Trigonometry Handbook

Copyright20122013,EarlWhitney,RenoNV.
AllRightsReserved
MathHandbook
ofFormulas,ProcessesandTricks
Trigonometry
Preparedby:EarlL.Whitney,FSA,MAAA
Version1.03
October3,2013

Trigonometry Handbook

This is the initial work product that will eventually result in an extensive handbook on the
subject of Trigonometry. In its current form, the handbook covers many of the subjects
contained in a Trigonometry course, but is not exhaustive. In the meantime, we are hopeful
that this material will be helpful to the student. Revisions to this handbook will be provided on
www.mathguy.us as they become available.

-2-
Version 1.03 Copyright 2012-2013, Earl Whitney, Reno, NV. All Rights Reserved 10/03/2013
Page Description
Chapter1:FunctionsandSpecialAngles
6 Definitions
6 SOHCAHTOA
6 TrigFunctionsofSpecialAngles
7 TrigFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
8 TheUnitCircle
Chapter2:GraphsofTrigFunctions
9 GraphsofBasicTrigFunctions
Chapter3:InverseTrigonometricFunctions
10 Definitions
10 PrimaryValues
11 GraphsofInverseTrigFunctions
Chapter4:KeyAngleFormulas
12 AngleAdditionFormulas
12 DoubleAngleFormulas
12 HalfAngleFormulas
13 PowerReducingFormulas
13 ProducttoSumFormulas
13 SumtoProductFormulas
14 Cofunctions
14 LawofSines
14 LawofCosines
14 PythagoreanIdentities
Chapter5:SolvinganObliqueTriangle
15 SummaryofMethods
16 TheAmbiguousCase
18 FlowchartfortheAmbiguousCase
Chapter6:AreaofaTriangle
19 GeometryFormula
19 Heron'sFormula
20 TrigonometricFormulas
20 CoordinateGeometryFormula
Table of Contents
-3-
Table of Contents
Page Description
Chapter7:PolarCoordinates
21 Introduction
21 ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarCoordinates
22 ExpressingComplexNumbersinPolarForm
22 OperationsonComplexNumbersinPolarForm
23 DeMoivre'sTheorem
24 DeMoivre'sTheoremforRoots
Chapter8:GraphingPolarFunctions
25 Cardioid
26 Rose
Chapter9:Vectors
27 Introduction
27 SpecialUnitVectors
27 VectorComponents
28 VectorProperties
29 DotProduct
30 VectorProjection
30 OrthogonalComponentsofaVector
30 Work
31 Index
UsefulWebsites
http://www.mathguy.us/
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/
www.khanacademy.org
Mathguy.usDevelopedspecificallyformathstudentsfromMiddleSchooltoCollege,basedonthe
author'sextensiveexperienceinprofessionalmathematicsinabusinesssettingandinmathtutoring.
Containsfreedownloadablehandbooks,PCApps,sampletests,andmore.
WolframMathWorldPerhapsthepremiersiteformathematicsontheWeb.Thissitecontains
definitions,explanationsandexamplesforelementaryandadvancedmathtopics.
KhanAcademySuppliesafreeonlinecollectionofthousandsofmicrolecturesviaYouTubeon
numeroustopics.It'smathandsciencelibrariesareextensive.
-4-
Table of Contents
http://www.analyzemath.com/Trigonometry.html
SchaumsOutline
Note: This study guide was prepared to be a companion to most books on the subject of High
School Trigonometry. Precalculus (4th edition) by Robert Blitzer was used to determine some of the
subjects to include in this guide.
Animportantstudentresourceforanyhighschoolorcollegemathstudentis
aSchaumsOutline.Eachbookinthisseriesprovidesexplanationsofthe
varioustopicsinthecourseandasubstantialnumberofproblemsforthe
studenttotry.Manyoftheproblemsareworkedoutinthebook,sothe
studentcanseeexamplesofhowtheyshouldbesolved.
SchaumsOutlinesareavailableatAmazon.com,Barnes&Nobleandother
booksellers.
AnalyzeMathTrigonometryContainsfreeTrigonometrytutorialsandproblems.UsesJavaappletsto
exploreimportanttopicsinteractively.
-5-
Trigonometry
TrigFunctionsandSpecialAngles
TrigonometricFunctions

SpecialAngles

TrigFunctionsofSpecialAngles(6)
Radians Degrees stn0 us 0 tan0
0 0
2
=
4
2
= 1
4
=
a
,
30
1
2
=
1
2
3
2

1
3
=
3
3

a
4
,
45
2
2

2
2

2
2
= 1
a
3
,
60
3
2

1
2
=
1
2
3
1
= 3
a
2
,
90
4
2
= 1
2
=
undefined
SOHCAHTOA
sin =
oppostc
hpotcncusc
sinA =
u
c
sinB =
b
c
cos =
ud]uccnt
hpotcncusc
cos A =
b
c
cos B =
u
c
tan =
oppostc
ud]uccnt
tan A =
u
b
tanB =
b
u
-6-
Trigonometry
TrigonometricFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
InquadrantsotherthanQuadrantI,trigonometricvaluesforanglesarecalculatedinthefollowing
manner:
DrawtheangleontheCartesianPlane.
Calculatethemeasureoftheanglefromthex
axisto.
Findthevalueofthetrigonometricfunctionof
theangleinthepreviousstep.
Assigna+or-signtothetrigonometric
valuebasedonthefunctionusedandthe
quadrantisin.
Examples:

inQuadrantIICalculate:(18u - m0)
For0 = 12u,baseyourworkon18u - 12u = 6u
sin 6u =
3
2
,so:stn12 =
3
2
inQuadrantIIICalculate:(m0 - 18u)
For0 = 21u,baseyourworkon21u - 18u = Su
cos Su =
3
2
,so:us 21 = -
3
2

inQuadrantIVCalculate:(S6u - m0)
For0 = S1S,baseyourworkonS6u - S1S = 4S
tan 4S =1,so:tan315 = -1
-7-
Trigonometry
TheUnitCircle
TheUnitCirclediagrambelowprovidesxandyvaluesonacircleofradius1atkeyangles.Atany
pointontheunitcircle,thexcoordinateisequaltothecosineoftheangleandtheycoordinateis
equaltothesineoftheangle.Usingthisdiagram,itiseasytoidentifythesinesandcosinesofangles
thatrecurfrequentlyinthestudyofTrigonometry.

-8-
Thesineandcosecantfunctionsarereciprocals.So:
sin 0 =
1
csc 0
anu csc 0 =
1
sin0
Thecosineandsecantfunctionsarereciprocals.So:
cos 0 =
1
sec 0
anu sec 0 =
1
cos 0
Thetangentandcotangentfunctionsarereciprocals.So:
tan 0 =
1
cot 0
anu cot 0 =
1
tan 0
Trigonometry
GraphsofBasicTrigonometricFunctions

-9-
Trigonometry
InverseTrigonometricFunctions
Inversetrigonometricfunctionsaskthequestion:whichangle0hasafunctionvalueof x?Forexample:
0 = sin
-1
(u.S)askswhichanglehasasinevalueof0.5.Itisequivalentto:sin0 = u.S.
0 = tan
-1
1askswhichanglehasatangentvalueof1.Itisequivalentto:tan0 = 1.
PrimaryValuesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Thereareaninfinitenumberofanglesthatanswerthesequestions.
So,mathematicianshavedefinedaprimarysolutionforproblems
involvinginversetrigonometricfunctions.Theanglewhichisthe
primarysolution(orprimaryvalue)isdefinedtobethesolutionthat
liesinthequadrantsidentifiedinthefigureatright.Forexample:
Thesolutionsto0 = sin
-1
u.S arex ](
n
6
+2nn) (
5n
6
+
2nn).Thatis,thesetofallsolutionstothisequationcontainsthe
twosolutionsintheinterval|u, 2n),aswellasallanglesthatare
integermultiplesof2nlessorgreaterthanthosetwoangles.
Giventheconfusionthiscancreate,mathematiciansdefineda
primaryvalueforthesolutiontothesekindsofequations.
Theprimaryvalueof0 forwhich0 = sin
-1
u. liesinQ1because0.5ispositive,andis0 =
n
6
. S
RangesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Therangesoftheinversetrigonometric
functionsaretherangesoftheprimaryvalues
ofthosefunctions.Atablesummarizingthese
isprovidedinthetableatright.
AnglesinQ4aregenerallyexpressedas
negativeangles.
RangesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
Function Range
sin
-1
0 -
n
2
0
n
2
cos
-1
0 u 0 n
tan
-1
0 -
n
2
0
n
2
-10-
Trigonometry
GraphsofInverseTrigonometricFunctions

-11-
Trigonometry
KeyAngleFormulas
AngleAdditionFormulas
sin (o +[) = sino cos [ + sin[ cos o cos (o +[) = cos o cos [ - sino sin[
sin (o -[) = sino cos [ - sin[ cos o cos (o -[) = cos o cos [ + sino sin[
tan (o +[) =
tanu + tan[
1 - tanu tan[
tan (o -[) =
tanu - tan[
1 + tanu tan[
DoubleAngleFormulas
sin 20 = 2 sin0 cos 0 cos 20 = cos

2
0 -sin
2
0
= 1 -2 sin
2
0
= 2 cos
2
0 -1
tan 20 =
2 tan0
1 - tan
2
0
HalfAngleFormulas
sin
0
2
= __
1 - cos 0
2

cos
0
2
= __
1 + cos 0
2

tan
0
2
= __
1 - cos 0
1 + cos 0
=
1 - cos 0
sIn0

=
sIn0
1+ cos 0

Theuseofa+orsigninthehalfangle
formulasdependsonthequadrantinwhich
theangle
0
2
resides.Seechartbelow.
SignsofTrigFunctions
ByQuadrant
sin+ sin+
cos cos+
tan tan+
sin sin
cos cos+
tan+ tan
y
x
-12-
Trigonometry
KeyAngleFormulas(contd)
PowerReducingFormulas
sin
2
0 =
1 - cos 20
2
cos
2
0 =
1 + cos 20
2

tan
2
0 =
1 - cos 20
1 + cos 20
ProducttoSumFormulas
stnu stn =
1
2
| us(u -) - us(u +) ]
us u us =
1
2
| us(u -) + us(u +) ]
stnu us =
1
2
| stn(u +) + stn(u -) ]
us u stn =
1
2
| stn(u +) - stn(u -) ]
SumtoProductFormulas
stnu + stn = 2 stn_
u +
2
] us _
u -
2
]
stnu - stn = 2 stn_
u -
2
] us _
u +
2
]
us u + us = 2 us _
u +
2
] us _
u -
2
]
us u - us = -2 stn_
u +
2
] stn_
u -
2
]

-13-
Trigonometry
KeyAngleFormulas(contd)
Cofunctions
EachtrigonometricfunctionhasacofunctionwithsymmetricpropertiesinQuadrantI.Thefollowing
identitiesexpresstherelationshipsbetweencofunctions.
sin0 = cos(9u -0) cos 0 = sin(9u -0)
tan0 = cot(9u -0) cot 0 = tan(9u -0)
sec 0 = csc(9u -0) csc 0 = sec(9u -0)
LawofSines(seeaboveillustration)
u
sIn A
=
b
sIn B
=
c
sIn C
PythagoreanIdentities(foranyangle)
sin
2
0 + cos
2
0 = 1
sec
2
0 = 1 + tan
2
0
csc
2
0 = 1 + cot
2
0

C
c b
a
A
B
LawofCosines(seeaboveillustration)
o
2
= b
2
+ c
2
- 2bc cos A
b
2
= o
2
+ c
2
- 2oc cos B
c
2
= o
2
+ b
2
- 2ob cos C
-14-
Trigonometry
SolvinganObliqueTriangle
Severalmethodsexisttosolveanobliquetriangle,i.e.,atrianglewithnorightangle.Theappropriate
methoddependsontheinformationavailableforthetriangle.Allmethodsrequirethatthelengthof
atleastonesidebeprovided.Inaddition,oneortwoanglemeasuresmaybeprovided.Notethatif
twoanglemeasuresareprovided,themeasureofthethirdisdetermined(becausethesumofall
threeanglemeasuresmustbe18u).Themethodsusedforeachsituationaresummarizedbelow.
GivenThreeSidesandnoAngles(SSS)
Giventhreesegmentlengthsandnoanglemeasures,dothefollowing:
UsetheLawofCosinestodeterminethemeasureofoneangle.
UsetheLawofSinestodeterminethemeasureofoneofthetworemainingangles.
Subtractthesumofthemeasuresofthetwoknownanglesfrom18utoobtainthemeasure
oftheremainingangle.
GivenTwoSidesandtheAnglebetweenThem(SAS)
Giventwosegmentlengthsandthemeasureoftheanglethatisbetweenthem,dothefollowing:
UsetheLawofCosinestodeterminethelengthoftheremainingleg.
UsetheLawofSinestodeterminethemeasureofoneofthetworemainingangles.
GivenOneSideandTwoAngles(ASAorAAS)
Givenonesegmentlengthandthemeasuresoftwoangles,dothefollowing:
UsetheLawofSinestodeterminethelengthsofthetworemaininglegs.
GivenTwoSidesandanAnglenotbetweenThem(SSA)
ThisistheAmbiguousCase.Severalpossibilitiesexist,dependingonthelengthsofthesidesandthe
measureoftheangle.Thepossibilitiesarediscussedonthenextseveralpages.

-15-
Trigonometry
SolvinganObliqueTriangle(contd)
TheAmbiguousCase(SSA)
Giventwosegmentlengthsandananglethatisnotbetweenthem,itisnotclearwhetheratriangleis
defined.Itispossiblethatthegiveninformationwilldefineasingletriangle,twotriangles,orevenno
triangle.Becausetherearemultiplepossibilitiesinthissituation,itiscalledtheambiguouscase.
Herearethepossibilities:
Therearethreecasesinwhicha < h.
Case1:a < hstnA Producesnotrianglebecauseoisnotlongenoughtoreachthebase.
Case2:a = hstnA Producesone(right)trianglebecauseoisexactlylongenoughtoreachthe
base.oformsarightanglewiththebase,andistheheightofthetriangle.
Case3:a > hstnA Producestwotrianglesbecauseoistherightsizetoreachthebaseintwo
places.Theanglefromwhichoswingsfromitsapexcantaketwovalues.
Thereisonlyonecaseinwhicha h.
Case4:a h Producesonetrianglebecauseoisnotlongenoughtoreachthebase.
-16-
Trigonometry
SolvingaTriangle(contd)
SolvingtheAmbiguousCase(SSA)
Howdoyousolvethetriangleineachofthecasesdiscussedabove.Assumetheinformationgivenis
thelengthsofsidesoandb,andthemeasureofAngleA.Usethefollowingsteps:
Step1:Calculatethesineofthemissingangle(inthisdevelopment,angleB).
Step2:ConsiderthevalueofsinB:
IfsinB > 1,thenwehaveCase1thereisnotriangle.Stophere.
IfsinB = 1,thenB = 9u,andwehaveCase2arighttriangle.ProceedtoStep4.
IfsinB < 1,thenwehaveCase3orCase4.Proceedtothenextsteptodeterminewhich.

Step3:Considerwhethero > b.
Ifo < b,thenwehaveCase3twotriangles.CalculatethevaluesofeachangleB,usingthe
LawofSines.Then,proceedtoStep4andcalculatetheremainingvaluesforeachtriangle.
Ifo b,thenwehavecase4onetriangle.ProceedtoStep4.

o
sin A
=
b
sin B
Step1:Use
-17-
Trigonometry
SolvinganObliqueTriangle(contd)
SolvingtheAmbiguousCase(SSA)contd
Step4:CalculateC.Atthispoint,wehavethelengthsofsidesoandb,andthemeasuresofAnglesA
andB.IfwearedealingwithCase3twotriangles,wemustperformSteps4and5foreachangle.
Step4istocalculatethemeasureofAngleCasfollows: c = 18u -A -B
Step5:Calculatec.Finally,wecalculatethevalueofcusingtheLawofSines.Notethatinthecase
wheretherearetwotriangles,thereisanAngleBineach.So,theLawofSinesshouldbeused
relatingAnglesBandC.
b
sinB
=
c
sinC

c =
b sinC
sinB

AmbiguousCaseFlowchart

no
yes
Two tiiangles
Calculate C, anu then c.
Steps 4 anu S, above
Stait Beie
> 1
= 1
< 1
Is o > b.
sinB
value of
-18-
Trigonometry
AreaofaTriangle
AreaofaTriangle
Therearetwoformulasfortheareaofatriangle,dependingonwhatinformationaboutthetriangle
isavailable.
Formula1:Theformulamostfamiliartothestudentcanbeusedwhenthebaseandheightofthe
triangleareeitherknownorcanbedetermined.
A =
1
2
hh
where, bisthelengthofthebaseofthetriangle.
bistheheightofthetriangle.
Note:Thebasecanbeanysideofthetriangle.Theheightisthemeasureofthealtitudeof
whicheversideisselectedasthebase.So,youcanuse:
or or
Formula2:Heronsformulafortheareaofatrianglecanbeusedwhen
thelengthsofallofthesidesareknown.Sometimesthisformula,though
lessappealing,canbeveryuseful.
A = x(x -a)(x -h)(x -c)
where, x =
1
2
P =
1
2
(a +h +c). Note: sissometimescalledthesemiperimeterofthetriangle.
a, h, carethelengthsofthesidesofthetriangle.

-19-
Trigonometry
AreaofaTriangle(contd)
TrigonometricFormulas
Thefollowingformulasfortheareaofatrianglecomefromtrigonometry.Whichoneisused
dependsontheinformationavailable:
Twoanglesandaside:
A =
1
2

a
2
stnB stnC
stnA
=
1
2
h
2
stnA stnC
stnB
=
1
2
c
2
stnA stnB
stnC

Twosidesandanangle:
A =
1
2
ah stnC =
1
2
ac stnB =
1
2
hc stnA
CoordinateGeometry
Ifthethreeverticesofatrianglearedisplayedinacoordinateplane,theformulabelow,usinga
determinant,willgivetheareaofatriangle.
Letthethreepointsinthecoordinateplanebe:(x
1
, y
1
), (x
2
, y
2
), (x
3
, y
3
).Then,theareaofthe
triangleisonehalfoftheabsolutevalueofthedeterminantbelow:
A =
1
2
_ _
x
1
y
1
1
x
2
y
2
1
x
3
y
3
1
_ _
Example:Forthetriangleinthefigureatright,theareais:
A =
1
2
_ _
2 4 1
-3 2 1
3 -1 1
_ _
=
1
2
[2
2 1
-1 1
-4
-3 1
3 1
+
-3 2
3 -1
=
1
2
27 =
27
2

-20-
Trigonometry
PolarCoordinates
PolarcoordinatesareanalternativemethodofdescribingapointinaCartesianplanebasedonthe
distanceofthepointfromtheoriginandtheanglewhoseterminalsidecontainsthepoint.First,lets
investigatetherelationshipbetweenapointsrectangularcoordinates(x, y)anditspolar
coordinates(p, 0).
Themagnitude,, isthedistanceofthepointfromthe
origin: r = x
2
+y
2

Theangle,,istheanglethelinefromthepointtothe
originmakeswiththepositiveportionofthexaxis.
Generally,thisangleisexpressedinradians,notdegrees.
tan0 =

x
oi 0 = tan
-1
[
Conversionfrompolarcoordinatestorectangularcoordinatesisstraightforward:
x = r cos 0andy = r sin0
Example1:Expresstherectangularform(4,4)inpolarcoordinates:
Given:x = -4 y = 4
r = x
2
+y
2
= (-4)
2
+4
2
= 42
0 = tan
-1
[
x
= tan
-1
[
4
-4
= tan
-1
(-1)inQuadrantII, so 0 =
3n
4

So,thecoordinatesofthepointareasfollows:
Rectangularcoordinates:(-4, 4) PolarCoordinates:(42,
3n
4
)
Example2:Expressthepolarform(42,
3n
4
)inrectangularcoordinates:
Given:r = 42 0 =
3n
4

x = r cos 0 = 42 cos
3n
4
= 42 [-
2
2
= -4
y = r sin0 = 42 sin
3n
4
= 42 [
2
2
= 4
So,thecoordinatesofthepointareasfollows:
PolarCoordinates:(42,
3n
4
) Rectangularcoordinates:(-4, 4)

-21-
Trigonometry
PolarCoordinates(contd)
ExpressingComplexNumbersinPolarForm
AcomplexnumbercanberepresentedaspointintheCartesianPlane,usingthehorizontalaxisfor
therealcomponentofthenumberandtheverticalaxisfortheimaginarycomponentofthenumber.
Ifweexpressacomplexnumberinrectangularcoordinatesasz = o +bi,wecanalsoexpressitin
polarcoordinatesasz = r(cos 0 +i sin0),with0 |u, 2n).Then,theequivalencesbetweenthe
twoformsforzare:
ConvertRectangulartoPolar ConvertPolartoRectangular
Magnitude:|z| = r = o
2
+b
2
xcoordinate:o = r cos 0
Angle:0 = tan
-1
[
b
u
ycoordinate:b = r sin0
Since0willgenerallyhavetwovalueson|u, 2n),youneedtobecarefultoselecttheangleinthe
quadrantinwhichz = o +biresides.
OperationsonComplexNumbersinPolarForm
Anotherexpressionthatmaybeusefulis:c
0
= cos 0 +i sin0,acomplexnumbercanbeexpressed
asanexponentialformofc.Thatis:
z = o +bi = r(cos 0 +i sin0) = r c
0
Itisthisexpressionthatisresponsibleforthefollowingrulesregardingoperationsoncomplex
numbers.Let: z
1
= o
1
+b
1
i = r
1
(cos 0 +i sin0), z
2
= o
2
+b
2
i = r
2
(cos +i sin).Then,
Multiplication: z
1
z
2
= r
1
r
2
|cos (0 +) + i sin(0 +)]
So,tomultiplycomplexnumbers,youmultiplytheirmagnitudesandaddtheirangles.
Division: z
1
z
2
=

1
2
|cos (0 -) + i sin(0 -)]
So,todividecomplexnumbers,youdividetheirmagnitudesandsubtracttheirangles.
Powers: z
1
n
= r
1
n
(cos n0 +i sinn0)
Thisresultsdirectlyfromthemultiplicationrule.
Roots:
z
1
n
=

r
1
n
[cos
0
n
+i sin
0
n
also,seeDeMoivresTheorembelow
Thisresultsdirectlyfromthepowerruleiftheexponentisafraction.
-22-
Trigonometry
DeMoivresTheorem
AbrahamdeMoivre(16671754)wasaFrenchmathematicianwhoprovideduswithaveryuseful
Theoremfordealingwithoperationsoncomplexnumbers.
Ifweletz = r(cos 0 +i sin0),DeMoivresTheoremgivesusthepowerruleexpressedontheprior
page:
z
n
= r
n
(cos n0 +i sinn0)
Example1:Find(-S +i7)
6
First,sincez = o +bi,wehaveo = -Sandb = 7.

Then,r =
_
(-S)
2
+(7)
2
= 4;r
6
= 4
6
= 4,u96
And,0 = tan
-1
[-
7
3
= 1S8.S9uinQ II
60 = 8S1.S42 ~ 111.S42
So,
(-S +i7)
6
= 4,u96 |cos(111.S42) + i sin(111.S42)]
= -1,Su4.u + S,8u9.9i
Example2:Find(-S -2i)
5
First,sincez = o +bi,wehaveo = -2andb = 7.

Then,r =
_
(-S)
2
+(-2)
2
= S;r
5
= S
5
= 24S
And,0 = tan
-1
[
2
5
= 221.81uinQIII
S0 = 1,1u9.uS2 ~ 29.uS2
So,
(-S -2i)
5
= 24S |cos(29.uS2) + i sin(29.uS2)]
= 212.4 + 118.ui

-23-
Trigonometry
DeMoivresTheoremforRoots
Letz = r(cos 0 +i sin0).Then,zhasndistinctcomplexnthrootsthatoccupypositions
equidistantfromeachotheronacircleofradius r
n
.Letscalltheroots:z
1
, z
2
, , z
n
Then,these
rootscanbecalculatedasfollows:
z
k
= r
n
_ cos _
0 + k(2n)
n
] + i sin_
0 + k(2n)
n
] _
Theformulacouldalsoberestatedwith2nreplacedbyS6uifthishelpsinthecalculation.
Example:Findthefifthrootsof2 - 3|.
First,sincez = o + bi,wehaveo = 2andb = -S.
Then,r = 2
2
+ (-S)
2
= 1S; r
S
= 1S
10
~ 1.2924
And,0 = tan
-1
[-
3
2
= -S6.S1u;
0
5
= -11.262
Theincrementalangleforsuccessiverootsis:S6u S ioots = 72.
Thencreateachartlikethis:
Fifthrootsof(2 - 3|) r
5
= 13
1
~ 1. 2924
0
5
= -11. 22
k Angle(0
k
) z
k
=
r
n
us 0
k
+ r
n
stn0
k
|
u -11.262 z
0
= 1.267S - u.2S24 i
1 -11.262 + 72 = 6u.7S8 z
1
= u.6S17 + 1.127S i
2 6u.7S8 +72 = 1S2.7S8 z
2
= -u.8771 + u.9492 i
S 1S2.7S8 +72 = 2u4.7S8 z
3
= -1.17S8 - u.S4u8 i
4 2u4.7S8 +72 = 276.7S8 z
4
= u.1S16 - 1.28SS i
Noticethatifweaddanother72,wegetS48.7S8,whichisequivalenttoourfirstangle,
-11.262because S48.7S8 - S6u = -11.262.Thisisagoodthingtocheck.Thenext
anglewillalwaysbeequivalenttothefirstangle!Ifitisnt,gobackandcheckyourwork.
Rootsfitonacircle:Noticethat,sincealloftherootsof2 -3|
havethesamemagnitude,andtheiranglesthatare72apartfrom
eachother,thattheyoccupyequidistantpositionsonacirclewith
center(u, u) andradius r
S
= 1S
10
~ 1.2924.
-24-
Trigonometry
GraphingPolarEquationsTheCardioid
Example:r = 2 +2stn6
Thiscardioidisalsoalimaonofformr = o +b sin0witho = b.Theuseofthesinefunction
indicatesthatthelargeloopwillbesymmetricabouttheyaxis.The+signindicatesthatthelarge
loopwillbeabovethexaxis.Letscreateatableofvaluesandgraphtheequation:

ThefourCardioidforms:
r = 2 +2stn0
0 r 0 r
u 2
n6 S 76 1
nS S.7S2 4S u.268
n2 4 S2 u
2nS S.7S2 SnS u.268
Sn6 S 11n6 1
n 2 2n 2
Oncesymmetryis
established,thesevalues
areeasilydetermined.
Generally,youwanttolookat
valuesof0in|u, 2n].However,
somefunctionsrequirelarger
intervals.Thesizeoftheinterval
dependslargelyonthenatureofthe
functionandthecoefficientof0.
Orangepointsonthe
graphcorrespondto
orangevaluesinthetable.
Bluepointsonthegraph
correspondtobluevalues
inthetable.
Theportionofthegraph
abovethexaxisresults
from0inQ1andQ1,
wherethesinefunctionis
positive.
Similarly,theportionof
thegraphbelowthexaxis
resultsfrom0inQ3and
Q4,wherethesine
functionisnegative.
-25-
Trigonometry
GraphingPolarEquationsTheRose
Example:r = 4stn26
Thisfunctionisarose.Considertheformsr = o sinbandr = o cos b.
Thenumberofpetalsontherosedependsonthevalueofb.
Ifbisaneveninteger,therosewillhave2bpetals.
Ifbisanoddinteger,itwillhavebpetals.
Letscreateatableofvaluesandgraphtheequation:

ThefourRoseforms:
r = 4stn20
0 r 0 r
u u
n12 2 712 -2
n6 S.464 2S -S.464
n4 4 S4 4
nS S.464 Sn6 -S.464
Sn12 2 11n12 -2
n2 u n u
Oncesymmetryis
established,thesevalues
areeasilydetermined.
Becausethisfunctioninvolvesan
argumentof2,wewanttostartby
lookingatvaluesofin|u, 2n]
2 = |u, n].Youcouldplotmore
points,butthisintervalissufficient
toestablishthenatureofthecurve;
soyoucangraphtheresteasily.
Orangepointsonthe
graphcorrespondto
orangevaluesinthetable.
Bluepointsonthegraph
correspondtobluevalues
inthetable.
Thevaluesinthetable
generatethepointsinthe
twopetalsrightoftheyaxis.
Knowingthatthecurveisa
roseallowsustographthe
othertwopetalswithout
calculatingmorepoints.
-26-
Trigonometry
Vectors
Avectorisaquantitythathasbothmagnitudeanddirection.Anexamplewouldbewindblowing
towardtheeastat30milesperhour.Anotherexamplewouldbetheforceof10kgweightbeing
pulledtowardtheearth(aforceyoucanfeelifyouareholdingtheweight).
SpecialUnitVectors
Wedefineunitvectorstobevectorsoflength1.Unitvectorshavingthedirectionofthepositive
axeswillbequiteusefultous.Theyaredescribedinthechartandgraphicbelow.
UnitVector Direction
t positivexaxis
| positiveyaxis
h positivezaxis
VectorComponents
Thelengthofavector,v,iscalleditsmagnitudeandisrepresentedbythesymbolv.Ifavectors
initialpoint(startingposition)is(x
1
, y
1
),anditsterminalpoint(endingposition)is(x
2
, y
2
),thenthe
vectordisplaceso = x
2
-x
1
inthexdirectionanddisplacesb = y
2
-y
1
intheydirection.We
can,then,representthevectorasfollows:
v = ot +b|
Themagnitudeofthevector,v,iscalculatedas:
v = o
2
+b
2
Ifthislooksfamiliar,itshould.Themagnitudeofavectorisdeterminedasthelengthofthe
hypotenuseofatrianglewithsidesoandbusingthePythagoreanTheorem.
Inthreedimensions,teseconceptsexpandtothefollowing:
v = ot +b| +ch
v = o
2
+b
2
+c
2
Similarly,vectorscanbeexpandedtoanynumberofdimensions.
Graphical
representationof
unitvectorstandj
intwodimensions.
-27-
Trigonometry
VectorProperties
Vectorshaveanumberofnicepropertiesthatmakeworkingwiththembothusefulandrelatively
simple.Letmandnbescalars,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
Ifv = ot +b|,theno = v cos 0andb = v sin0
Then,v = v cos 0 t + v sin0 | (note:thisformulaisusedinForcecalculations)
Ifu = o
1
t +b
1
|andv = o
2
t +b
2
|,thenu +v = (o
1
+o
2
)t +(b
1
+b
2
)|
Ifv = ot +b|,thenmv = (mo)t +(mb)|
Definetobethezerovector(i.e.,ithaszerolength,sothato = b = u).Note:thezero
vectorisalsocalledthenullvector.
Note:v = ot +b|canalsobeshownwiththefollowingnotation:v = o, b.Thisnotationwillbe
usefulincalculatingdotproductsandperformingoperationswithvectors.
PropertiesofVectors
+v = v + = v AdditiveIdentity
v +(-v) = (-v) +v = AdditiveInverse
u +v = v +u CommutativeProperty
u +(v +w) = (u +v) +w AssociativeProperty
m(nu) = (mn)u AssociativeProperty
m(u +u) = mu +mu DistributiveProperty
(m +n)u = mu +nu DistributiveProperty
1(v) = v MultiplicativeIdentity
Also,notethat:
mv = |m| v MagnitudeProperty

v
v
Unitvectorinthedirectionofv
-28-
General Example
o
1
, b
1
4, -S
o
2
, b
2
2, -2
o
1
o
2
+b
1
b
2
8 +6 = 14
alternative
vector
notation
Trigonometry
VectorDotProduct
TheDotProductoftwovectors,u = o
1
t +b
1
|andv = o
2
t +b
2
|,isdefinedasfollows:
u v = (o
1
o
2
) +(b
1
b
2
)
Itisimportanttonotethatthedotproductisascalar,notavector.Itdescribessomethingaboutthe
relationshipbetweentwovectors,butisnotavectoritself.Ausefulapproachtocalculatingthedot
productoftwovectorsisillustratedhere:
u = o
1
t +b
1
| = o
1
, b
1
v = o
2
t +b
2
| = o
2
, b
2
Takealookattheexampleatright.Noticethatthe
twovectorsarelinedupvertically.Thenumbersin
theeachcolumnaremultipliedandtheresultsare
addedtogetthedotproduct.Sointhisexample,4, -S 2, -2 = 14.
PropertiesoftheDotProduct
Letmbeascalar,andletu,v andwbevectors.Then,
v = v = u ZeroProperty
t | = | t = u ThesamepropertyholdsinSBforanypairoft, |, andh
u v = v u CommutativeProperty
v v = v
2
MagnitudeSquareProperty
u (v +w) = (u v) +(u w) DistributiveProperty
m(u v) = (mu) v = u (mv) MultiplicationbyaScalarProperty
Moreproperties:
Ifu v = uandu = andv = ,thenuandvareorthogonal(perpendicular).
Ifthereisascalarmsuchthatmu = v,thenuandvareparallel.
If0istheanglebetweenuandv,thencos 0 =
u v
u v
-29-
Trigonometry
VectorDotProduct(contd)
VectorProjection
Theprojectionofavector,v,ontoanothervectorw,isobtainedusingthedotproduct.Theformula
usedtodeterminetheprojectionvectoris:
pioj
w
v =
v w
w
2
w
Noticethat
v w
w
2
isascalar,andthatpioj
w
visavector.
Inthediagramatright,v
1
= pioj
w
v.
OrthogonalComponentsofaVector
Avector,v,canbeexpressedasthesumoftwoorthogonalvectorsv
1
andv
2
,asshownintheabove
diagram.Theresultingvectorsare:
v
1
= pioj
w
v =
v w
w
2
w and v
2
= v - v
1
Work
Workisascalarquantityinphysicsthatmeasurestheforceexertedonanobjectoveraparticular
distance.Itisdefinedusingvectors,asshownbelow.Let:
Fbetheforcevectoractingonanobject,movingitfrompointAtopointB.
AB
bethevectorfromAtoB.
0betheanglebetweenFandAB
.
Then,wedefineworkas:
w = F AB

w = F [AB
[ cos 0
v
v
1
w

v
2
Bothoftheseformulasareuseful.
Whichoneyouuseinaparticular
situationdependsonwhat
informationisavailable.
-30-
Trigonometry
VectorDotProduct(contd)
VectorProjection
Theprojectionofavector,v,ontoanothervectorw,isobtainedusingthedotproduct.Theformula
usedtodeterminetheprojectionvectoris:
pioj
w
v =
v w
w
2
w
Noticethat
v w
w
2
isascalar,andthatpioj
w
visavector.
Inthediagramatright,v
1
= pioj
w
v.
OrthogonalComponentsofaVector
Avector,v,canbeexpressedasthesumoftwoorthogonalvectorsv
1
andv
2
,asshownintheabove
diagram.Theresultingvectorsare:
v
1
= pioj
w
v =
v w
w
2
w and v
2
= v - v
1
Work
Workisascalarquantityinphysicsthatmeasurestheforceexertedonanobjectoveraparticular
distance.Itisdefinedusingvectors,asshownbelow.Let:
Fbetheforcevectoractingonanobject,movingitfrompointAtopointB.
AB
bethevectorfromAtoB.
0betheanglebetweenFandAB
.
Then,wedefineworkas:
w = F AB

w = F [AB
[ cos 0
v
v
1
w

v
2
Bothoftheseformulasareuseful.
Whichoneyouuseinaparticular
situationdependsonwhat
informationisavailable.
-31-
Page Subject
16 AmbiguousCaseforObliqueTriangles
18 AmbiguousCaseforObliqueTrianglesFlowchart
12 AngleAdditionFormulas
AreaofaTriangle
19 GeometryFormula
19 Heron'sFormula
20 TrigonometricFormulas
20 CoordinateGeometryFormula
25 Cardioid
14 Cofunctions
22 ComplexNumbersOperationsinPolarForm
22 ComplexNumbersinPolarForm
27 ComponentsofVectors
27 ConversionbetweenRectangularandPolarCoordinates
6 CosecantFunction
6 CosineFunction
6 CotangentFunction
6 DefinitionsofTrigFunctions
23 DeMoivre'sTheorem
24 DeMoivre'sTheoremforRoots
29 DotProduct
12 DoubleAngleFormulas
9 GraphsofBasicTrigFunctions
12 HalfAngleFormulas
19 Heron'sFormula
10 Definitions
11 Graphs
10 PrimaryValues
10 Ranges
14 LawofCosines
14 LawofSines
15 ObliqueTriangleMethodstoSolve
22 OperationsonComplexNumbersinPolarForm
21 PolarCoordinates
22 PolarformofComplexNumbersinPolarForm
Index
-32-
Page Subject
Index
21 PolartoRectangularCoordinateConversion
13 PowerReducingFormulas
10 PrimaryValuesofInverseTrigonometricFunctions
13 ProducttoSumFormulas
30 ProjectionofOneVectorontoAnother
28 PropertiesofVectors
14 PythagoreanIdentities
28 RectangulartoPolarCoordinateConversion
26 Rose
6 SecantFunction
6 SineFunction
6 SOHCAHTOA
13 SumtoProductFormulas
6 TangentFunction
7 TrigFunctionValuesinQuadrantsII,III,andIV
6 TrigFunctionsofSpecialAngles
8 UnitCircle
27 UnitVectorsiandj
27 Vectors
30 SpecialUnitVectorsi andj
27 VectorComponents
28 VectorProperties
29 DotProduct
30 VectorProjection
30 Work
-33-

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Copyright20122013,EarlWhitney,RenoNV.

sin 20 = 2 sin0 cos 0 cos 20 = cos

IfsinB = 1,thenB = 9u,andwehaveCase2arighttriangle.ProceedtoStep4.

IfsinB < 1,thenwehaveCase3orCase4.Proceedtothenextsteptodeterminewhich.

First,sincez = o +bi,wehaveo = -Sandb = 7.

First,sincez = o +bi,wehaveo = -2andb = 7.

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