Lost Circulation

Poor Hole Cleaning

Hole Caving /Collapse
WELLBORE
STABILITY
Formation
Mud
Tensile
Failure Active
Tectonics
Shear
Failure
Pore
Pressure
STABLE
UNSTABLE
Rock Strength
Rock Stress
Hole Enlargement
Drill String Fatigue
Tight hole /Stuck Pipe
Drilling Handbook
1.0 INTRODUCTION
2.0 BEFORE THE WELLBORE
3.0 AFTER THE WELLBORE
4.0 PROVIDINGASTABLE WELLBORE
APPENDIX
1.1 Wellbore Stability Mission 2
1.2 Drilling Handbook Objectives 3
2.1 Conditions 1
2.2 Earth Stress 4
2.3 Effective Stress 5
2.4 Rock Strength 6
3.1 Near Wellbore Stress-State 1
3.2 Mechanical Stability 4
3.3 Chemical Stability 11
4.1 Planning a Stable Wellbore 1
4.2 Warning Signs/Corrective Actions 3
A-1 Leak-off Tests
A-2 Lithology Factor (k)
A-3 Wellbore Stress Equations
A-4 Nomenclature
In Situ
In Situ
Wellbore Stability
CONTENTS
Start Start
Introduction
Formation
Mud
Tensile
Failure
Active
Tectonics
Shear
Failure
Pore
Pressure
STABLE
UNSTABLE
Rock Strength
Rock Stress
Sand
MW
High
MW
Low
Reaming
Trip
Speed
ECD
Mobile
Salt
Shale
Strike
Slip
Tensile
Failure
Hole
Cleaning
Reverse
Fault
Time
Exposed
- Wellbore Stability -
Maintaining the Balance of
Rock Stress and Rock Strength
SECTION 1
1.1 Wellbore Stability Mission
1.2 Drilling Handbook Objectives
Start Start TOC TOC
Wellbore Stability
Page - 1 Section 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Wellbore stability
600 million to 1 billion dollars
is the prevention of brittle failure or plastic deformation
of the rock surrounding the wellbore due to mechanical stress or chemical
imbalance.
Prior to drilling, the mechanical stresses in the formation are less than the
strength of the rock. The chemical action is also balanced, or occurring at a
rate relative to geologic time (millions of years). Rocks under this balanced
or near-balanced state are stable.
After drilling, the rock surrounding the wellbore undergoes changes in
tension, compression, and shear loads as the rock forming the core of the
hole is removed. Chemical reactions also occur with exposure to the
drilling fluid.
Under these conditions, the rock surrounding the wellbore can become
unstable, begin to deform, fracture, and cave into the wellbore or dissolve
into the drilling fluid.
Excessive rock stress can collapse the hole resulting in stuck pipe. Hole-
squeezing mobile formations produce tight hole problems and stuck pipe.
Cavings from failing formation makes hole cleaning more difficult and
increases mud and cementing costs.
Estimated cost to the drilling industry for hole stability problems range
from annually.
Stuck
Pipe
Hole
Problems
Loss Of
Circulation
Well
Control
Relative Costs Of Unscheduled Events
Caused By Wellbore Stability Problems
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 1
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Section 1
TOC
Wellbore Stability
Page - 2 Section 1
1.1 Wellbore Stability Mission
The mission of the Wellbore Stability Team is twofold.
Minimize the "learning
curve" when developing
new reservoirs so that
optimal well costs are
obtained early on.
Identify potential drilling
problems during the well
planning stage so that
prevention and operational
planning can be developed
to minimize costs associated
with wellbore stability
problems.
Chemical Instability Mechanical Instability
Tensile
Shear
Fractures
Loss of Circulation
Cavings
Tight Hole
Stuck Pipe
Reactive Shale Overburden Stressed
Geopressured
Hydro-Pressured
Unconsolidated
Fractured
Tectonics
Failure Mechanisms
Wellbore Stability Problems
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Section 1
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Wellbore Stability
Page - 3 Section 1
Understanding the conditions that cause stability problems provides for:
More effective planning.
Earlier and easier detection of warning signs.
Contingency plans to avoid the progression of the problem.
!
!
!
GENERAL CAUSES OF
STABILITY PROBLEMS
STABILITY PROLEMS
COST TO OPERATION
RESULTING CONDITIONS
Incorrect
Mud
Incorrect Well Trajectory
Poor Drilling
Practices
P
o
o
r
W
e
ll
P
la
n
Reactive
shale
E
x
c
e
s
s
iv
e
W
e
llb
o
r
e
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e E
x
c
e
s
s
iv
e
R
o
c
k
S
tr
e
s
s
H
o
l
e
C
l
e
a
n
i
n
g
H
o
l
e
E
n
l
a
r
g
e
m
e
n
t
H
o
l
e
C
o
l
l
a
p
s
e
Well Control
Lost Circulation
Poor logs
Cem
enting
Problem
s
Stuck Pipe
Drill String Fatigue
1.2 Handbook Objectives
!
!
!
!
!
Identify and define wellbore stability problems.
Suggest consistent terminology.
Associate warning signs with stability problem.
Suggest corrective actions.
Provide the background for preventive planning.
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 1
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Section 1
TOC
SECTION 2
Before The Wellbore
2.1 Conditions
2.2 Earth Stress
2.3 Effective Stress
2.4 Rock Strength
In Situ
In Situ
Start Start TOC TOC
2. 0 BEFORE THE WELLBORE
2.1 Conditions In Situ
Porosity
Porosity is the percent of void space within the rock.
The rocks of sedimentary basins always exhibit some porosity. As porosity
increases, the percent of fluid volume increases while the rock matrix
volume decreases. Increasing porosity weakens the rock. Shale, for
example, will change from brittle rock to ductile clay with sufficient water
content. The figure below shows typical porosity change with depth due to
compaction and cementation.
Wellbore Stability
Page - 1 Section 2
Permeability
Permeability is the ability of a rock to flow fluids; measured in units of
darcies.
Permeability acts to weaken the rock as the loss of water base mud filtrate
dissolves the grain-to-grain cement bond. Also, hydrostatic overbalance
forces water filtrate to penetrate the pores of the rock; which also weakens
the rock.
Shale
Fluid Filled
Pores
Rock
Matrix
0
5
10
15
20
25
10 20 30 40 50 60
Porosity (%)
D
e
p
t
h
(
f
t
)
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Section 2
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Section 2
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Wellbore Stability
Page - 2 Section 2
The figure below shows typical permeability changes relative to depth for
shale and sandstone. Shales may have high porosity, but have very little
permeability.
Formation Pore Pressure - p
Formation pore pressure is the pressure of the naturally occurring fluid(s) in
the pores of the rock.
As long as the increase in overburden load from the rate of deposition does
not exceed the rate at which fluid can escape from the pore, a fluid
connection exists from surface to the depth of interest. Pore pressure is then
equal to the hydrostatic pressure of formation water (normal pressure).
is equal to the hydrostatic pressure of
formation water at a vertical depth of interest.
Normal formation pressure
Permeability (Darcies)
Sandstone
Fluid Filled
Pores
Connected
Porosity
Rock
Matrix
0
5
10
15
20
25
1 2 3 4
Sandstone
Shale
D
e
p
t
h
(
f
t
)
Transition Shale
Formation Water
Migrating to Surface
D
e
p
t
h
Pressure
.
4
6
5
p
s
i
/
f
t
A
v
e
r
a
g
e
8,000'
3720 psi
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Section 2
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Wellbore Stability
Page - 3 Section 2
Pore pressure of a permeable formation can be depleted below normal by
production operations (subnormal pressure).
is less than normal for the vertical depth
of interest.
Subnormal formation pressure
If the fluid cannot escape the pore, pore pressure begins to increase at a
faster-than-normal rate (abnormal pressure).
is greater than normal for the vertical depth
of interest.
Abnormal formation pressure
D
e
p
t
h
Pressure
Transition Shale
Depleted Zone
Abnormal
Pressure
Sub normal
Pressure
Normal Trend
Line
Formation Water
Migrating to Sand
8,000'
3720 psi
Estimating Formation Pore Pressure
Formation pore pressure prediction is a highly specialized process. Prior to
drilling, qualitative geophysical methods are available to qualify the
presence of abnormal pressure at an approximate depth. Offset logs also
help estimate pore pressure.
Enhancements in geophysical interpretations have recently been made to
quantify the value of abnormal pressure prior to spudding the well. Before
development of this quantitative method, only qualitative information was
possible prior to drilling.
While drilling, several MWD/LWD logs provide real time evaluation of
formation pore pressure. "D" exponent plots can also indicate changes in
pore pressure.
Higher than normal porosity and sonic travel time ( t ) indicate abnormal
pore pressure.

c
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Section 2
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Wellbore Stability
Page - 4 Section 2
Weight of over
lying rocks &
water applies
stress to the
rock layer at a
vertical depth
of interest
S
T
R
E
S
S
E
S
H
O
R
IZ
O
N
TA
L
O
V
E
R
B
U
R
D
E
N
S
T
R
E
S
S
Most formations are formed from a sedimentation/compaction geologic
history. Formations may vary significantly from the earth's surface to any
depth of interest. Shallow shales will be more porous and less dense than
shales at great depths.
Typically a value of 1 psi/ft is attributed to the overburden gradient, but at
shallow depths the actual value is much less and at greater depths
somewhat higher.
Adensity log can be used to determine the weight of the overburden. In the
absence of a density log, the overburden stress may be estimated from
alternatives such as Eaton's variable density curve or the Wylie time
average equation using sonic travel time, bulk density and porosity.
Estimating Overburden Stress
2.2 Earth Stress
- s
In Situ
Prior to drilling, subsurface rocks are exposed to a balanced or near
balanced stress environment. The naturally occurring stress in place is
called the stress. stress is normally compressive due to the
weight of the overburden. For this reason, in rock mechanics compressive
stress is defined to be positive.
Overburden stress is the pressure exerted on a formation at a given depth
due to the total weight of the rocks and fluids above that depth.
in situ In situ
Overburden Stress
v
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Section 2
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Section 2
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Wellbore Stability
Page - 5 Section 2
As the overburden squeezes the rock vertically, it pushes horizontally.
Constraint by surrounding rock creates horizontal stress.
In most drilling areas, the horizontal stresses are equal. When drilling
near massive structures such as salt domes or in tectonic areas, the
horizontal stresses will differ and are described as a minimum (s ) and a
maximum (s ).
The minimum horizontal stress (s ) is normally determined from leak-off
tests. It is difficult to determine the maximum horizontal stress from field
measurements. Its value can be estimated using rock mechanics
equations.
Horizontal Stress - s s
h , H
h
H
h
Estimating Horizontal Stress
2.3 Effective Stress
The rock matrix does not support the full load of overburden and horizontal
stress. Part of the load is supported by the fluid in the pore (pore pressure).
The net stress is the effective stress felt by the rock matrix. Effective stress
is used in rock mechanics to determine the stability of the wellbore.
The overburden stress that effectively stresses the rock matrix.
= s -
Effective Overburden Stress -
v
Effective Overburden Stress = Total Overburden Stress - Pore Pressure

v v
p
Much like air pressure in a car
tire supports the weight of the
car, fluid pressure in the pore
supports a portion of the
overburden load.
The remaining portion of over-
burden stress is the load
effectively stressing the rock
matrix.
ROCK
MATRIX
5000 PSI
Pore Pressure
Effective
OBS
4000
psi
9000 PSI
OVERBURDEN
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Section 2
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Wellbore Stability
Page - 6 Section 2
Effective Horizontal Stress - ,
h H
Similarly, the effective horizontal stresses can be determined. Usually the
horizontal stresses are equal and the effective horizontal stress is equal to
the effective overburden stress times a lithology factor, . The lithology
factor ( ) is equal to 1 for fluids but is less than 1 for more rigid material
such as formation rock.
= = x
k
k
k
h H v
2.4 Rock Strength
Rock mechanics mechanical
stress
strain
elastic deformation
is the study of the behavior of subsurface
rocks.
Core samples (removed from conditions) are usually tested in
compression with specialized laboratory equipment. To better simulate
subsurface conditions, core samples tested are also subjected to a confining
pressure ( ). The rock responds to the stress by changing in volume or
form (deformation) or both. The change in the rock volume or form due to
the applied stress is called .
Rocks subjected to compressive (+) or tensile (-) stress can go through three
stages of strain deformation. In , the rock deforms as
stress is applied but returns to its original shape as stress is relieved. In
elastic deformation, the strain is proportional to the stress (Hooke's Law).
in situ
In tectonically active areas, the horizontal stresses are not equal. The
maximum horizontal stresses will be higher, or lower depending on tectonic
movements, by the additional tectonic stresses, In these areas, the
effective horizontal stresses are described by a maximum and minimum
value.
= x + and = x +
In extreme tectonic environments, may be sufficient to make the
horizontal stress higher than the vertical stress.
t and t .
k t k t
t
h H
h H
H

h v H v
1000 psi 900 psi 500 psi
Water Putty Rock
Noncompressible
fluids like water
have a k factor of 1.
Stiffer materials
like putty have a
lower k factor (.7 -
.9 for example.)
Very stiff
materials like
formation rock
have a much
lower k factor
(.37 is common
for shale.)
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Wellbore Stability
Page - 7 Section 2
When applied stress reaches the elastic limit, the rock begins to exhibit
. In plastic deformation, the rock only partially returns
to its original shape as stress is relieved. If continued stress is applied,
fractures develop and the rock fails ( ).
Rocks can fail in a brittle manner, usually under low confining stress, or in a
ductile manner under higher confining stress.
Under compression rocks actually fail in - it is easier to slide rock
grains past each other than to crush them.
plastic deformation
ultimate failure
shear
Shear Strength and Shear Failure
Stress
(x
psi)
1000
1 0 2 3 4
Axial
Load
Elastic
Limit
Elastic
Deformation
Plastic
Deformation
Ultimate
Failure
Ultimate Strength
Strain (% of Deformation)
0
10
20
30
40
50
Axial
Load
(Compressive
Stress)
Confining
Pressure
Axial Load (psi)
Confining
Pressure
Shear Plane
Shear
Failure
High confining pressure resists sliding on the shear plane and the rock
appears stronger. If the confining pressure and axial load were equal, there
would be no shear stress on the rock and no shear failure.
Equal stresses promote stability and unequal stresses promote shear
stress and possible shear failure.
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 2
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Section 2
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Wellbore Stability
Page - 8 Section 2
It is not possible to accurately reproduce the effects of pore pressure on
rock strength when testing core samples from the field. In actual borehole
conditions, pore pressure exerts a force that tends to push the rock grains
apart. This is why the effective stress is used in rock mechanics when
applied to wellbore stability studies.
Cohesive Strength
Bonded Grains (Cement)
Overburden
Stress (s )
v
Increased Pore Pressure
Reduces the Effective Stress
Pore
Pressure
Horizontal
Stress (s )
h
Horizontal
Stress (s )
H
Mean Effective Stress =

v h H
+ +
3
Rock mechanics uses failure models to predict wellbore stability. One such
model considers all three effective stresses to calculate the resultant shear
stress. The "mean" effective stress is used by this model to describe the
stress state of the rock.
The failure model used in the illustrations (Mohr-Coulomb) neglects the
intermediate stress and considers only the and effective
stress.The greatest shear stress on the rock occurs on the two-dimensional
plane consisting of the greatest and least stress. The greatest/and or least
stress could be any of the three depending on environment and well
conditions.
greatest least
in situ
Greatest Effective
Stress ( , , or )
v h H
Greatest Effective
Stress ( , , or )
v h H
Least Effective
Stress ( , , or )
v h H
(Intermediate stress acts
perpendicular to the figure)
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 2
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Section 2
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Wellbore Stability
Page - 9 Section 2
Shear
Stress ( )
S
0
Confining
Pressure ( )
c
Compression
Pressure (Stress)
That Fails Core
Sample ( )
f
Failure Shear
Stress From Test 1
Failure Shear
Stress From Test 2 & 3
< =
Stress-State 1
Stress-State 2
Stress-State 3
Effective Compressive Stress ()
The is defined as the shear stress that fails the rock. The
coefficient of friction is also expressed in terms of an
.
= tan
The cohesive strength (S ) and the angle of internal friction ( ) are
obtained from conducting compression tests on core samples (or
estimated from logs) from the field. Several tests on cores are necessary
to determine these values.
The shaded area shown below indicates the "stress-state" of one such
core sample at failure. The compression stress ( ) that fails the core
sample (greatest stress) is plotted on the horzontal axis along with the
confining pressure ( ) used for that test (least stress).
shear strength
angle of internal
friction ( )

0
f
c
The shear stress that fails the rock must overcome the
(bonding together of the grains), and the frictional resistance between
the grains ( The frictional resistance between the grains is the product
of the and the effective compressive stress ( ).
cohesive strength,
S
coefficient of friction ( )
0
).

Shear Stress = Cohesive Strength + Frictional Resistance
= S +
0
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Section 2
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Section 2
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Wellbore Stability
Page - 10 Section 2
The , the
necessary to fail the sample. Several tests at increasing confining
pressures produce successive stress-states of increasing shear strength.
The " " is approximated by the line giving the best fit
to the maximum shear stress points on the failure plane from several
such tests. The equation for this line is given below.
= S + tan
A"shear strength line" or failure envelope shown below is produced
from such core tests (a similar stability chart is used when considering
the mean effective stress, ( + + ) / 3).
The greatest and least effective stress on the wellbore are also calculated
using stress, pore pressure, hole inclination, etc., and indicated on
the chart. If the stress-state produces a shear stress that falls beneath the
shear strength line, the wellbore is stable.
If the shear stress falls outside the stability envelope, the wellbore is
unstable and formation failure will occur.
higher the confining pressure greater the compressive stress
in situ
shear strength line


0
v h H
Shear
Stress,
Stability
Envelope
Failure
S
0
Effective Compressive Stress,
S
h
e
a
r
S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
L
i
n
e
Least
Effective Stress
Greatest
Effective Stress
Stress-State
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 2
TOC
Section 2
TOC
Wellbore Stability
Page - 11 Section 2
Time
Geological processes have great lengths of time in which to operate.
Although geologic time is impossible to duplicate in a laboratory, it is
possible from experiments to make some deductions concerning the
influence of time.
One analysis of special interest to drilling operations is that of .
Creep is a slow continuous deformation of rock with the passage of time,
even though the stress may be above or below the elastic limit.
creep
Tensile Failure
Tensile Failure results from stresses that tend to pull the rock apart (tensile
stress). Rocks exhibit very low tensile strength.
Tensile
Stress
Tensile Stress Exceeds
the Tensile Strength and the Rock Fails
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 2
TOC
Section 2
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SECTION 3
After The Wellbore
3.1 Near Wellbore Stress-State
3.2 Mechanical Stability
3.3 Chemical Stability
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Wellbore Stability
Page - 1 Section 3
O
V
E
R
B
U
R
D
E
N
S
T
R
E
S
S
S
T
R
E
S
S
E
S
S
T
R
E
S
S
E
S
H
O
R
IZ
O
N
T
A
L
H
O
R
IZ
O
N
T
A
L
Before
Drilling
After
Drilling
H
Y
D
R
O
S
T
A
T
IC
P
R
E
S
S
U
R
E
Radial
Stress -
r
Axial
Stress -
z
Hoop
Stress -

HSP
As the hole is drilled, the support provided by the rock is removed and
replaced by hydrostatic pressure. This change alters the stresses. The
stress at any point on or near the wellbore can now be described in terms of:
radial stress acting along the radius of the wellbore; hoop stress acting
around the circumference of the wellbore (tangential); axial stress acting
parallel to the well path. These stresses are designated by ( , , ) and the
additional shear stress components designated by ( , , ).
These stresses are perpendicular to each other and for mathematical
convenience, are used as a borehole coordinate system.
in situ


r z
r rz z

3.0 AFTER THE WELLBORE
3.1 Near Wellbore Stress-State
Before drilling, rock stress is described by the stresses; effective
overburden stress, effective minimum horizontal stress, and the effective
maximum horizontal stress. These stresses are designated by ( , , ).
in situ

v h H
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Section 3
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Wellbore Stability
Page - 2 Section 3
Hoop Stress -

Hoop stress is dependent upon wellbore pressure ( ), stress

magnitude and orientation, pore pressure, and hole inclination and
direction. Wellbore pressure ( ) is directly related to mud weight/ECD.
= [ & well parameters] - -
For a vertical wellbore with equal horizontal stresses, hoop stress is
dependent upon the mud weight and the magnitude of the horizontal
stresses and is equally distributed around the wellbore.
p in situ
p
in situ p p
w
w

w
Equal
Horizontal
Stresses
Adeviated well creates of hoop stress around the
wellbore due to the redistribution of the horizontal and vertical stresses.
Hoop stress acting on a cross-section of the wellbore is maximum at the
sides of the wellbore perpendicular to the maximum stress.
The same is true when drilling a vertical well in an environment of
unequal horizontal stress. Hoop stress is maximum at the side of the
wellbore perpendicular to the maximum horizontal stress.
unequal distribution
in situ
Low Side of Hole
High Side of Hole
Additional Components
Of Stress From Overburden
And Horizontal Stresses
Minimum
Hoop Stress
Maximum
Hoop Stress
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Section 3
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Section 3
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Wellbore Stability
Page - 3 Section 3
Axial Stress -
z
Axial stress is oriented along the wellbore path and can be unequally
distributed around the wellbore. Axial stress is dependent upon;
stress magnitude and orientation, pore pressure, and hole inclination and
direction. Axial stress is not directly affected by mud weight.
= [ & well parameters] -
For a vertical well with equal horizontal stress (s = s ), axial and vertical
stress are the same. Axial stress in a deviated well is the resolution of the
overburden and horizontal stresses.
in situ
in situ p
z
h H
Vertical Well -
Equal Horizontal
Stresses
Axial Stress is
Only the Overburden
Axial Stress is
The Resolution of
Overburden and Horizontal
Stresses
Deviated Well -
Equal or Unequal
Horizontal
Radial Stress -
r
Radial stress is the difference in wellbore pressure and pore pressure and
acts along the radius of the wellbore.
Since wellbore and pore pressures both stem from fluid pressure acting
equally in all directions, this pressure difference is acting perpendicular to
the wellbore wall, along the hole radius.
= -
Radial Stress = Wellbore Pressure - Pore Pressure

r w
p p
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Wellbore Stability
Page - 4 Section 3
3.2 Mechanical Stability
Hoop ( ), radial ( ), and axial ( ) stress describe the near wellbore
stress-state of the rock. is the of these
stresses in an effort to prevent shear or tensile rock failure.
Normally the stresses are compressive and create shear stress within the
rock. The more equal these stresses, the more stable the rock.

r z
Mechanical stability management
Axial -
z
Hoop -

Radial -
r
Hoop
Radial
Shear
Stress
As shown by the right side drawing above, the radial stress is resisting
shear caused by the hoop stress.
Hoop, axial, and radial stress can be calculated and the greatest and least
of the three indicated by a stress-state semicircle on the stability chart.
Shear failure occurs if the stress-state falls outside of the stability envelop.
Tensile failure occurs if the stress-state falls to the left of the shear stress
axis and exceeds the tensile strength of the rock.
S
0
S
h
e
a
r
S
tre
n
g
th
L
in
e
Stability
Envelope
Failure
Least
Stress
Greatest
Stress
Shear
Stress
Effective Compressive Stress
Stress-State
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 3
TOC
Section 3
TOC
Mechanical stability is achieved by controlling the parameters that affect
hoop, axial, and radial stress.
MW/ECD
Mud Filter Cake
Well Path - Inclination and Azimuth
Drilling/Tripping Practices
Unfavorable Conditions
Adverse Formations
Constrained Wellbore Trajectory
Mechanical stability of the well is also impacted by drilling
fluid/formation interaction. Chemical instability eventually results in
mechanical failure of the rock in shear or tension.
is also an important consideration. The longer the formation is
exposed to the drilling mud, the more near-wellbore pore pressure
increases. The rock looses support provided by the mud weight.
Controllable parameters:
Uncontrollable parameters:
Time
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
In Situ
Page - 5 Section 3
Wellbore Stability
Whenever hoop or radial stress become tensile (negative), the rock is
prone to fail in tension. Many unscheduled rig events are due to loss of
circulation caused by tensile failure.
Tensile Failure Due to
Negative Hoop Stress
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Section 3
TOC
Section 3
TOC
S
0
S
h
e
a
r
S
tre
n
g
th
L
in
e
Stability
Envelope
Failure
Envelope
Radial
Stress
Hoop
Stress
Shear
Stress
Stress-State Before
MW Decrease
Stress-State After
MW Decrease
MW Decrease
Wellbore Stability
Page - 6 Section 3
Effect of Mud Weight/ECD
Mud weight, ECD, and pressure surges on the wellbore directly effect
hoop and radial stress. An increase in MW decreases hoop stress and
increases radial stress. Similarly, a decrease in MW increases hoop stress
and decreases radial stress. The result on wellbore stability is dependent
upon the magnitude of the mud weight increase/decrease.
S
h
e
a
r
S
tre
n
g
th
L
in
e
Stability
Envelope
Failure
Radial Stress Hoop Stress
Shear
Stress Stress-State Before
MW Increase
Stress-State After
MW Increase
Increase in MW
Excessive Increase in MW
S
h
e
a
r
S
tre
n
g
th
L
in
e
Stability
Envelope
Failure
New Radial Stress
New Hoop Stress
Shear
Stress Stress-State Before
MW Increase
Stress-State After
MW Increase
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 3
TOC
Section 3
TOC
Wellbore Stability
Page - 7 Section 3
Mud Filter Cake and Permeable Formations
The filter cake plays an important role in stabilizing permeable formations.
An ideal filter cake isolates the wellbore fluids from the pore fluids next to
the wellbore. This is important for hole stability and helps prevent
differential sticking as well.
Permeable
Sand
Pores
Well
bore
Wellbore
Filter
Cake
p
w p
Ideal Filter Cake
If there is no filter cake, the pore pressure near the wellbore increases to
the hydrostatic pressure; the effective radial stress is zero. The
simultaneous decrease in effective hoop stress causes the stress-state to
move left in the stability envelope; decreasing the stability of the
formation. An ideal filter cake helps provide for a stable wellbore.
S
0
S
h
e
a
r
S
tre
n
g
th
L
in
e
Stability
Envelope
Failure
Envelope
Radial
Stress

r
= 0
Hoop
Stress

Shear
Stress
Stress-State After
Filter Cake Failure
Example of a Poor Filter Cake
Stress-State
With Good Filter Cake
The chemical composition of the mud and permeability of the formation
control the filter cake quality and the time it takes to form.
Strong
Thin
Flexible
Impermeable
Effective Compressive Stress
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 3
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Section 3
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Wellbore Stability
Page - 8
S
0
S
h
e
a
r
S
tre
n
g
th
L
in
e
Stability
Envelope
Failure
Minimum
Hoop Stress
Shear
Stress
Stress-State in Vertical
Hole Section
Stress-State in Horizontal
Hole Section
Radial
Stress
Maximum
Hoop Stress
Drilling a Horizontal Well
Section 3
Hole Inclination and Direction
The inclination and direction of the wellbore greatly impacts the stability
of the well. Unequal distribution of hoop and axial stress around the
circumference of the well tends to make the wellbore less stable.
Minimum
Hoop Stress
Maximum
Hoop Stress
Increased Vertical Stress
of the Overburden
For Equal Horizontal Stress
Drilling a horizontal well causes the
hoop and axial stress distribution
around the wellbore to change.
Before drilling from vertical, the
hoop stress is equally distributed. As
angle increases to horizontal, the
hoop stress on the high and low side
of the wellbore decreases, but the
hoop increases greatly on the
perpendicular sides.
The change in the stress-state at the wellbore wall is shown below. The
radial stress remains fixed but the increasing hoop stress increases the
stress-state.
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 3
TOC
Section 3
TOC
Wellbore Stability
Page - 9 Section 3
Bottom-hole Temperature
High bottom-hole-temperature wells can experience stability problems as
hoop stress changes because of temperature differences between the mud
and formation.
If the mud is cooler than the formatio, it reduces the hoop stress as the
formation is cooled. This reduction in hoop stress can prevent shear failure
and stabilize the hole, if the hoop stress were high due to low mud weight.
On the other hand, if the mud weight is too high and close to the fracture
gradient, excessive cooling can lower the hoop stress and make it tensile.
This could cause tensile failure or fracturing as it effectively lowers the
fracture gradient.
If the mud is hotter than the formation, exactly the opposite occurs as hoop
stress is increased. This could promote spalling or shear failure.
Consider what happens during a typical round-trip on a deep high
temperature well. During the trip, formation temperature returns to its
ambient value. This causes the hoop stress to increase. When back on
bottom and circulation resumes, the cooler mud traveling down the
drillstring reduces the temperature of the nearby formation, causing hoop
stress to decrease.
As the hot bottoms-up mud circulates past formations at shallower depths,
hoop stress increases as the mud heats up the formations.
These variations in hoop stress have the same effect as pressure surges
associated with swabbing and surging and can cause both tensile and shear
failure downhole.
Variations in Hoop Stress in a High Temperature Well
S
0
S
h
e
a
r
S
tre
n
g
th
L
in
e
Stability
Envelope
Failure
Shear
Stress
Radial
Stress
Changes in Shear
Stress on Formation
Increased Hoop Stress While POOH
Hoop Stress Prior to Trip
Decrease in Hoop Stress While Circulating Bottoms-Up
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 3
TOC
Section 3
TOC
Wellbore Stability
Page - 10 Section 3
Impact of Mechanical Stability on the Wellbore
Mechanical stability problems directly account for many unscheduled rig
events. Stability problems also effect overall drilling efficiency by altering
the shape of the hole being drilled.
Severe hole deformation occurs when extreme stress environments
are penetrated. The drawing below is indicative of such drilling. The
drawing is only a slice of the actual wellbore. Consider the path of a typical
well, and consider this deformation over several thousand feet of open hole;
it is easy to see the impact of such a wellbore on operations.
in situ
Maximum Horizontal
Stress Orientation
Shear Failure
Zone (Breakouts)
Tensile Failure
Zone
Cavity
Original
Hole Size
Encroachment of
Brittle Sands
Resulting Operational Problems Include:
!
!
!
!
!
Stuck pipe, casing, logging tools, etc.
Ineffective hole cleaning.
Ledges and breakouts.
High torque and severe slip-stick.
Drillstring failures.
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 3
TOC
Section 3
TOC
Wellbore Stability
Page - 11 Section 3
3.3 Chemical Stability
is the control of the drilling fluid/rock interaction;
usually most problematic when drilling shales.
are fine grain sedimentary rocks with very low permeability and
composed primarily of clay minerals (gumbo to shaly siltstone).
Chemical stability
Shales
Clay platelets (2 microns
and less) settling to the
mud line.
Mud at mud line, 60 - 90%
porosity. Clay platelets
maintain a water envelope
after burial. Mud readily
deforms (much like
pudding).
Compaction drives pore
water back to the sea.
Platelets begin to contact
forming pliable clay (much
like putty).
Further compaction,
geologic time, and
temperature cements the
clay platelets into shale
(less than 20% porosity).
Mud
Clay
Shale
Muddy
Water
One factor that distinguishes shale from other rock is it's sensitivity to the
water component of drilling fluids. With time, shale/water interaction will
decrease the strength of the shale; making it more prone to mechanical
stability failure.
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 3
TOC
Section 3
TOC
Wellbore Stability
Page - 12 Section 3
As shale is drilled, a sequence of events take place that can lead to the
stressing, weakening, and eventual failure of the shale. Several parameters,
described below, contribute to the chemical stability of shale.
is the transport of fluid through shale due to pressure
differential. Typically, wellbore hydrostatic pressure is greater than
formation fluid pressure. When exposed to a permeable formation, the
liquid phase of the mud is "pushed" into the pore openings by the pressure
differential.
In a highly permeable sand, the flow rate of fluid loss is sufficient to form a
filter cake that controls fluid loss. With shales, however, the filter cake
cannot develop, since the permeability of a typical shale is much less than
that of any filter cake. Also, the particle size of a typical filter cake is too
large to plug the pore throats of shale (much like trying to plug a shaker
screen with beach balls).
Advection
Advection
4500 psi
Wellbore
5000
psi
Pore
Throat
Pore
Fluid
Shale
Pore
Spaces
Well
bore
Wellbore
Capillary Effects
Drilling fluid must overcome capillary pressure to enter the pore throats of
shale. Capillary pressure, developed at the drilling fluid /pore fluid
interface, is dependent on several factors; pore throat radius, interfacial
tension, and contact angle.
When drilling water-wet shales with water base mud; surface tension
between the mud's water phase and the pore fluid is very low. Under
favorable salinity conditions, the water phase enters the pore throat.
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 3
TOC
Section 3
TOC
Wellbore Stability
Page - 13 Section 3
Osmosis
Pressure Diffusion
Osmosis is caused by the imbalance of salt concentration between the mud's
water phase and the pore water. The salinity imbalance is separated by
shale which acts as a semi-permeable membrane that allows the transport of
water only. Water moves from low salinity to high salinity until the salinity
difference (chemical activity) is balanced.
If the mud salinity is too low, water moves into the shale increasing the pore
pressure. As pore pressure increases, it has an adverse effect on stability.
If the mud salinity is too high, pore water flows into the mud system
dehydrating the shale. As pore pressure decreases, effective hoop stress
increases also promoting shear failure.
is the change in near-wellbore pore pressure relative to
time. This occurs as overbalance and osmotic pressures drive the pressure
front through the pore throat, increasing pore fluid pressure away from the
wall of the hole. This pore pressure penetration leads to a less stable
condition at and near the wellbore wall.
Pressure diffusion
4500 psi
WBM
5000
psi
Pore
Throat
Pore
Fluid
4500 psi
OBM
5000
psi
Pore
Throat
Pore
Fluid
Surface
Tension
When drilling water-wet shales with oil base mud, the capillary pressure is
very high (i.e., 8000 to 10,000 psi) due to the large interfacial tension and
extremely small pore throat radius. The high capillary pressure prevents
entry of the oil phase as overbalance pressures are very low in comparison.
However, if the salinity of the mud's water phase is not balanced with shale
salinity, water transfer through osmosis can still occur.
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 3
TOC
Section 3
TOC
Wellbore Stability
Page - 14 Section 3
As pressure diffusion increases pore pressure near the wellbore, shear
strength of the rock is reduced. The time for pressure diffusion to impact
shale may result in failure of a shale section exposed for several days.
Time required for the pressure front to penetrate a given depth depends
primarily on the permeability of the shale (connectivity of the pores) and
the pressure differential between the wellbore ( ) and pore pressure
( ).
p in situ
p
w
Swelling /Hydration
Over geologic time, mud/clay solidifies into shale as overburden stress
drives off the water envelope (dehydration) and cements the platelets with
the minerals left behind after dehydration.
After drilling, water enters the shale by advection and osmosis. Negatively
charged clay ions attract and hold the polar water. The increasing volume
of attached water produces a swelling stress that "wedges" the clay platelets
apart.
Distance From Wellbore (Hole Diameters)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
p
p
w
0 1 2
Day 1
Day 3
Day 2
Fluid Front
Pore Channel
Pressure Front
In Situ
p
Pressure
( )
( ) p
w
5000 psi
Pore Throat
4500 psi
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 3
TOC
Section 3
TOC
Wellbore Stability
Page - 15 Section 3
The swelling pressure and behavior of shales are directly related to the
type and amount of clay minerals contained in the shale. Shales with
high concentrations of negatively charged ions can produce very high
swelling pressure (50,000 psi plus).
Swelling pressure decreases the strength of the shale by destroying the
natural cement bond between the clay platelets. Brittle shale becomes
ductile and is pushed into the wellbore by the compressive hoop stress
and the swelling stress.
OVERBURDEN LOAD
Pore
Water
Natural
Cement
Shale Clay
Clay
Platelets
OVERBURDEN LOAD
OVERBURDEN LOAD
OVERBURDEN LOAD
Shale Wellbore
(1 hour)
Adsorbed
water
Swelling
Stress
Wellbore
(1 Day)
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 3
TOC
Section 3
TOC
SECTION 4
Providing AStable Wellbore
G
4.1 Planning AStable Wellbore
4.2 Warning Signs /Corrective Action
Start Start TOC TOC
Wellbore Stability
Page - 1 Section 4
.
4.0 PROVIDINGASTABLE WELLBORE
4.1 Planning AStable Wellbore

1
2
3
= Greatest effective stress
= Intermediate effective stress
= Least effective stress

v 1
=

h 3
=

H 2
=
Normal
Fault

v
=
3

H 1
=

h
=
2
Reverse
Fault
1. Potential Stability Indicators
If the answer to any of the questions below is "yes", preventive measures
should be taken.

v 2
=

H 1
=

h 3
=
Strike-slip
Fault
Indications of tectonic activity in the area?
Sudden pressure transition zones expected?
o
Adverse formations expected (reactive shale, unconsolidated or fractured
formations, abnormal or subnormally pressured zones, plastic formations?
Is wellbore inclination greater than 30 ?
o
3. Determine Magnitude of In Situ Condition (s s s )
Obtained from density logs of offset wells.
Estimated by seismic and logs.
Determined by LOT and/or logs.
v , h , H
Overburden - s
Formation Pore Pressure -
Minimum Horizontal Stress - s
v
h
p
2. Identify Stress Regime
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 4
TOC
Section 4
TOC
Wellbore Stability
Page - 2 Section 4
..
5. Research Offset Wells for Indications of Stability Problems
Offset well data is invaluable information for identification of stability
problems in the field.
Identify hole sections with stability symptoms.
List the conditions that caused the stability problem.
Identify similar problems in offset wells occurring at the same vertical
depth. Look for similarity in the conditions that caused the problem.
List the drilling parameters effecting the problem (i.e., mud type and
weight, hole angle, adverse formations, unusual drilling practices).
!
!
!
!
CHEMICAL
(Hole Enlargement /Hole Cleaning)
MECHANICAL
Reactive Shale
PLASTIC
DEFORMATION
(Tight Hole /Casing Collapse)
Mobile Salt
Mobile Shale
TENSILE
FAILURE
(Lost Circulation)
Excessive
Wellbore
Pressure
COMPRESSIONAL
FAILURE
(Hole Caving /Collapse)
Overburden Stress
Tectonic Stress
Geo-Pressured Shale
Unconsolidated Formation
Fractured Formation
WELLBORE STABILITY PROBLEMS
4. Use Core Tests or Logs to Determine Formation Rock Strength
Core Tests
Shear
Stress
Stability
Envelope
Unstable
or Failure
S
0
Effective Compressive Stress
Logs
Rock strength is estimated through correlations with sonic density logs
since slow sonic velocity and high porosity generally relate to lower rock
strength.
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 4
TOC
Section 4
TOC
Wellbore Stability
Page - 3 Section 4
4.2 Warning Signs and Corrective Action
7. Avoiding Stability Problems
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
Select an inhibitive mud for reactive formations.
Casing points should allow for mud weight windows determined
from stability analysis.
Maintain mud weight/ECD in stability window. Use down hole
ECD monitoring tools in critical wells.
Optimize well trajectory based on drilling days vs. stability.
Plan for effective hole cleaning and stuck pipe prevention.
Follow defensive drilling practices. Control ROP, surge pressures.
Train drilling team members..
No single action can prevent stability problems. Wellbore stability must be
managed by the controllable parameters.
Mud type, composition and density.
Drilling practices (minimize ECD, swab /surge pressures).
Wellbore angle and direction.
Chemical stability problems occur when reactive shales are drilled with a
non-inhibitive drilling fluid. Chemical stability is time dependent and
difficult to quantify. The drilling fluid interaction results in shale hydration
and swelling which leads to shale falling into the wellbore causing hole
enlargement and tight hole conditions.
BHAballing and slow drilling, flow line plugging, soft mushy
cuttings on shaker.
Smooth increases in torque/drag
Overpull off slips, pump pressure increasing.
Increases in mud parameters (mud weight, plastic viscosity, yield
point, cation exchange capacity (CEC), and low gravity solids).
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
Chemical Stability
Warning Signs of Chemical Stability Problems
6. Select Mud System and Determine Mud Weight Window
Stability spreadsheets and analysis tools are used to determine the mud
weight window for each hole section.
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 4
TOC
Section 4
TOC
Wellbore Stability
Page - 4 Section 4
Preventive /Corrective Measures
Chemical stability problems are prevented by selecting proper mud type and
composition. Initial corrective measures are to use suitable mud additives. If
the problem persists, replacing the existing mud with a more inhibitive mud
may be necessary.
Addition of various salts (K, Na, Ca) to balance water activity.
Addition of glycol to reduce chemical attraction of water to shale.
Addition of various "coating" polymers (PHPA, etc.) to reduce
water contact with shale.
Use of oil base or synthetic oil base mud to exclude water contact
and entry into shale.
Minimize the open hole exposure time.
Plan regular wiper trips.
Minimize surge/swab pressures.
Ensure adequate hydraulics for bit and hole cleaning.
Maintain required mud properties.
Use minimum mud weight, if possible.
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
Mechanical Stability
Mechanical instability is related to incorrect mud weight /ECD and/or
well trajectory. Too low mud weight can cause hole cavings or collapse
resulting in stuck pipe. Too high mud weight /ECD can cause excessive
fluid losses to the formation or total loss of returns.
Large size and volume of cavings over shakers.
Erratic increase in torque/drag.
Hole fill on connections or trips.
Stuck pipe by hole pack-off /bridging.
Restricted circulation /increases in pump pressure.
Loss of circulation.
Loss/gain due to ballooning shales.
Two indicators of mechanical stability problems are loss of circulation
and increased volume of cavings. Partial or total loss of circulation may
be due to pressure induced or naturally existing fractures. The reduced
hydrostatic associated with loss of circulation may cause formation caving
and collapse.
Warning Signs of Mechanical Stability Problems
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 4
TOC
Section 4
TOC
Wellbore Stability
Page - 5 Section 4
Preventing Mechanical Stability Problems
The constraints on wellbore pressure are dictated by formation pressure on
the low end and fracture strength on the high end. Hydraulics planning
must also consider minimizing the shock load imposed to the wellbore.
Measures to prevent/correct mechanical stability problems include:
!
!
!
!
!
!
Increase the mud weight (if possible). The mud weight values
should be determined using a stability analysis model and past
experience if drilling in a known field.
If drilling fractured formations, it is not recommended to increase
MW. Increase the low end rheology (< 3 RPM Fann reading).
Improve hole cleaning measures. Maintain 3-rpm Fann reading
greater than 10. GPM for high-angle wells equal to 60 times the
hole diameter in inches and half this value for hole angle of less
than 35 .
Circulate on each connection. Use back reaming and wiper trips
only if hole conditions dictate.
Minimize surge/swab pressures.
Monitor torque/drag and the size and amount of cuttings on
shakers.
0
Pore
Press
Shear
Envelope
Collapse Caving
Partial Total
Loss Loss
Hydrostatic
Pressure
Break Circ
Swab
Press
Surge
Press
Circ
Press
Solids
Loading
TENSILE FAILURE STABLE SHEAR FAILURE
Wellbore Pressure Shock
Frac
Press
W
e
l
l
D
e
p
t
h
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 4
TOC
Section 4
TOC
Wellbore Stability
Page - 6 Section 4
Controlling Stability Problems
The entire rig team is responsible for detecting stability problems. Once
detected, there are many controls to consider that can provide for a stable
wellbore. The drilling supervisor, with input from rig team members must
be aware of the parameters that restore the balance between rock stress and
rock strength.
Formation
Mud
Tensile
Failure Active
Tectonics
Shear
Failure
Pore
Pressure
STABLE
UNSTABLE
Rock Strength
Rock Stress
Sand
MW
High
MW
Low
Reaming
Trip
Speed
ECD
Mobile
Salt
Shale
Strike
Slip
Tensile
Failure
Hole
Cleaning
Reverse
Fault
Time
Exposed
- Wellbore Stability -
Maintaining the Balance of
Rock Stress and Rock Strength
The drilling team must recognize the warning signs of an unstable
wellbore and adjust the drilling program accordingly to the
balance of rock stress and rock strength.
maintain
Start Start TOC TOC
Section 4
TOC
Section 4
TOC
APPENDIX
A- 1 Leak-Off Tests
A- 2 Lithology Factor (k)
A- 3 Wellbore Stress Equations
A- 4 Nomenclature

max

2
Start Start TOC TOC
Wellbore Stability
Appendix A-1
LOT data is necessary to determine the maximum mud weight for well
control and hole stability and has a direct influence on casing design. LOT
field data is also helpful for planning future field drilling and production
operations because it measures the minimum horizontal stress (s ). The
minimum horizontal stress is important for wellbore stability analysis.
Consistency in LOT procedure, accuracy in reading test pressures and
proper data reporting all have a direct impact on the quality of this
information. Refer to document F96-P-24, Standardization of Leak-off Test
Procedure for more detail.
Preparation is a key factor in achieving good quality LOT data. Before
testing begins:
Check offset well leak-off data for expected leak-off test pressure, pump
rates, test problems or any unusual conditions.
Check logs for exposed sands to anticipate straight or curved line
pressure plot.
Check for hole washouts to anticipate problems with the cement job.
Perform a casing integrity test (CIT). Test pressure at any point not to
exceed 80% of casing burst.
Construct a LOT chart.
1. Drill out the shoe, rathole and 10 to 15 feet of new hole.
2. Circulate the hole clean and condition the mud to a consistent density.
3. Pull the drillstring +/-10 feet above the shoe.
4. Rig up the cement pump on the drillstring and pressure test system.
5. Close the annular BOP and begin the leak-off test.
6. Maintain a constant pump rate during test (1/4 to 1 bbl/min maximum).
7. Plot the pressure every 1/4 barrel pumped.
h
!
!
!
!
!
LOT Procedure
A- 1 Leak-off Tests
Start Start TOC TOC
Appendix
TOC
Appendix
TOC
Wellbore Stability
Appendix A-1
10 to 15
Feet
Test
psi
The initial volume pumped
results in fluid compression
and expansion of the
wellbore. After this initial
phase, pressure increases
linearly with barrels pumped.
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Linear
Increase
Shut-in Time
(Minutes)
0
0 10 20
1 2 3 4
Fluid
Compression
Stop Pump
Initial Shut-in Pressure (ISIP)
Min. Horizontal Stress (s )
h
Record every min for 20 minutes
or until pressure stabilizes
Leak off
Barrels
Leak-off pressure (LOP)
initial shut in
pressure (ISIP)
minimum horizontal stress (s )
is the first point where there is a permanent
decrease in the slope (usually equal to or greater than the minimum stress
pressure). When the pump is stopped, pressure falls to the
due to the loss of friction pressure.
The is the first point after a permanent
decrease in the slope (usually equal to or less than LOP). Retest to confirm
minimum stress measurement.
As the formation is either fractured naturally or fractured during the drilling
operation, leak-off test pressure should range between 1 to 1.1 times the
minimum horizontal stress.
h
Start Start TOC TOC
Appendix
TOC
Appendix
TOC
Wellbore Stability
Appendix A-2
k =
s -
h
p
s -
v
p
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e
Shut-in Time
(Minutes)
0
0 10 20
1 2 3 4
Stop Pump
Initial Shut-in Pressure (ISIP)
Min Horizontal
Stress - s
h
Leak off
Barrels
The Lithology Factor ( ) Calculated from LOT Data k
A- 2 Lithology Factors
Using Poisson's Ratio ( to Calculate the Lithology Factor )
k =

1 -
Clay .17
very wet .50
Conglomerate .2
Dolomite .21
Limestone:
fine, medium .28
medium, calcarenitic .31
porous .20
stylolitic .27
fossiliferous .09
bedded fossils .17
shaley .17
Sandstone:
coarse .05
coarse, cemented .10
fine .03
medium .06
poorly sorted, clayey .24
fossiliferous .01
Shale:
calcereous .14
dolomitic .28
siliceous .12
silty .17
sandy .12
kerogenaceous .25
Siltstone .08
Slate .13
From, Weurker H. G.:
"Annotated Tables of Strength and Elastic Properties of Rocks", Drilling, reprint Series SPE
Dallas (1963)
Poisson's Ratio Poisson's Ratio
Start Start TOC TOC
Appendix
TOC
Appendix
TOC
Wellbore Stability
Appendix A-3
A- 3 Wellbore Stress Equations
Stress transformation from global to wellbore coordinates:
Where is the horizontal angle (azimuth) between s and the wellbore
and is the wellbore inclination.

h
For equal horizontal stresses ( s = s )
h H
and for a vertical well with = = 0:
Effective radial, hoop, and axial stresses at the wellbore wall:
s = ( s cos + s sin ) cos + s sin
x h H v
2 2 2 2

s = ( s cos + s sin ) sin + s cos
z h H v
2 2 2 2

s = s sin + s cos
y h H
2 2

s = sin cos cos (s - s )
xy H h

s = sin cos sin (s - s )
yz H h

s = sin cos ( s cos + s sin - s )
xz h H v

2 2
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
s = s cos + s sin
x h v
2 2

s = s sin + s cos
z h v
2 2

s = s
y h
s = sin cos ( s - s )
xz h v

s = s = 0
xy yz
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
s = s
x h
s = s
y h
s = s
z v
s = s = s = 0
xy yz xz
(12) (13) (15) (14)

r
= - p p
w

= ( s + s ) - 2 ( s - s ) cos 2 - 4 s sin 2 -
x y x y xy
p - p
w

z z x y xy
= s - ( 2 ( s - s ) cos 2 + 4 s sin 2 ) - p

r rz
= = 0

z yz xz
= 2 ( s cos - s sin ) - p
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
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Appendix
TOC
Appendix
TOC
Wellbore Stability
Appendix A- 4
A- 4 Nomenclature
p
p
k
t
formation pore pressure
wellbore pressure (hydrostatic/ECD)
s total overburden stress
s minimum horizontal stress
s maximum horizontal stress
effective overburden stress
effective minimum horizontal stress
effective maximum horizontal stress
lithology factor
Poisson's ratio
tectonic stress
angle of internal friction
coefficient of friction
S cohesive strength
effective radial stress
effective hoop stress
effective axial stress
greatest effective stress
intermediate effective stress
least effective stress
w
v
h
H
v
h
H
0
r
z
1
2
3

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Appendix
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Appendix
TOC