THE NATURE OF

PSYCHOLOGY
A PowerPoint Presentation by:
Prof. A.V. Arias, Jr., MS, CCLP, CASP & RGC
Psychology Department
MIT Intramuros
11 October 2011

LOGIC, PHILOSOPHY & HISTORY OF
PSYCHOLOGY

DEFINITIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY
The study about how and why people think,
feel and behave the way they do.
The study of the behavior and the mind.
The science that studies behavior and
mental processes.
The study of behavior.
The study of mental activities.

Aspects of Behavior: Overt & Covert
In psychology, the term
behavior has a special
meaning to include only
those activities that are
observable. They are
known as overt
processes.

In its generic sense,
however, behavior also
includes activities that
cannot be observed. They
are known as covert
processes.
BEHAVIOR VS MIND
Behavior observable actions of a
person. E.g., smiling, giggling,
crying, etc.
BEHAVIOR VS MIND
Mind the sensations, memories, motives,
emotions, thoughts, and other subjective
phenomena particular to an individual
that are not generally observed.
The American Psychological Association
The American Psychological Association (APA) is the largest
organization of psychologists whose membership
extends worldwide. It is located in Washington DC, USA.

Membership includes full membership (for PhD degree
holders), associate membership (for MA/MS degree
holders), international affiliation, graduate student
affiliation, etc.

Research standards and other psychological practices and
activities adhere to the APA standards, which are
globally-recognized standards; e.g., APA Style of
documentation, the international standard of
documentation in the social sciences.
PSYCHOLOGY: A SCIENCE?
Psychology is a science
because it uses a
systematic collection
and observation of data
as it attempts to answer
questions about human
behavior.

Its goal is to analyze,
describe and predict the
past, present and future
behavior of individuals.
Pseudo psychological practices
Pseudo means false. Pseudo
psychological practices do not
have empirical or scientific basis.

They include palmistry, phrenology,
astrology, etc.

Palmistry fate is determined by the
intricate lines in ones palm.

Phrenology personality is based on
the shape of the skull.

Astrology fate and personality are
determined by the alignment of
the stars and the planets.
Is psychology also an art?
Psychology is also an art if it
provides a venue for expressing
emotions and feelings.



In counseling, for instance,
the counselor does not only use
his mind when he approaches his
cases rationally, but equally, he
uses his heart when he
empathizes with his clients.
HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY
In attempting to trace the history of psychology,
we will encounter various personalities and
schools of thoughts about human behavior,
including the many theories and assumptions
that support the contributions of these
personalities and schools in the advancement
of psychology as a discipline.
I. Ancient Greek Philosophers
THE MIND THE BODY
These ancient philosophers were actually the very first people to
speculate on the existence of the mind or the soul. They included
the likes of Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, etc.

Dualism viewed the world as a dichotomy of the body and the
mind.
II. Advent of Scientific Revolution
(c. 1600-1700)
After the heyday of the Greek
philosophers, there was a long
period of time during which
relatively little systematic
investigation of psychological issues
was conducted. The dearth of
investigation was due, in part to the
religious belief that the spirit
could not be studied scientifically.

This view changed with the advent of
the scientific revolution. Great
discoveries in biology, astronomy
and other sciences, along with the
movements in philosophy and art,
made it clear that human nature
could be subject of scientific inquiry.
III. Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
The mind is not observable and is not
subject to natural laws.

But the mind and body interact; the mind
controls the body while the body provides
the mind with sensory input for it to
decipher.

He believed that this interaction occurred
in the pineal gland, which is located deep
within the brain.
IV. John Locke (1632-1704)
He extended Descartes
application of natural laws to
include all things, including the
mind, as it is controlled by
such laws of nature.

Empiricism - the acquisition of
truth through observations and
experiences.

Tabula rasa also known as
blank slate; was used to
refer to the mind of a child.

According to this view, all
knowledge that we have could
be learned; nothing was
innate.
V. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
The idea of a soul or spirit, or even
of a mind was meaningless.

Philosophy of materialism - the
belief that the only things that
existed were matter and energy.

What we experienced as
consciousness was simply a by-
product of the machinery of the
brain.
VI. Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
Evolutionary theory set the stage
for psychology by establishing
behavior as important and
observable, and therefore,
subject to scientific scrutiny.

The theory of natural selection said
that all creatures evolved into
their present state over long
periods of time.

Over time, this process selected
physical and behavioral
characteristics that promoted
survival.
VII. Structuralism
This school was concerned with the structure of the
mind and its parts. In other words, it was
concerned with the contents of the mind, which
was referred to as the consciousness. It employed
the method of introspection or introspective
analysis or analytical introspection, which required
the examination of ones own mind.

Wilhelm Wundt (1832 - 1920) was credited as the
founder of the science of psychology when he
initiated the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig,
Germany .

Wundt was trained in physiology. He hoped to apply
the methods that he used to study the body to the
study of the mind.

Edward Titchener (1867-1927), an Englishman,
through his writings popularized Wundts ideas.
VIII. Functionalism
This school was opposed to the
structuralist approach. More than
the contents of the conscious mind,
functionalism was concerned with
the use of these contents. It
continued to use introspection as its
method.

To the functionalists, what was
important was the function of the
mind.

William James (1842 1910)
believed that the important thing to
understand was how the mind
fulfilled its purpose.
IX. Gestalt [pronounced as gesh-TALT]
This school of thought believed that behavior could not be
approached by looking into specific parts; rather, human
experience must be viewed in its totality or wholeness.

It focused on the unity of perception.

Gestalt meant configuration.

Proponents included Max Wertheimer (1880-1943) and
Kurt Koffka (1886-1941) who argued that the
consciousness was more than the sum of its parts.
X. Psychoanalysis
Directly opposed to the idea of
consciousness, psychoanalysis
focused on the idea of the
unconscious mind.

Accordingly, mans behavior is
controlled by those irrational
forces from within. These irrational forces include
sex and aggression.

conscious
preconscious
unconscious
More about psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud (1856-1839) proponent
of the classical psychoanalytic theory.

Freud used free association and dream
interpretation as methods in the
psychoanalytic approach.

He authored the book Interpretation of
Dreams.

XI. Behaviorism
Behaviorism rejected the idea of the conscious
and the unconscious mind. Instead, it
focused itself with those human
experiences that could observed and
measured objectively.

John B. Watson (1878-1958) founded behaviorism.

According to B.F. Skinner (1904-1990), a
Harvard psychologist, behavior was a
consequence of the presence of the
stimulus in the environment.
XII. Humanistic Psychology
This school of psychology emphasized the
importance of the use of the free will and
the uniqueness of each human beings
experience.

Proponents of the humanistic psychology
included Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

Maslow proposed the Theory of Hierarchy of
Needs which emphasized the need for self-
actualization.

Rogers proposed the Client-Centered Theory,
which later came to be known as the
Person-Centered Approach. Rogers
emphasized the need for congruence
between the real self and the ideal self.
XIII. Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive psychology went beyond
behaviorism by including the
mental processes that influenced
an individuals behavior.

It combined the individuals
response to the stimulus in his
environment with his mental
processes.

Proponents included Albert Bandura,
Albert Ellis, Aaron Beck, etc.
XIV. Biopsychology
Psychology resorted to the
science of biology to
explain human behavior.

It examined how the human
genetic structure directly
affected an individuals
behavior.

It investigated how ones
predisposition to certain
biological heritage led one
to specific abnormalities.
XV. Eclecticism
This school combined the
best features of the theories,
methods and techniques of
the various schools of
psychology.

This school allowed researchers
to view a problem from various
orientation and perspective.
RELATION OF PSYCHOLOGY TO
OTHER SCIENCES
Social Sciences

1) Sociology

2) Anthropology

3) Philippine Constitution
& Governance

4) Economics

5) Computer Science &
Information Technology
Other Sciences

1) Chemistry / Pharmacy

- Psychopharmacology

2) Biology - Biopsychology

3) Neurology

Neuropsychology

4) Pathology

- Psychopathology

5) Psychiatry M.D.
Psychologists, Psychiatrists, Psychoanalysts:
What are their differences?
A psychologist usually possesses a post
graduate degree in psychology, usually a PhD
(doctor of philosophy) degree in psychology.
He is usually not authorized to prescribe
medicines except in certain cases. He caters to
both the normal and abnormal population.

A psychiatrist is a medical doctor, a graduate of
a degree in medicine. Being a medical doctor,
he is authorized to prescribe medicines. He
usually caters to the abnormal population.

A psychoanalyst is usually a psychiatrist who
undergoes years of training in psychoanalysis.
AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION IN
PSYCHOLOGY
1) Clinical
2) Community
3) Counseling
4) Developmental
5) Educational or
School
6) Experimental
7) Industrial/Organizational
8) Social
9) Personality
10) Psychometric

11) Abnormal Psychology
12) Forensic/Legal
13) Environmental
14) Ergonomic
15) Sports
16) Health
The Scientific Method
1) Identify the research problem.
2) Propose a hypothesis.
3) Formulate a theoretical framework.
4) Gather your data and make the necessary
observation.
5) Analyze and discuss the results.
6) Make the necessary conclusion/s and
recommendation/s.
7) Generalize the results by replicating the
study.
METHODS OF PSYCHOGY
1) DESCRIPTIVE

a) Naturalistic
b) Systematic
c) Clinical

2) EXPERIMENTAL

3) CORRELATIONAL

4) STATISTICAL

The Experimental Method
This method is considered as the basis of all scientific
research.

It usually begins with a statement of the hypothesis.

It consists of at least 2 variables, as follows:

1. Independent Variable stimulus (cause);
2. Dependent Variable response (effect).

Other variables that could affect the independent variable
are factors known as extraneous variables.
Experimental versus Control Group
Experimental Group - the
group in which the
condition under study is
present.

Eg: The group that gets
little amount of sleep.
Control Group - the group
in which the condition is
not present.

Eg: The group that gets
sufficient amount of
sleep.
Correlation Study
This research methodology determines the
direction of the variables. It is not
concerned with causal relationships at all.
There are 2 kinds: 1) Positive or Direct; 2)
Negative or Indirect or Inverse.

Direct as one variable increases, the other
also increases, and vice-versa.

Indirect as one variable increases, the
other variable decreases or as one
variable decreases, the other increases.

The farther the correlation coefficient from
zero, the stronger the relationship
between the two variables; the closer to
zero (whether positive or negative), the
weaker the relationship.

Positive
Negative
Statistics divided into descriptive
and inferential statistics.
Descriptive Statistics
summarizes data.


Inferential Statistics allows
researchers to test
hypotheses about data and
to determine how confident
they can be in their
inferences about the data.
Descriptive Statistics
Measures of Central
Tendency

characterizes the typical
value in the set of data.

1) Mean the arithmetic
average.

2) Mode the most
frequently occurring value
in the data set.

3) Median the number that
falls exactly in the middle
of a distribution of
numbers.
Measures of Variability

refers to how much the
numbers in the set differ
from each other.

1) Standard Deviation a
function of the average
dispersion of numbers
around the mean and is a
commonly used measure of
variability.

2) Percentiles express the
standing of one score
relative to all other scores
in a set of data.


Validity and Reliability of Research Studies
A research study to be valid must measure
what it is supposed to measure. A study
is not valid if it does not measure what it
intends to measure.

A research study to be reliable must yield
consistent results. If similar studies
using the same methodology yield
varying results, then the results are not
at all reliable.




ETHICS IN RESEARCH
Occasionally, psychological experiments involve deception.

Eg: Obedience experiments conducted by Stanley
Milgram in the 70s in which he convinced
participants that they were administering painful
electric shocks to other participants, when in fact,
no shocks were given. Since this time, ethical
standards for research have tightened.

1) Participants now give their informed consent.
2) Participants also receive debriefing after the study.
3) Animal rights are now recognized.
4) Intellectual property rights are now recognized.
5) Adherence to the APA Style of documentation in the
social sciences is gaining more ground.

Additional Ethical Guidelines: Language
Bias Guidelines
1) Avoid stereotypic bias. E.g., typically female
2) Avoid gender-biased terms. E.g., human instead of man,
humankind instead of mankind, parenting instead of
mothering, chairperson or chair instead of chairman,
supervisor instead of foreman, postal worker instead of
postman
3) Specify the gender of the participants. Avoid the label of
homosexuality. E.g. Gay Male Relationship
4) Do not use the term non-white or non-black. Specify
the ethnicity instead.
5) Indicate the person first before the label. E.g., person
with disability instead of disabled person, person with
mental illness instead of mentally ill person
6) Do not label people by their disability. E.g., people who
are depressed instead of depressives, individuals with
epilepsy instead of epileptics, patients with neurosis
and not neurotic patients, adult with mental retardation
instead of retarded adult



THE END. . . . . . . . . .
Please prepare for an examination.

Merci beaucoup