Paper No.

498
CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR
TWO-LANE ROADS UNDER MIXED TRAFFIC
CONDITIONS
+
By
DR. SATISH CHANDRA*
CONTENTS
Page
1. Introduction ... ... 139
2. Objectives of Research ... ... 140
3. Background Literature ... ... 140
4. Data Collection and Research Methodology ... ... 142
5. Analysis of Data ... ... 146
6. Method of Capacity Estimation ... ... 166
SYNOPSIS
Data collected at more than 40 sections of two-lane roads in different parts
of the country are analysed. The effect of influencing parameters like gradient, lane
width, shoulder width, traffic composition, directional split, slow moving vehicles
and pavement surface conditions, on capacity of two-lane roads under mixed traffic
conditions is evaluated and adjustment factors for each of these conditions are
proposed. Based on these adjustment factors, a systematic procedure to evaluate
capacity of a two-lane road under mixed traffic conditions is presented in this paper.
1. INTRODUCTION
Two-lane highways compose the predominant portion of most National
and State Highway system in the country. Two-third length of National
Highways and more than 50 per cent length of State Highways is still
two-lane wide. Traffic operation on a two-lane two-way highway is unique.
Lane changing and overtaking are possible only in the face of on-coming
traffic in the opposing lane. The overtaking demand increases rapidly as
traffic volume increases, while passing opportunities in the opposing
139
+
Written comments on this Paper are invited and will be received upto 31st
December, 2004
* Associ at e Professor, Depart ment of Ci vi l Engi neeri ng, Indi an Inst i t ut e of
Technology, Roorkee-247 667
DR. CHANDRA ON 140
lane decline as volume increases. Therefore, flow in one direction influences
flow in the other direction. The problem is more acute in case of mixed
traffic flow when speed differential among different categories of vehicles
is quite substantial. It increases the desired number of overtaking
considerably with limited opportunities to overtake.
Prediction and knowledge of capacity is fundamental in design,
planning, operation and layout of road network sections. Roadway factors
that influence capacity of a two-lane road include lane width, gradient,
lateral clearance, width and type of shoulder. Lane and shoulder width
can have a significant impact on traffic flow. Narrow lanes cause vehicles
to travel closer to each other laterally by slowing down or by observing
large longitudinal gaps for a given speed. This effectively reduces the
capacity. Important traffic conditions that affect capacity of a two-lane
road are composition of traffic stream, directional split and presence of
slow moving vehicles in the stream. Environmental conditions such as
wet pavement or snow and ice conditions, rain, darkness, fog, parking
regulation affect the driver performance and hence capacity. There are
indications that wet or icy pavement can reduce capacity by 5-15
per cent
25
.
2. OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The present study was undertaken with the following objectives:
(i) To analyze traffic flow data collected on two-lane roads varying
in roadway and traffic conditions.
(ii) To study the effect of influencing parameters like gradient,
lane width, shoulder width, traffic composition, directional
split and pavement surface roughness on capacity of two-lane
roads under mixed traffic conditions.
(iii) To estimate adjustment factors for each parameter analyzed in
the present study.
(iv) To evolve a systematic procedure to determine capacity of a
two-lane road under mixed traffic conditions.
3. BACKGROUND LITERATURE
Taragin and Eckhardt (1953)
23
studied the effect of shoulder on
speed and lateral placement of motor vehicles and found that when two-
lane pavements on main highways are 6 m in width or less, shoulders
should be constructed with at least 1.2 m of stabilized material, adjacent
to pavement plus additional width of grass and gravel. Leong (1978)
16
measured speeds and capacity at 31 sites on rural highways in New
South Wales. The sites had varying lane and shoulder width and all sites
CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR TWO-LANE ROADS UNDER MIXED
TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
141
had gravel shoulders. The data were analyzed using multiple regression
and it was suggested that speed increased with increasing shoulder
width. Prakash (1970)
18
also observed that the highway capacity is
considerably influenced by the type and width of shoulder. Farouki and
Nixon (1976)
8
studied the effect of carriageway width on speed of cars
in the special case of free-flow conditions in sub-urban roads at Belfast.
It was found that the mean free speed of cars in suburban area increases
linearly with the carriageway width over a certain range of width (5.2 to
11.3 m). Turner et al. (1982)
24
found that the conversion of a shoulder to
an additional travel lane could be expected to increase average-speed of
a two-lane highway by about 5 per cent for volumes exceeding 150
veh/h. Yagar and Aerde (1983)
26
found that speed changes exponentially
with change in lane width. Chandra and Kumar (1996)
5
studied the effect
of shoulder condition on speed of different types of vehicles and their
placement on road during passing and overtaking maneuvers on single
and two-lane highways. William and Reilly (1992)
25
provided a summary
of operational techniques that can be used to improve level of service
and capacity on two-lane highways. Ramanayya (1988)
19
observed that
the capacity standards adopted in western countries do not take into
account the mixed traffic characteristics prevalent in India. Sarna et al.
(1989)
21
emphasized on the need of developing highway capacity norms
for Indian highways. Kadiyali et al. (1991)
13
observed that vehicle speeds
on Indian roads have increased during the past ten years. Speed-flow
relationships have also undergone changes. Pursula and Enberg (1991)
reported from Finland that the highest flow rate measured on two-lane
two-way road was 2500 veh/h with a directional split of 50/50. Fi (1994)
9
reported that traffic characteristics were similar to HCM and expected
traffic volume on two-lane highway was near 1500 pcu/h/l. Bang et al.
(1995)
1
developed speed-flow relationship and simulation model for two-
lane road in Indonesia and found that free flow speed for two-lane roads
under ideal conditions is considerably lower in Indonesia than in developed
countries. Sahoo et al. (1996)
20
found that increase in traffic volume
decreases the speed of vehicles. Parker (1996)
17
observed that knowledge
of traffic composition plays an important role in determining capacity.
Kumar and Rao (1998)
15
observed that speed density data could be
reasonably represented by a linear relationship. Hossain and Iqbal (1999)
11
studied vehicular free speed characteristics on two-lane national highway
of Bangladesh. Karan et al. (1978)
14
developed relationship between average
speed and pavement conditions for two-lane highways. Schofield (1986)
studied effect of light and weather conditions on the speed and capacity
of two-lane roads. Brilon and Ponzlet (1997)
2
studied influences of
environmental factors on the speed-flow relationships on German
autobahns.
DR. CHANDRA ON 142
4. DATA COLLECTION AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The data for this study were collected at more than 40 sections of
two-lane roads to determine the effect of gradient, lane width, directional
split, shoulders condition and pavement roughness on capacity of two-
lane roads. The sections were so selected that the effect of each parameter
could be studied individually. The details of these sections are given in
Tables-1 to 4.
TABLE-1. DETAILS OF SECTIONS SELECTED FOR EFFECT OF GRADIENT
Secti on Section Identification Road Gradient Remarks
No Wi dth
(m)
1. km-168 of NH-58 7.0 m 4% +4% for up movement &
-4% for down movement
2. km-188 of NH-58 7.0 m 3.03% +3.03% for up movement &
-3.03% for down movement
3. km-34 of NH-58 7.0 m 2.86% +2.86 up movement
4. km-123 of NH-58 7.0 m 2.63% +2.63% up movement &
-2.63% for down movement
5. Level section 7. 0 0% Both side movement
TABLE-2. SECTIONS SELECTED FOR EFFECT OF LANE WIDTH
Secti on Road km-Stone Trap length Carriageway
No. (m) width (m)
6. Ambala-Kalka (NH-22) km60 25 8. 8
7. Delhi-Nitipass (NH-58) km110 25 7. 4
8. Patna-Ranchi (NH-31) km60 30 6. 9
9. Jagadhari-Ambala km45 25 6. 7
(SH-5) Haryana
10. Yamunagar-Kurukshetra (SH-6) km6 25 6. 6
11. Muzaffarnagar-Jansat km14 25 6. 4
(MDR-14) (U.P.)
12. Roorkee-Panchkula (NH-73) km35 25 5. 5
13. PanipatKhatima (SH-12) km28 25 6. 0
14. Chandigarh-Shimla km20 25 8. 0
( NH-38)
15. Delhi-Nitipass ( NH58) km38 25 7. 0
CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR TWO-LANE ROADS UNDER MIXED
TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
143
TABLE-3. SECTIONS SELECTED FOR DIRECTIONAL SPLIT AND PERCENT SMV
Secti on Section Width of Directional % SMV
No. carriageway Spl i t
(m)
16. km12 of NH-30 7. 0 55:45 7. 1
17. km26 of NH-30 7. 0 62:38 15.6
18. km65 of NH-31 7. 0 57:43 5. 7
19. km38 of NH-58 7. 0 100:0 12.7
20. km135 of NH-58 7. 0 53:47 10.9
21. km39 of NH-73 7. 0 59:41 21.9
22. km2 of NH-77 7. 0 62:38 28.4
23. km5 of NH-83 7. 0 54:46 22.0
24. km5 of SH-26 (Punjab) 7. 0 51:49 12.6
TABLE-4. SECTIONS SELECTED FOR SHOULDER CONDITION
Secti on Name of the Carriageway Shoulder Physical condition
No. Road Width (m) Type Wi dth of shoulder
(m)
25. km3 of NH-19 7. 0 Brick on 1. 6 Drop at pavement
(Hazipur-Chhapra edge edge was 5.0 cm.
Road) No depression on
shoulder was present.
26. km15 of NH-19 7. 0 Earthen 1. 6 Drop at pavement
edge was 9.0 cm.
Potholes up to 5.0 cm
were present on
shoulder.
27. km8 of NH-19 7. 0 Earthen 1. 5 Drop at pavement
edge was 12.5 cm.
Depressions on
shoulder were up to
10-15 cm.
28. km155 of NH-30 7. 0 Earthen 1. 2 Drop at pavement
(Patna-Bihta-Ara edge was 5.0 cm.
Road) Depressions on
shoulder were up to
5.0 cm.
29. km134 of NH-30 7. 0 Earthen 1. 6 Drop at pavement
edge was 8.0 cm.
Depressions in
shoulder were up to
3.0 cm.
DR. CHANDRA ON 144
30. km142 of NH-30 7. 0 Earthen 1. 8 Drop at pavement
edge was 12.0 cm.
Depressions on
shoulder were up to
5.0 cm.
31. km17 of NH-31 7. 0 Soil 1. 8 Drop at pavement
(Barhi-Bakhtiarpur- Gravel edge was 5.0 cm.
Barauni-Khagariya mix No Depression in
Road) shoulder area.
32. km24 of NH-31 7. 0 Soil 1. 8 Drop at pavement
Gravel edge was 9.0 cm.
mix Depressions on
shoulder were up to
5.0 cm.
33. km28 of NH-31 7. 0 Soil 1. 3 Drop at pavement
Gravel edge was 15.0 cm.
mix Depressions on
shoulder were up to
10.0 cm.
Secti on Name of the Carriageway Shoulder Physical condition
No. Road Width (m) Type Wi dth of shoulder
(m)
The data were collected by video filming technique except at sections
given in Table-4 where manual method was adopted. A longitudinal trap
of 25-30 m was made on the road and recording was done for 3-4 hours
during morning/evening hours of a typical weekday. To study the effect
of shoulder condition on placement of vehicles, the data on speed,
placement and volume of vehicles was collected manually at each section.
The pavement width was divided in sections of 10 cm using white self-
adhesive cloth tape. These sections were marked seriatim in white color.
Movement of all categories of vehicles was observed and position of left
wheels of a vehicle passing though the section was recorded. The small
size vehicles like two wheelers or bicycles do not require much use of
shoulder and therefore these vehicles were not included in data collection
for placement. In order not to influence the driver, the recording was
done by an observer standing at an obscure place such as the shadow
of a roadside tree at a little distance away from the pavement. For the
same reason of not disturbing the general pattern of traffic, observations
were restricted to a typical weekday and clear sky. The following vehicles
were considered for placement of vehicles from the edge of the pavement:
(i) Car and jeep
(ii) Heavy vehicle (HV like bus and truck)
TABLE-4. SECTIONS SELECTED FOR SHOULDER CONDITION (CONTD.)
CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR TWO-LANE ROADS UNDER MIXED
TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
145
(iii) Car-car passing or overtaking and placement was observed for
car left to the observer.
(iv) Car-HV passing or overtaking and placement was observed
for vehicle left to the observer.
(v) HV-HV passing or overtaking and placement was observed for
HV (Heavy Vehicle) left to the observer.
Speed data of car, LCV (Light Commercial Vehicle) and HV during
free moving and passing or overtaking maneuvers are given in Table-5.
The placements of vehicles from pavement edge during free movement of
car and heavy vehicles (HV) and during passing/overtaking of car-car,
car-HV and HV-HV are given in Table-6.
TABLE-6. PLACEMENT OF VEHICLES FROM PAVEMENT EDGE
Section Wei dth Placement (cm of single Placement (cm) of vehicle
No. of Pave- vehicle from pave- during crossing/over-
ment ment edge taking from pavement
(m) edge
Car HV Car-Car Car-HV HV-HV
25. 7. 0 157 135 93 73 65
26. 7. 0 169 142 108 84 71
27. 7. 0 181 154 117 88 79
28. 7. 0 161 132 96 75 63
29. 7. 0 173 139 110 82 73
30. 7. 0 180 153 120 91 80
31. 7. 0 158 126 89 72 66
32. 7. 0 171 135 114 85 75
33. 7. 0 183 149 124 93 83
TABLE-5. SPEED OF VEHICLES DURING PASSING/OVERTAKING
Secti on Speed (km/h) of Speed (km/h) Speed (km/h) of
No. car during of LCV during during crossing a
crossing a crossing a
Car LCV HV Car LCV HV Car LCV HV
25. 62.0 61.1 58.5 50.1 49.5 47.6 45.2 44.3 42.5
26. 53.4 52.0 50.1 45.2 44.0 41.7 41.5 41.1 38.3
27. 48.0 47.8 45.3 40.5 39.9 38.7 40.2 38.3 34.0
28. 58.9 57.8 55.4 49.5 48.2 45.3 44.2 41.5 40.3
29. 55.4 54.1 51.2 48.2 47.1 43.3 42.1 41.0 38.2
30. 52.6 49.8 47.6 42.5 41.6 39.3 37.7 36.0 32.1
31. 60.1 59.0 56.2 54.2 53.1 50.6 46.3 44.2 41.9
32. 57.1 55.6 52.8 46.2 45.0 42.1 41.8 40.2 37.6
33. 51.1 50.6 48.2 43.9 42.2 39.1 39.7 37.5 33.2
DR. CHANDRA ON 146
TABLE-7. VEHICLE CATEGORIES AND THEIR SIZES
No. Category Vehi cl es Average Projected
included Di mensi ons Rectangular
(m) Area (m
2
)
1. Car Car, Jeep, Van 3.72 x 1.44 5.36
2. Bus Bus 10.1 x 2.43 24.54
3. Truck Truck 7.5 x 2.35 17.48
4. LCV Mini bus, large vans, 6.1 x 2.1 12.81
tractors
5. Thee Wheelers Thee Wheelers 3.2 x 1.4 4.48
6. Two Wheelers Scooter, Motorbike 1.87 x 0.64 1.20
Mopeds
7. Cycle Bicycles 1.9 x 0.45 0.86
8. Rickshaw Pedal rickshaw, carts 2.7 x 0.95 2.56
9. Tractor Tractor trailer 7.4 x 2.2 16.28
10. Animal driven Bullock-cart, Horse cart 5.5 x 1.75 9.63
vehicle (ADV)
5.1. Estimation of Equivalency Factors
The main problem in developing the analytical speed-flow relationship is
heterogeneity of traffic. The vehicles in the mix produce different impedance due
to their varied static and dynamic characteristics. Hence simply adding the
number of vehicles does not give the authentic speed flow relationship. For this
reason, the vehicles are normally presented in terms of standard type of vehicle
using certain conversion factors. Generally, passenger car is adopted as standard
vehicle and therefore the factor is known as passenger car unit (PCU). Many
researchers have developed methods to estimate PCU for a vehicle type. The
interesting point to note is that each of these studies has resulted into different
PCU values for the same type of vehicle. There exists large variation in PCU
values being adopted in different parts of the world.
In the present study, the PCUs are calculated as follows. The basic
concept used to estimate the PCU is that it is directly proportional to the ratio
of clearing speed, and inversely proportional to the space occupancy ratio with
respect to the standard design vehicle, a car, i.e.
Speed ratio of the car to the ith vehicle
PCU
i
=
_______________________________________________________
(Eqn. 1)
Space ratio of the car to the ith vehicle
Where,
PCU
i
= passenger car unit value of i
th
type vehicle
5. ANALYSIS OF DATA
The data were analyzed to study the effect of influencing param-
eters on capacity of two-lane roads. All vehicles were divided into 10
categories as shown in Table-7.
CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR TWO-LANE ROADS UNDER MIXED
TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
147
Speed ratio of the car to the ith vehicle = V
c
/V
i
Space ratio of the car to the ith vehicle = A
c
/A
i
V
c
= speed of car (km/h)
V
i
= speed of ith type vehicle (km/h)
A
c
= static (projected rectangular) area of a car (m
2
)
A
i
= static (projected rectangular) area of ith type of vehicle (m
2
)
Therefore,
V
c
/V
i
PCU
i
=
__________
(Eqn. 2)
A
c
/A
i
The first variable of speed ratio in Equation (2) will be the function
of composition of traffic stream as the speed of any vehicle type depends
upon its own proportion and type and proportions of other vehicles.
Hence speed of any vehicle type will be true representation of overall
interaction of a vehicle type due to presence of other vehicle of its own
cat egory and of ot her t ypes. The second vari abl e represent s t he
pavement occupancy with respect to car.
The PCU values for different categories of vehicles were computed
at various sections and these are given in subsequent sections.
5.2. Effect of Grade
The PCU values for different types of vehicles with grade at different
sections are given in Table-8. Further discussion on these values is given
elsewhere (Chandra and Goyal, 2001)
4
. The PCU values given in Table-8
were used to convert all vehicles into equivalent number of passenger
cars and speedvolume relationships were plotted. The capacity values
TABLE-8. PCU FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF VEHICLES AT DIFFERENT GRADIENT
S. Gradient PCU for
No. Bus 2 W LCV Cycl e CR ADV
1. +4% 3. 7 0.22 1.99 0.45 1.744 4.335
2. +3.03% 3. 5 0.215 1.85 0.43 1.608 4.167
3. +2.86% 3.443 0.213 1. 8 0.42 * 4.016
4. +2.63% 3.413 0.21 1. 7 0.409 1.52 3. 9
5. 0% 3. 1 0.205 1.55 0. 4 1.45 3. 7
6. -2.63% 2. 9 0.195 1. 4 0.38 1.297 3. 4
7. -3.03% 2.75 0.19 1.35 0.37 1.287 3. 2
8. -4% 2.65 0.185 1.25 0.355 1. 2 3
*CR was absent during data collection
DR. CHANDRA ON 148
TABLE-9. CAPACITY OF SECTIONS WITH GRADE
S. Gradient Capacity/lane (pcu/h) % Change in capacity
No. w.r.t level
1. +4% 1175 10.30
2. +3.03% 1210 7.63
3. +2.86% 1062 18.93
4. +2.63% 1214 7.33
5. 0% 1310 0
6. -2.63% 1397 6.64
7. -3.03% 1438 9.77
8. -4% 1486 13.43
5.3. Effect of Lane Width
The purpose of this part of study was to estimate capacity of two-
lane roads with varying carriageway width. Data collected at sections
given in Table-2 were analyzed to determine the effect of lane width.
Table-10 presents the PCU values as derived at these sections using
Equation (2). Figs. 1 to 3 show the variation in PCU for different types
of vehicles with varying lane width at different sections.
TABLE-10. PCU FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF VEHICLES ON VARYING CARRIAGEWAY-WIDTH
Section Name of Carri- PCU for
No. Road ageway
width
(m)
Bus Truck LCV Tractor 3-WH 2-WH Cycle Rickshaw
6. NH-22 8.8 5.64 4.04 2.83 5.87 1.76 0.310 0.52 1.61
7. NH-58 7.4 5.51 3.90 2.68 5.71 1.65 0.284 0.417 1.54
8. NH-31 6.9 5.45 3.86 2.64 5.67 1.49 0.276 0.461 1.52
9. SH-5 6.7 5.40 3.83 2.61 5.64 1.44 0.270 0.451 1.50
10. SH-6 6.6 5.37 3.82 2.60 5.63 1.42 0.268 0.447 1.49
11. MDR-14 6.4 5.31 3.8 2.58 5.61 1.39 0.266 0.44 1.48
12. NH-73 5.5 5.17 3.71 2.49 5.51 1.24 0.250 0.410 1.42
13. SH-12 6.0 5.25 3.66 2.54 5.56 1.32 0.259 0.427 1.45
14. NH-38 8.0 5.56 3.96 2.74 5.77 1.69 0.293 0.504 1.56
15. NH-58 7.0 5.46 3.87 2.64 5.68 1.52 0.278 0.465 1.52
The typical speed-volume relationship drawn to estimate capacity is
shown in Fig. 4. Similar curves were drawn at other sections also. The
capacity values estimated from these curves are given in Table-11.
with grade at different sections are given in Table-9. It indicates that each
per cent of upgrade decreases the capacity by 2.61 per cent and each
per cent of downgrade increases the capacity by 3.09 per cent.
CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR TWO-LANE ROADS UNDER MIXED
TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
149
Fig. 1. Effect of carriageway width on PCU for large vehicles
Fig. 2. Effect of carriageway width on PCU for cycle & 2-wheeler
DR. CHANDRA ON 150
Fig. 3. Effect of carriageway width on PCU for 3-wheeler & rickshaw
Fig. 4. Speed-volume relation at Section-11
CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR TWO-LANE ROADS UNDER MIXED
TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
151
TABLE-11. CAPACITY OF TWO-LANE ROAD WITH DIFFERENT CARRIAGEWAY WIDTH
Name of the Road Carriageway width (m) Capacity (pcu/h)
NH-22 8. 8 3590
NH-58 7. 4 3002
NH-31 6. 9 2656
SH-5 6. 7 2549
SH-6 6. 6 2507
MDR-14 6. 4 2290
NH-73 5. 5 1905
SH-12 6. 0 2095
NH-38 8. 0 3220
NH-58 7. 0 2707
Fig. 5 shows a plot between capacity and the carriageway width. It follows
a second-degree curve relationship of the form given in Equation (3).
Fig. 5. Capacity as related to carriageway width
C = -22.6w
2
+ 875.4w - 2184 R
2
= 0.99 (Eqn. 3)
(2.92) (3.54) (54.25)
Where,
C = Capacity of road (pcu/h)
w = Total width of the carriageway (m)
DR. CHANDRA ON 152
The values given in parentheses are the t values of coefficients, which are
significant at 5 per cent level. Thus the capacity of a 7.2 m wide carriageway is 2818
pcu/h, which is quite close to the value suggested in HCM (1994) at equal directional
split. Adjustment factors for other lane widths are given in Table-12.
TABLE-12. COMPARISON BETWEEN LANE WIDTH ADJUSTMENT FACTORS
Serial No. Lane-width (m) HCM, 1994 Swedish, 1977 Present study
1. 3.6 (11 ft) 1.00 1.00 1.00
2. 3.3 (10 ft) 0.93 0.95 0.88
3. 3.0 (9 ft) 0.84 0.89 0.76
4. 2.7 (8 ft) 0.70 0.83 0.63
(Lane width = Carriageway width/2)
5.4. Effect of Directional Split and Slow Moving Vehicles
The nine sections given in Table-3 were analysed to study the
effect of directional split and slow moving vehicles (SMA) on capacity
of two-lane roads. All the sections had 7.0 m wide carriageway. The
details of directional split and percent slow moving vehicles at each of
these sections are also given in Table-3. The PCU values as estimated
using equation (2) at different sections are given in Table-13. The wide
variation in PCU factors at different sections is attributed to the change
in traffic conditions. These values were used to develop speed-volume
relationships. The typical curve is shown in Fig. 6. The capacity values
as estimated at different sections are given in Table-14.
TABLE-13. PCU FACTORS AS ESTIMATED AT DIFFERENT SECTIONS
Section Car/ Truck Bus LCV 3- 2- Tractor Cycle Rick- Horse- Bullock-
Jeep wheeler wheeler shaw cart cart
NH-30 1.0 4.1 5.0 2.7 1.0 0.26 6.5 0.5 1.5 6.4 *
(km-12)
NH-30 1.0 4.1 5.2 2.9 1.0 0.26 4.5 0.4 1.6 5.8 8.8
(km-26)
NH-31 1.0 3.3 4.1 2.1 1.0 0.26 5.7 0.3 1.7 8.3 *
(km-65)
NH-58 1.0 4.2 5.0 2.6 1.7 0.26 7.7 0.6 2.5 * 12.2
(km-135)
NH-58 1.0 4.3 5.1 2.5 1.9 0.27 6.5 0.6 2.2 5.2 12.5
(km-38)
CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR TWO-LANE ROADS UNDER MIXED
TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
153
NH-73 1.0 4.0 5.2 2.8 1.2 0.3 6.2 0.6 2.3 5.8 12.0
(km-38)
NH-77 1.0 4.0 5.2 2.8 1.2 0.3 6.2 0.6 2.3 5.8 12.0
(km-39)
NH-83 1.0 3.5 4.7 2.4 1.2 0.26 6.5 0.5 2.2 7.7 10.0
(km-5)
SH-26 1.0 4.2 5.0 2.6 1.2 0.26 6.7 0.6 2.5 5.2 12.2
(km-5)
This category of vehicle was not present at the time of observation / data collection
Section Car/ Truck Bus LCV 3- 2- Tractor Cycle Rick- Horse- Bullock-
Jeep wheeler wheeler shaw cart cart
Fig. 6. Speed-volume relationship at Section-16
The results given in Table-14 show an increase in capacity with the
decrease in percentage of slow moving vehicles in traffic stream. Further,
the capacity decreases as the directional split moves away from an even
split of 50:50. For understanding the effect of slow moving vehicles
(SMV) and directional split separately, it is essential to keep one of them
TABLE-13. PCU FACTORS AS ESTIMATED AT DIFFERENT SECTIONS (CONTD.)
DR. CHANDRA ON 154
TABLE-14 . CAPACITY VALUES AT DIFFERENT DIRECTIONAL SPLIT AND PERCENT SMV
Section Identification Directional Percent Show Capacity
Spl i t Moving Vehicles (pcu/h)
km 12 of NH-30 55:45 7. 1 2858
km 26 of NH-30 62:38 15.6 2647
km 65 of NH-31 57:43 5. 7 2322
km 38 of NH-58 100:0 12.7 2283
km 135 of NH-58 53:47 10.9 2803
km 39 of NH-73 59:41 21.9 2132
km 2 of NH-77 62:38 28.4 2144
km 5 of NH-83 54:46 22.0 2270
km 5 of SH-26 51:49 12.6 2743
constant and study the effect of other one. For practical reasons, the
percentage slow moving vehicle (% SMV) from 10.9 per cent to 15.6 per
cent is taken constant while studying the effect of directional split.
Similarly, directional split of 51:49 to 55:45 is considered constant for
studying the effect of SMV on capacity of two-lane roads. The results
are plotted in Fig. 7. The effect of directional split is linear. It is given
by equation (4)
C = 3398 9.53 Q
P
(Eqn. 4)
(79.76) (8.91)
where, C is the capacity in pcu/h and Q
P
is the per cent traffic in main
direction.
Fig. 7. Effect of directional split on capacity
CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR TWO-LANE ROADS UNDER MIXED
TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
155
The effect of slow moving vehicles on capacity of two-lane roads
is shown in Fig. 8. The trend is expressed by the following equation.
TABLE-15. ADJUSTMENT FACTORS FOR DIRECTIONAL SPLIT
Spl i t Capacity from Equation (4) Adjustment factor
50: 50 2922 1. 0
60: 40 2826 0. 967
70: 30 2731 0. 935
80: 20 2636 0. 902
90: 10 2540 0. 869
100: 0 2445 0. 836
The values given in parentheses are the t values of coefficients,
which are significant at 5 per cent level. It gives he capacity of a two-
lane road at 50:50 split as 2790 pcu/h, which is similar to the value given
in HCM (1994). The adjustment factors for different splits are given in
Table-15.
Fig. 8. Effect of SMV on capacity
C = 2920 + 24.5 S 2.2 S
2
(Eqn. 5)
(327.35) (14.16) (13.36)
Where S is the percentage slow moving vehicles in the traffic
stream. The values given in parentheses are the t values of coefficients,
which are significant at 5 per cent level. The adjustment factors for SMV
are given in Table-16.
DR. CHANDRA ON 156
TABLE-16. ADJUSTMENT FACTORS FOR SMV
SMV (%) Capacity as per equation Adjustment factor
(6), pcu/h
0 2920 1. 0
10 2945 1. 0
15 2793 0. 956
20 2530 0. 866
25 2158 0. 739
30 1675 0. 574
5.5. Effect of Shoulder Condition
It is assumed that vehicles will make use of full width of pavement
if good types of shoulders are provided on either side of the road.
Although, the data were collected at locations where shoulders were
damaged, some data were collected at locations having good condition
of shoulders also. The 9 sections as given in Table-4 were selected for
data collection. The pavement riding quality was almost same at all the
sections but they were varying in shoulder conditions.
5.5.1. Classification of shoulders
In order to have better appreciation of results, the shoulders were
divided into different categories depending upon their physical condition
at time of data collection. The method suggested by Chandra and Dev
Raj (1999)
6
was adopted for objective assessment of shoulders. The
criteria of this classification is given below:
(i) Good: The shoulders on either side are properly maintained and
minor or no settlement of gravel or earthen shoulders (less than
25 mm in depth) with the pavement edge. Shoulders can be used
at reasonably high speed.
(ii) Average: Drop at pavement edge is 25-50 mm. Broken portion of
the shoulders is less than 25 per cent. Shallow potholes are present
but the shoulder can be used at low speed.
(iii) Poor: Drop at pavement edge is 50-100 mm. 25-50 per cent shoulders
are either broken or removed. Deep potholes are formed in the
surface. The shoulder can be used at considerably low speed only.
(iv) Bad: Drop at pavement edge is greater than 100 mm and more than
50 per cent shoulders are broken. Deep potholes in the shoulder
surface are present. It cannot be used by vehicle even at low speed
due to danger of overturning of vehicles.
CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR TWO-LANE ROADS UNDER MIXED
TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
157
Based on the above classification, the categories of various sections
selected for study are given in Table 17.
TABLE-17. CATEGORIES OF SHOULDER AT VARIOUS SECTIONS
Category of Shoulder Sections
Average 25, 28, 31
Poor 26, 29, 32
Bad 27, 30, 33
5.5.2. Loss in width of carriageway
Physical condition of shoulders plays an important role for the
development of full traffic capacity of a highway. The lateral placement
of vehicles and thus utilisation of full carriageway width depends upon
the width of carriageway and type and condition of shoulder. The field
data given in Tables-5 and 6 indicate that the vehicles preferred to lower
down their speed rather than coming on to the shoulders, which are
poorly maintained. The loss in width of carriageway for different conditions
is given in Table-18. As may be seen, the per cent loss in the width of
the carriageway varies from 36.0 to 52.3 per cent for single moving vehicle
depending upon the type of vehicle involved. During passing/overtaking,
the percent loss in width of carriageway varies 18.0 to 35.4 per cent
depending upon the type of vehicle involved in passing/overtaking
manoeuvres and condition of shoulder. At all sections, the loss in width
of carriageway for movement of a single car is greater than that for the
movement of a HV and the loss in width of the carriageway during car-
car passing/overtaking manoeuvres is more than that during HV-HV passing/
overtaking manoeuvres. Table-18 indicates that the loss in the carriageway
width increases progressively as the condition of shoulder deteriorates,
which directly affect the capacity of the road. Figs. 9 & 10 show the
placement of a single vehicle for different conditions of shoulders. With
average condition of shoulder about 50 per cent of cars and 50 per cent
of HVs had their placement within 115 cm and 65 cm respectively, from
pavement edge while for bad condition of shoulder, only 29 per cent cars
and 10 per cent HVs had their placement within these limits.
DR. CHANDRA ON 158
TABLE-18. LOSS IN WIDTH OF CARRIAGEWAY RELATED TO CONDITION OF SHOULDER
Section Per cent loss in Per cent loss in effective with of Shoul der
No. effective width of carriageway during passing/ Condi ti on
carriageway of overtaking
single vehicle
Car HV Car-Car Car-HV HV-HV
25. 44.8 38.6 26.6 20.8 18.6 Average
26. 48.3 40.6 30.8 24.0 20.3 Poor
27. 51.7 44.0 33.4 25.1 22.6 Bad
28. 46.0 37.7 27.4 21.4 18.0 Average
29. 49.4 39.7 31.4 23.2 20.9 Poor
30. 51.4 43.8 34.3 26.0 22.8 Bad
31. 45.1 36.0 25.4 20.6 18.9 Average
32. 48.8 38.6 32.6 24.3 21.4 Poor
33. 52.3 42.6 35.4 26.6 23.7 Bad
Fig. 9. Placement of car on two-lane road
CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR TWO-LANE ROADS UNDER MIXED
TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
159
Fig. 10. Placement of heavy vehicle on two-lane road
5.5.3. Reduction in speed during passing/overtaking manoeuvres
Spot speeds of vehicles were measured during passing/overtaking
manoeuvres and during single free moving vehicle to estimate the average
speed of each type of vehicle on a section. The percent reductions in
speed of individual vehicle during above condition are given in Table-19.
Two wheeler and bicycles were found to be unaffected by crossing
vehicles due to their small size but other vehicles were forced to reduce
their speed due to poor maintenance of shoulders. The maximum reduction
in speed of a car while crossing another car is 10.7 per cent. Similarly, for
the same condition of shoulder, maximum reduction in speed of a HV
while crossing another HV is 28.4 per cent. It indicates that the vehicles
reduce their speed considerably while crossing another vehicle. For
good condition of shoulder the reduction in speed is very marginal,
whereas for bad condition of shoulder it is quite substantial. The reduction
is due to shoulders influence on the drivers behaviour during crossing.
It should be noted here that the combined effect of speed reduction of
individual vehicle and the loss in carriageway width on capacity will be
much more significant.
DR. CHANDRA ON 160
TABLE-19. REDUCTION IN SPEED DURING PASSING/OVERTAKING MANOEUVRES
Sec- Pave- Per cent reduction Per cent reduc- Per cent reduc- Shoul der
ti on ment in speed of car tion in speed tion in speed condi-
No. width during crossing a of LCV during of HV during ti on
(m) crossing a crossing a
Car LCV HV Car LCV HV Car LCV HV
25. 7. 0 1. 3 2. 7 7. 0 3. 1 4. 3 8. 0 9. 6 11.4 15.0 Average
26. 7. 0 2. 2 4. 8 8. 3 4. 6 7. 2 12.0 9. 6 10.5 16.3 Poor
27. 7. 0 5. 3 5. 7 10.7 10.0 11.4 14.0 10.5 14.7 24.3 Bad
28. 7. 0 2. 0 3. 8 7. 8 3. 7 6. 2 11.9 9. 3 14.8 17.3 Average
29. 7. 0 5. 0 7. 2 12.2 4. 0 6. 2 13.7 13.4 17.9 24.0 Poor
30. 7. 0 6. 4 11.4 15.3 7. 8 9. 8 14.6 15.8 19.6 28.4 Bad
31. 7. 0 2. 4 4. 2 8. 8 2. 2 4. 2 8. 7 10.0 14.2 18.6 Average
32. 7. 0 4. 7 7. 2 11.9 5. 0 7. 4 13.4 11.1 14.5 20.0 Poor
33. 7. 0 10.7 11.5 15.7 6. 8 10.4 17.0 12.9 17.8 27.2 Bad
5.5.4. Speed-volume relationships
Data collected manually at 3 sections were used to develop speed-
volume relationships. The traffic volume was converted into equivalent
number of passenger cars and the mean speed was calculated. The free
stream speed and capacity values as derived from these curves are given
in Table-20.
TABLE-20. MEAN FREE SPEED AND CAPACITY FOR DIFFERENT CONDITION OF SHOULDERS
Secti on Conditon of Mean Free Capacity
No. Shoul der Speed (km.h) (pcu/h)
31. Average 64.2 2654
32. Poor 60.7 2427
33. Bad 55.7 1831
The mean free speed of traffic stream changes from 64.2 km/h to
55.7 km/h as the shoulder condition changes from average to bad. The
capacity values as calculated for 3 sections are also given in Table-20.
The capacity of a two-lane road with average condition of shoulder
(section 31) is 2654 PCU/h. It reduces to 1831 PCU/h (section 33) when
shoulder was in bad condition.
CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR TWO-LANE ROADS UNDER MIXED
TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
161
5.6. Effect of Road Roughness
This part of study was aimed at determining the effect of road
roughness on free flow speed (FFS) and capacity of two-lane roads.
Therefore, the data were collected in two parts. In the first part, the
observations were taken for road roughness and free flow speed of
vehicles. The roughness measurements were taken on sections, free from
the effect of curvature, gradient and intersections. The shoulders were in
good conditions and road surface was not cracked or pot holed. The
roughness was measured using British Towed fifth wheel bump integrator
on the following sections of the two-lane highways.
(a) National Highway (NH) 73 in the state of U.P.
(b) State Highway (SH) 59 in the state of Uttaranchal
(c) National Highway (NH) - 7 in the state of Andha Pradesh
18 km length of NH-73, 5 km of SH-59 and 33 km of NH-7 was
selected for roughness and speed measurements.
Free flow speed of a vehicle was measured using radar gun at every
100 m interval of a kilometre and the average speed for the entire kilometre
was determined. Only 2 categories of vehicles viz. car and heavy vehicles
(bus & truck) were considered for this part of study. About 10 vehicles
of each category were observed for speed on each location.
In the second part of the study, speed-volume data were collected
at 8 locations of two-lane highways. All sites were straight, level and free
from any restriction to traffic movement. The video recording technique
was used to collect the data for 4-5 hours on a typical weekday and these
were analysed to plot speed-volume diagram.
5.6.1. Effect of roughness on free speed
The variation in flow free speeds of two principal vehicle categories
viz. car and heavy vehicle with roughness is shown in Fig. 11. The free
flow speed (FFS) decreases with roughness according to the following
relationships.
Free speed of Car V
ffsc
= 66.9 0.0034 * UI R
2
= 0.91 (Eqn. 6)
(43.05) (23.28)
Speed of HV V
ffshv
= 51.6 0.0019 * UI R
2
= 0.84 (Eqn. 7)
(41.95) (16.38)
DR. CHANDRA ON 162
Fig. 11. Free flow speed related to road roughness
Where speed is in km/h and UI is unevenness index in mm/km. The
values given in parentheses are the t values of coefficients, which are
significant at 5 per cent level.
5.6.2. Effect of roughness on passenger car unit (PCU)
The PCU of a vehicle type was calculated by Equation (2). These
are given in Table-21. Figs. 12 to 14 show the variation in PCU for
different types of vehicles with road roughness at different sections. As
may be seen, the PCU for a vehicle type decreases linearly with roughness,
the slope of linearity depends on the type of vehicle. Non-motorized
vehicles are not much influenced by road roughness while speed of
motorized vehicles is greatly influenced. The fast moving vehicles are
substantially influenced by road roughness while its effect on all other
vehicle types is relatively low.
5.6.3. Effect of roughness on capacity
The PCU values given in Table-21 were used to convert heterogeneous
traffic stream into a homogeneous equivalent. The mean stream speed
was plotted against traffic volume. The capacity values as estimated for
different sections are given in Table-22.
CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR TWO-LANE ROADS UNDER MIXED
TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
163
TABLE -21. PCU FOR DIFFERENT TYPES OF VEHICLE ON VARIOUS SECTIONS
Sec- UI PCU
tion (mm/ Bus Truck LCV MAT Tractor 2- 3- Cycle ADV
(km) Trailer wheeler wheeler
I 2890 5.38 4.88 4.2 14.00 13.49 0.36 1.59 0.72 8.66
II 3490 5.16 4.31 3.78 12.00 9.73 0.38 1.58 0.75 8.26
III 4580 5.62 4.45 3.17 8.62 6.64 0.28 1.33 0.54 8.48
IV 4910 4.63 3.51 2.68 4.54 6.30 0.26 1.4 0.65 6.60
V 5670 4.72 3.74 2.78 4.68 6.20 0.27 1.42 0.72 7.20
VI 3050 5.47 4.75 3.91 13.32 11.85 0.38 1.57 0.71 8.56
VII 4200 5.24 4.29 3.22 9.06 8.86 0.33 1.48 0.67 7.98
VIII 5150 5.00 3.92 2.65 5.50 6.39 0.29 1.41 0.63 7.44
Fig. 12. Variation in PCU for large vehicles with roughness
DR. CHANDRA ON 164
Fig. 13. Variation in PCU with road roughness
Fig. 14. Variation in PCU for small vehicles with road roughness
CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR TWO-LANE ROADS UNDER MIXED
TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
165
A plot between capacity and the road roughness is shown in
Fig. 15. It follows a straight line relationship as given in Equation (8).
TABLE-22. CAPACITY FOR TWO-LANE ROADS WITH DIFFERENT ROUGHNESS VALUES
Secti on Roughness (mm/km) Capacity (pcu/h.)
I 2890 3017
II 3490 2868
III 4580 2667
IV 4910 2263
V 5670 2204
VI 3050 2940
VII 4200 2635
VIII 5150 2350
Fig. 15. Capacity as related to road roughness
C = 3888 - 0.2993 * UI (Eqn. 8)
(43.17) (8.96) R
2
= 0.91
Where,
C = capacity in pcu/h.
UI = unevenness index in mm/km
DR. CHANDRA ON 166
The values given in parentheses are the t values of coefficients,
which are significant at 1 per cent level. The above relationship indicates
that capacity of a two-lane road decreases by 300 pcu/h when road
roughness increases by 1000 mm/km.
6. METHOD OF CAPACITY ESTIMATION
HCM (2000)
10
state that the capacity of a two-lane rural highway is
1700 pcu/h for each direction of travel and normally does not exceed 3200
pcu/h for both direction of travel combined. IRC:64-1990
12
indicates the
design service volume of 15000 pcu/day for a two-lane road in plain
terrain, which corresponds to a capacity value of 2400-3000 pcu/h.
The capacity of a two-lane road as estimated in the present study is 3140
pcu/h under the following conditions.
(i) Lane width is 3.6 m.
(ii) Shoulders are in good condition and 1.2 m on either side.
(iii) The road surface is in good condition with surface
unevenness of 2500 mm/km.
(iv) The directional split is 50:50.
(v) The section is levelled and straight.
(vi) Slow moving vehicles in the traffic steam are less than
10 per cent.
It is, therefore, believed that the capacity of 3200 pcu/h as suggested
in HCM (2000)
10
is achievable in India also. However, it is suggested
that the capacity of a two-lane road in mixed traffic condition be taken
as 3100 pcu/h. This value is affected by gradient, lane width, shoulder
width, shoulder condition, slow moving vehicles, directional split, and
road roughness. The capacity of a two-lane road under mixed traffic
conditions is given by Equation (A).
C
a
= c
b
.f
g
.f
w
.f
ds
.f
smv
.f
s
.f
ui
(Eqn. A)
where,
C
a
= actual capacity under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions
C
b
= basic capacity (3100 pcu/h)
f
g
, f
w
, f
ds
, f
smv
, f
s
, and f
UI
are the adjustment factors for gradient, lane width,
directional split, slow moving vehicles, shoulder conditions and unevenness
CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR TWO-LANE ROADS UNDER MIXED
TRAFFIC CONDITIONS
167
index. These adjustment factors are given below:
(i) Adjustment for grade: Every one percent upgrade decreases the
capacity by 2.60 per cent (f
g
= 0.974) and one percent downgrade
increases the capacity by 3.0 per cent ((f
g
= 1.03)
(ii) Adjustment for lane width: Substandard lane width will reduce the
capacity as given in Table-A.
TABLE-A. RECOMMENDED CAPACITY REDUCTION FACTORS FOR SUB-STANDARD LANE WIDTH
Lane width (m) 3. 6 3. 3 3. 0 2. 7
Factor (f
w
) 1. 0 0. 88 0. 76 0. 63
(iii) Directional split: If the flow is not balanced in two directions, the
capacity of the road reduces as per Table-B.
TABLE-B. RECOMMENDED FACTORS FOR DIRECTIONAL SPLIT
Flow in main direction (%) 50 60 70 80 90 100
Adjustment factor (f
ds
) 1. 0 0. 97 0. 94 0. 90 0. 87 0. 84
(iv) Slow Moving Vehicles: The effect of slow moving vehicles is
negligible till their proportion in traffic stream is less than or equal
to 10 per cent. After that their effect is to reduce the capacity as
per Table-C.
TABLE-C. ADJUSTMENT FACTORS FOR SLOW MOVING VEHICLES (SMV)
SMV (%) 10 15 20 25 30
Adjustment factor (f
smv
) 1. 0 0. 96 0. 87 0. 74 0. 57
(v) Shoulder condition: The capacity of a two-lane road can be increased
by providing shoulders in good condition so that these can be used
by moving vehicles in emergency. Unfortunately, maintenance of
shoulder in India is extremely poor and in some case they become
reasons of accidents. For the purpose of analysis, shoulders are
divided in four categories as discussed in Section 5.5.1. Adjustment
factor as derived here for these conditions of shoulders are given
in Table-D.
DR. CHANDRA ON 168
TABLE-D- ADJUSTMENT FACTORS FOR SHOULDER CONDITION
Shoul der condi t i on Adjustment factor (f
s
)
Good 1. 0
Average 0. 85
Poor 0. 77
Bed 0. 58
(vi) Surface Unevenness: The surface unevenness has direct effect on
operat i ng speed and t hus on capaci t y. IRC: SP-30-1993 has
recommended roughness values for different types of surfacing. A
good road surface is expected to provide full development of traffic
capacity. The capacity of a two-lane road reduces by 300 pcu/h
when its road roughness reduces by 1000 mm/km.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The present research was carried out under an AICTE sponsored
research scheme Capacity Analysis of Two-lane Roads under Mixed
Traffic Conditions. The financial assistance received from AICTE, New
Delhi for collection of traffic data for this project is gratefully acknowledged.
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CAPACITY ESTIMATION PROCEDURE FOR TWO-LANE ROADS UNDER MIXED
TRAFFIC CONDITIONS