Welding and Allied Processes

Welding and Allied Processes

Dr.
Dr.
Pulak
Pulak
M.
M.
Pandey
Pandey
http:// http://paniit.iitd.ac.in/~pmpandey paniit.iitd.ac.in/~pmpandey
Manual Arc Welding
Fundamentals
Fundamentals
The term The term joining joining refers to welding, brazing, soldering and refers to welding, brazing, soldering and
adhesive bonding. In these process a permanent joint between the adhesive bonding. In these process a permanent joint between the
parts is formed and cannot be separated easily. parts is formed and cannot be separated easily.
The term The term assembly assembly usually refers to mechanical methods of usually refers to mechanical methods of
fastening the parts together. Some of these methods allow easy fastening the parts together. Some of these methods allow easy
disassembly, while others do not. disassembly, while others do not.
Welding is a material joining process in which two or more parts Welding is a material joining process in which two or more parts
are coalesced (joined together) at their contacting surfaces by are coalesced (joined together) at their contacting surfaces by a a
suitable application of heat and/or pressure. Sometimes parts a suitable application of heat and/or pressure. Sometimes parts are re
united together by application of pressure only without externa united together by application of pressure only without external l
heat. heat.
In some welding process a In some welding process a filler filler material is added to facilitate material is added to facilitate
coalescence. coalescence.
Welding is most commonly associated with metallic parts but for Welding is most commonly associated with metallic parts but for
plastics also it is used. plastics also it is used.
Types of welding processes
Types of welding processes

Solid state welding processes
Solid state welding processes

Liquid state welding processes
Liquid state welding processes

Solid / Liquid state bonding processes
Solid / Liquid state bonding processes
Solid
Solid
-
-
state Welding Processes
state Welding Processes
In solid state welding the surfaces to be joined are In solid state welding the surfaces to be joined are
brought into close proximity by: brought into close proximity by:
Heating the surfaces without causing melting and Heating the surfaces without causing melting and
applying normal pressure applying normal pressure
Providing relative motion between the two surfaces and Providing relative motion between the two surfaces and
applying light normal pressure applying light normal pressure
Applying high pressure without heating Applying high pressure without heating
In these processes the materials remain in solid In these processes the materials remain in solid
state and welding is achieved through the state and welding is achieved through the
application of heat and pressure, or high pressure application of heat and pressure, or high pressure
only only
Forge welding
Forge welding
Forge welding is the oldest method of welding in the category of Forge welding is the oldest method of welding in the category of
solid state welding. solid state welding.
Surfaces to be joined are heated till they are red hot and then Surfaces to be joined are heated till they are red hot and then
forced together by hammering. forced together by hammering.
It is a crude method of welding and quality depends upon the It is a crude method of welding and quality depends upon the
skill of the welder. skill of the welder.
A modern version of this type of welding is manufacture of butt A modern version of this type of welding is manufacture of butt- -
welded pipes. In this process, the welded pipes. In this process, the skulp skulpheated up to the required heated up to the required
welding temperature is pulled through die which forces the two welding temperature is pulled through die which forces the two
edges of the heated edges of the heated skulp skulpto contact under pressure and get to contact under pressure and get
welded. welded.
Friction Welding
Friction Welding
In this process the two surfaces to be welded are rotated relati In this process the two surfaces to be welded are rotated relative ve
to each other under light normal pressure. When the interface to each other under light normal pressure. When the interface
temperature reaches due to frictional rubbing and when it reache temperature reaches due to frictional rubbing and when it reaches s
the required welding temperature, sufficient normal pressure is the required welding temperature, sufficient normal pressure is
applied and maintained until the two pieces get welded. applied and maintained until the two pieces get welded.
Explosion Welding
Explosion Welding
Welding is achieved in this process by very high contact pre Welding is achieved in this process by very high contact pressure ssure
developed by detonating a thin layer of explosive placed over on developed by detonating a thin layer of explosive placed over one e
of the pieces to be joined. The detonation imparts high kinetic of the pieces to be joined. The detonation imparts high kinetic
energy to the piece which on striking the other piece causes pla energy to the piece which on striking the other piece causes plastic stic
deformation and squeezes the contaminated surface layers out of deformation and squeezes the contaminated surface layers out of
the interface resulting in a high quality welded joint. No fille the interface resulting in a high quality welded joint. No filler r
material is used and no diffusion takes place. The nature of bon material is used and no diffusion takes place. The nature of bond is d is
metallurgical, in many cases combined with a mechanical metallurgical, in many cases combined with a mechanical
interlocking that results from rippled or wavy interface between interlocking that results from rippled or wavy interface betweenthe the
metals. metals.
Liquid State (Fusion) Welding Processes
Liquid State (Fusion) Welding Processes
Arc Welding Arc Welding
Resistance welding Resistance welding
Oxyfuel gas welding Oxyfuel gas welding
Other processes Other processes
There are two inherent problems with fusion There are two inherent problems with fusion
welding welding
Effect of Effect of localized heating and rapid cooling localized heating and rapid cooling on the on the
microstructure and properties of the parent metals. microstructure and properties of the parent metals.
Effect of residual stresses developed in the parent Effect of residual stresses developed in the parent
metals due to restrained expansion or contraction. This metals due to restrained expansion or contraction. This
effect the impact and fatigue life of effect the impact and fatigue life of weldment weldment. .
Arc Welding
Arc Welding
In In Electric Arc Welding Electric Arc Welding a sustained arc provides the heat required a sustained arc provides the heat required
for melting the parent as well as filler material. for melting the parent as well as filler material.
The The workpiece workpieceand the electrode are connected to the two materials and the electrode are connected to the two materials
of the power source. The arc is started by momentarily touching of the power source. The arc is started by momentarily touching
the electrode on to the the electrode on to the workpiece workpieceand then withdrawing it to a short and then withdrawing it to a short
distance (a few mm) from the distance (a few mm) from the workpiece workpiece. .
When the electrode and When the electrode and workpiece workpieceare in contact, current flows and are in contact, current flows and
when they are separated an arc is generated and the current when they are separated an arc is generated and the current
continues to flow. continues to flow.
The arc is generated by the electrons liberated form cathode and The arc is generated by the electrons liberated form cathode and
moving towards anode. moving towards anode.
The arc changes electrical energy into heat and light. The arc changes electrical energy into heat and light.
Arc and power Source characteristics are given in the Arc and power Source characteristics are given in the figure figure. .
About 70% of the heat liberated due to striking of electrons at About 70% of the heat liberated due to striking of electrons at
anode raises the anode temperature to a very values (5,000 to anode raises the anode temperature to a very values (5,000 to
30,000 30,000
o o
C). This heat melts the base metal as well as tip of the C). This heat melts the base metal as well as tip of the
electrode in the area surrounding the arc. electrode in the area surrounding the arc.
A weld is formed when when when the mixture of molten base A weld is formed when when when the mixture of molten base
and electrode metal solidifies in the weld area. and electrode metal solidifies in the weld area.
Since 70% heat is generated at anode a Since 70% heat is generated at anode a workpiece workpiececonnected to connected to
anode will melt 50% faster as compared to if connected with anode will melt 50% faster as compared to if connected with
cathode. This is why cathode. This is why workpiece workpieceis usually made positive and is usually made positive and
electrode as negative and is termed as straight polarity. electrode as negative and is termed as straight polarity.
When the work and electrode connections are reversed, reversed When the work and electrode connections are reversed, reversed
polarity is said to be employed. polarity is said to be employed.
Both direct current (DC) and alternating currents (AC) are used Both direct current (DC) and alternating currents (AC) are used
in arc welding. AC machines are less expensive to purchase and in arc welding. AC machines are less expensive to purchase and
operate, but generally restricted to welding of ferrous metals. operate, but generally restricted to welding of ferrous metals.
DC equipment can be used on all metals with good results and is DC equipment can be used on all metals with good results and is
generally noted for better arc control. generally noted for better arc control.
The used can be either non The used can be either non- -consumable or consumable. consumable or consumable.
Consumable electrodes usually have a coating on its outer surfac Consumable electrodes usually have a coating on its outer surface e
which on melting release gases like hydrogen or carbon dioxide t which on melting release gases like hydrogen or carbon dioxide to o
form a protective covering around the molten pool. form a protective covering around the molten pool.
The electrode coating also reacts to from slag which is a liquid The electrode coating also reacts to from slag which is a liquid, lighter , lighter
than the molten metal. The slag therefore rises to the surface a than the molten metal. The slag therefore rises to the surface and on nd on
solidification forms a protective covering over the hot metal. T solidification forms a protective covering over the hot metal. This also his also
slows down the rate of cooling of the weld. The slag layer can b slows down the rate of cooling of the weld. The slag layer can be e
removed by light chipping. Electric arc welding of this type is removed by light chipping. Electric arc welding of this type is known known
as as Shielded Metal Arc Welding Shielded Metal Arc Welding. More than 50% industrial arc welding . More than 50% industrial arc welding
is done by this method. Limitation of this process is that only is done by this method. Limitation of this process is that only straight straight
electrodes can be used as the coating is brittle. electrodes can be used as the coating is brittle.
For continuous arc welding operations, the consumables electrode For continuous arc welding operations, the consumables electrodeis is
bare wire in the form of a coil and the flux us fed into the wel bare wire in the form of a coil and the flux us fed into the welding ding
zone, or the weld area is covered by an inert gas. In zone, or the weld area is covered by an inert gas. In Submerged Arc Submerged Arc
Welding Weldingthe base electrode is shielded by granular flux supplied from the base electrode is shielded by granular flux supplied from
a hopper, while is a hopper, while is Gas Metal Arc Welding Gas Metal Arc Weldingshielding of the area is shielding of the area is
provided by an inert gas such as argon, helium, carbon dioxide , provided by an inert gas such as argon, helium, carbon dioxide , etc. etc.
Non consumable arc welding processes use tungsten electrodes Non consumable arc welding processes use tungsten electrodes
and shielding is provided by an inert gas around the weld area. and shielding is provided by an inert gas around the weld area.
Once such process, the Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) is Once such process, the Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) is
also called as also called as Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding. welding.
It uses tungsten alloy electrode and helium gas shield. Because It uses tungsten alloy electrode and helium gas shield. Because
of inert gas atmosphere tungsten is not consumed. Filler of inert gas atmosphere tungsten is not consumed. Filler
materials supplied by a separate rod or wire. materials supplied by a separate rod or wire.
Arc Welding
Arc Welding
Back
Back
Arc and Power Source Characteristics in
Arc and Power Source Characteristics in
Arc Welding
Arc Welding
Arc Characteristics Power Source Characteristics
Back
Submerged Arc Welding
Submerged Arc Welding
Back
Gas Metal Arc Welding
Gas Metal Arc Welding
Back
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding
(TIG)
(TIG)
Resistance Spot Welding
Resistance Spot Welding
Two opposing solid cylindrical electrodes are pressed against th Two opposing solid cylindrical electrodes are pressed against the lap e lap
joint and two metallic sheets to be welded. joint and two metallic sheets to be welded.
Current ranges 3,000 to 40,000 Ampere depending on the Current ranges 3,000 to 40,000 Ampere depending on the
requirement causes a weld nugget of size varying from 6 to 10 mm requirement causes a weld nugget of size varying from 6 to 10 mm
diameter to be formed at the metallic interface. diameter to be formed at the metallic interface.
The current is switched on for a duration lasting 0.1 to 0.5 sec The current is switched on for a duration lasting 0.1 to 0.5 sec. .
At low pressures, the resistance and heat are high and melted me At low pressures, the resistance and heat are high and melted metal tal
tend to squeeze out of the weld. tend to squeeze out of the weld.
At high pressure, the resistance decreases and heat is less and At high pressure, the resistance decreases and heat is less and
smaller weld formed provides lower weld strength. Thus, for a gi smaller weld formed provides lower weld strength. Thus, for a given ven
set of conditions, optimum electrode current and electrode press set of conditions, optimum electrode current and electrode pressure ure
are indicated. are indicated.
The time duration of current flow should not be beyond certain The time duration of current flow should not be beyond certain
critical, because the heat then has a chance to spread out and h critical, because the heat then has a chance to spread out and harm arm
workpiece workpieceand electrode. and electrode.
Optimum values of current, pressure and their application timing Optimum values of current, pressure and their application timingare are
dependent on weld size and material. dependent on weld size and material.
Seam Welding
Seam Welding
Automatic Spot Welding Operation
Automatic Spot Welding Operation
Performed by a Robot
Performed by a Robot
Oxyfuel Welding
Oxyfuel Welding
OFW is the term to describe the group of fusion OFW is the term to describe the group of fusion
operations that burn various fuels mixed with oxygen to operations that burn various fuels mixed with oxygen to
perform welding. perform welding.
The OFW processes employ several type of gases, which The OFW processes employ several type of gases, which
is the primary distinction among the members of this is the primary distinction among the members of this
group. group.
The most important OFW process is oxyacetylene The most important OFW process is oxyacetylene
welding. Filler materials are used to supply additional welding. Filler materials are used to supply additional
material to the weld zone. Flux is often used to clean the material to the weld zone. Flux is often used to clean the
surfaces and to retard oxidation by providing inert gas surfaces and to retard oxidation by providing inert gas
shield around the weld area. It also helps in removing shield around the weld area. It also helps in removing
oxide and other impurities. Borax, is the most common oxide and other impurities. Borax, is the most common
flux, but sometimes other substances are added to flux, but sometimes other substances are added to
improve its effectiveness. improve its effectiveness.
Salient points about oxyacetylene welding Salient points about oxyacetylene welding
The heat is obtained by combustion of acetylene The heat is obtained by combustion of acetylene
and oxygen. Here primary combustion occurring and oxygen. Here primary combustion occurring
in the inner zone gives: in the inner zone gives:
and the second reaction in the outer zone gives and the second reaction in the outer zone gives
The maximum temperature temperature at the tip The maximum temperature temperature at the tip
of inner cone reaches up to 3000 of inner cone reaches up to 3000- -3500 3500 C. C.
Therefore, most gas welding is performed by Therefore, most gas welding is performed by
keeping this inner zone tip just above the metal to keeping this inner zone tip just above the metal to
be welded so that maximum temperature is be welded so that maximum temperature is
available for welding. available for welding.
Heat H CO O H C + + +
2 2 2 2
2
Heat O H CO O H CO + + + +
2 2 2 2
2 5 . 1 2
Temperature distribution along the flame
Temperature distribution along the flame
A A neutral flame neutral flame is obtained when the ratio of is is obtained when the ratio of is
oxygen and acetylene is 1. Most gas welding oxygen and acetylene is 1. Most gas welding
operations are carried out by this flame. operations are carried out by this flame.
An An oxidizing flame oxidizing flame is obtained when this ratio is more is obtained when this ratio is more
than 1. This type of flame is not suitable for welding of than 1. This type of flame is not suitable for welding of
steels since excess oxygen present reacts with carbon in steels since excess oxygen present reacts with carbon in
steel and is generally used for welding of copper and its steel and is generally used for welding of copper and its
alloys. alloys.
When the ratio in mixture is less than 1 a When the ratio in mixture is less than 1 a carburizing carburizing
flame flame is obtained. In this type of flame acetylene is obtained. In this type of flame acetylene
decomposes into carbon and hydrogen and the flame decomposes into carbon and hydrogen and the flame
temperature gets reduced. J oining operations such as temperature gets reduced. J oining operations such as
brazing and soldering which require lower temperature brazing and soldering which require lower temperature
generally use this flame. generally use this flame.
Flame Cutting
Flame Cutting
Metal is merely melted by the Metal is merely melted by the
flame of the flame of the oxyfuel oxyfuel gas torch gas torch
and blown away to form a gap or and blown away to form a gap or
kerf kerf. .
When ferrous metal is cut, When ferrous metal is cut,
actually burning of iron takes actually burning of iron takes
place according to one or more of place according to one or more of
the following reactions. the following reactions.
Q O Fe O Fe
Q O Fe O Fe
Q Feo O Fe
+ +
+ +
+ +
3 2 2
4 3 2
2 3 4
2 3
Because, these reactions cannot take place below 815 Because, these reactions cannot take place below 815 C C oxyfuel oxyfuel flame flame
is first used to raise the metal temperature where burning can b is first used to raise the metal temperature where burning can be e
initiated. Then a stream of pure oxygen is added to the torch (o initiated. Then a stream of pure oxygen is added to the torch (or the r the
oxygen content of the oxygen content of the oxyfuel oxyfuel mixture is increased) to oxidize the mixture is increased) to oxidize the
iron. The liquid iron and iron oxides are then expelled from the iron. The liquid iron and iron oxides are then expelled from thejoint joint
by the kinetic energy of the oxygen gas stream. by the kinetic energy of the oxygen gas stream.
Low rate of heat input, and need of preheating ahead of the cut, Low rate of heat input, and need of preheating ahead of the cut,
oxyfuel oxyfuel produces a relatively large heat affected zone and thus produces a relatively large heat affected zone and thus
associated distortion zone. associated distortion zone.
The process is suitable when edge finish or tolerance is not cri The process is suitable when edge finish or tolerance is not critical. tical.
Theoretically heat generated due to burning of Fe is sufficient Theoretically heat generated due to burning of Fe is sufficient to to
continue cutting however due to losses additional heat supply is continue cutting however due to losses additional heat supply is
needed. If the work is already hot due from the other processes, needed. If the work is already hot due from the other processes,
supply of oxygen through a small diameter pipe is needed to cont supply of oxygen through a small diameter pipe is needed to continue inue
cut. This is called Oxygen Lance Cutting. A cut. This is called Oxygen Lance Cutting. A workpiece workpiecetemperature of temperature of
1200 1200 C is needed to sustain the cutting. C is needed to sustain the cutting.
Low carbon steel from 5 to 75 mm can be cut. Low carbon steel from 5 to 75 mm can be cut.
Welding Defects
Welding Defects
Cracks ( Cracks (figure figure) )
This causes significant reduction in the strength of This causes significant reduction in the strength of weldment weldment. .
Welding cracks are caused by Welding cracks are caused by embrittlement embrittlement or low ductility or low ductility
of the weld and/or base metal combined with high restraint of the weld and/or base metal combined with high restraint
during contraction. during contraction.
Cavities Cavities
These includes porosity and shrinkage voids. These includes porosity and shrinkage voids.
Solid inclusions Solid inclusions
These are metallic or non These are metallic or non- -metallic solid material particles metallic solid material particles
entrapped in the weld metal. The most common form is slag entrapped in the weld metal. The most common form is slag
inclusion or metallic oxides. inclusion or metallic oxides.
Incomplete fusion ( Incomplete fusion (figure figure) )
A similar defect is lack of penetration. A similar defect is lack of penetration.
Imperfect shape ( Imperfect shape (figure figure) )
Miscellaneous defects like arc strike, excessive spatter Miscellaneous defects like arc strike, excessive spatter
Various forms of Welding Cracks
Several form incomplete fusion
Solid / Liquid State Bonding
Solid / Liquid State Bonding
Low temperature joining methods are used when Low temperature joining methods are used when
the metal to be joined cannot withstand high the metal to be joined cannot withstand high
temperature, or intricate sections are to be joined, temperature, or intricate sections are to be joined,
or dissimilar metals are to be joined, or or dissimilar metals are to be joined, or
weldability weldabilityof material is poor. of material is poor.
In these methods, the gap between the metal In these methods, the gap between the metal
pieces to be joined is filled with molten filler pieces to be joined is filled with molten filler
material after heating the base metal. Melting material after heating the base metal. Melting
point of filler material is much lower than base point of filler material is much lower than base
metals. metals.
The bonding is not due to melting of parent metal The bonding is not due to melting of parent metal
and fusion. and fusion.
Filler material is drawn into the gap between the Filler material is drawn into the gap between the
metal pieces to be joined by capillary action and the metal pieces to be joined by capillary action and the
bond formation is initiated when the molten filer bond formation is initiated when the molten filer
metal comes under intimate contact with the solid metal comes under intimate contact with the solid
surface as in solid state welding. surface as in solid state welding.
The nature of bond formed is much complex here, The nature of bond formed is much complex here,
and invariably there is some degree of and invariably there is some degree of intersolubility intersolubility
between filler and base metals. between filler and base metals.
This inter This inter- -diffusion at the base metal surface and diffusion at the base metal surface and
resulting alloy has a strength which is very close to resulting alloy has a strength which is very close to
that the base metal. that the base metal.
For a good joint strength the For a good joint strength the
liquid filler metal; must flow into liquid filler metal; must flow into
the gap between the metal pieces the gap between the metal pieces
to be joined and cover the entire to be joined and cover the entire
surface area, without gaps or blow surface area, without gaps or blow
holes. The following usually holes. The following usually
insures good bonding: insures good bonding:
Clean base metal surfaces Clean base metal surfaces
Maintain optimum gap Maintain optimum gap
Heat the joining area above melting Heat the joining area above melting
temperature of the filler material temperature of the filler material
Use fluxes for welding of base metal Use fluxes for welding of base metal
surfaces. surfaces.
J oint strength is sensitive to the J oint strength is sensitive to the
gap and there exists an optimum gap and there exists an optimum
gap for a filler material. gap for a filler material.
Brazing
Brazing
Brazing methods
(a) Torch and
filler rods
(b) Ring of filler
metal at
entrance of
gap
(c) Foil of filler
metal between
flat part
surfaces

In brazing the joint is made by heating the
In brazing the joint is made by heating the
base metal red hot and filling the gap with
base metal red hot and filling the gap with
molten metal whose melting temperature is
molten metal whose melting temperature is
typically above 450
typically above 450

C but below melting

C but below melting
temperature o base metal. The filler metals
temperature o base metal. The filler metals
are generally copper alloys. Cu
are generally copper alloys. Cu
-
-
Zn and Cu
Zn and Cu
-
-
Ag alloys are used for brazing because they
Ag alloys are used for brazing because they
form alloy with iron and have good
form alloy with iron and have good
strength.
strength.

Various brazing joints are shown in
Various brazing joints are shown in
figure
figure
.
.
(a) Conventional butt
(b) Scarf joint
(c) Stepped joint
(d) Increased crossest ion
(a) Conventional Lap
(b) Cylindrical part
(c) Sandwiched part
(d) Use of sleeve
Common braze metal families
Common braze metal families
Soldering
Soldering
Soldering is very similar to brazing except that Soldering is very similar to brazing except that
filler material is usually a lead filler material is usually a lead- -tin based alloy tin based alloy
which has much lower strength and melting which has much lower strength and melting
temperature around 250 temperature around 250 C. C.
In this process less alloying action between base In this process less alloying action between base
metal and filler material as compared to brazing metal and filler material as compared to brazing
takes place hence the strength of joint is lesser. takes place hence the strength of joint is lesser.
It is carried out using electrical resistance heating. It is carried out using electrical resistance heating.
J oints in Soldering
J oints in Soldering
(a) Flat lock seam (b) Bolted or riveted joint (c) Copper
pipe fitting (d) Crimping of cylindrical lap joint.
(a) Crimped lead
wire PC board
(b) Plated through
hole on PC
board to
maximize
solder contact
area
(c) Hooked wire
on flat
terminals
(d) Twisted wires
Some common solder alloy
Some common solder alloy
compositions
compositions
Comparison of welding processes
Comparison of welding processes