" end throu"h the loo#% The finished $not is dressed loosely%
STEP > 1 Ta$e the wor$in" end around the anchor #oint%
STEP = 1 Aith the wor$in" end, insert the ro#e !ac$ throu"h the loo# of the $not in
re,erse%
STEP 9 1 Kee# the ori"inal fi"ure ei"ht as the outside ro#e and retrace the $not around
the wra# and !ac$ to the lon" standin" #art%
STEP 2 1 Safety off with an o,erhand $not%
Chec$#oints:
At least 39 centieters 52 inches6 of ro#e e-tends #ast the fi"ure ei"ht $not%
The ori"inal fi"ure ei"ht, tied with the standin" end, reains as the outerost
ro#e throu"hout the $not%
The $not is dressed ti"htly%
Clo,e Eitch Knot% This $not can !e used in the iddle of the ro#e, at the end of the ro#e,
or as an anchor or iddle $not, de#endin" on how it is tied 5.i"ure :1396% The $not ust
ha,e constant tension on it once tied to #re,ent sli##in"% Ahen tyin" the $not, there are
two #rocesses in,ol,ed:
If there is access o,er the to# of the anchor, the $not is tied as follows:
STEP 3 1 Eold ro#e in !oth hands, #als down with hands to"ether% Slide the left hand to
the left fro :0 to :9 centieters 5F to 30 inches6%
STEP : 1 .or a loo# away fro and !ac$ toward the ri"ht%
STEP > 1 Slide the ri"ht hand fro :0 to :9 centieters 5F to 30 inches6 to the ri"ht%
.or a loo# inward and !ac$ to the left hand%
STEP = 1 Place the left loo# on to# of the ri"ht loo#% Place !oth loo#s o,er the anchor and
#ull !oth ends of the ro#e in o##osite directions% The $not is tied%
Assuin" that the anchor is horiContalD if the clo,e hitch ust "o around the
anchor, tie the $not as follows:
STEP 3 1 Place ;2 centieters 5>0 inches6 of ro#e o,er the to# of the anchor% Eold the
standin" end in the left hand% Aith the ri"ht hand, reach under the horiContal anchor,
"ras# the wor$in" end, and !rin" it inward%
STEP : 1 Place the wor$in" end of the ro#e o,er the standin" end 5to for a loo#6% Eold
the loo# in the left hand% Place the wor$in" end o,er the anchor fro :0 to :9 centieters
5F to 30 inches6 to the left of the loo#%
STEP > 1 Aith the ri"ht hand, reach down to the left hand side of the loo# under the
anchor% 'ras# the wor$in" end of the ro#e% (rin" the wor$in" end u# and outward%
STEP = 1 Dress down the $not%
Chec$#oints:
The $not has two round turns around the anchor with a loc$in" !ar%
The loc$in" !ar is facin" /0 de"rees fro the direction of #ull%
The ends e-it 3F0 de"rees fro each other%
The $not has ore than a 391centieter 521inch6 #i"tail reainin"%
@ou should not use a clo,e hitch $not on etal, e-ce#t on a #ic$et1hold1fast%
Class III 1 Biddle Ro#e Knots include the wirean8s $notD directional fi"ure ei"ht $notD
!owline on a !i"ht $notD fi"ure ei"ht on a !i"ht $notD o,erhand loo#D and fi"ure ei"ht
loo#% Each of these $nots are discussed as follows:
Airean8s Knot: This $not fors a sin"le, fi-ed loo# in the iddle of the ro#e 5.i"ure :1
326%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a nine1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 Ahen tyin" this $not, face the anchor that the tie1off syste will !e tied to%
Ta$e u# the slac$ fro the anchor, and wra# two turns around the left hand 5#al u#6
fro left to ri"ht%
STEP : 1 A loo# of >0 centieters 53: inches6 is ta$en u# in the second round turn to
create the fi-ed loo# of the $not%
STEP > 1 Nae the wra#s fro the #al to the fin"erti#s: heel, #al, and fin"erti#%
STEP = 1 Secure the #al wra# with the ri"ht thu! and forefin"er, and #lace it o,er the
heel wra#%
STEP 9 1 Secure the heel wra# and #lace it o,er the fin"erti# wra#%
STEP 2 1 Secure the fin"erti# wra# and #lace it o,er the #al wra#%
STEP ; 1 Secure the #al wra# and #ull u# to for a fi-ed loo#%
STEP F 1 Dress the $not down !y #ullin" on the fi-ed loo# and the two wor$in" ends%
STEP / 1 Pull the wor$in" ends a#art to finish the $not%
Chec$#oints:
The co#leted $not should ha,e four se#arate !i"hts loc$in" down on thesel,es
with the fi-ed loo# e-itin" fro the to# of the $not and layin" toward the near
side anchor #oint%
(oth ends should e-it o##osite each other without any !ends%
Directional .i"ure Ei"ht Knot% This $not fors a sin"le, fi-ed loo# in the iddle of the
ro#e that lays !ac$ alon" the standin" #art of the ro#e 5.i"ure :13;6%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a four1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 .ace the far side anchor so that when the $not is tied, it lays inward%
STEP : 1 &ay the ro#e fro the far side anchor o,er the left #al% Ba$e one wra# around
the #al%
STEP > 1 Aith the wra# thus fored, tie a fi"ure ei"ht $not around the standin" #art that
leads to the far side anchor%
STEP = 1 Ahen dressin" the $not down, the tail and !i"ht ust !e to"ether%
Chec$#oints:
The loo# should !e lar"e enou"h to acce#t a sna#lin$ !ut no lar"er than a helet%
The tail and !i"ht ust !e to"ether%
The fi"ure ei"ht is tied ti"htly%
The !i"ht in the $not faces !ac$ toward the near side%
(owline on a (i"ht Knot% This $not is used to for two fi-ed loo#s in the iddle of a
ro#e 5.i"ure :13F6%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a se,en1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 .or a !i"ht in the ro#e a!out twice as lon" as the finished loo#s will !e%
STEP : 1 Tie an o,erhand $not on the !i"ht%
STEP > 1 Eold the o,erhand $not in the left hand so that the !i"ht is runnin" down and
outward%
STEP = 1 'ras# the !i"ht with the ri"ht hand, fold it !ac$ o,er the o,erhand $not so that
the o,erhand $not "oes throu"h the !i"ht%
STEP 9 1 .ro the end 5a#e-6 of the !i"ht, follow the !i"ht !ac$ to where it fors the
cross in the o,erhand $not% 'ras# the two ro#es that run down and outward and #ull u#,
forin" two loo#s%
STEP 2 1 Pull the two ro#es out of the o,erhand $not and dress the $not down%
STEP ; 1 A final dress is re4uired: "ras# the ends of the two fi-ed loo#s and #ull,
s#readin" the a#art to ensure the loo#s do not sli#%
Chec$#oints:
There are two fi-ed loo#s that will not sli#%
There are no twists in the $not%
A dou!le loo# is held in #lace !y a !i"ht%
.i"ure Ei"ht on a (i"ht Knot% This $not is used to for two fi-ed loo#s in the iddle of a
ro#e 5.i"ure :13/6%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a fi,e1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 +sin" a dou!led ro#e, for a =21centieter 53F1inch6 !i"ht in the left hand with
the runnin" end facin" to the left%
STEP : 1 'ras# the !i"ht with the ri"ht hand and a$e a >201de"ree turn around the
standin" end in a countercloc$wise direction%
STEP > 1 Aith the wor$in" end, for another !i"ht and #lace that !i"ht throu"h the loo#
7ust fored in the left hand%
STEP = 1 Eold the !i"ht with the left hand, and #lace the ori"inal !i"ht 5o,in" toward
the left hand6 o,er the $not%
STEP 9 1 Dress the $not down%
Chec$#oints:
There is a dou!le fi"ure of ei"ht with two loo#s%
The $not will not sli#%
O,erhand &oo#% This loo# fors a sin"le loo# in the iddle of a ro#e 5.i"ure :1:06% It
should not !e used in a trans#ort ti"htenin" syste%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a two1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 .or a !i"ht in the ro#e a!out as lon" as the loo# needed%
STEP : 1 Aith the !i"ht, for an o,erhand $not usin" the !i"ht as the wor$in" end%
Dress the $not ti"htly%
Chec$#oints:
The loo# is the desired siCe%
The ro#es in the o,erhand $not are #arallel and do not cross o,er each other%
The $not is ti"htly dressed%
.i"ure Ei"ht &oo#% This loo# is a ,ariation of the o,erhand loo# and is easy to untie after
it has held wei"ht 5.i"ure :1:36%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a three1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 .or a !i"ht in the ro#e a!out as lar"e as the diaeter of the desired loo#%
STEP : 1 Aith the !i"ht as the wor$in" end, for a loo# in ro#e 5standin" #art6%
STEP > 1 Ara# the wor$in" end around the standin" #art >20 de"rees and feed the
wor$in" end throu"h the loo#% Dress the $not ti"htly%
Chec$#oints:
The loo# is the desired siCe%
The ro#es in the loo# are #arallel and do not cross o,er each other%
The $not is ti"htly dressed%
Class I* 1 S#ecial $nots include the sin"le !utterfly $not, Prusi$ $not, !achan $not,
!owline on a coil $not, three1loo# !owline $not, fi"ure ei"ht sli# $not, Kleihiest $not,
o,erhand $not, frost $not, and the "irth hitch $not% Each of these $nots is discussed as
follows:
Sin"le (utterfly Knot% This $not is used to for a sin"le fi-ed loo# in the iddle of the
ro#e without usin" the ends 5.i"ure :1::6% @ou ay use this $not for the iddle an in a
ro#e #arty as well as in a trans#ort ti"htenin" syste% The $not can !e hard to untie when
hea,y wei"ht has !een #laced on it for e-tended #eriods%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a four1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 .or a loo# o,er the #al of the left hand%
STEP : 1 Aith the ri"ht hand, cross the two lon"1standin" endsD reach under and "ras#
the !otto of the loo# fored in STEP 3%
STEP > 1 Route the !otto of the loo# o,er the crossed standin" ends and !ac$ throu"h
the to# of the loo#%
STEP = 1 Eold the newly fored loo# and dress the $not down, reo,in" all of the slac$
out of the $not%
Chec$#oints:
The win"s of the $not ust !e dressed down ti"htly and as close to"ether as
#ossi!le%
The ro#es !etween the win"s ust !e #arallel with no crosso,ers%
The loo# should !e no lar"er than a helet, !ut lar"e enou"h to acce#t a sna#lin$%
All ro#es in the $not are ti"htly dressed%
Prusi$ Knot% This $not is used to #ut a o,ea!le ro#e on a fi-ed ro#e such as a Prusi$
ascent or a ti"htenin" syste% This $not can !e tied as a iddle, fin"er, or end Prusi$%
The #rocess of tyin" the iddle1of1the1ro#e Prusi$ $not in,ol,es a three1ste#
#rocedure 5.i"ure :1:>6%
STEP 3 1 Dou!le the short ro#e, forin" a !i"ht, with the wor$in" ends e,en% &ay it o,er
the lon" ro#e so that the closed end of the !i"ht is >0 centieters 53: inches6 !elow the
lon" ro#e and the reainin" #art of the ro#e 5wor$in" ends6 is the closes tot he cli!erD
s#read the wor$in" end a#art%
STEP : 1 Reach down throu"h the >01centieter 53:1inch6 !i"ht% Pull u# !oth of the
wor$in" ends and lay the o,er the lon" ro#e% Re#eat this #rocess a$in" sure that the
wor$in" ends #ass in the iddle of the first two wra#s% Now there are four wra#s and a
loc$in" !ar wor$in" across the on the lon" ro#e%
STEP > 1 Dress the wra#s and loc$in" !ar down to ensure they are ti"ht and not twisted%
Tyin" an o,erhand $not with !oth ro#es will #re,ent the $not fro sli##in" durin"
#eriods of ,aria!le tension%
Another way of tyin" the Prusi$ $not is the fin"er Prusi$ as shown in .i"ure :1:=,
and in,ol,es a fi,e1ste# #rocedure%
STEP 3 1 &ay the ro#e across the thu! and inde- fin"er of the left hand%
STEP : 1 Ara# the ro#e around the inde- fin"er twice 5wra##in" away fro the cli!er6%
Ara# the ro#e around the thu! twice 5wra##in" toward the cli!er6%
STEP > 1 Place the thu! and inde- fin"er ti# to ti#% Push the wra#s to"ether so that the
Prusi$ is on the left thu!% There are four wra#s and a loc$in" !ar across the%
STEP = 1 Ta$e the runnin" end of the ro#e and #ass it throu"h the wra#s of the Prusi$
$not%
STEP 9 1 Dress the wra#s and loc$in" !ar down to ensure they are ti"ht and not twisted%
The third way of tyin" a Prusi$ $not is the end1of1the1ro#e $not as shown in
.i"ure :1:9, and in,ol,es a se,en1ste# #rocedure%
STEP 3 1 +sin" an ar8s len"th of ro#e, #lace it o,er the lon" ro#e%
STEP : 1 .or a co#lete round turn in the ro#e%
STEP > 1 Cross o,er the standin" #art of the short ro#e with the wor$in" end of the short
ro#e%
STEP = 1 &ay the wor$in" end under the lon" ro#e%
STEP 9 1 .or a co#lete round turn in the ro#e, wor$in" !ac$ toward the iddle of the
$not%
STEP 2 1 There are four wra#s and a loc$in" !ar runnin" across the on the lon" ro#e%
Dress the wra#s and loc$in" !ar down% Ensure they are ti"ht, #arallel, and not twisted%
STEP ; 1 .inish the $not with a !owline to ensure that the Prusi$ $not will not sli# out
durin" #eriods of ,aryin" tension%
Chec$#oints:
.our wra#s with a loc$in" !ar%
The loc$in" !ar faces the cli!er%
The $not is ti"ht and dressed down with no ro#es twisted or crossed%
Other than a fin"er Prusi$, the $not should contain an o,erhand or !owline to
#re,ent sli##in"%
(achan Knot% This $not #ro,ides a eans of usin" a a$e1shift echaniCed ascender
5.i"ure :1:26%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a three1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 .ind the iddle of a utility ro#e and insert it into a sna#lin$%
STEP : 1 Place the sna#lin$ and utility ro#e ne-t to a lon" cli!in" ro#e%
STEP > 1 Aith the two ro#es #arallel fro the sna#lin$, a$e two or ore wra#s around
the cli!in" ro#e and throu"h the inside #ortion of the sna#lin$%
Chec$#oints:
The !i"ht of the cli!in" ro#e is at the to# of the sna#lin$%
The two ro#es run #arallel without twistin" or crossin"%
Two or ore wra#s are ade around the lon" cli!in" ro#e and throu"h the
inside #ortion of the sna#lin$%
(owline on a Coil% This $not is an e-#edient tie1in used !y cli!ers in two1 and three1
an #arty cli!s when a cli!in" harness is not a,aila!le 5.i"ure :1:;6%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a se,en1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 To tie a !owline on a coil, start the sae as tyin" a !owline around the waist
5the waist of the cli!er is the anchor #oint6% The cli!er has a!out =0 centieters 532
inches6 of ro#e in the ri"ht hand% The standin" end is coin" fro the reainder of the
ro#e in his left hand%
STEP : 1 Draw slac$ fro the standin" end of the ro#e in the left hand, wra##in" enou"h
coils around the !ody to co#lete a iniu of four 5!ut no ore than si-6 coils%
STEP > 1 Aith the ro#e in the left hand, a$e a loo# inward with the standin" end%
STEP = 1 Slide the loo# u# !etween the horiContal wra#s and the !ody, ensurin" the loo#
does not coe uncrossed%
STEP 9 1 (rin" a !i"ht u# throu"h the loo#% (rin" the wor$in" end of the ro#e in the ri"ht
hand throu"h the !i"ht and !ac$ onto itself%
OR
Insert the short wor$in" end to the ri"ht throu"h the loo# 57ust #assed throu"h the wra#s6%
Pass the wor$in" end around the lon" standin" end and !ac$ on itself, forin" a !i"ht%
STEP 2 1 Dress the $not down%
STEP ; 1 Safety with an o,erhand $not a"ainst the $not fored on the to# sin"le coil%
There should !e fro 30 to 39 centieters of ro#e left 5standin" #art6%
Chec$#oints:
There are a iniu of four 5a-iu of si-6 #arallel wra#sD the to# and
!otto ro#es cross forward of the hi#s%
The loo# ust !e underneath all wra#s%
Other chec$#oints are the sae as the !owline%
Three1&oo# (owline% This $not is used to for three fi-ed loo#s in the iddle of a ro#e%
It is also used in a self1e4ualiCin" anchor syste 5.i"ure :1:F6%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a fi,e1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 .or a!out a 201centieter 5:=1inch6 !i"ht in the ro#e, layin" it across the left
hand, #al u#, with the !i"ht to the front%
STEP : 1 Aith the ri"ht hand, for a loo# with !oth ro#es% Eold it in the left hand%
STEP > 1 Aith the ri"ht hand, !rin" the lon" !i"ht throu"h the loo# 5fored in STEP :6
and around the two standin" ends%
STEP = 1 .ollow the !i"ht around the standin" ends and !ac$ down into the loo#%
STEP 9 1 Eold all three loo#s in the left hand% Aith the ri"ht hand, "ras# !oth standin"
ro#es and #ull while dressin" u# the !owline%
Chec$#oints:
Chec$#oints are the sae as for a re"ular !owline, e-ce#t that it is tied with two
ro#es%
An o,erhand $not ust !e tied if the third loo# is not to !e used as a secondary
anchor%
.i"ure Ei"ht Sli# Knot% This $not fors an ad7usta!le !i"ht in a ro#e 5.i"ure :1:/6%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a si-1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 .or a >01centieter 53:1inch6 !i"ht in the end of the ro#e%
STEP : 1 Eold the center of the !i"ht in the ri"ht hand%
Eold the two #arallel ro#es fro the !i"ht in the left hand a!out >0 centieters 53:
inches6 u# the ro#e%
STEP > 1 Aith the center of the !i"ht in the ri"ht hand, twist two co#lete turns
cloc$wise%
STEP = 1 Reach throu"h the !i"ht and "ras# the lon" standin" end of the ro#e% Pull
another !i"ht 5fro the lon" standin" end6 !ac$ throu"h the ori"inal !i"ht%
STEP 9 1 Pull down on the short wor$in" end of the ro#e and dress the $not down%
STEP 2 1 If the $not is to !e used in a trans#ort ti"htenin" syste, ta$e the wor$in" end
of the ro#e and for a half hitch around the loo# of the fi"ure ei"ht $not%
Chec$#oints:
The $not is in the sha#e of a fi"ure ei"ht%
The slidin" #ortion of the ro#e is the lon" wor$in" end of the ro#e%
Kleihiest Knot% This $not #ro,ides a o,ea!le, easily ad7usta!le, hi"h1tension $not
ca#a!le of holdin" e-treely hea,y loads while !ein" #ulled ti"ht 5.i"ure :1>06% Ahen
used in a trans#ort ti"htenin" syste, a si-1an #ullin" tea is necessary%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a fi,e1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 +sin" a ilitary ro#e, offset the ends !y >0 centieters 53: inches6% Aith the
ends offset, find the center of the ro#e and for a !i"ht% &ay the !i"ht o,er a horiContal
ro#e near the farside anchor%
STEP : 1 Ara# the tails of the utility ro#e around the horiContal ro#e !ac$ toward the
near1side anchor% Ara# at least four co#lete turns%
STEP > 1 Aith the reainin" tails of the utility ro#e, #ass the throu"h the !i"ht 5see
STEP 36%
STEP = 1 )oin the two ends of the tail with a 7oinin" $not 5s4uare $not with o,erhand
safety $nots6%
STEP 9 1 Dress the $not down ti"htly so that all wra#s are touchin"% Insert two sna#lin$s
5o##osin" "ates6 into the lar"e loo# tied with the tails%
Chec$#oints:
The !i"ht is closest to the far1side anchor%
All wra#s are ti"ht and touchin"%
The ends of the utility ro#e are #ro#erly secured with the 7oinin" $not%
O,erhand Knot% This $not is used to a$e a $notted ro#e for a handline, to secure the
ends of other $nots, and to a$e stirru#s in direct1aid cli!in" 5.i"ure :1>36% It can also
!e used to te#orarily whi# the end of a ro#e%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a three1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 Ba$e a loo# in the ro#e%
STEP : 1 Pass the wor$in" end of the ro#e throu"h the loo#%
STEP > 1 Ti"hten down the $not%
Chec$#oints:
Runnin" ends e-it the loo# in o##osite directions%
The $not is dressed down ti"htly%
.rost Knot% This $not is used when wor$in" with flat we!!in", and it holds !etter than a
standard o,erhand $not or s4uare $not 5.i"ure :1>:6%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a two1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 &a# one end 5a !i"ht6 of we!!in" o,er the other 5a!out :9 to >0 centieters G30
to 3: inchesH6%
STEP : 1 Tie an o,erhand $not with the newly fored tri#le1strand we!!in"D dress
ti"htly%
Chec$#oints:
The tails of the we!!in" run in o##osite directions%
Three strands of we!!in" are fored into a ti"ht o,erhand $not%
There is a !i"ht and tail e-itin" the to# of the o,erhand $not%
'irth Eitch% This is used when tyin" a runner to a #artly dri,en #iton 5.i"ure :1>>6%
The #rocess of tyin" the $not in,ol,es a two1ste# #rocedure:
STEP 3 1 (rin" the standin" ends !ac$ throu"h the !i"ht of a len"th of ro#e or we!!in"%
STEP : 1 Cinch the $not ti"htly%
Chec$#oints:
Two wra#s e-ist with a loc$in" !ar runnin" across the wra#s%
The $not is dressed ti"htly%
PART B - TYPES OF SNAPLINKS
A sna#lin$ is used to 7oin e4ui#ent, ro#e, and #eo#le into a functionin" syste 5.i"ure
:1>=6% They are ade of steel, aluinu, or alloys loose with a hin"ed, s#rin"1loaded
"ate on one side% There are different siCes, sha#es, stren"ths, and etal% The hea,iest and
stron"est sna#lin$ is ade of steel%
The followin" inforation a##lies to all sna#lin$s:
The wea$est #art of a sna#lin$ is the "ate% The "ate ust !e closed !efore
a##lyin" a load%
&oc$in" #ins should !e chec$ed to ensure that they are not loose, worn, or
corroded%
Ahen the "ate is o#en, sna#lin$s should ha,e little or no lateral o,eent
of the "ate%
The etal should !e chec$ed for any crac$s, "roo,es, !urrs, flaws, or rust%
The s#rin"1loaded "ate should autoatically close securely fro an o#en
to a closed #osition with no "a# !etween the loc$in" #in and notch%
If an en"ra,er is used to ar$ sna#lin$s, it should !e a##lied only to the
"ate, ne,er to the load1!earin" side%
A sna#lin$ should ne,er !e side loaded 5across the "ate6 since this reduces
the o,erall stren"th to the #oint of "ate failure%
The followin" data #ertains to the standard ilitary sna#lin$: Baterial: steel%
Sha#e: o,al%
A##ro-iate stren"th: :,000 #ounds with the "ate closed%
Aei"ht: =%> ounces%
Eollow sna#lin$s should !e a,oided since their use is liited% Soe sna#lin$s
ha,e a loc$in" echanis with a threaded slee,e on the "ate% The slee,e screws
ti"htly o,er the "ate o#enin" end or hin"e end to hold the "ate closed 5.i"ure :1
>96%
A loc$in" sna#lin$ is !est when ra#ellin"% A re,erse loc$in" "ate is necessary to #re,ent
a o,in" ro#e fro unscrewin" the slee,e% @ou should aintain the loc$in" slee,e and
threads free of dirt and "ritD if the slee,e is forced to close, it ay stri# the threads% @ou
should ins#ect the loc$in" echanis #eriodically since it will a"e and wea$en after
re#eated use% The nonloc$in" sna#lin$s ha,e the ad,anta"e of ease of o#eration, !ut they
should !e used only where they cannot !e accidentally o#ened%
D1Sha#ed sna#lin$s are stron"er than the o,al ty#e !ecause the sha#e directs the
lar"est #art of the load to !e a##lied to the lon"er, stron"er side o##osite the "ate
5.i"ure :1>26%
They are ade of steel or aluinu alloys, and there are different siCes and thic$nesses,
with or without loc$in" "ates% Stren"th and dura!ility should !e #art of the selection
#rocess%
O,al sna#lin$s are ,ersatile and ha,e a ,ariety of a##lications 5.i"ure :1>=6% They
are ade of steel or aluinu alloys, and there are different siCes and
thic$nesses% (oth sides of an o,al sna#lin$ !ear the strain e4ually under load
wei"ht% Bany odified o,als are a,aila!le, ost either with or without a loc$in"
"ate% All sna#lin$s ust eet ilitary standards or the +nion of International
Al#ine Association 5+IAA6 s#ecifications%
All sna#lin$s should !e ins#ected and cared for daily, !efore, durin", and after use%
Ba$e sure the etal does not ha,e crac$s, "roo,es, !urrs, rust, and flaws% Ensure
that the "ate o#ens and closes freely without !indin"D that there is no lateral
o,eent when the "ate is o#enD and the s#rin" action sna#s shut when released%
Ba$e sure the loc$in" notch ha,e a slant or slot so that the "ate reains shut
under the i#act of a cli!er8s fall% The #ins should not wor$ their way out of
their holes and should not !e shorter than their holes% If there is a loc$in"
echanis, you ust ensure the threads are not stri##ed and the slee,e loc$s the
"ate ti"htly%
@ou should not use the sna#lin$ if !urrs, "roo,es, or rou"h areas ha,e !een
identified% @ou ay use steel wool, oil, or sol,ent to ru! off rust% &u!ricate the
s#rin" as needed% To reo,e cleanin" a"ents, which cause dirt to clin" to the
sna#lin$ and ru! off on ro#es, fro the sna#lin$, you should !oil it in water for :0
to >0 seconds% It is !etter to use a lu!ricant that does not attract dirt such as a dry,
"ra#hite1!ased lu!ricant%
PART C - EQUIPMENT AND MAINTENANCE
This is an o,er,iew of con,entional ilitary e4ui#ent and the latest ites used !y the
cli!er%
Bo,eent% (efore startin" an o#eration, units ust aster techni4ues and
e4ui#ent use% Bo,eent o,er ountainous terrain cannot always !e
acco#lished without s#ecial e4ui#ent% This e4ui#ent a$es it #ossi!le for
the ilitary ountaineer to !uild installations and ne"otiate roc$ asses and ice
areas 4uic$ly and safely% As a ilitary cli!er, you will soon learn the ,alue of
s#ecialiCed e4ui#ent, and what it eans when a s#ecific #iece of e4ui#ent is
not a,aila!le when needed% @ou should aintain your e4ui#ent since your unit8s
ission, and #ossi!ly your life, could de#end on that e4ui#ent%
Bountain #ac$in" list% The ountain #ac$in" list includes soe of the cli!in"
e4ui#ent for !asic roc$ cli!s and "lacier or winter cli!s, !ut is not liited to
the followin":
(ASIC ROCK C&IB(S '&ACIER OR AINTER C&IB(S
Ca action ascender
Ice haer with serrated #ic$ and nylon
slin"
Sna#lin$, loc$in" D1sha#e
Ice a-e, a!out 29 to ;9 c 5:2 to >0
inches6 lon"
Sna#lin$, loc$in" #ear1sha#e Ca action ascender
Sna#lin$, o,al Sna#lin$, loc$in" D1sha#e
Sna#lin$, D1sha#e Sna#lin$, loc$in" #ear1sha#e
Sna#lin$, odified D1sha#e Sna#lin$, o,al
Descender, fi"ure ei"ht Sna#lin$, D1sha#e
Piton haer Sna#lin$, odified D1sha#e
Pitons 5,ertical, horiContal, R+RP,
an"les6
Descender, fi"ure ei"ht
Choc$s 5he-, wire sto##ers, cain",
co##erheads6
Ice screws, ice #itons, flu$es, #ic$ets
Choc$ #ic$ Pulleys
Cliff han"er Cli!in" harness
(olts and carriers Cra#ons 5ri"id and hin"ed6
Star drill or self1dri,in" Ae!!in" 5tu!ular and flat6
Pulleys
Ro#e, $erantle, static and dynaic 5;,
F, /, and 33 G3<=, 9<32, ><F, and
;<32 inchH6, >2 3<: to 90 eters 53:0 to
329 feet6
Ro#e, $erantle, static and dynaic 5;,
F, /, and 33 G3=, 9<32, ><F, and ;<32
inchH6 >2 3<: to 90 eters 53:0 to 329
feet6
Ro#e, laid nylon 533 G;<32 inchHD >2
3<: etersG3:0 feetH
Ro#e, laid nylon 533 G;<32 inchHD
>2 3<: eters G3:0 feetH
Snow anchors
.irst1aid $it .irst1aid $it
A-e or saw Re#air $it
Ni"ht ,ision de,ices Snow sho,el and saw
Counication e4ui#ent
Snowshoes<s$is 5with #oles and
!indin"s6
A,alanche cord and #ro!es
A,alanche transcei,er< recei,er
Aands
Candles
Ah$io, tents, sto,es, fuel 5ission
de#endent6
Ni"ht ,ision de,ices
Counication e4ui#ent
.ootwear% Ahen ilitary !oots are not #ractical for ountainous o#erations, you ay
consider the use of s#ecialiCed cli!in" shoes and !oots% Cli!in" shoes, Known AS
Kletterschue 5'eran6 or *arra#e 5.rench6, ha,e ru!!er soles with ru!!er alon" the
sides, and on the toe and heel% These shoes are ore fle-i!le and #ro,ide !etter adhesion
on roc$ than ilitary !oots%
@ou ay wear the 7un"le !oot for cli!in" durin" hot weatherD howe,er, the use of the
standard ilitary !oot with ru!!er soles is not #ractical for wet or icy roc$ conditions and
!efore you use the, the soles should !e rou"hened !y usin" a file or shar# roc$%
The followin" ethods a##ly to the care of !oot leather:
The old style leather co!at !oot is !est water#roofed with oils and wa-es% This
should !e done routinely to reesta!lish water re#ellency% Seas and welts are the
ost i#ortant areas to co,er%
The new s#eed1lace co!at !oot has silicone treated leather and ust !e
water#roofed only with a silicone aterial%
SiliconiCed leather retains its water ,a#or #erea!ility and ,entilation 4ualities while
!ein" hi"hly water#roof% +se of oils and wa-es on these !oots destroys their a!ility to
,entilate and stay water#roof, and co#roises their a!ility to siliconiCe the leather
itself%
The followin" ethods a##ly to !oot fittin":
(oots ust !e fitted #ro#erly IAA their #lanned use% The foot len"thens, widens,
and swells durin" a arch fro the load carried and the #oundin" that occurs%
Correct fittin" of !oots re4uires e-tra tie !ut the !enefits are worth the effort%
(oth feet should !e easured since they are usually different siCes and sha#es% A
thin inner soc$ and a thic$ outer soc$ should !e worn durin" the fittin"% A #ac$
with the a##ro#riate wei"ht to !e carried should !e on the soldier8s !ac$% Ee
stands on the shoe siCin" de,ice and leans sli"htly forward with soe wei"ht on
the !alls of his feet The len"th and width of each foot is easured two or three
ties to ensure the #ro#er siCe inforation%
This #rocess allows a lar"e enou"h !oot to accoodate for the #ro#er soc$s and
the chan"e in foot siCe while archin"% Two different thic$nesses of insoles for
the !oots 53%2 G3<32 inchH and >%: G3<F inchH6 co#ensates for the chan"e
in foot ,olue 5swellin"6% The thic$er insole is used at the start of a arch% The
soldier chan"es to dry soc$s and to a thinner insole idway throu"h the arch to
accoodate for swollen feet, if needed%
The followin" #rocedures are necessary for cold1weather foot #rotection:
Barch in #ro#erly fitted leather !oots
Ea,e o,ershoes a,aila!le if it is wet or if ore insulation is needed%
+se ,a#or !arrier 5*(6 !oots for short o,es, sedentary tas$s, or in #atrol !ases
where archin" with loads is not necessary% Eea,y archin" with *( !oots can
for !listers% The foot !ecoes da# and the s$in soft inside the *( !oot% The
white *( !oot is desi"ned for use in dry cold re"ionD the !lac$ *( !oot is
desi"ned for use in wet cold en,ironent%
Insulate the foot fro the soles of the leather !oot with insoles% There ust !e
enou"h ,olue in the toe ca# to allow for thic$ soc$s and air s#ace around the
toes% The "reatest heat loss fro the foot occurs throu"h the sole and toe ca#% This
re4uires a lar"er inside ,olue of the !oot than what is worn daily%
Cli!in" !oots can !e either an$le or calf hi"h with full, half, or no ri"id shan$% (oots
with stiff soles #ro,ide !etter su##ort in sall holds and crac$s, and when standin" in
slin"s and stirru#s% They afford !etter wed"in" action in 7a crac$s% (oots are ore
,ersatile in hi$in" and cli!in" o,er chan"in" terrain% They tend to !e ore wind#roof
and water#roof alon" with a rou"her, sturdier construction% O,er!oots can !e worn to
$ee# feet dry, !ut they do not #ro,ide the friction needed to cli!%
Clothin"% Durin" ountain o#erations, it is necessary to #re#are and e4ui#
#ersonnel for ,ery cold weather% Clothin" and e4ui#ent that su##ort o#erations
in a ountainous en,ironent are listed in CTA 901/00, and the authoriCations
are !ased on e-#ected seasonal te#erature ,ariations% Clothin" allowance Cones
5.i"ure :1>;6 ha,e !een esta!lished !ased on the a,era"e te#erature in the
coldest and warest onths%
Clothin" allowance authoriCed for lower areas or Cones ay not #ro,ide the ade4uate
#rotection necessary in hi"her or ore ru""ed areas, therefore, the use of the authoriCed
allowance #lus additional ites authoriCed for Cones *, *I, and *II, and s#ecial
ountaineerin" e4ui#ent ay !e authoriCed under s#ecial cliatic conditions%
Cold1Aeather Clothin" Directions% @ou ust wear the #ro#er clothin" for
#rotection a"ainst cold and wind The face ust !e #rotected in hi"h winds and
when e-#osed to aircraft #ro#eller or rotor wash% A,oid e-cessi,e #ers#iration
5control o,eent6, and try to $ee# the clothin" and !ody dry% Any interference
with circulation of the !lood reduces the aount of heat deli,ered to the
e-treities% Aear all clothin" and e4ui#ent loose to a,oid interference with
circulation% +se ade4uate clothin" and shelter when inacti,e% E-ercise fin"ers,
face, and toes to $ee# the war and to detect any nu! or hard areas% Aar the
ears for the sae reason% (rush snow off clothin" !efore o,in" to #re,ent it
fro eltin" and a$in" clothin" wet%
Pro#er wear of cold1weather clothin" hel#s #re,ent cold in7uries% Ary cold1weather "ear
is desi"ned on the layer #rinci#le: loose clothin" worn in layers "i,es a-iu
insulatin" airs#ace to retain !ody heat% *entilation, the #rocess of coolin" off slowly, is
uch easier when loose, layered "arents can !e reo,ed one at a tie% Protect the
insulatin" layers throu"h the use of water and wind#roofed outer clothin"% Each
indi,idual situation cannot !e dictated !ecause all soldiers feel the effects of cold
differently% Eowe,er, the "uidelines are: dress li"ht when o,in" to #re,ent sweatin" and
o,erheatin"D chan"e wet clothes when sto##edD and add layers when sto##ed, as needed%
Ree!er C1O1&1D to $ee# war in winter%
Kee# clothin" Clean%
A,oid O,erheatin"%
Aear clothin" &oose and in &ayers%
Kee# clothin" Dry%
*entilation is acco#lished !y the followin":
Reo,e head"ear or reduce head"ear layerin" for a short #eriod%
O#en the front of clothin" one layer at a tie, down to and includin" theral
underwear%
Ii# u# the outer "arent #art of the way to allow the !ody to cool%
Re"ulate heat loss further !y o#enin", closin", or reo,in" layers of clothin" to
allow heat to slowly esca#e fro the chest%
Do not o#en all layers suddenlyD coolin" will occur too 4uic$ly% Do not lea,e
layers of clothin" o#en, which will allow chillin" to occur% Do not allow
indi,iduals to cool so ra#idly that they !e"in to sneeCe or shi,er%
Soc$s% Soc$s #ro,ide foot #rotection in hot and cold weather%
.oot #rotection includes1
Insulatin" the feet fro cold and heat
Protectin" the feet fro a!rasion !y the inside of the !oot%
Pro,idin" cushionin" a"ainst shoc$ on the soles of the feet%
Aidin" in oisture transfer fro the s$in to the !oot surface%
Allowin" for swellin" and e-#ansion of the feet durin" hea,y archin"%
A "ood soc$1
Is dense enou"h to #re,ent a!rasion of the feet at areas of hi"h
co#ression%
Is densely wo,en
Does not se#arate under hi"h co#ression
Is unifor in thic$ness o,er the entire foot
Transfers oisture fro the foot to the !oot
@ou should wear a #oly#ro#ylene li"htwei"ht soc$ closest to the foot since the Ary OD
"reen soc$, or any 300 #ercent wool soc$ ay cause your foot to sweat% If #oly#ro#ylene
soc$s are not a,aila!le, wear a thin cotton or sil$ soc$ 5Ary !lac$ dress soc$6% Kee# the
toes free enou"h to wi""le% If your feet sweat, chan"e soc$s and liners, !ut do not wear
#oly#ro#ylene or sil$ soc$s alone% @ou should wear wool soc$s as an outer soc$, one #air
at a tie% Aearin" ore can a$e your !oot fit too ti"htly, ay restrict circulation, and
co#ress the soc$ fi!ers, which reduces air s#ace and hinders insulation%
In cold weather, the !est issue soc$s are the tan<s$i ountain soc$s 5;9 #ercent wool and
:9 #ercent cotton6% @ou should wear the o,er a thin inner soc$ of nylon or
#oly#ro#ylene% Coercially ade soc$s that are of densely wo,en, noncushion1sole
wool are e-cellent for cold weather% Pro#er foot care is critical in a,oidin" cold1weather
in7uries% To #re,ent foot in7ury, you should $ee# your feet dry% Chan"e soc$s at least once
a day and after e,ery o,eent% Bassa"e, clean, and thorou"hly dry the feet !efore
re#lacin" the !oots%
(oot Inserts% Ahen in a wet or cold1wet weather% @ou ay choose to wear inserts of the
orthotic u#lift ,ariety% They are ade fro ?solid? #lastic as o##osed to other inserts that
are co#osed of cloth and foa, which retain oisture and hence #roote frost!ite%
Those ade of non#orous #lastic, #roote e-cessi,e foot sweatin" causin" you to chan"e
soc$s ore often% If you use inserts, you should ha,e se,eral sets so you can chan"e the
when chan"in" soc$s% @ou ust a$e sure that there is enou"h roo in the !oot to allow
toe otion since the inserts #ro,ide e-tra insulation and cushionin", which results in a
snu""er fit%
+nderwear% +ndershorts and undershirts #ro,ide the first layer of clothin"% If the weather
is cold or wet, lon" underwear should !e worn% Aool, #oly#ro#ylene, and #ile lon"
underwear all #ro,ide insulation% &on" underwear, as a layer, can !e reo,ed if the
soldier !ecoes too war% @ou should chan"e your underwear at least twice a wee$% If it
is not #ossi!le to wash the, cru!le, sha$e, and air the for at least two hours%
Trousers and Shirts% These are #art of the duty unifor% They ay !e ade of cotton,
wool, or a fi!er !lend% @our unifor should !e loose enou"h to allow for added layers
underneath, !ut not too loose so that war air ne-t to the !ody is lost% &oose clothin"
ay hinder cli!in", ra##ellin", and usin" harness and e4ui#ent% If not already in the
unifor, you should add reinforced $nees, el!ows, and !uttoc$s% Ba$e sure your unifor
is $e#t dry at all ties%
Outerwear% These are e-ternal #ants, 7ac$ets, #ar$as, and rain "ear% They should !e
wind#roof, water#roof, and worn as the outerost layer of clothin"%
'aiters% These are an$le or $nee len"th le" co,erin" that $ee# wind, water, and snow out
of the !oots%
Eead"ear% @ou should wear ca#s or hats ade of wool, nylon, or #ile% They hel# #re,ent
your head and nec$ fro losin" heat in the cold weather% The !alacla,a #rotects the head,
nec$, and the face fro wind, wet, and cold, and wars the air !efore it is !reathed% The
#ile ca# and hood are e-cellent for use in cold weather% The wool scarf "i,es added
#rotection to the nec$ a"ainst cold% In hot weather, you ay use a #atrol or (D+ ca# to
#re,ent ultra,iolet rays fro !urnin" your head% The ilitary helet #rotects you durin"
a fall or fro fallin" roc$s, ice, or e4ui#ent%
'lo,es and Bittens% As a e!er of a cli!in" #arty, you should carry wor$ "lo,es at
all ties% Durin" cold weather, use ittens to $ee# the hands and fin"ers warer than
"lo,es, !ut de-terity is lost% The use of "lo,es allows you the freedo to cli!, ra##el,
!elay, and tie $nots% To o!tain e-cellent insulation, you ay use liners ade of wool,
sil$, nylon, #oly#ro#ylene, and #ile% A shell of leather, cloth, or a co!ination #ro,ides a
wind#roof and water#roof layer as well as addin" to insulation% Durin" an eer"ency,
soc$s ay !e worn o,er the hands as ittens%
Sun"lasses or 'o""les% These #rotect the eyes fro wind, snow, and ultra,iolet rays%
They should ha,e dar$, i#act1resistant lenses that sto# infrared and ultra,iolet rays%
They should feature side shields, fle-i!le fraes, and a nec$!and to #re,ent loss%
The standard #ac$in" list for a soldier8s ruc$sac$ includes ites that you will need durin"
a ission% Ree!erJ Only needed ites should !e carried
Ruc$sac$ Ites
Ruc$sac$ with frae and waist!and
.ood
(oots 5terrain and weather1de#endent6
E-tra unifor
E-tra soc$s 5inner, outer, and insulated6
Drawers and undershirts
&on" underwear 5#oly#ro#ylene or woolD cold en,ironent6
Aind and rain "ear 5#ar$a and #ants6
Eead"ear 5!alacla,a, wool, rain<sun6
Bittens<"lo,es 5inner liner and outer shell6
Aor$ "lo,es
Down or synthetic "arents 5cold en,ironent6
'aithers 5cold en,ironent6
Slee#in" !a"
Poncho and liner
Aater#roof !a"
Slee#in" #ad
Shelter 5tent6
Re#air $it 1 #liers, wire, cord, needle, thread, #ins, oil, ra"s, ta#e, cle,is #ins
Sto,e 5accessories and fuel6
Aea#on cleanin" $it
'eneral E4ui#ent%
'eneral e4ui#ent includes ites used !y the unit and not the indi,idual% They assist the
unit in sustainin" its o#erational ca#a!ility% 'eneral e4ui#ent includes ites such as
na,i"ational aids, li"hts, #ioneer tools, re#air $its and other e4ui#ent%
Ba#% (efore startin" an o#eration, a thorou"h study should !e conducted of ilitary
to#o"ra#hic a#s, s$etch a#s, #hoto"ra#hs, forest ser,ice a#s, hunter8s a#s, and
other sources% The !est a,aila!le a#s ust !e studied and carried !y all unit leaders%
Co#ass% +se of a co#ass is a #riary eans of deterinin" aCiuth, direction, and
location% @ou ust $now how to use the co#ass !efore startin" an o#eration% Soe of
the co#asses a,aila!le are, !ut are not liited to, lensatic, li4uid1filled, and #risatic%
Protractor% @ou should include on the #ac$in" list the standard, sall, #lastic #rotractor,
cali!rated in ils and de"rees since it is needed when wor$in" with a#s%
Altieter% The altieter is a !aroeter with a dial ar$ed in feet or eters 5altitude6
rather than #ressure% It can ,erify a location when used with a a# and co#ass% The
altieter can !e used in !oth the ascent and the descent as well as findin" #re,ious routes
that ha,e !een windswe#t% Eowe,er, they should not !e used as an a!solute indicator for
ele,ation since they res#ond to chan"es in atos#heric #ressure !ased on local weather%
They are usually accurate to within 30 eters of the indicated altitude% .or future use, you
should record the readin"s since they re,eal !aroetric chan"es that assist in #redictin"
weather chan"es% Its accuracy will de#end on your e-#erience and s$ill% (efore usin" the
altieter, you should cali!rate it to a $nown ele,ation and chec$ it re"ularly when
encounterin" $nown ele,ations at $nown locations on the a#%
.lashli"hts and Eeadla#s% &i"hts should !e carried !y all #ersonnel in the cli!in"
#arty% @ou should not eit any li"ht% Ahen a li"ht is needed in a tactical situation, you
ust use red or !lue filters% @ou should carry sall and co#act li"hts% Al$aline
!atteries1(A >01>0, last 90 #ercent lon"er than car!on1Cinc !atteries%
Knife% The ain tools to assist you in ro#e ana"eent are a sall #oc$et$nife with a
ain !lade and arlines#i$e% @ou ay carry other !lades and tools to suit your needs%
Re#air I#ro,isation% One e!er of the cli!in" #arty should carry a sall re#air $it
containin" ites such as wire, ta#e, electrical ta#e, safety #ins, needles, thread, ra"s, 990
#arachute cord, oil, wire cutters, and #liers%
Other E4ui#ent%
As the situation and ission dictate, you ay carry other ites and e4ui#ent% Soe of
the ites to !e worn or carried are listed !elow, !ut REBEB(ER only needed ites
should !e carried%
Ites to !e Aorn or Carried
Indi,idual wea#on
Aunition with a"aCines
(oots 5a##roach and cli!in"6
Ca# and helet
.lashli"ht
&i# !al
Identification ta"s<card
Ear#lu"s
Eye"lasses 5or safety "lasses6
Sun"lasses<"o""les
.ati"ue unifor
+nderwear 5lon" or shortD theral or cotton6
Soc$s 5inner and outer6
Aet weather<cold weather clothin"
Ba#
Protractor
Co#ass
Altieter
Pen, #encil, #a#er
Aristwatch
Aater #urification ta!lets
Pistol !elt, sus#enders, and aunition #ouches
Canteens, 3 4uart 5: each6 with co,ers and cu#
.irst1aid case with dressin"
Knife 5sheath, #oc$et, !ayonet6
Batches or li"hter
'lo,es 5for the weather and for ra##els or !elays6
PART D - TYPES OF PITONS AND PITON HAMMERS
3% 'eneral%
A #iton is a etal #in that is haered into a crac$ in the roc$% It is descri!ed !y its
thic$ness, desi"n, and len"th and #ro,ides a secure anchor for a ro#e that ay !e attached
!y a sna#lin$ 5.i"ure :1>F6%
There are four confi"urations used !y the +%S% Ary% They are the ,ertical, horiContal,
wafer, and an"le, which are ade of either allea!le or hardened steel, and alloys%
The stren"th of the #iton is deterined ore !y its #laceent rather than its rated tensile
stren"th%
:% Ty#es of Pitons%
There are two ty#es of #itons They are: !lades that hold when wed"ed into ti"ht1fittin"
crac$s, and an"les that hold !lade co#ression when wed"ed into a crac$%
*ertical #itons% The !lade and eye are ali"ned% *ertical #itons are used in flush
,ertical crac$s 5.i"ure :1>/6%
EoriContal #itons% The eye of the #iton is at ri"ht an"les to the !lade% These #itons
are used in flush horiContal crac$s and in offset or o#en1!oo$ ty#e ,ertical or
horiContal crac$s 5.i"ure :1=06%
They are recoended for use in #lace of ,ertical #itons in ,ertical crac$s since the
tor4ue on the eye tends to wed"e it into #lace, "i,in" it ore holdin" #ower than the
,ertical #iton under the sae circustances%
Aafer #itons% These are used in shallow, flush crac$s They ha,e little holdin" #ower and
ha,e their wea$est #oints in the rin"s #ro,ided for the sna#lin$s%
Knife !lade #itons% These are used in direct1aid cli!in" They are sall and fit into thin,
shallow crac$s% They ha,e a ta#ered !lade that is o#tiu for !oth stren"th and holdin"
#ower%
RealiCed +ltiate Reality Pitons 5R+RPs6% These are hatchet1sha#ed #itons a!out 31inch
s4uare% They are desi"ned to !ite into thin shallow crac$s 5.i"ure :1=36%
An"le #itons% These are used in wide crac$s that are flush or offset 5.i"ure :1=:6%
Ba-iu stren"th is attained only when the le"s of the #iton are in contact with
o##osite sides of the crac$%
(on" #itons% These are an"le #itons that are ore than >%F c 53KL inches6 wide%
(on"s are coonly ade of steel or aluinu alloy and usually contain holes
to reduce wei"ht and accoodate sna#lin$s 5.i"ure :1=>6% They ha,e a hi"h
holdin" #ower and re4uire less haerin" than other #itons%
S$yhoo$ 5cliffhan"ers6% These are sall hoo$s that clin" to tiny roc$ #rotrusions,
led"es, or fla$es 5.i"ure :1==6% S$yhoo$s re4uire constant tension and are used in
a downward #ull direction% The cur,ed end will not strai"hten under !ody wei"ht%
The !ase is desi"ned to #re,ent rotation and aid sta!ility%
@ou should ins#ect and care for #itons at all ties% Pitons ay !e reused any ties !y
carefully retrie,in" the% They ust !e #laced so that they do not !end !ac$wards% They
should !e dri,en until only the eye #rotrudes, which is to a #oint where they are secure
and #ro,ide the needed #rotection% Choosin" the #ro#er siCe and sha#e to fit the s#ecific
crac$ is $ey for e#laceent and ease in retrie,in"%
@ou should ins#ect #itons !efore, durin", and after use to "uarantee ser,icea!ility% Chec$
the ends for ?ushrooin"? which is caused !y continued #oundin"% Ba$e sure the
!lades are strai"ht and ed"es ta#ered% All rusted and chi##ed #itons should !e filed and
ru!!ed sooth% To #rotect the durin" stora"e, a##ly a li"ht coat of oil% @ou should $ee#
#itons dry durin" a cli!%
>% Piton Eaers%
This haer has a flat, steel headD a handle ade of wood, etal, or fi!er"lass #rotected
with ta#eD a !lunt #ic$ on the o##osite side of the haerD and a safety lanyard of nylon
cord, we!!in", or leather% The lanyard secures the haer to the cli!er8s !ody%
These haers are used to dri,e and reo,e #itons, clean crac$s, and #ry o!7ects
loose% There are different ty#es and siCes% @ou should choose one that will suit the
intended use% The #riary difference are in the desi"n of the heads 5.i"ure :1=96%
@ou should ins#ect the #iton haer for ser,icea!ility such as the head, #is$,
handle, shaft, and lanyard% The haers should !e free of !urrs, crac$s, and rust%
The head ust !e ti"ht1fittin" on the handle% Ahen not in use, store the haer
in a clean, dry area%
Conclusion: @ou ha,e now co#leted the instructional aterial for &esson :% (efore you
co#lete the #ractice e-ercise for this lesson, you should re,iew the aterial #resented in
this lesson% Answers and feed!ac$s for the 4uestions in the #ractice e-ercise are #ro,ided
to show you where further study is re4uired%

LESSON 2 PRACTICAL EXERCISE
Instructions
The followin" ites will test your understandin" of the aterial co,ered in this lesson%
There is only one correct answer for each ite% Ahen you ha,e co#leted the e-ercise,
chec$ your answers with the answer $ey that follows% If you answer any ite incorrectly,
re,iew that #art of the lesson which contains the #ortion in,ol,ed%
Situation%
As a e!er of a unit #artici#atin" in ountainous aneu,ers, you are re4uired to select
cli!in" ro#es and #ut the to use !y selectin" the a##ro#riate $not5s6 and sna#lin$s
a,aila!le to successfully co#lete the tas$ assi"ned%
3% Ahen your unit recei,es a standard ilitary nylon1laid cli!in" ro#e, what
characteristics will it ha,eM
a% >2 eters 53:0 feet6 lon" and 33 illieters 5;<32 inch6 wide with at least a
=,9001#ound tensile stren"th%
!% :9 eters 5F0 feet6 lon" and 33 illieters 5;<32 inch6 wide with at least a
=,9001#ound tensile stren"th%
c% >0 eters 5/0 feet6 lon" and 33 illieters 5;<32 inch6 wide with at least a
3,0001#ound tensile stren"th%
d% :2 eters 5303 feet6 lon" and 33 illieters 5;<32 inch6 wide with at least an
F,0001#ound tensile stren"th%
:% Durin" the ountainous e-ercise you will !e handlin" ro#es% As a "eneral rule, you
should
a% $ee# the ro#e clean, neatly coiled and stac$ed u# on layers on the "round%
!% $ee# the ro#e clean since dirt can daa"e a ro#e throu"h a!rasion%
c% $ee# the ro#e clean !y washin" it with a ild !leach or fa!ric softener to a,oid
a!rasions%
d% wash the ro#e daily to eliinate e-cessi,e heat and to a,oid wea$ fi!ers on the
ro#e%
>% As a e!er of your unit, you ha,e !een desi"nated to e-#lain to the less e-#erienced
cli!ers the classes of $nots used !y all cli!ers% @ou $now
a% there are fi,e classes to include 7oinin" $nots, anchor $nots, iddle ro#e $nots,
fisheran $nots, and s#ecial $nots%
!% there are only two classes, the 7oinin" and iddle ro#e $nots%
c% these classes are only a "eneral "uide and they are 7oinin", anchor, iddle ro#e,
and s#ecial $nots%
d% these classes are only a "eneral "uide and they are the 7oinin" and iddle ro#e
$nots%
=% After tyin" a water $not, the first chec$#oint you should chec$, is
a% to a$e sure there are two round turns around the anchor with a loc$in" !ar%
!% to a$e sure there are four o,erhand $nots, two retracin" the other two%
c% to a$e sure there are four round turns around the anchor with a loc$in" !ar
d% to a$e sure there are two o,erhand $nots, one retracin" the other%
9% @ou ha,e !een instructed !y the leader of the cli!in" #arty to tie a clo,e hitch $not
on a etal anchor% @ou should
a% not use a clo,e hitch $not on etal, e-ce#t on a #ic$et hold fast%
!% for a sin"le, fi-ed loo# in the iddle of the ro#e%
c% for two fi-ed loo#s at the end of the ro#e%
d% for two fi-ed loo#s in the iddle of the ro#e%
2% All sna#lin$s ha,e !asically the sae characteristics% Ahen usin" sna#lin$s, you
should
a% $now that all sna#lin$s are ade of steel with an o,al sha#e%
!% $now that the wea$est #art of a sna#lin$ is the "ate, and it ust !e closed
!efore a##lyin" a load%
c% $now that the hea,iest and stron"est sna#lin$ is ade of aluinu and co##er%
d% $now that the nonloc$in" sna#lin$s are the !est in the field since they are easy
to o#erate%

LESSON TWO
PRACTICE EXERCISE
ANSWER KEY AND FEEDBACK

Item Coe!t A"#$e %"& Fee&'%!(

3% a% >2 eters 53:0 feet6 lon" and 33 illieters 5;<32 inch6
wide with at least a =,9001#ound tensile stren"th%

Since nylon has re#laced anila, fla-, he#, and sisal, and
is now the standard aterial for cli!in" ro#es, as
a ilitary ountaineer it is necessary that you $now the
e-act s#ecifications for future use %

:% !% Kee# the ro#e clean since dirt can daa"e a ro#e
throu"h a!rasion%

It is i#ortant to ins#ect the ro#e !efore usin" it% Pro#er
care of the ro#e is essential since it will
ensure your safety and that of the other e!ers of your
unit%

>% c% These classes are only a "eneral "uide and they are
7oinin", anchor, iddle ro#e, and s#ecial $nots%

Althou"h these classes of $nots are only listed in your te-t
as a "eneral "uide, you should $now they e-ist% Sooner or
later, you will !e re4uired to deonstrate your a!ility !y
tyin" and untyin" these $nots%

=% d% To a$e sure there are two o,erhand $nots, one
retracin" the other%

Ahen tyin" any class of $nots, it is i#ortant to dou!le
chec$ your wor$ !y followin" the list of chec$#oints% If
your $not does not eet the re4uireents of one of the
chec$#oints, re#eat the tyin" #rocess until corrected%

9% a% not use a clo,e hitch $not on etal, e-ce#t on a #ic$et
hold fast%

This $not should not !e tied on etal !ecause as a "eneral
rule once the $not is tied it ust ha,e
constant tension to a,oid sli##in" 5Pa"e ;26%


2% !% $now that the wea$est #art of a sna#lin$ is the "ate, and
it ust !e closed !efore a##lyin" a load%

Sna#lin$s should !e carefully selected and ins#ected !efore
usin" to a,oid #ersonal in7uries or
destruction of e4ui#ent%
LESSON THREE CLIMBING TECHNIQUES
OVERVIEW


TASK DESCRIPTION:
In this lesson you will learn to identify and demonstrate your knowlede on eneral
te!hni"ues# $itons and $iton hammers# %elays# and ra$$ellin&
'EARNIN( O)*ECTI+E:
TASKS: ,nderstand and identify eneral te!hni"ues# $itons and $iton hammers# %elays#
and ra$$ellin&
CONDITIONS: The student will demonstrate a !om$rehension and knowlede of the task
%y dis$layin an understandin of the eneral te!hni"ues# $itons and $iton hammers#
%elays# and ra$$ellin&
STANDARDS: The material !ontained in this lesson was deri-ed from the followin
$u%li!ation:
RE.ERENCES: The material !ontained in this lesson was deri-ed from the followin
$u%li!ation: TC /01213
INTRODUCTION
Clim%in e"ui$ment and te!hni"ues $ro-ide the fundamentals for all military
mountaineerin o$erations& These o$erations $ro-ide a!!ess to rued mountainous
terrain& In su!h terrain# there are three ad-ersaries: the weather# mountains# and enemy&
These ad-ersaries !an %e o-er!ome %y troo$s who are skilled in the use of s$e!ial
mountain !lim%in e"ui$ment and te!hni"ues& 4ountainous o$erations re"uire
s$e!iali5ed e"ui$ment and te!hni"ues different from those used in other en-ironments&
PART A - GENERAL TECHNIQUES
3& Clim%in Te!hni"ues&
All leaders o$eratin in mountainous areas must %e oriented and skilled in military
mountaineerin& The e6e!ution and su!!ess of the mission in mountainous o$erations
de$end on the le-el of indi-idual and unit skill $rofi!ien!y and !onditionin& Only
throuh $ra!ti!e and re$etition do a!tions %e!ome refle6i-e and is the oal of hih
indi-idual and unit $rofi!ien!y reali5ed& Personnel trained in mountain o$erations should
form the !adre to train unit $ersonnel& )efore undertakin mountain o$erations it is
mandatory to train all unit $ersonnel in %alan!e and $arty !lim%in&
,nits with a mountaineerin mission should ha-e two teams that !onsist of three e6$ert
ro!k !lim%ers 7assault !lim%ers8 for ea!h $latoon& The other unit mem%ers should %e
skilled in %asi! military mountaineerin 7mountain walkin# %alan!e !lim%in# knot tyin#
%uildin of installations# and %ridin8&
Pre$aration for mountain o$erations is not !om$lete until the unit !ommander knows how
all of his men will rea!t to e6$osure to heiht and to the a%o-e1a-erae $hysi!al effort&
Ea!h soldier is e6$osed to unknown daners& The fear of fallin is a human instin!t and is
hard to o-er!ome& Analysis of a soldier9s rea!tion to heiht allows the !ommander to
$la!e those who do not o-er!ome su!h fear in a $osition where they will not endaner the
li-es of other unit mem%ers& A soldier !annot %e for!ed to inore his fear of heiht&
Physi!al and $sy!holoi!al !onditionin are not enouh to $rodu!e !om$etent !lim%ers&
The soldier must $ossess a will to !lim%& These two as$e!ts# !onditionin and will#
!om%ined with skill ained throuh $ra!ti!e# $rodu!e $ositi-e results&
:& 4ountain ;alkin&
The art of mountain walkin may mean relearnin how to walk& Effe!ti-e mountain
walkin in!ludes the !orre!t te!hni"ue reinfor!ed %y e6$erien!e& There are se-eral
te!hni"ues# howe-er# all te!hni"ues ha-e the same oal: safe mo-ement o-er diffi!ult
terrain with the least e6$enditure of enery to arri-e at a destination in ood !ondition to
!om$lete the mission&
Pro$er Te!hni"ue& <ou must a%ide %y se-eral mountain $rin!i$les to ease your mo-ement
o-er diffi!ult terrain& These a$$ly to all mountain walkin te!hni"ues&
<ou must !enter your weiht dire!tly o-er your feet at all times& Pla!e your foot
flat on the round to o%tain as mu!h 7%oot8 sole1round !onta!t as $ossi%le& Then#
$la!e your foot on the u$hill side of rass tusso!ks and other le-el s$ots to a-oid
twistin the ankle and strainin the A!hilles tendon& <ou should rest %etween
ste$s %y straihtenin the knee after ea!h ste$& Take small ste$s at a slow $a!e&
<ou must a-oid stee$ anles of as!ent or des!ent# and take ad-antae of any
indentation in the round&
As a mountaineer# you must set a tem$o# or num%er of ste$s $er minute# a!!ordin
to the rate at whi!h the unit is mo-in& Sin!e $hysi!al differen!es mean the
tem$os of two $eo$le mo-in at the same s$eed will not %e the same# it is %est
that an inter-al of three to fi-e $a!es is ke$t %etween indi-iduals& This inter-al
allows ea!h $erson to ad=ust his stride for !hanes of slo$e or terrain# enhan!in
their tem$o# $a!e# and rhythm& The $eo$le at the end of the file will %enefit from
this inter-al sin!e the a!!ordion effe!t will %e lessened&
The terrain# weather# and liht !onditions affe!t the rate of !lim%& The more
ad-erse the !onditions# the slower the $a!e& 4o-in too fast# e-en under ideal
!onditions# $rodu!es early fatiue# re"uires more rest halts# and results in loss of
!lim%in time& <ou will ha-e reater enduran!e to !lim% if you are well
!onditioned and a!!limati5ed& <ou !an only mo-e as fast as your les will allow&
The keys to su!!essful mountain o$erations are: rest# ood nutrition# $ro$er
!onditionin and a!!limati5ation# and the will to !lim%&
)reaks are ke$t to a minimum& ;hen takin a rest halt# %oot la!es should %e
loosened and the %ody -entilated 7throuh layer dressin8& At the end of a
day9s>niht9s !lim%# a ood rest is needed to re-i-e tired mus!les&
The rest ste$ is used for stee$ !lim%in& The $a!e is ke$t slow and rhythmi!& This
slow# steady# haltin rest ste$ is more effi!ient than s$urts of s$eed# whi!h are
ra$idly e6haustin and re"uire loner re!o-ery&
4ountain walkin is di-ided into four te!hni"ues de$endent on the eneral formation of
the terrain: walkin on hard round# rassy slo$es# s!ree slo$es# and talus slo$es&
;alkin on ?ard (round& ?ard round is firmly $a!ked dirt that does not i-e
way under the weiht of a soldier9s ste$&
;hen as!endin# your knees must %e lo!ked on e-ery ste$ to rest the mus!les of the les&
Stee$ slo$es !an %e tra-ersed rather than !lim%ed straiht u$& Turnin at the end of ea!h
tra-erse should %e done %y ste$$in off in the new dire!tion with the u$hill foot& This
$re-ents !rossin the feet and $ossi%le loss of %alan!e& In tra-ersin# the full1sole 7%oot8
$rin!i$le is a!!om$lished %y rollin the ankle away from the hill on ea!h ste$& .or small
stret!hes# the herrin%one ste$ may %e used1as!endin straiht u$ a slo$e with toes
$ointed out& A normal $roression as the slo$e stee$ens would %e from walkin straiht
u$ the slo$e# to a herrin%one ste$# and then to a tra-erse on the stee$er areas&
;hen des!endin# you should mo-e straiht down a slo$e without tra-ersin& <our %a!k
must %e straiht and knees %ent so they take u$ the sho!k of ea!h ste$& <our %ody weiht
must %e dire!tly o-er the feet# and the full1sole is $la!ed on the round with ea!h ste$&
;alkin with a sliht forward lean and with feet in a normal $osition make the des!ent
easier&
(rassy Slo$es& They are usually !om$osed of small tusso!ks of rowth rather than one
!ontinuous field& In as!endin# the u$$er side of ea!h hummo!k or tusso!k is ste$$ed on
where the round is more le-el than on the lower side&
;hen des!endin a rassy slo$e# a !lim%er should tra-erse %e!ause of the une-en nature
of the round& <ou !an easily %uild u$ too mu!h s$eed and fall if a dire!t des!ent is tried&
The ho$1ski$ ste$ !an %e useful on this ty$e of slo$e& In this te!hni"ue# the lower le
takes all of the weiht# and the u$$er le is used only for %alan!e&
;hen tra-ersin# the !lim%er9s u$hill foot $oints in the dire!tion of tra-el& The downhill
foot $oints a%out @A derees off the dire!tion of tra-el& This maintains ma6imum sole
!onta!t and $re-ents $ossi%le downhill ankle roll1out&
S!ree Slo$es& These !onsist of small ro!ks and ra-el that ha-e !olle!ted %elow
ro!k rides and !liffs& S!ree -aries in si5e from rains of sand to the si5e of a fist&
Sometimes it o!!urs in mi6tures of all si5es# %ut normally s!ree slo$es !onsist of
the same si5e $arti!les&
If $ossi%le# you should a-oid as!endin s!ree slo$es sin!e they are diffi!ult and tirin& All
$rin!i$les of as!endin hard round a$$ly# %ut ea!h ste$ is !hosen !arefully so that the
foot does not slide down when weiht is $la!ed on it& This is done %y ki!kin in with the
toe of the u$$er foot so that a ste$ is formed in the s!ree& After determinin that the ste$
is sta%le# weiht is transferred from the lower to the u$$er foot& The $ro!ess is re$eated&
The %est method for des!endin s!ree slo$es is to !ome straiht down the slo$e usin a
short shufflin ste$ with the knees %ent# %a!k straiht# feet $ointed downhill# and heels
du in& ;hen se-eral !lim%ers des!end a s!ree slo$e toether# they should %e as !lose
toether as $ossi%le# one %ehind the other a%out one arm9s lenth a$art# to $re-ent in=ury
from disloded ro!k& S!ree slo$es !an %e tra-ersed usin the i!e a6e as a third $oint of
!onta!t& Always kee$ the i!e a6e on the u$hill side&
;hen the herrin1%one ste$ is used to as!end s!ree# the a6e !an %e used %y $la!in %oth
hands on to$ of it& The %ottom 7or $oint8 of the a6e is sunk into the s!ree# and the a6e is
used for %alan!e& The !lim%er uses the herrin%one ste$ u$ to the a6e& The tenden!y to
run down a s!ree slo$e is a-oided so !ontrol is not lost& ;hen the %ottom of the route
!annot %e seen# !aution is used sin!e dro$offs may %e en!ountered&
Talus Slo$es& Talus is a slo$e formed %y an a!!umulation of ro!k de%ris mu!h
larer than a man9s fist ;hen walkin in talus# whether as!endin or des!endin#
always ste$ on the to$ of and on the u$hill side of the ro!ks& This re"uires the
least amount of mo-ement into the slo$e& Always use !aution when mo-in in
talusB lare ro!ks !an %e held in $la!e %y smaller keystonesB distur%in them !an
!ause ro!k slides& Clim%ers must stay in !lose !olumns while tra-ersin& To
$re-ent ro!kfall in=uries# no mem%er of the $arty tra-erses %elow another mem%er&
All other %asi!s mentioned a$$ly&
The te!hni"ues dis!ussed $re-iously are $re!autions you may take to redu!e the most
!ommon mountaineerin ha5ard1 ro!kfall& ;hene-er a ro!k is ki!ked loose# the warnin#
CRo!k#C is shouted immediately& Personnel near the %ottom of a !liff immediately lean
into the !liff to redu!e their e6$osure# and they do not look u$& Personnel more than 30
feet away from the %ottom of a !liff may look u$ to determine where the ro!k is and seek
!o-er %ehind an o%sta!le& ;arnin& Do not run downhill sin!e $ersonal in=ury !ould
o!!ur&
If an i!e a6e is !arried# it may %e used as a third $oint of !onta!t on diffi!ult terrain&
Otherwise# it is !arried on or in the ru!ksa!k with its head down and se!ured& The same
$ro!edure a$$lies if it is used on i!e& Carelessness !an !ause the failure of a well1$lanned
mission& One ro!k no %ier than a man9s head !an kill or se-erely in=ure se-eral men and
ruin all se!urity measures& Ste$$in o-er# rather than on to$ of# o%sta!les su!h as lare
ro!ks or fallen los hel$ to a-oid fatiue& ,sually# a talus slo$e is easier to as!end and
tra-erse# while a s!ree slo$e is a more desira%le a-enue of des!ent&
D& )alan!e Clim%in&
)alan!e !lim%in is used to !lim% ro!k formations& As a !lim%er# you must study the
route you are to tra-el to ensure you ha-e !hosen the %est route and ha-e the $ro$er
e"ui$ment& )efore startin an o$eration# you should mentally !lim% the route !hosen to
anti!i$ate future e-ents or in!idents&
Pro$er Te!hni"ue& The $ro$er te!hni"ue of %alan!e !lim%in in-ol-es the followin:
Eyes& As a !lim%er# you must o%ser-e the entire route sele!ted to !lim%& ,se your
eyes to !lim% the $it!h& <ou should identify handholds and footholds# $ossi%le
%elay $ositions# alternate routes# rest s$ots# and a route for down !lim%in or
des!endin& <ou must use your eyes !ontinuously to look for !o-er# !on!ealment#
su%se"uent handholds and footholds# and rest $ositions# as well as to !ontinue
$lannin and re-ision of the route& Niht !lim%in is fa!ilitated %y the use of niht
o%ser-ation de-i!es 7NODs8&
)ody Position& As you mo-e and !lim%# your %ody must %e in %alan!eB that is#
your weiht must %e !entered o-er your feet& ,se your hands mainly for %alan!eB
su$$ort your %ody weiht with your feet&
If you lean in toward a ro!k# your feet will not hold wellB you must kee$ your %ody out
and away from the ro!k to !ounter the ra-itational $ull of the %ody& ;ith your %ody in
%alan!e# mo-e with a slow# rhythmi! motion 7.iure D1:8& If $ossi%le# you should
maintain three $oints of !onta!t with the ro!k# su!h as two hands and one foot&
<ou must a-oid a s$read1eale $osition sin!e you must stret!h too far and !annot let o
without fallin& ;hen you rea!h a $osition of se!urity# try to rest sin!e tensed mus!les
tire "ui!kly& Allow for !ir!ulation %y kee$in your arms as low as $ossi%le# and while you
rela6# $lan your ne6t mo-e&
;hen sele!tin handholds# you should kee$ your hands a%out waist1to1shoulder le-el&
This allows you the desired u$riht# %alan!ed $osition as well as restin your arms& It is
$referred that you use small# intermediate holds rather than stret!hin and !linin to
widely se$arated holds& ?andholds may %e!ome su%se"uent footholds& <our arms or les
should not %e !rossed# nor should you use your knees or el%ows as handholds or
footholds&
CAS?;ORT?& This a!ronym should hel$ you remem%er $ro$er
$ro!edures durin %alan!e !lim%in&
C 1 Conser-e enery&
A 1 Always test holds&
S 1 Stand u$riht on fle6ed =oints&
? 1 ?ands are ke$t lowB handholds should %e waist1to1shoulder hih&
; 1 ;at!h your feet&
O 1 On three $oints of !onta!tB a-oid usin knees and el%owsB a-oid awkward# out of
%alan!e $ositions&
R 1 Rhythmi! mo-ement&
T 1 Think and $lan ahead&
? 1 ?eels are ke$t lower than the toes and $ointed inward&
Down !lim%in& Durin des!ents# you should fa!e out where the mo-in is easy#
sideways where it is hard# and fa!e in where it is diffi!ult& ?olds are often not as -isi%le
as when !lim%in u$ 7.iure D1D8& <ou must maintain a %alan!ed stan!e %y kee$in the
%ody weiht o-er your feet& 4ake sure you look at ea!h handhold and foothold for $ro$er
$ositionin& As in as!endin# you should maintain three $oints of !onta!t with the ro!k#
su!h as two hands and one foot&
The larer mus!les# su!h as the thihs# should do the work# as o$$osed to !al-es& If
$ossi%le you should a-oid down !lim%in sin!e it is -ery danerous& If an!hors are
a-aila%le# ra$$ellin may %e "ui!ker# easier# and more $ra!ti!al for des!endin&
.allin& To lessen the daners of fallin# and when you feel yourself sli$$in and
%einnin to fall# you should take the followin a!tions:
Sound off with the !ommand# .A''IN(&
Push away from the ro!k fa!e&
4aintain $ro$er %ody $osition&
?ead down# !hin on !hest&
?ands shoulder1width a$art and e6tended toward the ro!k&
)ody rela6ed&
.eet ke$t %elow the %ody and shoulder1width a$art& E6tend the les toward the ro!k&
The only $oints of !onta!t with the ro!k fa!e should %e hands and feet& This $osition
$re-ents the %ody from %oun!in off the ro!k and minimi5es in=ury %y redu!in e6$osure
to the ro!k fa!e&
@& ?olds&
All handholds and footholds must %e sele!ted %ased on their !loseness and relati-e
sta%ility& <ou must test these holds %y $ullin# $ushin# hittin# and ki!kin# and then %y
a$$lyin %ody weiht radually %efore use& <ou should not use your knees and el%ows as
holds sin!e they tend to roll and are sus!e$ti%le to in=ury& <ou should not use $itons#
!ho!ks# %olts# and runners as handholds and footholds sin!e they may C$o$C out&
Sna$links may im$ale you and !ause se-ere in=uries& <ou should not rely on rass# trees#
and shru%s %e!ause their roots are shallow& <ou should not try to ski$ or =um$ from one
$osition to another& It is %est when tra-ersin to use a ho$ ste$ to !hane feet on a hold to
mo-e sideways easily&
There are si6 %asi! holds that are des!ri%ed %elow:
Push ?olds& These holds are $ushed away from you in any dire!tion 7.iure D1@8&
They will hel$ you kee$ your arms low# %ut if you lose %alan!e they are diffi!ult
to hold onto& This hold may %e used to your ad-antae in !om%ination with a $ull
hold&
Pull ?olds& These holds are usually $ulled toward the %ody and are the easiest
holds to use %ut the most likely to %reak out 7.iure D1A8& They are the most
!ommonly souht handholds and tend to %e o-erused& Pull holds need not %e
lare to %e se!ure& Some holds may a!!ommodate only the finerti$s# while others are
lare and rounded to fit the entire hand&
.ri!tion ?olds& These holds de$end only on the fri!tion of hands or feet aainst a
relati-ely smooth surfa!e with a shallow hold 7.iure D128& They are hard to use#
%e!ause they i-e a feelin of inse!urity whi!h the ine6$erien!ed !lim%er tries to
!orre!t %y leanin !lose to the ro!k& This# in fa!t# de!reases the se!urity of fri!tion
holds&
These holds often ser-e well as intermediate holds& They !an $ro-ide you the su$$ort
needed while mo-in o-er them# %ut would not hold if you were to sto$ or sli$& The
effe!ti-eness of this hold de$ends on the ty$e of %oot wornB ty$e# !ondition# and anle of
the ro!k fa!eB and other fa!tors&
*am ?olds& *ammin in-ol-es wedin finers# hands# arms# el%ows# feet# knees#
les# or any $art of the %ody or e6tremity into a !ra!k 7.iure D1E8& *ammin !an
%e a!!om$lished %y $uttin the hand into the !ra!k and !len!hin it into a fist or
%y $uttin an arm into the !ra!k and a$$lyin a !ross1$ressure for!e with the
el%ow aainst one side and the hand aainst the other side& <ou must take !are
that your %ody $art does not %e!ome so weded into the !ra!k that it !annot %e
remo-ed easily&
*am holds are often more se!ure than other ty$es of holds# and $ro-ide an effe!ti-e means
of as!endin or down !lim%in&
Narrow !ra!ks are ood for finerti$ and toeti$ =ams&
4edium !ra!ks re"uire hand# fist# and foot =ams# with or without !ross $ressure&
;ide !ra!ks are lare enouh for arms and les %ut not for the entire %ody&
A !ra!k wide enouh for the entire %ody is referred to as a !himney and re"uires
stemmin te!hni"ues&
.ootholds& On stee$ slo$es# the %ody should %e ke$t -erti!al# usin the small
irreularities in the slo$e to aid fri!tion 7.iure D1F8&
.ootholds less than : !m 7D>@ in!h8 wide !an ser-e as intermediate holds# e-en when they
slo$e out& Skillful footwork in ro!k !lim%in is essential& The feet should always %e
!arefully $ositioned with the eyes ins$e!tin $la!ement& <ou should make as mu!h sole1
to1surfa!e !onta!t as $ossi%le& If you are wearin stiff1soled !om%at %oots# your foot
should %e turned sideways so the ede of the %oot is on the holdB if you are wearin
fle6i%le ro!k shoes# you should !a$itali5e on the fri!tion and fle6i%ility of the shoe# and
CsmearC downward with the toe $ointin u$hill& <ou must a-oid !rossin your feetB If you
must !hane your feet# use the C!hane ste$&C 4akin ma6imum use of footholds1
!lim%in with the feet and les1is an effe!ti-e means of !onser-in u$$er %ody strenth#
sin!e le mus!les are stroner than arm mus!les& If your les are tired and -i%ratin# you
should reain your %alan!e and straihten your le7s8# allowin the mus!le to rela6 and
restore $ro$er !ir!ulation&
Com%ination ?olds& These holds are !om%inations and -ariations of the %asi!
holds $re-iously dis!ussed& The num%er of these -ariations is limited only %y your
a%ility# imaination# and resour!efulness&
The $in!h hold is attained %y $in!hin a $rotrudin surfa!e %etween the thum% and
finers 7.iure D1/8# or $ullin outward or $ressin inward with the arms&
The $ush1$ull hold# as the name im$lies# in-ol-es usin a $ush hold and $ull hold at the
same time 7.iure D1/8&
A !ross $ressure hold is a!!om$lished %y $ressin the hands toward ea!h other on a ro!k
$rotrusion or %y $la!in %oth hands in a lare !ra!k and $ullin in o$$osite dire!tions
7see .iure D1/8&
The lie1%a!k hold is $erformed %y leanin to one side of an offset !ra!k 7see .iure D1308
with the hands $ullin and the feet $ushin aainst the offset side& It is a strenuous
te!hni"ue that in-ol-es $la!in the hands in the !ra!k# $la!in the feet aainst the offset
side# and leanin %a!k with the arms fully e6tended while $ressure is a$$lied with the
feet& The arms should %e e6tended so that there is weiht on the %ones while the mus!les
!an rest& An as!ent is made u$ the !ra!k& The hands slide u$ the !ra!k %ut are not !rossed&
The feet should %e ke$t a%out shoulder1width a$art and shuffled u$ward# usin fri!tion
and a-aila%le footholds to maintain %alan!e&
In-erted $ull hold 7see .iure D1338 and in-erted $ush hold# sometimes !alled underholds
or under!lins# $ermit !ross $ressure %etween the hands or feet& This in-ol-es $ullin u$
on a hold with the hands while downward $ressure is a$$lied with the feet on a suita%le
foothold&
Performin a mantel 7.iure D13:8 re"uires usin two $ull holds at one time to raise the
%ody&
As the %ody is raised to !hest le-el# the handholds are used to $ush down to ele-ate the
%ody the rest of the way u$& A foot is lifted u$ on the lede and the !lim%er stands u$& A
mantel is most easily a!!om$lished on a lede&
The ho$1ste$ or !hane1ste$ is used when a !lim%er wants to swit!h feet on the same
foothold without an intermediate hold so that he may mo-e sideways& This te!hni"ue
re"uires two solid handholds sin!e the !lim%er has %oth feet tem$orarily off the ro!k& The
feet are !haned with a sliht u$ward ho$ followed %y $re!ise footwork&
Chimney !lim%in 7.iure D13D8 is used to e6ert !ross $ressure %etween the %a!k and the
feet# hands# or knees& The entire %ody is inserted into a !ra!k in the ro!k& )y usin %oth
sides of the o$enin and $ossi%ly all ty$es of %asi! holds# the !lim%er mo-es u$ the !ra!k&
These te!hni"ues rely on the fri!tion that is maintained %y !ross $ressure with the %ody&
As many $oints of !onta!t as $ossi%le must %e maintained&
Stemmin is similar to !himney !lim%inB howe-er# the !lim%er e6tends %oth les to use
footholds %y $ushin in a sideways dire!tion 7!ross $ressure8& This $ro-ides a ood
$osition to rest the arms&
,se of ?olds& The use of a hold is =ust as im$ortant as the hold itself& A hold need not %e
lare to %e safe& E6$erien!ed !lim%ers use holds so small that the ine6$erien!ed !lim%er
may not noti!e them& The !lim%er learns to $lan ea!h mo-e he makes& )efore makin a
mo-e# he knows e6a!tly where his hands and feet are oin to %e $la!ed& ?e must also
$lan what his a!tion7s8 will %e if he tries a mo-e that does not work& All handholds and
footholds are tested %efore use %y radually a$$lyin weiht&
Intermediate holds are handholds or footholds that are awkward or un!omforta%le to
maintain# %ut allow you to shift your weiht to a %etter hold&
Shoulder Stand& The shoulder stand or human ladder is used to o-er!ome a lower se!tion
of a $it!h that la!ks holds to rea!h the !lim%in a%o-e& ;hen !lim%in ro$ed toether#
the lower man is an!hored to the ro!k and %elays the leader# who uses the lower man9s
%ody as a ladder to o-er!ome a diffi!ult se!tion&
4o-ement on sla%& A sla% is a smooth $ortion of ro!k# layin at an anle 7.iure D13A8&
;hen tra-ersin# you should stand ere!t with the lower foot $ointed slihtly downhill
7@A1deree anle8 to in!rease %alan!e and fri!tion of your foot& The u$hill foot must $oint
in the dire!tion of tra-el& .or added fri!tion# you should use all irreularities in the slo$e&
It may %e ne!essary to s"uat with the %ody weiht well o-er the feet& ?ands are used
%eneath the %utto!ks for added fri!tion& This resem%les a !ra% $osition and may %e used
for as!endin# tra-ersin# or des!endin& <our weiht should %e maintained e-enly o-er
your hands and feetB leanin %a!k or lettin the %utto!ks dra redu!es fri!tion and a sli$
may result&
On a hih1anle sla%# you should fa!e in toward the ro!k in a well1%alan!ed $osition with
your weiht !entered o-er the feet# sin!e your weiht is !arried almost entirely %y fri!tion
footholds& ,se the full sole of your %oot as mu!h as $ossi%le& <ou should a-oid sla%
!o-ered with i!e# moss# or s!ree# or that is wet sin!e it is danerous&
Pre!autions& As a !lim%er# you must always %e aware of a marin of safety and o%ser-e
all safety rules&
4arin of Safety& This is the $rote!ti-e %uffer a !lim%er kee$s %etween what he
knows to %e the limit of his a%ility and what he a!tually tries to !lim%&
<ou learn your marin of safety %y !lim%in near round le-el# or %y %ein tied to a ro$e
and %elayed %y a trained nay a%o-e 7to$ ro$e8& <ou !lim% first on the easy holds# ne6t on
the more diffi!ult holds# and finally on diffi!ult $it!hes until you rea!h your limit of
a%ility& <ou should !al!ulate the marin of safety not only for the $it!h immediately
ahead# %ut also for the entire !lim%# thus a-oidin situations %eyond your a%ilities& In the
leadershi$ $osition# you should know the a%ilities of your men and make allowan!es for
their limitations&
Safety Rules& To lessen the daner of !lim%in# you should follow the $ro!edures
listed %elow:
;ear a helmet with the !hin stra$ fastened when !lim%in on loose ro!k&
Kee$ the soles of %oots !lean and dry& Always !lean the %oot soles %efore startin a !lim%
%y ki!kin the feet aainst the ro!k& If wearin !leated %oots# use a sti!k or some $ointed
o%=e!t to !lean out the !leats&
A-oid lunin or =um$in to rea!h a hold&
Carefully !he!k all handholds and footholds %efore use to ensure they are not loose&
Ne-er dislode loose ro!ks !arelessly or intentionallyB if a ro!k %e!omes disloded# warn
!lim%ers %elow immediately %y !allin out# CRo!k&C ,se the same warnin for any fallin
o%=e!t e6!e$t for a fallin !lim%er# use C.allin&C +oi!e sinals are normally not used in a
ta!ti!al situation&
Do not look u$ when the warnin# CRo!kC# is heard from a%o-e& Immediately seek shelter
or flatten aainst the surfa!e&
Tie into the !lim%in ro$e on all e6$osed areas& An!hor all %elay $oints&
Remo-e wat!hes# rins# and other =ewelry from the hands %efore !lim%inB it !an !ause
se-ere in=uries when stu!k in a !ra!k&
,se !are and !ommon sense when !lim%in on wet ro!k& Some ty$es of ro!ks !an %e
e6tremely sli$$ery when wet&
If -eetation must %e used as a hold# test them like any handhold sin!e they ha-e shallow
roots&
A-oid usin el%ows and knees& This !reates a %all%earin effe!t on the ro!k# whi!h !auses
the !lim%er to %e off %alan!e& 4oreo-er# these =oints may sli$ and !ause se-ere %ody
damae&
;hen a !lim%er falls# shout the warnin# C.allinC# to those %elow&
;hen fallin# remain under !ontrol %oth mentally and $hysi!ally& Retain $ro$er %ody
$osition and try to a-oid e6!essi-e !onta!t 7hands and feet only8 with the ro!k&
In initial trainin or when tryin diffi!ult mo-es low to the round# use a Cs$otterC to
assist in %reakin a !lim%er9s fall&
Do not wear lo-es while !lim%in on ro!k# %e!ause they de!rease the feel for ro!k and
in!rease the !han!e of sli$$in& Dis!ourae the use of lo-es in trainin
PART B - BELAYS
3& (eneral&
)elayin $ro-ides the ne!essary safety fa!tor or tension# allowin the $arty to !lim% with
a minimum of daner& ;hen $arty !lim%in# two or three !lim%ers are tied into a
!lim%in ro$e& The use of a ro$e in $arty !lim%in is a ha5ard without %elayin skills& It
may %e ne!essary to use one of se-eral %elay $ositions either with the %ody or me!hani!al
%elay de-i!e& )elayin in-ol-es a stationary man manain and !ontrollin the ro$e that
is tied to a load& )elayin is used to !ontrol des!ent on ro$e installations&
:& Safety&
The %elay system !onsists of an interfa!in system of $arts& It is only as stron as the
weakest link& The !om$onents of the %elay !hain affe!t as!ent and des!ent# addin
fri!tion throuh $oints of !onta!t with the ro$e& These !om$onents are:
)elay an!hor&
4eans of atta!hin the %elayer to the an!hor&
)elayer9s stan!e# %ody# hands# and any a$$aratus to
!ontrol the ro$e&
Ro$e&
Any intermediate an!hor $oints&
Ro$e9s $oint of atta!hment to the load&
'oad 7or the !lim%er9s %ody8&
D& Ty$es of )elays&
There are always three as$e!ts !ommon to any %elay& They are: a ty$e of %elay 7dire!t or
indire!t8B a method of !ontrollin the ro$e 7stati! or dynami!8B and a means of manain
the ro$e 7%ody or me!hani!al8& Ea!h of these areas will %e dis!ussed se$arately&
The two %asi! ty$es of %elays are dire!t and indire!t:
Dire!t )elay& The dire!t %elay is only a-aila%le when usin a me!hani!al de-i!e&
The %elayer is !onne!ted to a $oint of $rote!tion and !ondu!ts the me!hani!al
%elay from another $oint of $rote!tion& In this -ariation# the load oes dire!tly to
the an!hor&
;hen usin the dire!t %elay a$$roa!h# there are ad-antaes and disad-antaes that you
must !onsider:
Ad-antaes& The %elayer does not sustain any of the for!e enerated %y a fall %e!ause he
is remo-ed from the %elay !hain& ?e !an "ui!kly tie off the ro$e and assist the !lim%er or
res!ue $arty&
Disad-antaes& The sele!ted an!hor $oint from whi!h to %elay the load must %e
C%om%$roof&C If the $rimary and se!ondary an!hors fail# the load falls the full lenth of
the ro$e& It also takes more time to set u$ and take down than an indire!t %elay 7$rimary
and se!ondary an!hors for %oth the %elayer and the dire!t %elay $oint8&
Indire!t )elay& This %elay !an %e used for me!hani!al or %ody %elays& The %elayer
is in dire!t !onta!t with the !lim%in ro$e and is $art of the %elay !hainB with this
setu$# the load is a%sor%ed# in $art# %y the %elayer&
;hen usin the indire!t %elay a$$roa!h# there are ad-antaes and disad-antaes that you
must !onsider:
Ad-antaes& Only two an!hor $oints 7$rimary and se!ondary8 are ne!essary for the
%elayer and !lim%in ro$e& It is easier to set u$ and retrie-e than a dire!t %elay&
Disad-antaes& The %elayer is $art of the %elay !hain and sustains $art of the for!e
enerated %y the fall& ?e is a $art of the %elay !hain and !annot readily deta!h himself
from the ro$e to assist the !lim%er&
The two methods of !ontrollin the ro$e when holdin a fall are the stati! %elay and the
dynami! %elay:
Stati! %elay& This %elay does not allow the ro$e to run& It is used when the !lim%er
falls from a $osition %elow the %elayer& ;hen usin this method# the %elayer
should %rin his %rake hand a!ross his %ody immediately after the fall# firmly
holdin the ro$e so that no ro$e runs throuh his hands& The %elayer must $re-ent
any sla!k %etween himself and the !lim%er if a stati! %elay is to %e used
effe!ti-ely& The enery $rodu!ed %y the fall is a%sor%ed %y the !lim%in ro$e#
whi!h results in hih1im$a!t for!es# e-en in short falls&
Dynami! %elay& This %elay allows the ro$e to run if a fall o!!urs& It is used to kee$
the for!e of a se-ere fall within a!!e$ta%le limits on the !lim%er# %elayer# !lim%in
ro$e# and %elay !hain& This %elay is also used in haulin lines and sus$ension
tra-erse& The ro$e is allowed to run only enouh to a!!om$lish the task&
A dynami! %elay should %e used whene-er a !lim%er falls from a $osition other than
dire!tly %elow the %elayer su!h as durin tra-ersin# when lo!ated a%o-e the %elayer# or
%elayin throuh $itons& ;hen the !lim%er is mo-in away from the %elayer# there should
always %e a sliht amount of sla!k in the ro$e %etween them& The %elayer must a-oid
$ullin the !lim%er off %alan!e %e!ause of holdin the ro$e too tiht& If a fall o!!urs# the
%elayer must rela6 his uide hand and# s"uee5in with his %rake hand# %rin the ro$e
slowly a!ross his %ody to radually sto$ the fall& If the %elayer !annot withstand the for!e
of the fall# he allows the ro$e to run while reinfor!in his $osition& (lo-es are always
worn when !ondu!tin a dynami! %elay&
If the ro$e sli$s durin im$a!t# $art of the fall enery is !haned into heat %y the fri!tion
of the ro$e runnin throuh sna$links# o-er edes# and so on& All dynami! %elays ha-e a
!ontrolled sli$$in of the ro$e o-er a %rakin element& The fri!tion on the %reakin
element dissi$ates $art of the fall enery# thus# s$arin the !lim%er and %elay system from
the hih1im$a!t for!e& ?owe-er# sli$$in of the ro$e in!reases the lenth of the fall&
The two ways of manain the ro$e when %elayin are the %ody %elay and the me!hani!al
%elay&
)ody %elays& These are used when the %elayer must sto$ a fall without other
means& The ro$e is wra$$ed around the %ody and uses the %elayer9s %ody to !in!h
down on the ro$e to arrest a fall& All %ody %elays are well suited for normal ro$e
handlin& They are rarely suited for the inter!e$tion of se-ere falls& The enery
$rodu!ed in the fall is a%sor%ed# in $art# %y the %elayer9s %ody# whi!h !an !ause
in=ury to the %elayer&
4e!hani!al %elays& Dynami!1me!hani!al %elay methods ha-e %een de-elo$ed to
de!rease or a-oid the $ossi%le daners of %ody %elays&
A ood me!hani!al %elay should1
)e easy and sim$le to handle&
Allow "ui!k $ayin out and takin in of the ro$e&
Sto$ and hold a dry ro$e as effi!iently as a wet ro$e 7wet ro$es lide more
easily8&
)e suited for dou%le ro$es&
)e inde$endent of the dire!tion of the im$a!t for!e&
?a-e a %reakin for!e rane of :A0 to 200 k&
.un!tion without mu!h additional e"ui$ment and %e $ra!ti!al&
@& )elay Position&
;hen esta%lishin a %elay $osition# you# the %elayer must determine the anti!i$ated
dire!tion of $ull in !ase of a fall& As the !lim%er mo-es u$ the ro!k# the dire!tion may
!hane& <ou must CaimC your %elay in the dire!tion that will %est ena%le you to hold a
fall& <ou should take !orre!ti-e measures if the ideal %elay $osition is different from the
e6$e!ted dire!tion of $ull& This !orre!ti-e a!tion is a!!om$lished %y $la!in more
$rote!tion 7$iton# !ho!k# or runner8 in a lo!ation that alins the %elay with the e6$e!ted
dire!tion of $ull&
A& 4ethods of Prote!tion&
The %elayer an!hors himself to a relia%le an!hor usin a $art of the !lim%in ro$e or his
slin 7utility8 ro$e& ;hen the !lim%in ro$e is used and the %elayer is within an arm9s
lenth of an an!hor# a dou%le fiure eiht !an %e used to se!ure the !lim%in ro$e to the
an!hor& This short se!tion of ro$e %etween an!hor and %elayer is !alled a self1%elay&
If the an!hor is further than an arm9s rea!h from the %elay $osition# either a slin
ro$e is used for the self1%elay or a %iht lare enouh to rea!h the an!hor is taken
and tied off to !reate a fi6ed loo$& The a%ility to rea!h the an!hor 7or dou%le fiure
eiht8 knot from the %elay without mo-in is im$ortant& If the %elayer is holdin
the full weiht of an in!a$a!itated !lim%er# he must %e a%le to tie the %elay ro$e
without mo-in&
The self1%elay must always %e tiht# and the an!hor7s8# %elayer# and e6$e!ted
dire!tion of $ull must %e in as !lose to a straiht line as $ossi%le& The %elayer
ensures that the ro$e does not run o-er any shar$ $ro=e!tions or ro!k edes& If it
does# it should %e rerouted or $added& A ru!ksa!k# $arka# or other $addin is used&
The %elayer lays out the ro$e so that it runs freely throuh his hands without
%e!omin tanled& ?e does not ha-e the o$tion# on!e %elayin starts# to release his
%rake hand to untanle the ro$e& Sta!kin# %a!kfeedin# or $ilin the ro$e in one
s$ot is %etter than !oilin# sin!e fewer kinks de-elo$&
2& )elay Test&
A %elay test must %e !ondu!ted in order to ensure the %elay $osition9s sta%ility and
se!urity to su$$ort a fall %y the !lim%er&
The %elayer routes his safety line to an an!hor $oint and $ositions himself for a
me!hani!al or %ody %elay& The %elayer !ommands# ON )E'A< TEST&
The !lim%er res$onds# CTestinC and tests the %elay $osition with three distin!t
tests& The !lim%er fa!es sideways to the -erti!al ro!k with the uide hand !losest
to the ro!k leadin to the %elayer& The !lim%in ro$e is routed under his %utto!ks#
and the %rake hand is $la!ed in the hollow $ortion of his o$$osite 7uide1hand
side8 hi$&
The !lim%er takes all sla!k out of the ro$e %etween the !lim%er and %elayer# and sits down
with one1third of his %ody weiht& The !lim%er remo-es the additional sla!k !reated %y
his %ody weiht and sits down with two1thirds of his %ody weiht&
The !lim%er then remo-es all remainin sla!k out of the ro$e and sits down with his full
%ody weiht&
The !lim%er then s$rins u$ and out of his %elay test stan!e# allowin the ro$e to o sla!k&
The %elayer feels the ro$e sla!ken and# if satisfied with his %elay $osition#
!ommands# C'I4)& The !lim%er res$onds with# C,$ Ro$eC or CClim%in#C after
he deta!hes his safety line and is $re$ared to !lim%&
E& Position Pro!edures&
Esta%lish a main1%elay an!hor $oint that is stron enouh to withstand the for!es
$rodu!ed %y the fallin !lim%er and transmitted throuh the %elay !hain& Sin!e this is the
last an!hor in the !hain# it must withstand all $ossi%le for!es& These for!es may !ome
from une6$e!ted dire!tions %e!ause of the failure of an intermediate an!hor $oint& The
main %elay 7$rimary8 an!hor $oint9s le-el of safety is in!reased with additional an!hors
7se!ondary8& )oulders# $itons# and %olts are well suited for a main1%elay an!hor $oint&
They may %e natural or artifi!ial $la!ements1sta%ility and se!urity are key& The ro$e
runnin from the %elay an!hor to the %elayer must %e short and tiht to $re-ent the
%elayer from %ein $ulled out of his $osition&
Determine the uide and %rake hands& The ro$e runs from the !lim%er throuh the
%elayer9s uide hand# around the %elay me!hanism 7%ody or me!hani!al8# and to
the %rake hand& Ensure that it slides smoothly& NE+ER RE'EASE T?E )RAKE
?AND .RO4 T?E C'I4)IN( ROPE ,NTI' T?E C'I4)ER IS ATTAC?ED
TO AN ANC?OR&
Ensure that the remainder of the ro$e is laid out so it runs freely throuh the %rake
hand& (lo-es may %e worn when %elayin to redu!e fri!tion on the hands and
$ossi%le ro$e %urns&
Ensure that the ro$e does not run o-er shar$ ro!k edes 7$addin may %e
re"uired8&
Anti!i$ate the !lim%er9s needs %y kee$in alert to his mo-ements& A-oid lettin
too mu!h sla!k de-elo$ in the ro$e throuh !onstant use of the uide hand& Kee$
all sla!k out of the ro$e leadin to the !lim%er# thus sensin his mo-ement& A-oid
takin u$ sla!k too suddenly to $re-ent throwin the !lim%er off %alan!e& ;hen
takin u$ sla!k# %rin the %rake hand =ust %ehind the uide hand& This allows the
%rake hand to slide %a!k and !onstantly remain on the ro$e&
)ra!e $ro$erly for the e6$e!ted dire!tion of $ull in a fall# so that the for!e of the
$ull $uts the %elayer more firmly into $osition& A !lim%er neither trusts nor
assumes a %elay $osition he has not tested&
Seek a %elay $osition that offers !o-er and !on!ealment&
If the !lim%er falls# automati!ally rela6 the uide handB and a$$ly immediate
%rakin a!tion&
F& )ody )elay&
)ody %elay !onsists of two $ositions# and they are the Csittin hi$ %elayC and Cstandin
hi$ %elayC& They are se!ured %y an!horin the %elayer with a se!tion of the !lim%in ro$e
or a slin ro$e& ;hen usin a !lim%in ro$e# a fiure eiht or %owline knot is tied in the
ro$e with a sna$link inserted and hooked into the an!hor $oint& The %elayer then $la!es a
%iht# formed in the usa%le %elay ro$e# around his %ody so that the ro$e leadin to the
!lim%er is in the %elayer9s uide hand& There should %e no sla!k ro$e %etween the an!hor
$oint and the %elayer# who is in a dire!t line with the e6$e!ted for!e of a fall& The an!hor
ro$e resists any tenden!y for the %elayer to %e rotated out of $osition if the !lim%er falls&
A slin ro$e atta!hed to the an!hor $oint and then tied around the %elayer i-es the same
results& If the e6$e!ted for!e of a fall is downward# then the !lim%in ro$e should %e
$la!ed a%o-e the an!hored safety ro$e to $re-ent the %elay ro$e from %ein $ulled down
and off of the %elayer9s hi$s& If the e6$e!ted for!e of a fall is from a !lim%er a%o-e the
%elayer# the !lim%in ro$e is $la!ed under the an!hored safety ro$e& The %elay ro$e is
routed around the %ody in either dire!tion# de$endin on the dire!tion in whi!h the for!e
of a fall would %e a$$lied& The uide hand will usually %e !losest to the ro!k& Therefore#
if the %elayer is $ulled into the ro!k# he !an %ra!e his fall with the uide hand while
kee$in the %rake hand in $la!e& This for!e should firmly em$la!e the %elayer in his
$osition& The %elayer may wear lo-es&
Sittin ?i$ )elay& This is the $referred $osition and is normally the most se!ure
for a downward $ull 7.iure D13E8& The %elayer sits and tries to et ood
trianular %ra!in throuh his les and %utto!ks& ;hen $ossi%le# the les should
%e s$read shoulder1width a$art# straiht# and well %ra!ed& If the %elay $osition is
%a!k from a !liff ede# the fri!tion of the ro$e o-er the ro!k sim$lifies the holdin
of a fall# howe-er# shar$ edes are a-oided& Sin!e the e6$e!ted dire!tion of $ull is
usually downward# the ro$e to the !lim%er $asses %etween the %elayer9s feet& The
%elayer %rakes with the hand that is away from the ro!k 7or i!e8 so that he may
%ra!e himself with the uide hand if he is $ulled into the ro!k 7or i!e8& The uide
hand is on the side of the %etter %ra!ed le& The %rake hand ne-er lets o of the
ro$e and is held !lose to the %ody& The uide hand is held out in front of the %ody&
To %rake# the ro$e is ras$ed firmly and the hand is $la!ed in the hollow $ortion
of the o$$osite 7uide hand8 shoulder& If sla!k is desired# the uide hand 7out in
front of the %elayer9s %ody8 is rela6ed and allows the ro$e to feed throuhB the
%rake hand is e6tended out to the side and allows the ro$e to feed throuh&
Standin ?i$ )elay& This is a weaker $osition and is used only where the sittin
hi$ %elay is not $ossi%le 7.iure D13F8& The main1%elay an!hor for the %elayer is
essential& The %a!k or uide hand shoulder is %ra!ed aainst the ro!k& The ro$e is
$la!ed around the %a!k 7a%o-e the hea-y $ortion of the hi$s8 and in front of the
%rake hand so that the %elayer is $ulled firmly into $osition when a fall is held&
The !lim%in ro$e is $la!ed either a%o-e or %elow the an!hored safety ro$e
a!!ordin to the dire!tion of $ull on the %elay1man& The %elayer stands fa!in the
e6$e!ted dire!tion of $ull& The stan!e is with one le forward and is se!urely
%ra!ed with the knee slihtly %ent& The trailin le is slihtly %ent and is the
!orres$ondin mem%er of the %rake hand 7left hand %rake means a left trailin
le8& The les are a%out a shoulder1width a$art& If the dire!tion of $ull is
downward# the ro$e is routed around the %elayer9s %ody a%o-e the safety line& The
%rake $osition is to the %elay9s o$$osite 7uide hand8 shoulder& The uide hand is
e6tended out in front of the %elayer&
Piton )elay& As soon as the leadin !lim%er has identified a lo!ation for a relia%le
an!hor 7$iton# !ho!k# %olt# tree# ro!k8# the !lim%er i-es the sinal CPointC to the
%elayer& The %elayer kee$s his %rake hand a$$lied while the !lim%er $re$ares the
$la!ement& ;hen the !lim%er has se!ured the !lim%in ro$e to the $rote!tion#
there is now a !hane in the dire!tion of $ull& The %elayer will run the %elay ro$e
firmly %eneath his %utto!ks and %elow his safety line&
The %elayer fa!es the dire!tion of $ull and $ositions himself for a standin hi$ %elay# left
or riht hand %rake# for an u$ward $ull 7.iure D13/8& The stan!e is with one le forward
and se!urely %ra!ed with the knee slihtly %entB the trailin le is slihtly %ent and
!orres$onds with the %rake hand& The uide hand is e6tended to the front and ke$t a%out
waist hih& The %rake hand is mo-ed to the o$$osite hi$ in !ase of a fall 7the hollow
$ortion %etween the to$ of the thih and away from the roin8& If sla!k is desired# the
%rake hand is mo-ed out to the side# and the ri$ is rela6ed to allow the ro$e to tra-el
freely throuh %oth hands&
A fall is easier to hold with a $iton %elay than with a sittin or standin %elay %e!ause of
the added fri!tion %etween ro$e# ro!k# and sna$links& ;hen %elayin a !lim%er in a
tra-erse# whi!h is near or hori5ontal to the %elayer# the %elayer must anti!i$ate a $ull
sideways and straiht forward ?e should $la!e the !lim%in ro$e underneath his %utto!ks
and %e an!hored firmly&
Sna$link )ody )elay& To ensure the %elay ro$e is easily !ontrolled around the
%elayer9s %ody# a sna$link should %e $la!ed into the !lim%in harness or %owline
on a !oil on the uide hand side# with the !lim%in ro$e runnin throuh it&
The sna$link 7referred to as the uide sna$link8 kee$s the %elay ro$e from %ein stri$$ed
away from the %elayer when the dire!tion of $ull is u$ or down 7.iure D1:08&
,se of the uide sna$link is the $referred method sin!e it !ontrols the %elay ro$e for
either dire!tion of $ull at any time& ;hen $la!ed on the %elayer# the ate of the sna$link
should o$en down and away from the %elayer&
The ro$e leadin from the !lim%er is inserted into the sna$link and routed around the
%elayer9s %ody and o-er 7or under8 the safety line to the %elay an!hor& The %rake is always
to the hollow $art of the shoulder of the uide1hand side& There is no need to !hane the
ro$e from a downward to an u$ward $ull sin!e the dire!tion of $ull remains !onstant at
the uide sna$link&
/& 4anain Ro$e with a )ody )elay&
;hen manain a ro$e while %elayin# you should follow the $ro!edure listed %elow&
The %rake hand is NE+ER remo-ed from the ro$e&
To take u$ ro$e 7.iure D1:38# the %elayer11
Pulls the ro$e 7with the %rake hand8 until the %rake hand is fully e6tended
to the side&
'ays the ro$e 7with the %rake hand8# out to the front# in the uide hand
without e6tendin the %rake hand in front of the uide hand&
Slides the %rake hand %a!k to the side of the %ody while maintainin
$ositi-e !ontrol of the ro$e in !ase of a fall&
Re$eats !y!le&
In holdin a fall# the %elayer uses the %rake hand to wra$ the ro$e a!ross the !hest
7or hi$8 and tihtens the ri$& The uide hand !an %e rela6ed and remains on the
ro$e# or it may %e remo-ed and used to hel$ %ra!e himself&
If sla!k is re"uired# the %elayer e6tends his uide hand out to his front and rela6es
his ras$ on the ro$e so that the ro$e !an run freely throuh his hand& ?e e6tends
his %rake hand out to his side so that a /01deree anle is formed %etween the
uide and %rake hands 7this redu!es the amount of fri!tion8 and releases tension
on the ro$e so that it may run freely throuh his hand&
30& 4e!hani!al )elay&
These %elays de-i!es in!lude# %ut are not limited to# sti!ht $late# sna$link# munter hit!h#
fiure eiht 7.iure D1::8& The %elayer is se!ured to an an!hor $oint the same as in a %ody
%elay& The me!hani!al %elay de-i!e !an %e se!ured dire!tly to an an!hor $oint within easy
rea!h of the %elayer# eliminatin the %elayer9s %ody from the %elay system 7dire!t %elay8 or
atta!hed to the %elayer9s harness or %owline 7indire!t %elay8& These de-i!es should %e used
only with kernmantle ro$es&
Some of the me!hani!al %elays are dis!ussed as follows:
Sti!ht Plate& This is not a re!ommended de-i!e for hea-y loads& The sti!ht $late
!onsists of a $late with one or two holes for the ro$e to %e routed throuh& The
s$rin rin kee$s the %elay $late away from the sna$link# $re-entin =ammin& In
the %rake $osition# the s$rin is !om$ressed aainst the sna$link %y the %rakin
for!e& A %iht in the !lim%in ro$e is routed throuh one of the o$enins in the
stit!h $late and inserted into a sna$link& To %rake# the %elayer a$$lies fri!tion on
the ro$e %y lo!kin the %rake hand down# there%y !in!hin the ro$e&
4unter ?it!h& The 4unter hit!h method re"uires only one $ie!e of e"ui$ment: a
lare radius1end !ara%iner& The !lim%in ro$e is fashioned into a 4unter hit!h %y
formin a loo$ in the ro$e# then takin the workin end of the loo$ at the $oint
where the two ro$es !ross# followin it around the standin end# and runnin it
$arallel alon the initial loo$& The 4unter hit!h should %e !li$$ed into the
!ara%iner& To %rake# the %rake hand is $ushed forward so that the two ro$es are
$arallel and !in!hed toether&
.iure Eiht& The fiure eiht des!ender $ro-ides a smooth and effi!ient %elay&
The ro$e is run throuh the de-i!e the same as for des!endin11a %iht is taken u$
throuh the o$enin and routed o-er the !ollar# with the fiure eiht de-i!e %ein
!li$$ed into a sna$link& To %rake# the %rake hand is $ulled to the rear to !in!h the
!lim%in ro$e under the !ollar of the fiure eiht& If the load is hea-y# the wra$ is
dou%led around the !ollar of the fiure eiht to redu!e the s$eed of the ro$e
runnin throuh the system& It is re!ommended that the res!ue1eiht -ersion %e
used sin!e the $rotrudin CearsC on the fiure eiht do not allow the ro$e to slide
all the way off the !ollar&
,se of a 4e!hani!al De-i!e Takin ,$ Ro$e& The followin $ro!edures are the same for
%elays with the fiure eiht des!ender# 4unter hit!h# sti!ht $late# and sna$link %rake
system&
;ith the me!hani!al de-i!e $ro$erly se!ured and the !lim%er9s ro$e $ro$erly
$la!ed# assume a $osition from whi!h you !an ras$ the standin end of the ro$e
7to the !lim%er8 a%out @2 !m 73F in!hes8 from the de-i!e& At the same time#
maintain !ontrol of the workin end 7to the %a!k1fed $ile of ro$e8 with the %rake
hand&
Slide the %rake hand as !lose to the de-i!e as $ossi%le without the hands or
handwear %e!omin entanled&
(ras$ the standin end of the ro$e as far away 7at least @2 !m G3F in!hesH8 from
the de-i!e as $ossi%le with the uide hand&
;hile maintainin an e-en $ressure with the uide hand# feed the ro$e throuh
the system %y $ullin with the %rake hand# away from the me!hani!al de-i!e&
'ay the ro$e from the %rake hand into the uide hand# ensurin not to e6tend the
%rake hand %eyond the uide hand& Slide the %rake hand %a!k to the %elay de-i!e&
Re$eat the $ro!ess of $ull# lay# slide&
PART C - RAPPELLING
3& (eneral&
Ra$$ellin and down !lim%in are %oth means of des!endinB the !hoi!e is %ased on
mission# situation# e"ui$ment# terrain 7a-aila%le an!hors8# weather# num%er of troo$s
in-ol-ed# and time and e"ui$ment a-aila%le&
:& Sele!tin a Ra$$el Point&
The te!hni"ue of ra$$ellin in-ol-es the "ui!k des!ent of a !lim%er and the retrie-al of
the ro$e from the %ottom& The sele!tion of the ra$$el $oint de$ends on fa!tors su!h as
mission# !o-er# route# an!hor $oints# and ede !om$osition 7loose or =aed ro!ks8& The
an!hor $oint should %e a%o-e the ra$$eller9s de$arture $oint& It is %est to use $rimary and
se!ondary an!hor $oints 7natural an!hors are $referred8&
As a !lim%er# you should make sure that the ro$e rea!hes the %ottom or a $la!e from
whi!h you !an further ra$$el or !lim%& The ra$$el $oint must %e tested and ins$e!ted to
ensure the ro$e will run freely and that the ro$e will run freely and that the area is !leared
of o%sta!les that !ould %e $ulled off& If a slin or runner is used for a ra$$el $oint# it
should %e tied twi!e to form two se$arate loo$s& 4ake sure that loadin and off1loadin
$latforms are a-aila%le&
D& Esta%lishin a Ra$$el Point&
E"ual tension %etween all an!hor $oints on a ra$$el lane must %e esta%lished %y usin
$rimary and se!ondary an!hor $oints& The ra$$el ro$e should not e6tend if one an!hor
$oints fails&
All the ra$$ellin methods dis!ussed here !an %e $erformed with a sinle or dou%le ro$e&
If $ossi%le# a dou%le ro$e a$$li!ation is %etter for safety $ur$oses&
If a ra$$el lane is less than half the ro$e lenth# you may use one of the followin
te!hni"ues:
Dou%le the ro$e and tie a three1loo$ %owline around the $rimary an!hor to in!lude
the $rimary an!hor inside two loo$s and enouh ro$e in the third loo$ to run to
the se!ondary an!hor 7another three1loo$ %owline se!ured with an o-erhand knot8&
Dou%le the ro$e and tie it around a se!ure an!hor $oint with a round turn an!hor
%owline se!ured with an o-erhand knot 7or any a$$ro$riate an!hor knot8&
Dou%le the ro$e and esta%lish a self1e"uali5in an!hor system with a three1loo$
%owline or any other a$$ro$riate an!hor knot&
Dou%le the ro$e and esta%lish a self1e"uali5in an!hor system 7.iure D1:D8 with
a %owline on a %iht or fiure eiht on a %iht& Tie off on the lon1standin end
with a round turn an!hor %owline&
In an emeren!y# dou%le the ro$e and $la!e it %ehind or throuh a se!ure an!hor
$oint# or tie a runner around an an!hor $oint with a sna$link inserted and $la!e the
ro$e throuh the sna$link& To $re!lude a ra$$eller from slidin off the end of the
ra$$el lane# tie a dou%le fiure eiht 7s"uare knot or dou%le fisherman9s knot8 at
the %ottom end of the ro$e with %oth ends&
If a ra$$el lane is reater than half the ro$e lenth# you may a$$ly one of the
followin te!hni"ues:
,se two ro$es& ;ith %oth ro$es# tie a round turn an!hor %owline around a $rimary
an!hor $oint& Take the remainin ro$e 7the tail from the $rimary an!hor %owline8
and tie another round turn an!hor %owline to a se!ondary an!hor $oint& The
se!ondary an!hor $oint should %e in a dire!t line %ehind the $rimary an!hor $oint&
The an!hor !an %e either natural or artifi!ial& The ends of the ra$$el lane ro$es
should %e offset %y 3A !m 72 in!hes8 so that the ro$e ends feed freely throuh the
ra$$eller9s sna$link&
,se two ro$es& Esta%lish a three1$iton an!hor system usin a %owline on a %iht
7or fiure eiht on a %iht8 and tied off on the lon1standin end with a round turn
an!hor %owline 7see .iure D1:D8&
In an emeren!y# use two ro$es and tie the two ends toether with a =oinin knot&
Pla!e the =oined ro$es %ehind or throuh an an!hor $oint# or tie a runner around an
an!hor $oint with a sna$link inserted and $la!e the =oined ro$e throuh the
sna$link& The =oinin knot is offset to the left or riht of the an!hor& Tie off the
%ottom end of the ro$e with a =oinin knot to $re-ent a ra$$eller from slidin off
the end of the ra$$el lane&
Situations may arise where# due to the lenth of the ra$$el# the ra$$el ro$e !annot
%e tied to the an!hor 7if the ro$e is used to tie the knots# it will %e too short to
a!!om$lish the ra$$el8& <ou may use the followin methods:
o ,sin a natural an!hor:
Tie a slin ro$e# runner# or another ro$e around the an!hor with a round
turn an!hor %owline&
The ra$$el ro$e will ha-e a fi6ed loo$ 7fiure eiht or %utterfly8 tied in
one end# whi!h is atta!hed to the round turn around the an!hor throuh the
two sna$links 7o$$osin ates8&
o ,sin an artifi!ial an!hor:
Tie off a slin ro$e# runner# or another ro$e to form a loo$&
Put the loo$ throuh the sna$links that are atta!hed to the artifi!ial an!hor
$oint&
)rin the %ottom of the loo$ u$ and !onne!t it to the sna$links that are
%etween the artifi!ial an!hor $oints&
(ras$ the sna$links that are %etween the !ho!ks>$itons and $ull them
down and toether&
Tie a fi6ed loo$ 7fiure eiht or %utterfly8 in the end of the ra$$el ro$e and
!onne!t this to the sna$links that ha-e %een $ulled toether&
RE4E4)ERI Rerouted fiure eiht knots !an %e used instead of %owlines& Runners may
%e used from one or more an!hor $oints&
To set u$ a retrie-a%le ra$$el $oint# you must a$$ly one of the followin methods:
Dou%le the ro$e when the ra$$el is less than half the total lenth of the ro$e& Pla!e
the ro$e# with the %iht formed %y the mid$oint# around the $rimary an!hor& *oin
the tails of the ra$$el ro$e and throw the ro$e o-er the !liff& Tie a !lo-e hit!h
around a sna$link# =ust %elow the an!hor $oint# with the lo!kin %ar inside the
sna$link away from the ate o$enin end and fa!in u$hill& Sna$ the o$$osite
standin $ortion into the sna$link& ;hen the ra$$eller rea!hes the %ottom# he
$ulls on that $ortion of the ro$e to whi!h the sna$link is se!ured to allow the ro$e
to slide around the an!hor $oint&
;hen the lenth of the ra$$el is reater than half the lenth of the ro$e used# =oin
two ro$es around the an!hor $oint 7dou%le fisherman9s knot or s"uare knot8&
Ad=ust the =oinin knot so that it is away from the an!hor& Tie a !lo-e hit!h
around a sna$link =ust %elow the an!hor $oint with the lo!kin %ar inside the
sna$link away from the ate o$enin end and fa!in u$hill& Sna$ the o$$osite
standin $ortion into the sna$link& ,$on !om$letion of the ra$$el# $ull the ro$e to
whi!h the sna$link is se!ured to allow the ro$e to slide around the an!hor $oint&
RE4E4)ERI ;hen settin u$ a retrie-a%le ra$$el# use only a $rimary $ointB !are is
taken in sele!tin the $oint& Ensure that a safety line is esta%lished when the soldiers
a$$roa!h the ra$$el $oint# and only the ra$$eller need o near the ede&
@& Communi!ation&
Clim%ers at the to$ of a ra$$el $oint must %e a%le to !ommuni!ate with those at the
%ottom& <ou should !onsider usin radios# hand sinals# and>or ro$e sinals durin a
ta!ti!al ra$$el&
The followin !ommands are used for trainin situations:
Command (i-en )y 4eanin
'ANE N,4)ER# ON
RAPPE'
Ra$$eller I am ready to %ein ra$$ellin&
'ANE N,4)ER# ON
RAPPE' )E'A<
%elayer
I am on %elay and you may %ein your
ra$$el&
'ANE N,4)ER# O..
RAPPE'
Ra$$eller
I ha-e !om$leted the ra$$el# !leared the
ra$$el lane# and am off the ro$e&
'ANE N,4)ER# O..
)E'A<
)elayer I am off %elay&
RE4E4)ERI In a trainin en-ironment# the lane num%er must %e understood& Durin a
ta!ti!al situation# tus on the ro$e may %e su%stituted for the oral !ommands to maintain
noise dis!i$line& The num%er of tus used to indi!ate ea!h of the !ommands is IA; the
unit standin o$eratin $ro!edures 7SOP8&
A& Ty$es of Ra$$el&
There are four ty$es of ra$$els: %ody ra$$el# hasty ra$$el# seat1hi$ ra$$el# and seat1
shoulder ra$$el& Ea!h of these ra$$els is dis!ussed as follows:
)ody Ra$$el& The ra$$eller fa!es the an!hor $oint and straddles the ro$e& ?e then
$ulls the ro$e from %ehind# and runs it around either hi$# diaonally a!ross the
!hest# and %a!k o-er the o$$osite shoulder 7.iure D1:@8& .rom there# the ro$e
runs to the %rake hand# whi!h is on the same side of the hi$ that the ro$e !rosses11
for e6am$le# the riht hi$ to the left shoulder to the riht hand& The ra$$eller leads
with the %rake hand down and fa!es slihtly sideways& The foot !orres$ondin to
the %rake hand $re!edes the uide hand at all times& The ra$$eller kee$s the uide
hand on the ro$e a%o-e him to uide himself11not to %rake himself& ?e must lean
out at a shar$ anle to the ro!k& ?e kee$s his les s$read well a$art and relati-ely
straiht for lateral sta%ility# and his %a!k straiht to redu!e fri!tion& The )D,
!ollar is turned u$ to $re-ent ro$e %urns on the ne!k& (lo-es are worn# and other
!lothin may %e used to $ad the shoulders and %utto!ks& To %rake# the ra$$eller
leans %a!k and fa!es dire!tly toward the ro!k area so his feet are hori5ontal to the
round&
?asty Ra$$el& .a!in slihtly sideways to the an!hor# the ra$$eller $la!es the
ro$es hori5ontally a!ross his %a!k 7.iure D1:A8& The hand nearest to the an!hor is
his uide hand# and the other is the %rake hand& To sto$# the ra$$eller %rins his
%rake hand a!ross in front of his %ody lo!kin the ro$e& At the same time# he turns
to fa!e u$ toward the an!hor $oint& This ra$$el is used only on moderate ro!k
$it!hes& Its main ad-antae is that it is easier and faster than the other methods#
es$e!ially when the ro$e is wet& (lo-es are worn to $re-ent ro$e %urns&
Seat1?i$ Ra$$el& The seat ra$$el differs from the %ody ra$$el in that the fri!tion
is a%sor%ed %y a sna$link that is inserted in a slin ro$e seat and fastened to the
ra$$eller& This method $ro-ides a faster and more fri!tional des!ent than other
methods& (lo-es are worn to $re-ent ro$e %urns&
An alternate te!hni"ue is to insert a se!ond sna$link and run the ro$e throuh the se!ond
sna$link& Release the tension from the ro$e %y o$enin the ate of the first sna$link and
remo-in the se!ond& It is easily disenaed from the sna$link&
To tie a ra$$el seat# find the middle of a slin ro$e and $la!e it on the hi$ o$$osite the
hand used for %rakin& )rin one end around the %a!k and to the front of the waist while
%rinin the other end forward to the front of the waist& Tie a dou%le o-erhand wra$ in
front of the %ody& )rin the ends of the ro$e %etween the les 7front to rear8# under the
%utto!ks !heeks# and o-er the ro$e around the waist to form a half hit!h on ea!h side&
)rin the ends of the ro$e to the side o$$osite the %rake hand and tie a s"uare knot
se!ured with o-erhand knots&
Stuff the e6!ess ro$e into the $o!ket& Insert the sna$link ;ith the ate down and the
o$enin toward the %ody 7insert it throuh the sinle wra$ around the waist and throuh
the two ro$es that form the dou%le o-erhand wra$ at the front of the waist8& Rotate the
sna$link one half turn so that the ate o$ens down and away from the %ody 7.iure D1:28&
To hook u$ for the seat1hi$ method# stand to one side of the ro$e& If usin a riht1hand
%rake# stand to the left of the ra$$el ro$e fa!in the an!horB if usin a left1hand %rake#
stand to the riht of the ra$$el ro$e 7.iure D1:E8& Pla!e the ra$$el ro$e7s8 into the
sna$linkB sla!k is taken %etween the sna$link and an!hor $oint and wra$$ed around the
shaft of the sna$link and $la!ed into the ate so that a round turn is made around the shaft
of the sna$link& Any remainin sla!k is $ulled toward the u$hill an!hor $oint& If a sinle
ro$e is used# re$eat this $ro!ess to $la!e two round turns around the shaft of the sna$link&
.a!e the an!hor $oint and des!end usin the u$$er hand as the uide and the lower hand
as the %rake& This method has minimal fri!tion# and is fast and safe&
?owe-er# !are is taken that the ro$e is hooked !orre!tly into the sna$link to a-oid the
ate %ein o$ened %y the ro$e& 'oose !lothin or e"ui$ment around the waist may %e
a!!identally $ulled into the sna$link and lo!k 7sto$8 the ra$$el& .or this reason# the
ra$$eller must tu!k in his shirt and kee$ his e"ui$ment out of the way durin his des!ent&
Seat1Shoulder Ra$$el& To hook u$ for the seat1shoulder method# fa!e the ra$$el
$oint 7see .iure D1:F8& Sna$ into the ro$e that $asses u$ throuh the sna$link&
)rin the ro$e o-er one shoulder and %a!k to the o$$osite hand 7left shoulder to
riht hand8& ,se the same te!hni"ue in the des!ent as in the %ody ra$$el& This
method is faster than the %ody ra$$el# less fri!tional# and more effi!ient for
!lim%ers with $a!ks and durin niht o$erations&
2& Clim%in ?arness&
Sna$links or !ara%iners that are used for ra$$ellin are $la!ed throuh the sewn loo$s of
the seat harness or the sewn loo$s of the seat1!hest !om%ination& The followin methods
a$$ly to !lim%in harness:
.iure Eiht Des!ender& Atta!h a lo!kin !ara%iner to the harness 7.iure D1:/8&
Route the ra$$el ro$e u$ throuh the lare hole and $la!e the %iht o-er the !ollar&
Insert the fiure eiht with the ra$$el ro$e atta!hed into the lo!kin !ara%iner# and
lo!k down& )rake to the rear and des!end as in a seat hi$ ra$$el& If hea-y loads are
to %e des!ended# use a dou%le wra$ around the !ollar&
4unter ?it!h& Atta!h a lare radius sna$link to the harness or ra$$el seat& Tie a
4unter hit!h and !li$ into the sna$link 7.iure D1D08& )rake to the front and
des!end with an '1sha$e %ody $osition&
RE4E4)ERI The uide hand should remain on the standin end of the ro$e to kee$ the
ra$$eller9s head and fa!e away from the hardware& The 4unter hit!h !reates sinifi!ant
ro$e1to1ro$e fri!tion and may !ause $remature wear on nylon ro$es&
E& Ra$$el Pro!edures&
In order to ensure the safety of $ersonnel# $ro$er ra$$ellin $ro!edures must %e followed:
If you ha-e %een assined the duties of the ra$$el $oint NCOIC# you must:
Ensure that the an!hors are sound and the knots are $ro$erly tied&
Ensure that loose ro!k and de%ris are !leared from the loadin $latform&
Allow only one man on the loadin $latform at a time and ensure that the
ra$$el $oint is run orderly&
Ensure that ea!h man is $ro$erly $re$ared for the $arti!ular ra$$el: lo-es on#
slee-es down# helmet with !hin stra$ fastened# ear $re$ared $ro$erly# and ra$$el
seat and knots !orre!t# if re"uired& Ensure that the ra$$eller is hooked u$ to the
ro$e !orre!tly and is aware of the $ro$er %rakin $osition&
Ensure that the $ro$er sinals or !ommands are used&
Dis$at!h ea!h man down the ro$e&
)e the last man down the ro$e&
If you are the first ra$$eller down# you must:
Sele!t a smooth route for the ro$e that is !lear of shar$ ro!ks&
Condu!t a self1%elay with a Prusik knot tied from yourself to the ra$$el
ro$e&
Clear the route# $la!in loose ro!ks far enouh %a!k on ledes to %e out of
the way# whi!h the ro$e may dislode&
Ensure the ro$e rea!hes the %ottom or is at a $la!e from whi!h additional
ra$$els !an %e made&
Ensure that the ro$e will run freely around the ra$$el $oint when $ulled
from %elow&
Clear the ra$$el lane %y straihtenin all twists and tanles from the ro$es&
)elay su%se"uent ra$$ellers down the ro$e&
Take !hare of $ersonnel as they arri-e at the %ottom 7off1loadin
$latform8&
RE4E4)ERI A ra$$eller is always %elayed from the %ottom# e6!e$t for the first man
down& The first man %elays himself down the ro$e %y usin a safety line atta!hed to his
ra$$el seat that is hooked to the ra$$el ro$e with a Prusik knot& As the first man ra$$els
down the ro$e# he CwalksC the Prusik knot down with him&
;hen the ta!ti!al situation $ermits# ea!h ra$$eller down must indi!ate with a
shout COff ra$$el#C and ensures all ro$es around their an!hors are runnin free& If
silen!e is needed# a $lanned sinal of $ullin the ro$e is su%stituted for the -oi!e
sinal& After the ro$e is !leared and the ra$$eller is off ra$$el# he a!ts as the
%elayer for ne6t ra$$eller&
;hile ra$$ellin# all ra$$ellers must ins$e!t the ro$es as often as $ossi%le&
The last ra$$eller to des!end !onstru!ts a retrie-a%le ra$$el $oint and ra$$els
down& Then# he $ulls the ro$e smoothly to $re-ent the risin ro$e end from
entanlin with the other ro$e& ?e stands !lear of the fallin ro$e and any ro!ks
that it may dislode&
Ra$$ellers must wear lo-es for all ty$es of ra$$els to a-oid ro$e %urns&
)oundin ra$$els are dis!ouraed sin!e they stress the an!hor# and !ause undue
wear and fri!tion on the ro$e&
Ra$$ellers des!end in a smooth# !ontrolled manner& The %ody forms an '1sha$e
with the feet shoulder1width a$art# les straiht# and %utto!ks $arallel to the
round& ;hen !arryin e"ui$ment or additional weiht# a modified '1sha$e is
used with the les slihtly lower than the %utto!ks to !om$ensate for the
additional weiht& The ra$$eller9s %a!k is straiht& ?e looks o-er the %rake
shoulder& The uide hand is e6tended on the ro$e with the el%ow e6tended and
lo!ked& The ro$e slides freely throuh the uide hand& The uide hand is used to
ad=ust e"ui$ment and assist %alan!e durin des!ent& The ra$$eller ras$s the ro$e
firmly with the %rake hand and $la!es it in the small of his %a!k 74unter hit!h is a
front %rake8& Releasin tension on the ro$e and mo-in the %rake hand out to his
rear at a @A1deree anle reulates the rate of des!ent& The ra$$eller ne-er lets o
of the ro$es with his %rake hand until the ra$$el is !om$lete&
The %elayer assumes a $osition at the %ase of the lane a%out one $a!e away from
the ro!k area& ?e ensures that the ra$$el ro$es are at least e-en with the round
durin ro!k and tower ra$$els& The %elayer loosely holds the ra$$el ro$es with
%oth hands so as not to interfere with the fall& If the ra$$eller shouts# C.allin#C or
loses !ontrol of his %rake hand or des!ent# the %elayer immediately sto$s the
ra$$eller %y $ullin downward on the ra$$el ro$es& (lo-es are not worn %y the
%elayer unless dire!ted& The %elayer wat!hes the ra$$eller at all times and
maintains !onstant -oi!e or -isual !onta!t with the ra$$eller& The %elayer wears a
helmet to $re-ent in=uries from fallin de%ris& All !ommands are s$oken loudly
and !learly&
Con!lusion& <ou ha-e now !om$leted the instru!tional material for 'esson D& )efore you
!om$lete the $ra!ti!e e6er!ise for this lesson# you should re-iew the material $resented in
this lesson& Answers and feed%a!k for the "uestions in the $ra!ti!e e6er!ise are $ro-ided
to show you where further study is re"uired&

LESSON 3 PRACTICAL EXERCISE
Instru!tions
The followin items will test your understandin of the material !o-ered in this lesson&
There is only one !orre!t answer for ea!h item& ;hen you ha-e !om$leted the e6er!ise#
!he!k your answers with the answer key that follows& If you answer any item in!orre!tly#
re-iew that $art of the lesson whi!h !ontains the $ortion in-ol-ed&
Situation&
Durin the mountainous e6er!ise all mem%ers of the unit are re"uired to demonstrate
their a%ilities %y identifyin the %asi! !lim%in te!hni"ues and methods a!"uired durin
trainin&
3& As a leader# and durin the $lannin of the unit9s mountaineerin mission you are
re"uired to sele!t the a$$ro$riate $ersonnel& <ou should
a& sele!t two teams that !onsist of three e6$ert ro!k !lim%ers or assault !lim%ers
for ea!h $latoon and the remainin $ersonnel should also %e skilled in %asi!
military mountaineerin&
%& sele!t only $ersonnel skilled in %asi! military mountaineerin and after arri-in
at the area of o$erations sele!t one assault team&
!& sele!t only -olunteers that are skilled in %asi! military mountaineerin and after
!he!kin their "ualifi!ations sele!t the ro!k !lim%er team&
d& sele!t only $ersonnel e6$erien!ed in mountainous reions# di-ide your teams
and $ro!eed sele!tion of the %est men a-aila%le&
:& The art of mountain walkin may mean relearnin how to walk& A $ro$er te!hni"ue
you must !onsider# is to
a& $la!e your foot at an anle to $re-ent from fallin&
%& set a tem$o or num%er of ste$s $er minute&
!& rest %etween ste$s %y %endin the les slihtly&
d& a-oid indentation that was made %y someone else&
D& As a military mountaineer and while !lim%in you must set a !aden!e $er minute %ased
on the $a!e the unit is mo-in& <ou should
a& kee$ an inter-al of one to three $a!es to enhan!e the rhythm and tem$o&
%& kee$ an inter-al of two to four $a!es to enhan!e the rhythm and $a!e&
!& kee$ an inter-al of three to fi-e $a!es %etween indi-iduals to enhan!e the
tem$o# $a!e# and rhythm&
d& kee$ an inter-al of two to four $a!es %etween indi-iduals to enhan!e the tem$o#
$a!e# and rhythm&
@& ;hen as!endin on hard round# you must
a& !hoose ea!h ste$ !arefully and make sure your %a!k is straiht&
%& use the herrin%one ste$ with your toes $ointed in&
!& use the lower les to sustain your weiht and the u$$er les to kee$ you in
%alan!e&
d& ha-e your knees lo!ked on e-ery ste$ to rest the mus!les of your les&
A& ;hile !lim%in# you are re"uired to do a ho$1ste$& <ou should
a& use this ste$ when you want to swit!h feet on the same foothold without an
intermediate hold so that you may mo-e sideways&
%& use this ste$ to insert your whole %ody into a !ra!k in the ro!k&
!& use this ste$ when you want to raise your %ody&
d& use this ste$ to lean to one side of the ro!k fa!e without fallin&
2& A %elay test must %e !ondu!ted in order to ensure the %elay $osition is sta%le& A
$osition $ro!edure for esta%lishin a main1%elay# is to
a& ensure that the ro$e runs from the %elayer throuh the !lim%er9s uide hand&
%& use a $ad when ro$e is runnin o-er shar$ ro!ks and ledes&
!& ensure that the ro$e runnin from the %elayer an!hor to the %elayer is short and
tiht&
d& release the middle $ortion of the ro$e# when the !lim%er i-es COff Re$ellC&

LESSON THREE
PRACTICE EXERCISE
ANSWER KEY AND FEEDBACK
Item Corre!t Answer and .eed%a!k

3& a& sele!t two teams that !onsist of three e6$ert ro!k !lim%ers or assault
!lim%ers for ea!h $latoon and the remainin $ersonnel should also %e
skilled in %asi! military mountaineerin&

Sele!tion of $ersonnel is !ru!ial durin the $re$aration of a mountainous
o$eration& To $rodu!e $ositi-e results and su!!ess# a thorouh analysis of
assined duties should %e !ondu!ted on ea!h mem%er&

:& %& set a tem$o# or num%er of ste$s $er minute&

A!!ordin to the rate at whi!h the unit is mo-in& Sin!e $hysi!al
differen!e mean the tem$os of two $eo$le mo-in at the same s$eed will
not %e the same&

D& !& kee$ an inter-al of three to fi-e $a!es %etween indi-iduals to enhan!e
the tem$o# $a!e# and rhythm&

It is im$ortant to follow or esta%lish a $ro$er !aden!e on lon mar!hes#
otherwise some soldiers will mo-e too fast and others too slow& As an
alternati-e or at niht the rest ste$ may %e used# whi!h is short $ause after
ea!h ste$&

@& d& ha-e your knees lo!ked on e-ery ste$ to rest the mus!les of your les&

The eneral formation of the terrain di!tates the as!endin or des!endin
a$$roa!h you should take& To a-oid $ersonal in=uries and that of the other
mem%ers of the !lim%in $arty# you should familiari5e yourself with
mountain walkin te!hni"ues& To !onser-e u$$er %ody strenth# ma6imum
utili5ation of your feet and les are re"uired&

A& a& use this ste$ when you want to swit!h feet on the same foothold without
an intermediate hold so that you may mo-e sideways&

On!e aain# sele!tion of handholds>footholds are !ru!ial to the !lim%er&
<ou should sele!t your holds and $lan e-ery mo-e you will make alon
with alternati-e mo-es&

2& !& The ro$e runnin from the %elay an!hor to the %elayer must %e short and
tiht&

This is to $re-ent the %elayer from %ein $ulled out