Gas Insulated Substations

Dr. K. D. Srivastava
December 2012
Topics Covered
Section 1. Background

Section 2. Field Experience and
Persistent Design Challenges

Section 3. Operational Experience and
Practices

Section 4. Recent Developments

Bibliography
Section 1

Background
1970s-1990s: Gas-filled (SF
6
) short lengths
installed. Many lab models
for higher voltages, including
three phase designs in a
single duct. Also, SF
6
/N
2

1990s: 500 kV mass impregnated
paper for submarine DC
systems in the Baltic Sea
1970s-1990s: Low temp. cryogenic/supercon.
designs tried. 1990s witnessed
the phenomenal growth in HTS
technology
Energy and Industrial Culture
Post World War II, energy (all forms)
usage was growing at the rate of ~3% per
year, in industrial nations
But in industrial nations electricity usage
was growing by more than 7% by
displacing other forms of energy
With oil crisis of 1970s and the growing
environmental movement, the energy
picture is very different now!
In Europe (Western) and North America
the electricity usage is almost constant.
In developing countries, however, the
usage is growing between 7 and 10% per
year.
Compressed gas cable technology has matured
over the last 30 years, but its potential for bulk
power transport is yet to be exploited and
developed.
High temperature superconductor technology
is developing rapidly but [is] not yet fully
commercially viable for bulk power transport.
None of the above three are free from
technological areas of concern!
However, near urban centres overhead lines
are no longer acceptable to the communities
for environmental and aesthetic reasons.
What are the alternatives?
Three choices in technology:
Conventional underground power cables
Compressed gas cables (SF
6
- Sulphur
Hexa-fluoride)
Superconducting cables.
Land costs in urban areas
Aesthetically superior to air insulated
substations
Not affected by atmospheric pollution

Why GIS? Why GITL?
Completely sealed (metal-clad) permits
very low maintenance
Demand for higher energy usage in urban
areas requires increased transmission
voltages; for example, 420 kV

GITL
In addition to the advantages listed above
for GIS, there is a need for non-aerial
transmission lines near urban areas.
There are currently only two alternatives:
Underground cablesconventional or
superconducting, or
Gas Insulated Transmission Lines
(GITL)
GITL, compared to underground cables,
have the additional advantage of reduced
ground surface magnetic fields.
GIS/GITL installations have the usual
components:
1. Circuit breakers; disconnect,
earthing/grounding switches
2. Current and voltage measuring devices
3. Busduct sections
4. Variety of diagnostic/monitoring devices
Design Features of GIS/GITL
Installations from distribution voltages
right up to the highest transmission
voltages (765 kV) have been in service for
30 years or more. Both isolated-phase and
three-phase designs are in use.
SF
6
is the insulating medium at a pressure
of 4 to 5 atmospheres. GITL units are
factory-assembled in lengths of 40 to 50
feet.

The phase conductor is almost always of
aluminium. The outer enclosure is also of
aluminium, although earlier designs used
mild steel. For lower voltages, stainless
steel has also been used.

Usually busducts are of rigid design
although flexible and semi-flexible designs
have been proposed. None are in use.



Typical Cable Section
Growth of GIS
Growth of GIS Installations
Before 1985 January After 1985 January
Voltage GIS CB-Bay-Yrs. GIS CB-Bay-Yrs.
1 230 28669 731 28215
2 227 21252 382 12808
3 123 10362 147 5678
4 45 3870 65 2904
5 26 3252 37 1273
6 - - 2 200
Total 751 67,405 51,078

Voltage Class
1 60 100 kV
2 100 200 kV
3 200 300 kV
4 300 500 kV
5 500 700 kV
6 >700 kV




5. Current Transformer
6. Potential Transformer
7. Bus Section
8. Cable Termination


Expansion joint
Main Components of GIS
Busbar and enclosure
Busduct sections
Bushing
Circuit-breakers
Disconnectors
Earthing/grounding switches
Current and voltage transformers and
measuring devices
Expansion joints
Diagnostic/monitoring devices
GIS grounding and control wiring
Termination modules
Persistent Insulation Challenges
Notwithstanding the high reliability of GIS technology,
both manufacturers and users have to be aware of certain
HV insulation problems inherent in the GIS design.
These are:
1.Reliability of support spacers.
2.Generation of VFTO by disconnect switch operation.
3.Contamination of SF
6
gas by metallic particles.
4.Arcing/discharge by-products in SF
6
.
5.Environmental green house effects of SF
6
.
Applied voltage: 300kV, 0.4 MPa (SF6)
(81kV/div, 20 ns/div
FTO waveform measured by 1-GHz surge sensor
Source: M.M. Rao & M.S. Naidu, III Workshop on EHE Technology,
Bangalore, India, 1995.
Diagnostic methods for identifying defects in a GIS
installation have been proposed by CIGRE. Many
gross assembly errors and poor quality assurance
procedures can give rise to significant partial
discharges (PD), which in the presence of moisture
may lead to toxic by-products in the SF
6
gas.
Automated insulation condition monitoring
systems, with innovative sensors, are being developed
and installed on GIS and other HV power apparatus.
New techniques for PD detection/location are
perhaps the most significant developments in GIS
condition monitoring.
n = n
0
exp
x


Collisional Ionization

in Nitrogen-
Uniform Electric Field
n
0
= electrons

initially at x = 0
n = electrons at x
= ionization coefficient for the gas

Effective Ionization Coefficient as a function of Electric
Field Strength and Pressure
Molecular
Formula
BP
C
Relative Electric
Strength
SF
6
-63.8 2.5/760 mm
C
4
F
6
-5 3.9/730 mm
C
5
F
8
25 5.5/600 mm
C
5
F
10
22 4.3/600 mm
CF
3
CN -63 3.6/753 mm
C
2
F
5
CN -30 4.7/735 mm
C
3
F
7
CN 1 5.8/550 mm
C
8
F
16
O 101 6.3/760 at 180C
Environmental Impact of SF
6

SF
6
is a gas specifically mentioned in Kyoto
protocol. Search is on for a replacement gas or
gas mixture. 80% of SF
6
manufactured is used
by the electrical industry. Leakage rates are
<1% per year. References [13-14] are good
papers for an overview and the feasibility of
using SF
6
/N
2
mixture. Equipment with 20%
SF
6
is on the market. Table 6 shows some of
the by-products of SF
6
breakdown by
arcing/discharges.
Section 2

Field Experience and
Persistent Design Challenges
Transient Ground-Rise in GIS
(TGPR)
(Transient Enclosure Voltage)
(TEV)
(For earthing practices in GIS installation see:
W G 21.03 Rep. in Electra, No. 151, Dec.,
1993, PP. 31-52)


TEV or TGPR can be a very serious EMC
and personnel safety problem. Voltage rise
on grounded shields of several kV at
distances up to several km have been
observed in early days.
Such transient voltages on the grounded
enclosure arise from an internal collapse
of voltage in the SF
6
gas, internal re-
strikes across circuit breaker or disconnect
switch contacts, or flashover of external
insulation close to GIS, e.g., and air-SF
6

bushing.

Internal voltage collapse produces
travelling waves, in both directions, from
the point of breakdown. Such transients are
often called VFTO (very fast transient
overvoltages).
At the points of discontinuity (changes in
surge impedance) these VFTO waves get
reflected and refracted. Such transitions
can be modelled as junctions of
transmission lines.
Being high freq. transients, the currents are
confined to the skin depth of the coaxial
conductors.
Typical impedance junctions are air/SF
6

bushing, GIS/cable connections, ground
leads connecting the enclosure to the
earthing grid/mat/plate, or a ZnO arrester.


Support spacer flanges can also act as sites
for reflections.

For a L-G fault, the step voltage may be:
m
U
100%
= (LIWL)
GIS
x (1.20) x 1.12
1.20 ~ Pos. Polar. Breakdown
Neg. Polar. Breakdown

1.12 is a factor to allow for 100% breakdown
under LI, i.e. 2.?.LIWL; ?=6%
Internal breakdown give a step voltage
rise-time, dependent on gas pressure of
SF
6
,

Tr(min) (11.5) ns
p
where, p is in mPa.

For re-strikes, EMTP studies show that
switching a no-load transformer may
produce up to 3 p.u. of overvoltage and
disconnect switch operation may produce
between 1.5-2 p.u. The two, opposite
travelling waves are 50
%
in voltage
magnitude.

For a bushing transient the TEV
~ (S
1
) (Trav. wave)
where S
1
= - _2Z
e
_ Fig. 1
Z
1
+Z
2
+Z
e


Voltage going out to line is
~ (S
2
) (Trav. wave)




where S
2
= - 2Z
g
_ Fig. 2a
2Z
g
+Z
3



Z
g
= surge imp. of ground connection

Z
e
= surge imp. of enclosure

Num. example
.
Z
1
= 60 - 450

Z
2
= 350 - 260

Z
e
= 200 - 90

Z
g
= 150 - 300

The computed coeff. are:

S
1
= 0.54 to 0.78
S
2
= 0.54 to 0.75

Note: Significant overvoltages can develop
on the enclosure!

Assessment of surge propagating beyond GIS
Assessment of surge propagating beyond GIS
Propagation of surge down ground connections
Overvoltages on enclosures associated with a cable termination
Effect of surge arrester at point of GIS/Cable sheath interface
V
R
= discharge from the lightning arrester
Surface Flashover in
Compressed Gases
Air GASES
SF
6


Parallel Plane
Point-to-Plane GEOMETRY
Coaxial
Epoxy
Teflon MATERIALS
Perspex

DC
60HZ AC VOLTAGE
Switching & Lightning
Impulse
Breakdown & Corona Voltage
Surface Charge MEAS.
Pre-Breakdown Current Pulses

Particle Contamination
Design Principle

The field with the insulator should not
exceed the field at the central conductor
surface without the insulator.

Very difficult to achieve!
Effect of cohesion in case of coaxial electrode
Designs of cast Epoxy insulators
60 Hz breakdown voltage of 102 mm/292 mm coaxial
electrode system with free conducting particles, SF
6

pressure 440 kPa, voltage ramp 2 kV/s.
Critical Problems
1. Triple-junction design
2. Tangential vs. normal field at the insulator
3. Surface discharges from partial discharges
4. Presence of metallic particles on the
insulator surface
5. For D.C. applications - the problem of bulk
charging of insulator
6. Poor quality material - voids & other
defects
Reliability of Support Spacers
Bulk failure is rare - but voids, protrusions,
conducting contaminants may cause sustained
discharges in the bulk and lead to failure.
Casting is a high temperature process and
differential cooling and contaminants in the
filler (Al
2
O
3
) have to be minimized by strict
quality control.
Very often the PD level generated by these
defects is below the detection sensitivity of
1pc.
Intrinsic breakdown of epoxy spacer is
over 1MV/mm - but the material does age.
Early designs operating AC stress was 10
kV/mm (rms) at maximum locations. Many
of these failed in service in about 5 years.
Typical stresses now range from 2 kV/mm
(rms) at 145 kV and 4.1 kV/mm (rms) at 800
kV. But some high voltage designs still use
5-6 kV/mm (rms).
Economic pressure to reduce spacer
dimension since this will affect the enclosure
diam.
Metallic protrusions and contaminants
exhibit a silent initiation phase.

PD detection requires increasing detection
sensitivity as the spacer size increases with
voltage level of GIS.
For example, a 500 kV spacer should
perhaps be tested with a detection
sensitivity of about 0.5 pc. Such a level is
difficult to achieve in a factory.
Improved ultra wideband techniques,
including coupler designs may allow
measurements to 0.1 pc in a factory
environment. With further improvements in
noise filtering, high quality test transformers,
levels of 0.01 pc have been achieved in a
factory setting.
Another factor is the reduced margin between
BIL and operating stress as the voltage class
becomes higher.
When there are voids present, either from the
start or due to slow initiation activity at
protrusions and metallic inclusions, the electron
production rate is too low to start a PD in one
minute of test. (3 electrons/cm
3
-sec).
Also, a great deal of detection threshold depends
upon the radial position of cavity.
Testing spacers in a factory at a higher voltage
would compensate for the lack of initiatory
electrons.

The question of x-ray irradiation during
spacer testing has now been taken up
seriously by manufacturers. XIPD - X-ray
Induced Partial Discharge - is a new
technique for quality improvement.
The question of trapped DC charge on a GIS
bus bar and its subsequent impact on spacer
flashover, should not be ignored.

Even a small protrusion on the central
conductor near a spacer would deposit a line
charge on the spacer. The local field at the
tips of such a line charge could be high
enough to initiate a local discharge. A trapped
charge of, say, 0.8 pu on a 550kV GIS is
equivalent to a sustained DC voltage of
~340kV in the bus.

Such a line charge may be particularly
dangerous when the disconnect switch
operates. The combined transient field plus
the line charge filed may be sufficient to
cause spacer flashover.
Typical sequential variations of the breakdown voltage of a coaxial
conductor without and with a composite-profile cone spacer.
Insulating spacers are widely used in high-
voltage power apparatus. From a withstand
voltage of view spacers are the weakest
components and an improvement in the
understanding of surface flashover
characteristics of such solid insulators is
beneficial for better designs of power
apparatus.

In the busbar of GIS there could be trapped
charge after disconnect switch operations.
The electrical stress created by these charges
can lower the withstand voltage. Work was
undertaken to determine the changes, if any,
in the early stages of the surface breakdown
under lightning impulse voltage when there is
a prior direct stress.

Test Model and Experiment Set Up
Electrodes and
Spacer
The Test Circuit
Comparison of streak image of surface flashover and gap
breakdown in the air. (a) gap breakdown, (b) surface flashover
Some papers reported that in busbar of GIS
equipment there could be trapped charge after
disconnect switch operation. From previous
work, it was found the surface charge
accumulated on the spacer surface after applied
impulse voltage.
The application of DC prestressing will
approximate conditions resulting from disconnect
operation or lightning/switching surge.

DC Prestressing
Flashover voltages for ptfe spacer with SF
6
and N
2
.
Test Model and Experiment Set Up
Electrodes and
Spacer
The results obtained with the combined dc
and impulse voltages have indicated that a
dc voltage alters the electric field
distribution along the surface of a spacer
From the experiments, it is clear that the
initiation luminosity of flashover on insulating
spacer is at somewhere between two electrodes.
There would be local field enhancements at
several places. It is not possible or economically
justifiable to employ spacers with perfect or
near perfect surfaces. Hence, improvements in
the withstand voltage can only be obtained by
preventing field enhancements through other
means such as a weakly conductive coating.

The development of flashover from the
onset of stage one activity when there is a
dc initial voltage is much more rapid than
when there is no dc voltage. The rapid
flashover development can give rise to fast-
fronted transients in the substation.

Predischarge development in SF
6
.
t=0 is the start of the voltage breakdown at the
gap.
Predischarge development at an insulator surface with
a disturbance near the anode.
The influence of conductive paint near the cathode on the
predischarge development is shown in the next figure.It is evident
that the predischarge formation occurs in the space between
disturbance and anode. As the discharge proceeds in anode direction
the remaining gap between cathode and the disturbance in this case
is bridged very late.
The result is that such a conductive disturbance directly at the
insulator surface causes an advancement of the adjoining
electrode. Thus, it is not surprising that in both cases the
reduction of the electrical strength is comparable.
Predischarge development at an insulator surface with
a disturbance near the cathode.
Predischarge development at an insulator surface
with a protruding disturbance near the anode.
Predischarge development at an insulator surface
with a protruding disturbance near the cathode.
Predischarge development at an insulator surface
with a protruding disturbance near the cathode.
A streak photograph of the surface flashover
before insulator pre-charging.
A streak photograph of the surface flashover
after insulator pre-charging.
Phase resolved accumulated counts, showing the influence of
X-ray intensity. Accumulation time: 20s; text voltage: 40 kV
a No X-rays
b Ion dose rate 5.4 A/kg (21mR/s)
c Ion dose rate 19 A/kg (72 mR/s)
d Ion dose rate 36 A/kg (139 mR/s)
Continuous long time recording of voltage X-rays and
PD activity; SF
6
pressure: 600 kPa.
Particle Contamination in
GIS/GITL
Effect of:
Particle dimensions
Ambient field non-uniformity
Gas composition
Particle deformation
Number of particles - free
Duration of voltage application
Voltage waveform
Nearness to a spacer
Electric wind
Fixed or free particles
Particle Reduction During
Manufacture and Assembly
(GIS/GITL)
80-85% of surface area is due to the inside
surface of the enclosure
Not easy to clean
Enclosures are normally extruded Al. or Iron
tubes
Manufactured surface finish is 125 to 65, but,
Die marks, oxide layers and local damage is
always present and these are the main sources
of particles.
Surface conditioning of the enclosure is
essential.

Any surface conditioning process must address:
oxide layers, Die marks, Burrs and loosely
attached machining debris
Sources of Metal Particles in GIS
Machining debris
Expansion joints
Poor mechanical assembly
Other defects in metal parts

Possible particle locations:

1. Fixed on phase conductor
2. Fixed on enclosure
3. Free to move in elec. field
4. Fixed on spacer

Free particle movement different under DC,
AC and Impulse voltages.

Degradation in electrical insulation strength
of SF
6
caused by conducting particles.
Loss of dielectric strength of SF
6
in the presence of
a 0.45/6.4 mm wire particle in a coaxial system
subject to direct voltages.
Section of a simulated motion of an Al/0.5/10 mm
particle (100 kV, 3 bar, R=0.80).
Section of a simulated motion of a Cu/0.5/10 mm
particle (100 kV, 3 bar, R=0.80).
Hjk
L;l
L;l
L;l
H
L
L
L
Breakdown
voltage profile
of a spherical
particle in an
SF6 parallel-
plane electrode
system.
Comparison of the effect of coefficient of restitution on the
calculated maximum bounce height for 0.45/6.4 mm copper
particles, field strength 2.5 kV/mm peak, 60 Hz.
Metallic Particle Control
Q-control of machining of components
Ultra-sonic cleaning of components
Adhesive tapes/coatings
Particle traps
Dielectric coatings
Conditioning
Conditioning Methods for
Enclosure Surface
1. Chemical etching
2. Sand or glass bead blasting
3. Abrasive finishing using oil oxide paper
4. Mechanical vibration with forced air
flow.
See D.O.E. (US) Report
# DOE/ET/29336-1
August 1983
Particle Control by Dielectric
Coating
To move in an electric field the particle needs
to be charged
By coating the inside surface of the enclosure
we may reduce the charge

BUT
A metallic particle on a dielectric coating may
acquire charge by:
conduction through coating
by partial discharge between particle and
coating
OR
by contact charging from and already charged
surface
Effect on breakdown
Effect on particle charging
Effect on maxm. excursion height
Particle movement inhibition pseudo-
resonance
Breakdown probability
Experimental results
Why Dielectric Coatings?
Insulator and particle trap for CGIT system.
SF
6
;
Teflon;
1.5 mm
diameter
steel.
Micro-
discharge
criterion SF
6
,
2 mm
diameter
spheres,
theoretical
computation.
Effect of applied voltage on maximum height reached by an
aluminum wire particle (0.45 mm dia./6.4 mm long) in a 70/90 mm
GIS/GITL system (_______ uncoated, - - - coated) for a coefficient of
restitution of 0.95.
1.5 mm
diameter steel
spheres,
Polyurethane
coating.
1.5 mm
diameter
steel
sphere,
Epoxy
coating.
Particle movement: Effect of particle length on
time to first gap crossing.
Comparison of calculations and measurements:
Particle motion from calculations and videotape
observation.
Comparison of calculations and measurements:
measured and calculated lift-off fields.
Smoothed curves
of lifting field vs.
pressure for
spherical steel
particles 1.5 mm
diameter.
h j
Migration velocity of particles in 226/89 mm coaxial
electrode system as function of slope at 50 kV
rms
.
Operational Experience with
GIS/GITL
Reliability of Support Spacers
Very Fast Transient Overvoltages (VFTO)
Transient Ground Rise
Bushing and Transformer Insulation
Design of Disconnect Switches
Metallic particle Contamination
Discharge By-Products in SF
6
Gas
Environmental Effects of SF
6
Emerging Trends in GIS/GITL
Technology
More rigorous factory and on-site
commissioning tests.
More elaborate/sophisticated monitoring and
diagnostic test equipment.
Increasing use of GITL, mainly for urban
power feeders. One reason is to minimize
ground level magnetic fields associated with
conventional underground cables.
Development of DC GIS for incorporating
into expanding national/international
HVDC systems
Search for replacement gases for SF
6
. The
most promising is an 80%/20% N
2
/SF
6

mixture. Circuit breakers will continue to
use pure SF
6
, and least in the near to mid-
term.

Improved one-break circuit breakers for
compact transmission voltage GIS for
urban centres.
Replacement of existing AIS by GIS will
accelerate, especially near urban centres.
New Developments

UHF partial discharge detection
HVDC GIS
SF
6
/N
2
mixtures
Long GITL installations
Compact substations
GIL/GIS Recent Development

70m long prototype by Siemans for 400 kV
system. SF
6
/N
2
mixture
Simulated 50 year life
Renewed interest in flexible lines. However,
the biggest challenge is the design of long
100 m sections. How to mechanically
support the conductor!
Switching impulse tests for SF
6
/N
2
mixture
confirm theoretical models.
Recycling guidelines for SF
6
and
extracting SF
6
from SF
6
/N
2
mixtures are
now available.
Three phase rectangular enclosures for 500
kV class have been tested (~200 cm x 200
cm).
Long-term field tests for GIL: minimum 1
year on a 100 m section.

Comparison of aerial lines and GIL must
take into account the total life cycle costs,
over 50 to 70 years.
Combined voltage and current sensors.
Highly integrated sub-station layout - a
mixture of metal clad and air-insulated
technology.
Very thick coatings on conductors.

For DC GIS a conductive coating on
spacers.
Using an epoxy enclosure for GIL.
Japanese ~3 km 275 kV GIL.
Distribution of enclosures on a voltage class basis.
Distribution of short circuit current ranges on
a voltage class basis.
Distribution
of degree of
importance
assigned by
users to the
development
of built-in
technology to
monitor
parameters as
indicated.
Users opinion on continuous vs. periodic.
Major
failure
frequency
by voltage
class.
Distribution of major failure causes reported by
users for all voltage classes.
CIGRE Survey 2000: Voltage classes
CIGRE survey
2000
Major failure
frequency (FF)
2
nd
GIS survey
total population
and comparison
between the 1
st

and the 2
nd

survey results.
Identification of main component involved in the failure
from GIS voltage class point of view.
CIGRE
Survey
2000
CIGRE Survey 2000: Identification of main
component involved in the failure from GIS age
point of view (5 most involved components).
The test
cell for oil
and paper
insulation.
The composite electrode system.
A measured fast front step waveform.
A fast front breakdown of oil and paper.
- one layer
paper multiple
FFT data
One layer of
paper multiple
impulse results.
Section 3

Operational Experience
and Practices
In-service fault rate (faults/station-year) vs.
years in service for 25 North American GIS.
Comparison of single-phase enclosed SF6 CGI
bus bars for rated voltages of 230 kV and 550 kV
Calculated
field gradient:

1, 2, 3, & 4: 230
kV bus
conductors
1, 2, 3 & 4:
550 kV bus
conductors
Cone insulators of
various design
Dimensions and ratings of rigid single phase
GITL underground systems.
Comparison of GITL dimensions for manufacturers.
The dimensions selected reflect the manufacturers
design and manufacturing philosophy including
design testing, quality control and manufacturing
tolerances.
Typical design of compressed gas insulated
transmission line. Shipping module is 18 m long
with insulators every 6 m. Other designs may use
only disc or conical insulators. Drawing not to scale.
CGIT system with cast Epoxy tripost and
conical insulators.
Full-scale model GIL and insulating system.
Determination of
the diameters of
conductor and
enclosure.
Example of the
construction of
post-type
particle trap.
Full-scale single-phase model GIL with a length of 168 m.
Fundamental dimensions and material used in GIL
Required specifications.
General view of the 275 kV GIL in operation.
Cross section of corridor for the GIL.
Relative cost of CGIT systems as function of
enclosure diameter.
Cost breakdown of 60 foot CGIT shipping
module (including assembly, labour and testing).
Dimensions and rating of three conductor, buried CGIT systems.
Optimum dimensions for three conductor cable:
R
e
= 5.56 R
c
, R
1
2.78 R
c
.
Designs of three-
conductor CGIT
systems. Post
insulators a-c are
attached to metallic
ring which moves
inside enclosure,
insulators d-f are
attached by welding to
inside of enclosure.
Product
Approx. Concentration by
Volume (%)
SOF
2
(SF
4
) 0.5
SOF
4
0.085
SiF
4
0.085
S2F
10
0.026
SO
2
F
2
0.006
SO
2
0.002
HF 1.0
Note: SF
4
is quickly hydrolyzed to SOF
2

Compound TLV by ppmv
SOF
2
1.6
SO
2
2
HF 3
S2F
10
0.01
decomposition
source
main decomposition products
toxicity
(weighted)
reactivity
with
atmospheric
humidity
formula state abundance
hot
contacts
SOF
2
SO2F
2
SO
2
gas
gas
gas
low
low
low
high
low
medium
medium
low
low
partial
discharges
SOF
2
SF
4
gas
gas
low
low
high
medium
medium
high
no load
switching
arcs
SOF
2
SOF
4
SO2F
2
gas
gas
gas
low
low
low
high
high
low
medium
medium
low
Rough characterization of decomposition produces resulting from different
sources
decomposition
source
main decomposition products
toxicity
(weighted)
reactivity
with
atmospheric
humidity
formula state abundance
heavy
switching
arcs
SF
4
WF
6
SOF
2
CF
4
HF
CuF
2
WO
3
gas
gas
gas
gas
gas
solid
solid
medium
medium
medium
medium
low
medium
medium
medium
high
high
non toxic
medium
non toxic
non toxic
high
high
medium
none
low
none
none
internal
arcs
HF
SF
4
CF
4
Al2F
3
Fe2F
3
gas
gas
gas
solid
solid
medium
high
medium
high
high
medium
medium
non toxic
medium
non toxic
low
high
none
medium
none
Chemical measurements. Example of chromatographic
measurements. Defect a): PD level of 10-15 pC. SOF
2
and
SO
2
F
2
by-products as a function of the time under voltage.
Chemical measurements. SOF
2
and SO2F
2
by-products measured after various events.
*High sensitivity (0.1 ppmv) chromatography (TCD + FPD/SSD)
**Lower sensitivity (50 ppmv) chromatography (TCD only)
Reactivity and toxicity of gaseous SF
6
decomposition products
Threshold limit values (TLV) for different SF
6
by-products
Rough characterization of decomposition products resulting from
different sources
Flowchart for the destination of removed SF
6
Basic structure of the SF
6
reclaiming process
A comprehensive catalogue of guidelines for the handling and
management of SF6 is available from the US EPA.
Diagnostics, Field Testing &
Commissioning
Joint effort with Customer-Transfer of Know-
how to Users
Cleanliness of site - Humidity and Dust
Control
Alignment of Components
If Factory Assembled Re-check Nuts/Bolts &
Alignment & Level
Grounding-Transient Voltage Rise
No Floating Components or Tools Left
Inside!!
When Filling with Gas - Avoid Condensation
of SF
6
- Specially on Spacers
Very Important to Have a Written Training
Manual for Site Erection and Testing
What Diagnostics to Install
Permanently?
Gas Pressure
Humidity
Gas Sampling for SF
6
Arcing By-products
For Switches
Travel Distance
Travel Velocity
Contact Wipe
Contact Resistance
Physical Condition - Corrosion
Capacitive Couplers
Voltage Feed for AC/Impulse Site Tests
Other Alarm/Monitoring Devices - Optical
Observations, Acoustic Couplers etc.
Bus Isolating Links
What Site Equipment?
Resonant Test-set
Surge Generator
PD, Acoustic Measuring Devices
Vibration Monitors
Site Tests Insulation
Conditioning for Sweeping Particles
AC in 15 to 20% Steps, up to 80% of Factory
Test Level
Up to 1.1x The Switching Oscill. Impulse
No DC Voltage Tests
One Manuf. Uses X-ray System to Check
Alignment and Contact Damage on Site
Oper.
planned
correctly
$
Reliability
Capital
Diagram A
Complexity of Monitoring System
Design!
CB Related Info.
Travel
Position
Elec. Wear
Hydraulic System
Internal Arcing?
PD levels of protrusions according to IEC-270.
PD levels of moving particles (length l = 5 and
7 mm) on the enclosure according to IEC-270.
Signal amplitude for moving particles (length l =
5 and 7 mm) on the enclosure measured by the
UHF-method at CF f = 1.29 GHz.
Transmission coefficient tTEM of the TEM-
mode for a dielectric spacer disc (thickness is 5
cm, r = 6.5).
Transmission coefficients ITE and ITM for a
dielectric spacer disc (thickness is 5 cm, r = 6.5).
Disc sensor installed inside a GIS
Equivalent circuit of a disc sensor inside a GIS
Rough representation of a PD pulse in SF6
Four discharges from an impacting A1/0.5/10
particle. Voltage level/phase = 100 kV/086
(Erms 6.5 kV/cm at the enclosure).
Multiple discharges from an impacting A1/0.5/10
particle. Voltage level/phase = 120 kV/084
((Erms 7.8 kV/cm at the enclosure).
Top trace is for an acoustic sensor.
Defect
Detectable in
typical E
n
range
Significant
size
Protrusion on hv-cond.
4 mm 1 2 mm
Protrusion on enclosure
10 mm 4 6 mm
Free particles
5 mm 3 5 mm
Particles on spacer
12 mm 3 5 mm
Gas filled ball
yes -
Floating electrode
yes -
Defects detected at typical nominal field
strength compared with critical size of defects.
Possibilities, features, items of
advanced GIS
Implications, benefits
More parameters measured.
History of events can be stored.
Advanced techniques for
measurement.
Prediction on ageing,
planning of replacement,
retrofit.
Trend analyses possible (gas
density etc.)
The condition of the
installation can be predicted.
Prediction of need for
maintenance (condition-based
instead of preventive).
Reduced maintenance costs.
Increased availability.
Reduced outage costs.
(Continued on next slide)
Possibilities, features, items
of advanced GIS
Implications, benefits
Prediction of development
requiring corrective action
(service disturbance and
unforeseen maintenance can
be avoided
Reduced maintenance costs.
Increased availability.
Reduced outage costs.
Reduced redundancy of primary
circuit possible lower initial
costs.
The conditions can be
checked by distance
(teleservice).
Unmanned operation.
Maintenance can be contracted
to a third party.
Reduced maintenance costs.
(Continued on next slide)
(Continued from previous slide)
Possibilities, features, items
of advanced GIS
Implications, benefits
Controlled switching.
Simplified circuit breaker.
Reduced breaker wear.
Reduced system transients.
New current and voltage
transformers.
Reduced space requirement.
More flexibility in location of
measurement devices.
Reduced initial and LCC.
Complete factory assembly and
test of GIS bays.
Shorter delivery lead times.
Enhanced features.
Higher quality.
Optimised system solution.
(Continued from previous slide)
Possibilities, features, of
secondary system
Implications, benefits
Reduced number of
connections and interfaces
Reduced spaced requirement.
Shorter lead time.
Lower costs of assembly,
engineering and sitework.
Standardised hardware,
flexible software
Lower initial cost.
Shorter lead time.
Increased flexibility.
Increased opportunities for
self-testing
Higher reliability, higher
availability.
EMC precautions Facilitated, lower cost.
GIS monitoring parameters and sensors.
Function: insulation.
GIS monitoring parameters and sensors. Function: switching.
GIS monitoring parameters and sensors. Function: others.
hh hh
Cost implications of application of advanced technologies to GIS
Summary of the ABB approach to quality assurance of GIS
Quality assurance testing.
1. Combination of tests is
frequent during
development.
2. Movement of contacts,
mechanisms.
3. Some tests out of
batches, pressure
vessels etc.
4. Requalification after
some years of
production.
Methods for insulation diagnostics.
Selected diagnostic methods.
Conditioning procedures in the field have
to be adapted to move particles to
harmless locations. UHF PD detection
techniques help in the process.

It is now recognized that very small voids
in a spacer may not be detectable through
conventional PD detection techniques, but
may give rise to very low probability
breakdowns under VFTO pulses.
Also spacers are known to acquire surface
charge if nearby corona exists and under
prolonged exposure to DC stress. Even
AC GIS spacers may be exposed to DC
stress due to trapped charges after
disconnect switch operation. One
manufacturer has proposed the use of
weakly conducting surface coatings.
Monitoring and Diagnostics
The last decade has seen very significant
advancements in monitoring and diagnostic
technology.
Increased use of fibre-optics for PC based
control and use of Rogowski coils for current
and capacitance dividers for voltage
measurements will become more common.
Similarly, the use of very sensitive pressure
transducers is being developed for PD detection
in GIS. This method has some advantages over
acoustic detectors.
Considerable discussions are underway to
develop guidelines for incorporating
advanced technologies for monitoring and
diagnostics. Obviously, some simple
questions have to be answered first!

1. Why do it? What is the added value?
2. Criteria for selection
3. Reliability and estimated life
4. Compatibility with other systems
5. Can it be retro-fitted?
GIS need less maintenance and it is
possible to evolve protocols for condition-
based and reliability-centred maintenance.
Moreover, environmental impact and
investment/risk analyses are becoming
necessary.
There is a more to further reduce the size
of GIS especially for EHV/UHV range by
incorporating one-break gas circuit
breakers. For a 500 kV GIS floor savings
of 35% and cost reductions of 20-30% are
envisaged.
Other features are: Pockels cell based VT
and tolerating a higher enclosure
temperature.

R & D effort is underway to replace AIS
with GIS for 500 kV systems and for re-
furbishing 25 year old GIS.

Both VHF/UHF PD detection techniques
are used for on-site commissioning. One
manufacturer reports that for 72.5 kV to
245 kV GIS either technique may be
used. Particles on spacers are difficult to
detect. Correlation of signal level to pC in
the PD is not possible.
VHF (30 300 MHz) and UHF (300
3000 MHz methods detect the TEM, TE
or TM waves generated by PDs. Below
about 300 MHz only TEM mode can
exist. Using detection above 100 MHz
improves signal/noise ratio.

Signal conditioning techniques are
adopted, for example, filtering to reject
noisy frequency bands, phase locking and
signal integration, gating of noise sources.
To identify and differentiate between PD
sources the significant parameters are:


1. Peak signal magnitude / RMS of total
signal.
2. Repetition rate.
3. Periodicity of signal groups and phase
angle of individual pulses with respect to
power frequency.
UHF PD Detection in GIS
Several sensors/couplers are installed in a
GIS. Commonly these are capacitance
pick-up devices with appropriate
electronics to convert PD signals for
transmission over a fibre-optic network to
a control room.
Since particles are the most troublesome
course of PD and insulation failure and
deterioration, below we examine PD
signals from fixed and free particles.
If it is possible to vary the voltage and
conduct visual examination, we can
determine PD inception/extinction
voltages of free particles.

Fixed particles give PD levels of up to 25
pC. Periodicity may be either equal to
power frequency or double if voltage is
raised.
Free particles produce PD when they
strike an electrode or a spacer. Usually
PD levels are low and random. At higher
voltages particles cross the gas gap and
give rise to very high PD levels (100 pC
or more) and may lead to breakdown.

Current UHF detection works in the range
300 3000 MHz and has the advantage of
low noise level.
The cutoff frequencies for a simple
coaxial waveguide with outer radius a
and inner radius a-b are expressed as:
Waveguide modes in a GIS. The resonant
frequencies are given as:
The cut-off frequency for TEM mode is 0.
Hence all higher modes of TEM exist but
get progressively weaker.
The resonant frequency for TE and TM
are often only 5-10 MHz apart. Full
consideration has to be given to all
TE/TM modes for proper interpretation of
PD measurements.

Of course, reflections/attenuations have to
be taken into consideration.
Rough representation of a PD pulse in SF6
Four discharges from an impacting A1/0.5/10
particle. Voltage level/phase = 100 kV/086
(Erms 6.5 kV/cm at the enclosure).
Multiple discharges from an impacting A1/0.5/10
particle. Voltage level/phase = 120 kV/084
((Erms 7.8 kV/cm at the enclosure).
Top trace is for an acoustic sensor.
Measuring result of the frequency response of
a disc sensor (disc radius r = 5 cm, lD = 7 cm).
Calculated frequency response of a disc
sensor (disc radius r = 5 cm, lD = 7 cm).
Attenuation of signals occurs due to
several causes: losses in the metal
enclosure and the disc/conical spacers.
Enclosure 2dB/km - very low

Spacers 102 dB/m
A continuous UHF monitoring system is
needed for GIS which are critical for
power supply system security. In the
U.K., several such systems are in
operation. (National Grid Company and
Scottish Power.)

UHF signals from a set of 3-phase
couplers is cabled to a node for data
acquisition(DAQ). All nodes of the GIS
are linked by a fibre-optic token ring
network, which can control up to 256
nodes. Network operates at 38.4 kB. PD
signal range may be from 1 pC to 1000
pC and the frequency range is 500-1000
MHz.
The system software can permit on-line,
event or history modes of operation.
Other on-line condition monitoring data
systems can be integrated with the UHF
PD monitoring system (circuit breakers,
disconnect switches, etc.)

Future Trends in GIS Technology
Particle Control and Management

It is generally accepted that some metallic
particle contamination will always be
present. Moreover, with the rapid growth
of HVDC systems, managing particle
contamination has become even more
critical.
Possible approaches to mitigate the effects of
such contamination are:

1. More stringent manufacturing quality
control.
2. Larger enclosure diameter to reduce the
operating field at the enclosure.
3. Particle traps.
4. Dielectric coatings on the inside surface
of enclosure and on the central conductor.
We now know a fair bit about these PD
sources, e.g.,
Moving particles produce PD signals in a
random relationship to the 60 Hz wave. The
magnitude, however, depends upon size and
on the applied voltage.
A fixed protrusion on either conductor or on
a spacer will produce corona signals is a
known relationship to the power frequency
voltage.


A floating metallic component will also
produce PD signal in a fixed relationship to
the power frequency waveform, but its
magnitude is the highest.


So the procedure is to record the full frequency
spectrum, pick some suitable PD signal
frequency and establish its relationship with the
50 Hz / 60 Hz waveform.
Since the UHF signals are being monitored
the attenuation is high - the enclosure skin
effect contributes a lot to this. As a result
couplers have to be installed at a separation
of not more than 20 m.

400 kV GIS in UK (Scottish Power and
National Grid) have perhaps 25 to 30 three
phase sets installed. At this number of
couplers the technique becomes comparable
in number of sensors to the acoustic
methods. Mandatory on all new EHV/UHV
GIS. Loss of a 420 kV GIS may trigger
insurance claims.

Voids in spacers are unlikely to be
detected by any form of PD test on site.
Quality control during manufacture is the
only answer.
Floating components may arise due to
corrosive action on nuts/bolts and
intermittent sparking under VFTO.


Partial Discharges in GIS
PDs in GIS arise from several sources:
1. Poor or loose electrical/mechanical
contact between conducting parts.
2. Fixed metallic defects on conducting and
insulating surfaces - protrusions, sharp
edges, deep cuts and metallic particles.
3. Moving metallic particles in the GIS
enclosure.
4. Voids in the spacer bulk material.

The magnitude and the phase angle of
PDs with respect to 60 Hz varies with the
type of defect. The sources listed above
produce PD signals in the descending
order. That is, floating electrical parts
produce the largest PD. Except for the
moving metallic particles, which give
random signals, the other PD signals have
a definite phase relationship with applied
AC voltage.

In general PD detection methods may be
grouped into four types:
A. Electrical
B. Acoustic
C. Optical
D. Chemical
Of these, the electrical methods offer the
most sensitivity and versatility for
detection and location. The other three
methods can provide additional
information.
Some of the PD detection methods are
more suitable for type testing or
development testing, for example,
chemical and optical. For monitoring and
troubleshooting in the field, the electrical
and acoustic sensors are commonly used.

Conventional PD detection, as per IEC
270, works in the range of 10 KHz to 1
MHz. This is unsuitable on site since the
signal/noise ratio is poor.
Due to the different media the signal has to
travel, many sensors are required for location
of the PD source.
An acoustic probe is more useful during
conditioning with AC voltage, since a portable
sensor can be moved around to identify the
location. Also phase relationship with 50/60
Hz is helpful.

Electrical methods can be further sub-divided
into:
Conventional PD according to IEC 270
HF couplers to about 10 MHz
UHF techniques
In the field the shielding requirements are
difficult to achieve. UHF techniques in this
respect are simpler since the environment
noise is less likely in these high freq. ranges.

Since the rise-time of a PD signal is very short
(1ns or less), some of the cavity resonances in
the GIS are excited, and the total capacitance
of a GIS is not a determining factor.

UHF Techniques for PD
Diagnostics in GIS

Some fascinating and exciting work is being done
in this area.
New data analysis techniques are being explored,
e.g.
Pattern Recognition
Fractals
Neural Networks
Ultra Wide Band Recording of PD Signals
Measurement
Discharge Pattern
Feature Extraction
Data Base ----------> Classification
Decision
A General Procedure for PD
Diagnostics in Power Equipment
Clearly, our Decisions are as good as our
Data Base. Lots of experimentation has been
done and a lot more is needed.
Expertise of disciplines new to power
engineering is being brought to bear on GIS
technology.

So, How Good is our Data Base?

We know some of the most common sources of PD in
GIS, e.g.,
Metallic Particles - free moving
Metallic Particles on spacers
Protrusions on inner/outer conductors
Void in a spacer
Floating metal objects
--------
--------

SF
6
Related Info.
Pressure
Moisture
Breakdown By-products
PD Data
Sensor Locations
Data Acquisition
Data Reduction
Data Analysis Using Present and Historical Data

INTEGRATED CONTROL, MONITORING AND
DIAGNOSTIC SYSTEM
What are Detailed Aspects of UHF PD
Detection in GIS?
The Resonant Frequencies
What Freq. Range you Select?
What Type of Coupler?
Internal
External
New GIS
Existing GIS
Coupler Location
Signal/Noise Ratio
Propagation Through GIS
Software Design
Customized
Signal Analysis
Data Bank
Expert or Neural Systems
Calibration
Comparisons With Other Data
Partial Discharge Testing of GIS
Purpose: Developmental tests
Type tests
Production tests
Commissioning tests
Monitoring/Diagnostic
PD - very early local breakdown of gas. May
lead to failure in time. Corona stabilization
makes voltage level for PD much lower than
that for breakdown, except for LI and VFTO.
Quality control is essential for all the
components that go into a GIS
Possible techniques are:
Electrical
Acoustic
Chemical
Optical
Optical techniques are best suited for the
developmental and type test stage. However,
an adequate number of windows are [is?]
essential for visual checks during service.
Chemical methods are best suited for the
developmental, type test and perhaps as a
back-up in the field.
In practice it is the ratio of downstream stable
products SO
2
F
2
/SOF
2
which offers discrimination as
to the source of discharges, for example, tests at CESI
show:

Phenomena Time SO
2
F
2
SOF
2
Ratio
PD 260 hrs 15 ppml 35 0.43
Disconnector Cap. 200 oper 5 97 0.05
Switching 400 oper 21 146 0.14
Cir. Break. 5 oper @ 31kA <50 3390 <0.01
5 oper @ 18kA <50 1560 <0.03

Currently, in equipment in service the choice
is between the Electrical and Acoustic
methods. Often both are used, since in some
ways they complement each other.
Acoustic sensors could be either AE type or
Accelerometers. The PD electrical signal to
the resultant acoustic signal have a very
complex relationship, but it is less susceptible
to environmental noise, and is non-invasive.

Section 4

Recent Developments
SF
6
- Global Environmental Impact
SF
6
is non-toxic, very stable chemically.
It is man-made and its lifetime in upper
atmosphere is very long (800 to 3200 years!)
Currently, 80% used by elec. power industry.
Other uses are in micro-electronics,
aluminum, magnesium production, tracer gas,
nuclear industry etc.
7000 metric tons/yr in 1993 - may reach
10,000 tons/yr by 2010. Allowable
concentration 1000 ppm by vol.
Two areas of Health and Environmental impact:

A. Through its normal use in a work place -
ARCING BY-PRODUCTS
B. Global environmental impact - OZONE
DEPLETION & WARMING
Regarding A. the industry is developing stringent
guidelines to protect workers and to
minimize leaks into the global atmosphere.

Use of SF
6
in Electrical Power Equipment
Health, Safety and Environmental Effects
By itself SF
6
is non-toxic and the TLV level is
about 1000 ppmv.
However, many organizations require a much
lower level. Three levels of personnel
protection recommended are:


Level of Protection TLV

Low 1000 ppmv
Intermediate 200 ppmv
High 20 ppmv

Codes of practice define the level recommended.

Breakdown by-products arise, both under
arcing and under low-energy discharges,
such as corona.
Above ~500C SF
6
begins to break up and
at ~3000C dissociation is complete.
During the cooling period, at ~1000C,
many chemical reactions occur. H
2
O is a
major factor.

TLV levels for the by-products are
established; there are national variations.

IEC 1634 lists many of the relevant data
and controversies!
SF
6
As a Greenhouse Gas

ozone depletion, and
global warming.

CFC + (UV) --> Cl + (CFC) Residue
Cl + O
3
--> CI0 + O
2

Cl
0
+ O --> Cl + O
2

It is the release of Cl that is responsible for
O
3
depletion. The following relative role is
quoted by IEC1624:

CO
2
(60%), CH4 (15%), N
2
O (5%),
CFC (12%), SF
6
(10
-2
%)

There is, however, controversy about these
figures! (See IEEE Trans. on Dielec. and Elec. Insul.,
Vol 2, No. 5, 1995, p. 953)
SF
6
concentration in upper atmosphere has
doubled in the past decade. Increasing at
~8.7% / year.
Elect. industry uses ~80% of world
production of SF
6
(~7000 metric tons in
1993), and the production is expected to
grow to ~10,000 metric tons by 2010.
SF
6
is 25000x more effective than CO
2
as a
Greenhouse gas.
Environmental activists, however, argue that
for estimating a worst case impact we must
assume that ALL SF
6
will eventually leak
into the global atmosphere.
Estimates show that SF
6
concentration in
upper atmosphere is rising at 8.7% per year.
Approx. doubled in a decade. Could reach 10
parts in 10
12
by vol. by 2010.
SF6 does not deplete ozone - no chlorine in
its structure.
But SF
6
is very effective in absorbing (and
reflecting back to Earth) infra-red radiation.
25000x more effective than CO2!
Present contribution of SF
6
to global
warming is <0.01%.
If the present usage trends continue SF6
contribution to the greenhouse effect could
reach 0.1% by the end of the 21st century.
No reliable estimates of how much actually
leaks into the Earths atmosphere. No
inventory check or validation of used gas
stockpile is maintained.

SF
6
can be destroyed by incineration at
1100C in waste disposal plants.
The nauseating and tissue irritant effects
often cause the most panic and alarm.
Several absorbants are quite effective:
Alumina, Soda Lime, Molecular Sieves, and
combinations thereof.
The most common by-products are: SOF
2
,
SO
2
, HF, CF
4
, SF
4
, SO
2
F
2
, plus the various
metal fluorides.
S
2
F
10
is formed, most likely, in low energy
discharges. However, at above 200C it
decays if H
2
O is present. Although, it is
difficult to detect, there is reluctant
acceptance of its likely presence.
The accumulated experience with arcing by-
products suggests that the component to
want/monitor is SOF
2
.
HF, of course, is highly reactive and hence
corrosive.
SF
6
- N
2
Mixtures
SF
6
does not occur naturally in the
environment
80% of the world production is used by the
electrical industry
It contributes about .01% to the
Greenhouse effect. But its concentration in
the atmosphere is growing very rapidly.
It is an efficient absorber of infra-red radiation
and its global warming potential is estimated
to be ~25,000x greater than that of CO
2
.
Its atmospheric life is very long - the half-life,
i.e., to be reduced to 37% of its original value,
is anywhere between 800 and 3200 years.
So, there is concern in industry about the long-
term prospects for its continued use in
switchgear and GIS. Hence, the interest in
mixtures.
No other synthetic gas (fluoro-carbons) is
better in its environmental impact.
Abundant data on the two gases and their
mixtures. Reliable production of breakdown
strength in uniform fields.
Strong synergism between the two gases.
Small quantities of SF
6
in N
2
can improve
dielectric strength dramatically.
All of the dielectric strength of SF
6
, nearly,
can be achieved by adding less than 20% SF
6

into N
2
.
SF
6
/N
2
Mixtures for GIS?
SF
6
/N
2
mixtures less susceptible to effects
of field non-uniformity than pure SF
6
, thus
mitigating the effects of particles and
surface protrusions.
Less is known about dielectric behaviour
above 1MPa (10 atmos.) PD and corona
have not been as extensively studied in
SF
6
/N
2
mixtures as in either gas alone.

Also, less is known about chemical stability
of mixtures under low energy discharges.
Little is known about the production rates of
S
2
F
10
, S
2
OF
10
, S
2
O
2
F
10
.

SF
6
/N
2
mixtures do not have arc quenching
properties of SF
6
by itself.
Comparative Limiting (E/P) values for
SF
6
/N
2
mixtures

SF
6
% (E/P) lim kv/cm.bar
100 88.6
73.1 85.1
50 79.0
20 65.2
10 57.0
5 50.0

SF
6
/N
2
mixtures are less sensitive to
protrusions and surface roughness than
pure SF
6
, e.g., for roughness higher than
100.
The corona stabilization effect is not as
pronounced.
The arc quenching properties of mixtures
are not as good as pure SF
6.
SF
6
/N
2
mixtures are not particularly better
when it comes to arcing breakdown by-
products (SO
2
, SOF
2
, SO
2
F
2
, SOF
4
). Even
a low SF6 content (<10%) still generates
these by-products.

Breakdown
Voltages
DC Breakdown Voltage (kV) of SF
6
/N
2
Mixture in Uniform Field Gap
Measured and calculated 60 Hz ac breakdown voltage values for
SF
6
/N
2
mixtures. Similar behaviour is exhibited under lightning
and switching impulse voltages
Field Test of 1000kV Gas Insulated Switchgear
Basic specifications and ratings
Field Test of 1000kV Gas Insulated Switchgear
Field test items on switchgear
Schematic of a DC GIS Insulation Design
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS -CONT.
Leakage of SF
6
<0.5% / yr
Combined VT/CT
Single-break CB for 500 kV
1100 kV Prototype GIS
Refurbishing of old GIS
Replacement of AIS in urban areas
Mechanical design to allow for SF
6
/N
2

mixtures
By 1991 - accumulated experience of 200,000
CBB-YRS. The average age is still only 8 yrs.
Users expectation is a life between 30 - 40 yrs.
Asset depreciation period used 20 to 50 yrs.
GIS is expected to have a longer life that AIS
RE: Maintenance several categories may be
defined and equipment classified, e.g.
Routine inspection Preventive maintenance
Repair maintenance Corrective/special
maintenance and component categories may be:
Active or Passive Primary
Secondary equipment

Most major utilities have codes of practice for
delivering maintenance services for GIS
Life cycle costs have to be evaluated:
LCC = CI + CP + CR + CO + OC + CD
CI: installation (equip. + land + comm. etc.)
CP: planned corrective
CR: repair
CO: operation
OC: outage
CD: decomm.

The First 1000 kV Underground
Transmission Line
Babusci et al - CIGRE paper 21-303,1994
(ENEL & Pirelli Cavi)
Three 600m lengths in Tuscany, SCOF type
design 1250 mm
2
Water cooled through adjacent pipes.
Power transfer through 2.4 GVA with water
cooling, up to 7 GVA if internal oil-cooling is
added.
Project initiated 20 years ago. At that time PPL
was not as well established, so Pirelli decided
to use paper, and the internal oil pressure is 1.3
mPa
The ends are terminated with one SF
6

immersed bushing and one outdoor
termination.
About 50% gain in a.c. dielectric strength if oil
pressure raised from 0.3 mPa to 1.3 mPa.
Impulse strength up by 10% both at room
temp. and at 90C.
Oil duct 40mm, insulation 35mm thick, outer
PE sheath dia. 155mm.
2.4 MV LI peak; 1.8 MV SS peak.
Part of a 1000 kV Pilot Plant.
Developmental Testing
Elec. - Mech. - Chemical
PD in spacers
VFTO Effects on Insulation
Mech. Vibration
Combined Elec./Mech. Stress in Spacers
Chemical Corrosion from SF
6
Arcing on
Spacers and Contact Surfaces
Particle Dynamics and Control
Transient Ground-rise Effects on Control
Wiring Insulation
INSULATION HAS TO BE DESIGNED FOR
LOW PROBABILITY BREAKDOWN
SPECIALLY UNDER VFTO
HF and optical techniques
Advances in nanotechnology for insulating
materials will have major impact on the design
of GIS
Bibliography
General Bibliography
1. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Gas Insulated Substations, 1985,
Toronto, Canada. Pergamon Press, UK, 1986.
2. IEEE Substations Committee Tutorial on GIS/GIL, 2004. Publication #03TP165,
USA.
3. Electric Power Substations Engineering, Editor John D. McDonald, Second Edition,
CRC Press, New York, USA, 2007.
4. Bibliography on Gas Insulated Substations, IEEE Substations Committee Report,
IEEE Transactions on Pwr. Apparatus & Systems, Vol. PAS-96, No. 4, pp. 1280-
1287, 1977.
5. Addendum I To Bibliography of Gas Insulated Substations, IEEE Substations
Committee Report, IEEE Transactions on Pwr. Delivery, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 1003-
1020, 1989.
6. Bibliography of Switchgear Literature, IEEE Committee Report, IEEE Transactions
on Pwr. Delivery, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 177-188, 1990.
Specific References
1. R. Kurrer, K. Feser, The Applications of Ultra High Frequency Partial Discharge
Measurements in Gas Insulated Substations, IEEE Trans. On Power Delivery, Vol.
PWRD-13, pp.893-905 July 1998.
2. J.S. Pearson, O. Farish et al, Partial Discharge Diagnostics for Gas Insulated
Substations, IEEE Trans. On Dielec. And Electrical Insulation, Vo. DEIS-2, pp. 893-
905, October 1995.
3. Diagnostic Methods for GIS Insulating Systems, Working Group 15.03, Paper
15/23-01, CIGRE Session 1992.
4. C.J. Jones, O. Beierl et al, Guidelines for Monitoring Control and Supervision of
GIS Incorporating Advanced Technologies, Paper 23-203, CIGRE Session 1996.
5. Bo H.E. Wahlstrom, Y. Aoshima et al, The Future Substation A Reflective
Approach, Paper 23-207, CIGRE Session 1996.
6. D. Allan, T. Blackburn et al, Recent Advances in Automated Insulation Monitoring
Systems, Diagnostic Techniques and Sensor Technology in Australia, Paper 15-101,
CIGRE Session 1998.
7. A. Kaczkowski, W. Knoth, Combined Sensors for Current and Voltage are Ready
for Application in GIS, Paper 12-106, CIGRE Session 1998.
8. M.D. Judd, O. Farish, B. Hampton, The Excitation of UHF Signals by Partial
Discharges in GIS, IEEE Trans. On Dielec. And Electrical Insulation, Vol. DEIS-3,
pp.213-228, April 1996.
9. T. Hasegawa, K. Yamaji et al, Development of Insulation Structures and
Enhancement of Insulation Reliability of 500 kV DC GIS, IEEE Trans. On Power
Delivery, Vol. PWRD-12, January 1997.
10. K.S. Prakash, K.D. Srivastava, M.M. Morcos, Movement of Particles in
Compressed SF
6
GIS with Dielectric Coated Enclosure, IEEE Trans. On Dielectric
and Electrical Insul., Vol. DEIS-4, June 1997.
11. J.M. Braun, G.L. Ford et al, Reliability of GIS Epoxy Insulators: the Need and
Prospects for More Stringent Acceptance Criteria, IEEE Trans. On Power Delivery,
Vol. PWRD-8, pp. 121-131, January 1993.
12. A. Hjortsberg, G. Homstrom, E. Osterlund, Current Transmission Systems for
HVDC Including a Solid Insulator Having a Surface Coating of Resin Containing
Chromium Oxide or Iron Oxide, US Patents #4, 688,142,18, August 1987.
13. M. Meguro, K. Katada et al, Compact GIS in Harmony with Environment and CAD
Evaluating System for 550 kV Substation Design, paper 23-202, CIGRE Session
1998.
14. W. Buesch, H.P. Dambach et al, Application of Partial Discharge Diagnostics in GIS
at On-Site Commissioning Tests, Paper 15-104, CIGRE Session 1998.
15. L.G. Christophorou, R.J. van Brunt, SF
6
/N
2
Mixtures: Basic and H.V. Insulation
Properties, IEEE Trans. On Dielectrics and Electrical Insul., Vol. DEIS-2, October
1995.
16. CIGRE WG 23.10, SF
6
and the Global Atmosphere, Electra, No. 164, February
1996.
Some Recent Publications of Interest
1. W. Xiomek, M. Reformat, E. Kuffel, Applications of Genetic Algorithms to Pattern
Recognition of Defects in GIS, IEEE Transactions on DEIS, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 161-
168, 2000.
2. C. Beyer, H. Jenett, D. Clockow, Influence of Reactive Sf
6
Gases on Electrode
Surfaces after Electric Discharges under SF6 Atmosphere, IEEE Transactions on
DEIS, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 234-240, 2000.
3. S. Tenbohlen, G. Schroder, Influence of Surface Charge on Lightning Impulse
Breakdown of Spacers in SF
6
, IEEE Transactions on DEIS, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 241-
246, 2000.
4. M.S. Indira, T. S. Ramu, Motion of Conducting Particles Causing Inadvertent
Outages in GIS, IEEE Transactions on DEIS, Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 247-253, 2000.
5. P. Maitly, S. Basu et al, Degradation of Polymer Dielectrics with Nanometric Metal
Oxide Fillers due to Surface Discharges, and Improvement of Surface Degradation
Properies of Polymer Composites due to Pre-processed Nanometric Alumina Filters,
IEEE Transactions on DEIS, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 52-62, and pp. 63-72, 2008.
6. S. Okabe, T. Yamagiwa, H. Okubo, Detection of Harmful Metallic Particles inside
Gas Insulated Switchgear using UHF Sensor, IEEE Transactions on DEIS, Vol. 15,
No. 3, pp. 701-709, 2008.