on

MANUFACTURING OF GEAR
Deptt. of Mechanical Engineering
Bansal Institute of Engineering and
Technology, Lucknow
Submitted by : Submitted by
UTKARSH MISHRA Mr. SHIV DARSHAN SINGH YADAV
Roll No. : 1142240055 (Head of Department mechanical )
1
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is with great pleasure that I acknowledge the support of
Mr. sandeep kumar(Chief Engineer), Machine Shops as well as the employees
of Machine Shop, Tool Room, Lab Room, Assembly Shop and Quality
Department.
To be thanked also are the machine operators and other factory
employees, who cooperated with me and made it sure that I learn something
from the operation that they are performing.
(SOURABH BANARJEE)
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CONTENTS
Particulars Page No.
Gear manufacturing process 4
Asseml! of "ear 15
#ore "rindin" 1$
H!dra%llic ore "rindin" process 1&
'ace "rindin" process 21
'or"in" 23
Heat treatment 2(
Hardenin" )rocess 31
)ost Hardenin" )rocess 42
*hot )eenin" 43
+#AR ,aterial *election 43
Hoin" )rocess 45
Ro%"h 'acin" - #orin" 4$
*plin #roachin" 4(
.oncl%sion 4&
#ilio"raph! 50
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5
GEAR MANUFACTURING PROCESS
GEAR MANUFACTURING PROCESS
1. 1. Introduction
Gears are used extensively for transmission of power. They fnd application
in: Automobiles, gear boxes, oil engines, machine tools, industrial
machinery,
agricultural machinery, geared motors etc. To meet the strenuous service
conditions the gears should have: robust construction, reliable performance,
high eciency, economy and long life. Also, the gears should be fatigue
free
and free from high stresses to avoid their fre!uent failures. The gear drives
should be free form noise, chatter and should ensure high load carrying
capacity at constant velocity ratio. To meet all the above conditions, the
gear
manufacture has become a highly speciali"ed feld. #elow, we shall discuss
the various materials and manufacturing processes to produce gears.
1. 2. Materials used in gear anu!acturing "rocess
The various materials used for gears include a wide variety of cast irons,
non
ferrous material $non % material materials the selection of the gear material
depends
upon:&
i' Type of service
ii' (eripheral speed
iii' )egree of accuracy re!uired
iv' *ethod of manufacture
v' +e!uired dimensions $ weight of the drive
vi' Allowable stress
vii' ,hoc- resistance
/
viii' .ear resistance.
/' 0ast iron is popular due to its good wearing properties, excellent
machinability $ 1ase of producing complicated shapes by the casting
method. 2t is suitable where large gears of complicated shapes are needed.
3' ,teel is suciently strong $ highly resistant to wear by abrasion.
4' 0ast steel is used where stress on gear is nigh $ it is dicult to fabricate
the
gears.
4' (lain carbon steels fnd application for industrial gears where high
toughness
combined with high strength.
5' Alloy steels are used where high tooth strength $ low tooth wear are
re!uired.
6' Aluminum is used where low inertia of rotating mass is desired.
7' Gears made of non % *etallic materials give noiseless operation at high
peripheral speeds.
1. #. Classi$cation o! gears
1. Milling "rocess
%i& 'isc t("e cutter
%ii& End ill cutter
2. Gear "lanning "rocess
%i& T)e Sunderland "rocess
%ii& T)e Maag "rocess
#. Gear s)a"ers
%i& Rac* + t("e cutter generating "rocess
%ii& Pinion t("e cutter generating "rocess
,. Gear )o--ing
%i& A.ial )o--ing
%ii& Radial )o--ing
%iii& Tangential )o--ing
$
/. 0e1el gear generating
%i& Straig)t 0e1el + gear generator
%ii& s"iral -e1el +gear Generator
1. ,. Gear anu!acture -( casting et)od23
Gears can be produced by the various casting processes. ,end casting is
economical and can ta-e up large si"e and module, but the gears have
rough
surfaces and are inaccurate dimensionally. These gears are used in
machinery
where operating speed is low and where noise and accuracy of motion can
be
tolerated, for example, farm machinery and some hand operated devices.
,end casting is suitable for one o8 or small batches. 9arge !uantities of
small
gears are made by :)ie % 0asting;. These gears are fairly accurate and
need
little fnishing. <owever the materials used are low melting ones, such as
alloys of "inc, aluminum and copper so, there gears are suitable for light
duty
applications only =light loads at moderate speeds', for example, gears used
in
toys. 0ameras and counters and counters etc. Gears made by :2nvestment
0asting; may be accurate with good surface fnish. These can be made of
strong materials to withstand heavy loads. *oderate % si"e gears are
currently being steel cast in metal moulds to produce performs which are
later forged to si"e. 9ight gears of thermoplastics are made by :2n>ection
*oulding;. This method is satiable for large volume production. <owever,
gear tooth accuracy is no high and initial tool cost is high. These gears fnd
use in instruments, household appliances etc.
?or phosphor bron"e worm wheel rims, :centrifugal casting; is used
far more extensively than any other method. 0entrifugal casting is also
(
applied to the manufacture of steel gears. #oth vertical and hori"ontal axis
spinners are used. After casting, the gears are annealed or nomali"ed to
remove cooling stresses. They may then be heat treated, if re!uired, to
provide the needed properties. 0entrifugally cast gears perform as well as
rolled =discussed ahead' gears and are usually less expensive. :,hell
moulding; is also sometimes used to produce small gears and the product
is
a good cast gear of somewhat lower accuracy than one made by
investment
casting but much superior to sand casting.
1. /. Met)ods o! !oring gears
1. /. 1. Roll !oring23
2n roll forming, the gears blan- is mounted on a shaft $ is pressed against
hardened steel of rolling dies. The rolls are fed inward gradually during
several revolutions which produce the gear teeth. The forming rolls are very
accurately made $ roll formed gear teeth usually home both by not and
cold.
2n not roll forming, the not rolled gear is usually cold %rolled which compiles
the gear with a smooth mirror fnish. 2n cold roll forming, higher pressures
are needed as compared to not rolling many of the gears produced by this
process need no further fnishing. 2t becomes stronger against tension $
fatigue. ,pur $ helical gears are made by this process.
1. /. 2. Sta"ing23
9arge !uantities of gears are made by the method -nown as stamping
@blan-ingA or @fne blan-ingA. The gears are made in a punch press from
sheetB
up to /3.7mm thin- such gears fnd application in: toys, cloc-s 4 timers,
watches, water $ 1lectric maters $ some business 1!uipment. After
stamping, the gears are shavedB they give best fnish $ accuracy. The
materials which can be stamped are: low, medium $ high carbon steels
stainless steel. This method is suitable for large volume production.
&
1. /. #. Po4der etallurg(23
<igh !uality gears can be made by powder metallurgy method. The metal
powder is pressed in dies to convert into tooth shape, after which the
product
is sintered. After sintering, the gear may be coined to in crease density $
surface fnish. This method is usually used for small gears. Gears made by
powder metallurgy method fnd application in toys, instruments, small
motor
drivers etc.
1. /. ,. E.trusion23
,mall si"ed gear can also be made by extrusion process. There is saving in
material $ machining time. This method can produce any shape of tooth $
is
suitable for high volume production gears produced by extrusion fnd
application in watches, cloc-s, type writers etc.
1. 5. GEAR GENERATING PROCESS
1. 5. 1 Gear 6o--ing23
<obbing is the process of generating gear teeth by means of a rotating
cutter
called a hob. 2t is a continues indexing process in which both the cutting
fool $ wor-
piece rotate in a constant relationship while the hob is being fed into wor-.
?or in
route gears, the hob has essentially straight sides at a given pressure
angle. The hob
and the gear blan- are connected by means of proper change gears. The
ratio of hob
$ blan- speed is such that during one revolution of the hob, the blan- turns
through
as many teeth. The teeth of hob cut into the wor- piece in ,uccessive order
$ each in
10
a slightly di8erent position. 1ach hob tooth cuts its own profle depending
on the
shape of cutter, but the accumulation on the shape of cutter, but the
accumulation of
these straight cuts produces a curved form of the gear teeth, thus the name
generating process. Cne rotation of the wor- completes the cutting up to
certain
depth.
1. 5. 2 T7PE OF 6O00ING 23
1& Arial )o--ing 23
This type of feeding method is mainly used for cutting spur or helical gears.
2n this
type, frstly the gear blan- is brought towards the hob to get the desired
tooth depth.
The table side is them clamped after that, the hob moves along the face of
the blan-
to complete the >ob. Axial hobbing which is used to cut spur $ helical gears
can be
obtained by @climb notingA or @convential hobbingD
2& Radial )o--ing 23
This method of hobbing is mainly used for cutting worm wheels. 2n this
method the
hob $ gear blan- are set with their ones normal to 1ach other. The gear
blan-
continues to rotate at a set speed about its vertical axes and the rotating
hob is given
a feed in a radial direction. As soon as the re!uired depth of tooth is cut,
feed motion
is stopped.
#& Tangential )o--ing23
11
This is another common method used for cutting worm wheel. 2n this
method, the
worm wheel blan- is rotated in a vertical plane about a hori"ontal axes. The
hob is
also held its axis or the blan-. #efore starting the cut, the hob is set at full
depth of
die tooth and then it is rotated. The rotating hob is then fed forward axially.
The
front portion of the hob is tapered up to a certain length $ gives the fed in
tangential
to the blan- face $ hence the name @Tangential feedingA.
1. 8. Gear s)a"ing 23 %T)e Fello4s "rocess&
2n gear shapers, the cutters reciprocate rapidly. The teeth are cut by the
reciprocating motion of the cutter. The cutter can either be @rac- % type
cutterA or a
rotary pinion type cutterA.
1. 8. 1. Rac* + t("e cutter generating "rocess23
The rac- cutter generating process is also called gear shaping process. 2n
this
method, the generating cutter has the form of a basic rac- for a gear to be
generated.
The cutting action is similar to a shaping machine. The cutter reciprocates
rapidly $
removes metal only during the cutting stro-e. The blan- is rotated slowly
but
uniformly about its axis and between each cutting stro-e of the cutter, the
cutter
advances along its length at a speed 1!ual to the rolling speed of the
matching pitch
lines. .hen the cutter $ the blan- have rolled a distance 1!ual to one pitch
of the
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blan-, the motion of the blan- is arrested, the cutter is with drawn from the
blan- to
give relief to the cutting 1dges $ the cutter is returned to its starting
position. The
blan- is next indexed $ the next cut is started following the same
procedure.
1. 8. 2. Pinion t("e cutter generating "rocess 23
The pinion cutter generating process is fundamentally the same as the rac-
cutter
generating process, and instead of using a rac- cutter, it uses a pinion to
generate
the tooth profle. The cutting cycle is commenced after the cutter is fed
radically into
the gear blan- 1!ual to the depth of tooth re!uired. The cutter is then given
reciprocating cutting motion parallel to its axis similar to the rac- cutter and
the
cutter $ the blan- are made to rotate slowly about their axis at speeds
which are
1!ual at the matching pitch surfaces. This rolling movement blow the teeth
on the
blan- are cut. The pinion cutter in a gear shaping mEc may be reciprocated
either in
the vertical or in the hori"ontal axis.
Ad1antages23
/' The gears produced by the method are of very high accuracy.
3' #oth internal $ external gears can be cut by this process.
4' Fon % convential types of gears can also be cut by this method.
'isad1antages23
/' The production rate with gear shaper is lower than <obbing.
3' There is no cutting on the return stro-e in a gear shaper.
4' .orm $ worm wheels canAt be generated on a gear shaper.
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1. 9. Gear cutting -( illing
1. 9. 1 'isc t("e cutter
?or cutting a gear on a milling mEc, the gear lan- is mounted on am arbor
which is supported bEw a dead centre $ a lieu centre in the in dering head.
The
cutter is mounted on the arbor of the cutter must be aligned exactly
vertically with
the centre line of the indexing head spindle. The table of mEc is moved
upward until
the cutter >ust touches the periphery of gear blan-. The vertical feed dial is
set to
"ero. The table is then moved hori"ontally until the cutter clears the gear b
lan-. The
table is then moved upwards by an amount 1!ual to the full depth of the
gear tooth.
The vertical movement may be less if the gear is to be cut in two or more
passes.
After this, the longitudinal feed of the table is engaged. The gear blan-
moves under
the rotating cutter $ a tooth space is cut. After this, the movement of the
table is
reversed so that the cutter again clears the gear blan-. The gear blan- is
then
indexed to the next position for cutting the second tooth space. This
procedure is
repeated until all the teeth have been milled.
There is a Gat circular disc type cutter and the plane of rotation of the cutter
is
radial with respect to the blan-.
1. 9. 2 End ill cutter23
14
2n this method the cutter rotates about am axis which is set racially with
respect to
the blan- $ at the same time the cutter is traversed parallel to the axes of
the blan-.
The cutting edge tie on a surface of revolution, ,o that any axial cross&
section of the
cutter corresponds to the shape re!uired for the space bEw two ad>acent
teeth on the
fnished wheel. The milling mEc used in this method is vertical milling mEc.
The 1nd mill cutter is mounted straight on the milling mEc spindle through a
chuc-.
/' The disc type of cutter is used to cut big spur gear of cutter is 1mployed
for the
manufacture of pinion of large pitch.
3' This method is very slow since only one tooth is cut at a time. To
overcome these
drawbac-s, :multiple tools shaping cutter head; is used to cut all the tooth
spaces of
the gear at the same time.
Ad1antage
/' Gear milling is a simple, 1conomical $ Gexible method of gear ma-ing.
3' ,pur, helical, bevel gears and rac-s can be produced by this method.
Used
The ana>or disadvantage of this method is that a separate cutter must be
used not
only for every piton but for every no. of teeth.
1. :. 0e1el Gear Generating
The teeth of bevel gears constantly change in form, from the large to the
small 1ncl.
There are to common types of bevel % gear generators, on cuts straight
teeth $ other
15
cuts spiral teeth.
1. :. 1 Straig)t 0e1el + gear generator 23
?or generating straight % bevel gears, the rolling motions of two pitch cones
are
employed motions of two pitch cones are employed instead of pitch
cylinder.
2n this method, two reciprocating tools which wor- on top $ bottom sides of
a tooth $ are carried on the machine cradle. The cradle $ wor- roll up
together with
the gear blan- at the top of roll, when a tooth has been completely
generated, the
wor- is withdrawn from the tool and the mEc inclined, while the cradle is
rolled
down to the starting position. The operating cycle is repeated automatically
until all
the teeth in the gear have been cut.
The advantages of this process are that a previous roughening cut is not
necessary, thus saucing one handling of the blan-, longer cutter life,
improved
!uality of gear and less set % up time.
1. :. 2 s"iral -e1el +gear Generator 23
2n this method, a rotating circular cutter generates spiral teeth that are
curved
$ obli!ue proper tooth profle shapes are obtained by relative motion in the
mEc
bEw wor- cutter. The mEc has ad>ustment by which both spiral % bevel gears
$
hypoid gears can be generated.
,piral bevel gears have an advantage have on advantage over straight
bevel
1/
gear is that teeth are 1ngage with one another gradually by eliminating any
noise $
shoc- in their operation.
1. 1; Gleason Met)od23
2n this method, two disc milling cutters are employed, fg. The tools form
the
blan-s of a tooth simulating the basic crown wheel. 0utter teeth are inter %
meshing
and the discs are inclined to each other at the pressure angle =usually 3HI'.
The
following motions are involved while cutting a tooth:
/. The rotating cutters revolve about their axes to provide the cutting
action.
3. They travel in planes passing through the sides of the teeth on the
imaginary crown gear to shape the teeth along their teeth.
4. At the same time, they participate in the relative rolling motion between
the cutters and blan- to obtain the re!uired tooth profle.
2ndexing ta-es place after each tooth space has been completed and the
machine is fully automatic in its motions. .hen gear has been completed,
the
machine stops, the cutters with drawand the wor-piece can be changed
with little
delay. This type of machine is a high production rate machine and very
useful for
dealing with large batches of identical gears.
1. 11 Te"let Gear cutting "rocess 23
The templet gear cutting process involves the production of a gear tooth
profle by a single point cutting tool, which is racy probated and made to
follow a
guided path by a templet. After one tooth is fnished, the blan- is indexed
by the
1$
usual manner. The templet method is employed for producing very large
spur gear
teeth $ for cutting accurate bevel gears.
1. 12 Gear $nis)ing "rocess23The following processes are generally
used for
fnishing of gears.
1. 12. 1 Gear s)a1ing23
Gear sharing is the most common method for gear fnishing. 2n this method,
a very
hard gear is used to ramous fne chips from the gear % tooth profle. The
sharing
cutter can be: +otary type or +ac- type in rotary shoring, the cutter $ the
gear are
run in mesh. As they rotate, the gear is traversed longitudinally across the
shaving
cutter or vie versa. The rotary sharing cutter has a member of peripheral
gashes or
grooves to from a series of cutting 1dges. The cutter $ Gear are set up in a
gear
shoring mEc with crossed axes in the form of spiral gearing. The usual
angles are /HI
to /5I.
2n roc- sharing, the cutter is in the form of a rac-. )uring the operation, the
gear is rolled in mesh with the cutter. The cutter is reciprocated $ at the
1nd of 1ach
stro-e is fed into the year.
1. 12. 2 Gear grindings23
Grindings is the most accurate method of gear fnishing. #y grinding, teeth
can be fnished either by generation or forming. 2n forming, the wor- is
made to roll
1(
in contact with a fat faced rotating grinding wheel, corresponding to the
face of the
imaginary rac- meshing with the gear. Cne side of the tooth is ground at a
time.
After the grinding wheel is given the shape by space bEw two ad>acent
teeth. #oth
Gan-s are fnished together.
The second method tends to be rather !uic-er, but both give e!ually
accurate
results and which of the methods is to be used depends upon the
availability of the
type of grinding mEc.
'isad1antage.
/' 0onsiderable time is consumed in the process.
3' 9ow production capacity.
4' Grinding wheels are 1xpensive.
1. 12. # Gear lo""ing23
2t is another extensively used process of gear fnishing $ it is accomplished
by
having the gear in contact with one or more cast iron lap gear of true shape
the wor-
is mounted bEw centre $ is slowly driven by rear lap. 2t is in term driven the
front
lap $ at the same time both laps are rapidly reciprocated across the gear
face. 1ach
lap has individual ad>ustment $ pressure control. A fne abrasive is used
with
-erosene or light oil to assist the cutting action. The largest time of gear
lapping is
about /5 minutes. (rolonged lapping damages the profle.
1. 12. , S)ot -lasting23
1&
2t provides a fnishing process resembling that produced by lapping
although it has
other functions, such as removing slight burrs, reducing stress
concentration in tooth
fllets $ sometimes providing slight tip $ root relief to teeth.
1. 12. / P)os")ate coating23
2t is a chemical process which attac-s the treated ferrous surface and
leaves a deposit
on it about H.H/ mm. in thic-ness. 2t prevents from scung, particularly in
hypoid
gears, by permitting the 1ngaging tooth ,urface under the prevailing
boundary
lubrication conditions.
1. 1# Gear "lanning23
This is one of the oldest methods of gear production but is still extensively
used. 2t
employs rac- type cutters for generation of spur $ helical gears. 2nvolutes
rac- has
straight 1dges $ sharp corners can be =1asily' manufactured easily $
accurately.
There are two types of gear planning machines, one based on @The
,underland
process $ the other on @The *aag processA #oth the methods are identical
in
principle but di8er in mEc confguration $ detail.
1. 1#. 1 T)e Sunderland "rocess23
2n this method, the wor- =gear balance' is mounted with axis hori"ontal $
the
cutter slide is carried on a saddle position that moves vertically downward
as
20
cutting proceeds. ?or cutting super gears, the cutter reciprocates parallel to
the wor-
axis =but' because it can be swiveled in the vertical plane to any desired
angle. The
mEc is also used for cutting single helical gears. The cutter is gradually fed
to the
desired depth of teeth after which the depth remains constant.
,imultaneously the
gear blan- is rotating $ rac- is traversed at a tangent, the motion of rac- $
blan-
being geared to act on their respective pitch lines. This relative motion
beings fresh
part of the blan- $ rac- into contact $ thus causes the teeth of the cutter to
generate
wheel teeth of the cutter to generate wheel teeth. The indexing really
consisting
slopping the rotation of the blan- $ causing the rac- to moue. The process
is
repeated until the blan- has completed one revolution.
1. 1#. 2 T)e aag "rocess:&
2n this method, the wor- is mounted on the mEc table with its axis vertical.
The rac-
cutter is carried in a cutter head: that is made to moue in a vertical plane
but the
actual direction of motion can be set at any desired angle.
1. 1,. Princi"al o! gear "lanning2
The cutter during its cutting stro-e is in contact with several teeth at the
same
time but with di8erent part of each tooth, it planes comparatively a narrow
strip on
21
each tooth at each stro-e and a di8erent part of each tooth is submitted to
the action
of the cutter at the next stro-e.
22
ASSEMBLY OF GEAR
A ,A.H0N1 consists of a po2er so%rce and a po2er transmission s!stem3 2hich
pro4ides controlled application of the po2er. ,erriam56ester
defines transmission as an asseml! of parts incl%din" the speed5chan"in" "ears
and the propeller shaft ! 2hich the po2er is transmitted from an en"ine to a li4e
a7le. 8ften transmission refers simpl! to the gearbox that
%ses +1AR and +1AR 9RA0N* to pro4ide *)11D and 98R:;1 con4ersions
from a rotatin" po2er so%rce to another de4ice.
0n #ritish 1n"lish3 the term transmission refers to the 2hole DR0<19RA0N3
incl%din" cl%tch3 "earo73 prop shaft (for rear52heel dri4e)3 differential3 and final
dri4e shafts. 0n American 1n"lish3 ho2e4er3 the term refers more specificall! to
the "earo7 alone3 and the %sa"e details are different.
9he most common %se is in ,898R <1.H0=1*3 2here the transmission adapts
the o%tp%t of the 0N91RNA= .8,#;*908N 1N+0N1 to the dri4e 2heels.
*%ch en"ines need to operate at a relati4el! hi"h R89A908NA= *)11D3 2hich
is inappropriate for startin"3 stoppin"3 and slo2er tra4el. 9he transmission red%ces
the hi"her en"ine speed to the slo2er 2heel speed3 increasin" 98R:;1 in the
process. 9ransmissions are also %sed on pedal ic!cles3 fi7ed machines3 and
an!2here rotational speed and tor>%e m%st e adapted.
8ften3 a transmission has m%ltiple "ear ratios (or simpl! ?"ears?)3 2ith the ailit!
to s2itch et2een them as speed 4aries. 9his s2itchin" ma! e done man%all!
(! the operator)3 or a%tomaticall!. Directional (for2ard and re4erse) control ma!
also e pro4ided. *in"le5ratio transmissions also e7ist3 2hich simpl! chan"e the
speed and tor>%e (and sometimes direction) of motor o%tp%t.
0n motor 4ehicles3 the transmission "enerall! is connected to the
en"ine .RAN@*HA'9 4ia a fl!2heel andAor cl%tch andAor fl%id co%plin"3 partl!
23
eca%se internal com%stion en"ines cannot r%n elo2 a partic%lar speed. 9he
o%tp%t of the transmission is transmitted 4ia DR0<1*HA'9 to one or
more D0''R1N90A=*3 2hich in t%rn3 dri4e the 2heels. 6hile a differential ma!
also pro4ide "ear red%ction3 its primar! p%rpose is to permit the 2heels at either
end of an a7le to rotate at different speeds (essential to a4oid 2heel slippa"e on
t%rns) as it chan"es the direction of rotation.
.on4entional "earAelt transmissions are not the onl! mechanism for speedAtor>%e
adaptation. Alternati4e mechanisms incl%de 98R:;1 .8N<1R98R and po2er
transformation (for e7ample3 D01*1= 1=1.9R0.
9RAN*,0**08N and HBDRA;=0.DR0<1 *B*91,). H!rid confi"%rations
also e7ist.
24
BORE GRINDING
)ioneers in the ind%str!3 2e offer #ore +rindin" ,achine s%ch as Hea4! D%t!
H!dra%lic #ore +rindin" ,achine and H!dra%lic #ore +rindin" ,achine from
0ndia.
Heavy Duty Bore Grinding Process
Model: PMTI/250/H.
.enter Hei"ht: 5 250 mm.
8ne piece ed made of hi"h "rade cast iron castin" pro4ided 2ith stron" ris
for ri"idit! and a lar"e in4erted prismatic "%ide and 2ide tracC for the tale.
,ain *lide is h!dra%licall! operated ! rep%ted h!dra%lic c!linder.
D 100 mm E 300 mm Hi"h precision 0nternal "rindin" spindle ha4in" 123000
rpm and hi"h )recision imported )4 "rade matched pair antifriction earin"s of
t2o pair.
6orC head ha4in" hi"h precision imported p4 "rade matched pair antifriction
earin"s of t2o pairs.
6orC Head *peed: 5 20 to 550 rpm thro%"h 1 hp A.. infinitel! imported
4ariale dri4e.
6orC Head *2i4el: 5 F 45.
Hardened and "ro%nd feed scre2 for perfect repeat acc%rac!.
6heel head ha4in" 5 hp and 6orC head ha4in" 1.5 hp and H!dra%lic ha4in" 1
hp 3 ph. A.. ,otor.
0n%ilt electrical control penal oard ha4in" all rep%ted components.
*imple coolant tanC 2ith p%mp and pipin".
,an%all! feed resol%tion: 5 0.005 mm on radi%s.
,achine is tested as per 0*: 23/( - 0*8 2433.
9otal hp: $.// hp.
25
9%rcite5# slide 2a! coated on oth mo4ale slides to pre4ent sticC slip
motion.
1lectrical control panel oard ha4in" all rep%ted maCe components.
,inim%m 8scillation *troCe: 5 25 mm thro%"h =e4er operated limit s2itch.
6e pro4ide *trai"ht dressin" de4ice 2itho%t diamond.
0mported fle7 star flat elt (6itho%t Goint) for hi"h precision spindle to
pre4ent slippa"e and d!namic alanced p%lle! to a4oid 4iration.
,in. #ore Dia. to e "ro%nd 50 mm and ,a7. #ore Dia 9o e +ro%nd 250
mm.
,a7. =en"th to e "ro%nd 250 mm.
2/
Hydrauic Bore Grinding Process
9he ran"e of H!dra%lic #ore +rindin" ,achine offered ! %s is a special o7
str%ct%re one piece s>%are that comes hea4il! reinforced 2ith ris as 2ell as is
desi"ned to deli4er hi"h ri"idit! as 2ell as stailit! in in4ol4ed operations. 9he
machine also feat%res a%tomatic dressin" c!cle as 2ell as dresser mo%nted on
2orC slide for ens%rin" eas! competition of Ho 2orC.

Technical Specifications:
M!"# PMTI/$25/H PMTI/$50/H ),90AHDA1(0AA
.enter hei"ht 125 mm 150 mm 1(0 mm
,a7. +rindin"
diameter
$5 mm 100 mm 125 mm
9ale
,a7. 9ra4el 300 mm 350 mm 400 mm
0nfinitel! 4ariale
speed
0.1 5 4 mAmin 0. 1 5 4 mAmin 0.1 5 4 mAmin
6heel head
0nternal +rindin"
spindle
0/0 7
250A223000rpm
0(0 7 250 A 1(3 000
rpm
0100 7 250 A 143000
rpm
*pindle ho%sin"
#ore
(0 100 100
'eed resol%tion 0.005 on Radi%s 0.005 on Radi%s 0.005 on Radi%s
6orC head
0nf. 4ariale speed 30 5 550 50 5 500 50 5 500
*pindle Nose 9aper ,953 ,954 ,954
*2i4el 30I De". 35I De" 35I De"
2$
,
61

h
p

3

D
.
1

h
p

3

D
.
2

h
p

3

D
.
63

h
p
3

h
p
5

h
p
H1

h
p
1

h
p
1

h
p
2(
FA!E GRINDING PRO!ESS
6e are the leadin" and 2ell Cno2n estalished e7porters3 man%fact%rers and
s%ppliers of all Cind of %ace &rinding Machines from 'e( !elhi) India.
Head
)o2er 0.$5 H)3 3 )hase
*peed 2 *teps 5 3503 550 R),
*2i4ellin" F A 5 30 De"rees
*pindle ,orse 9apers 4A ch%cC mo%ntin" can e done

&rinding Head
)o2er 2 H.)3 3 )hase
*peed 3 *teps 5 3000A/000A&000 R),
*2i4ellin" F A 5 1(0J
+rindin" 6heel
*trei"ht 6heel or .%p 6heel
(.%stomer to *pecif! )
*lide ,o4ement 100 mm 9rans4erse
2&

*asic Machine
.ross *lide 250 mm 9ra4erse
#ase *lide 200 mm 9ra4erse
#ase Dimension /00 K 500 mm
30
FORGING
%orging is a man%fact%rin" process in4ol4in" the shapin" of metal %sin"
localiLed compressi4e forces. 'or"in" is often classified accordin" to the
temperat%re at 2hich it is performed: ?cold?3 ?2arm?3 or ?hot? for"in". 'or"ed
parts can ran"e in 2ei"ht from less than a Cilo"ram to 5(0 metric tons. 'or"ed
parts %s%all! re>%ire f%rther processin" to achie4e a finished part. 9oda!3 for"in"
is a maHor 2orld52ide ind%str! that has si"nificantl! contri%ted to the
de4elopment of the man%fact%rin" c!cles.
31
Gear !"a#$ering And De%urring &oos
9hese are %sed on *amp%tensilli5maCe or Ra4Heet5 maCe machine to chamfer the
ed"es of "ears %sed in the a%tomoile ind%str!. 9he! 2orC in pairs to chamfer
oth sides of the "ear. De%rrin" taCes place sim%ltaneo%sl! in same set5%p. 9his
is a 4er! efficient - hi"h prod%ction method of .hamferin" - De%rrin" "ears.
All 9elco "ears are chamfered ! this method. 6e are a leadin" s%pplier of this
tool to ,As Ne2 Allenerr! 6orCs3 'aridaad3 2hich s%pplies "ears to ,ahindra
- ,ahindra3 *2araH 9ractor3 91=.83 1scorts =td3 9afe ,otors etc. 9hese tools
are %s%all! 150 mm Dia - & mm 9hicCness. 6e can also s%ppl! these c%tters
2ith odies to hold them in pairs.

*amp%tensilli 9!pe

*%pplied 2ith or 2itho%t Holdin" #odies

32
Gear !"a#$ering !utters
&ear +hamfering +,tters offered comprise precision desi"ned and en"ineered
ran"e of "ear chamferin" c%tters that find application in chamferin" ed"es of "ear
teeth. 9hese inno4ati4e desi"ned c%tters offer >%icC3 cheap as 2ell as effecti4e
2orCin" s%pport and assists in achie4in" all mod%les and all heli7 an"les. 'indin"
application in "ear chamferin" - de5%rrin" in a%tomoile sector3 these c%tters
allo2 de5%rrin" s%pport on oth "ear sides at same time.
%eat,res:
.hamferin" ed"es of "ear teeth
1ffecti4e 2orCin" s%pport
Heli7 an"les
+ear chamferin"
=on"er ser4ice life

-pplications:
33
A%tomoile sector
Send "n.,ir/
&ear !eb,rring +,tters
6e offer &ear !eb,rring +,tters that are %sed 2idel! in conH%nction 2ith
chamferin" c%tters to remo4e the %rrs formed d%rin" teeth c%ttin". 6e %se
premi%m5"rade materials3 s%ch as H** ,523 to man%fact%re these c%tters. 9hese
+ear De%rrin" .%tters are offered to o%r 4al%ed clients in oth standard as 2ell
as c%stomiLed models at ind%str! leadin" prices.
%eat,res:
*eamless performance
Hi"hest5"rade ra2 material %sed
.%stomiLed forms also a4ailale
Send "n.,ir/
34
Gear S"aving
SH-0I'& 1%or &ears onl/2: +ear sha4in" is a finishin" operation that remo4es
small amo%nts of metal from the flanCs of "ear teeth. +ear sha4in" ma! correct
small errors in tooth spacin"3 heli7 an"le3 tooth profile and concentricit!. *ha4in"
impro4es the finish on tooth s%rfaces and can eliminate tooth end load
concentration3 red%ce "ear noise and increase load carr!in" capacit!.

35
HEAT TREATMENT
9here are a n%mer of different heat treatment processes that can e %sed to
chan"e the hardness of steels.
a. Heat treatment s%ch as an increased a%stenitisin" temperat%re to increase
the prior a%stenite"rain siLe efore coolin" (>%enchin"). An increased a%stenite
"rain siLe increases the steels hardenailit! there! promotin" the formation of
harder transformation prod%cts s%ch as ainite and A or martensite.
. 0nd%ction hardenin": this in4ol4es selecti4e heatin" of the s%rface re"ion of
the "ear %sin" ind%ction coils. 0nd%ction heatin" heats the s%rface la!ers of
the steel into the a%stenite re"ion and3 on s%se>%ent coolin" (>%enchin")3
hi"her hardness str%ct%res s%ch as ainite and A ormartensite are formed.
0nd%ction hardenin" is capale of prod%cin" a ran"e of case depths (depth
to 2hich the material is hardened) ! %sin" a ran"e of heat inp%ts. 9his
techni>%e can e applied to a ran"e of compositions and prod%ces a limited
amo%nt of distortion.
c. 'lame hardenin": this is a similar process to ind%ction hardenin" %t %ses
an o7!5acet!lene flame to heat the sample. 0t is a less 2ell controlled
techni>%e compared to ind%ction hardenin".
'or all these processes the ma7im%m s%rface hardness that can e achie4ed
depends %pon the steel composition3 in partic%lar the caron content (since caron
has the lar"est effect on the hardness of martensite).
3/
HEA& &REA&MEN& OF HEA'Y D(&Y GEAR
6hether re>%ired to pace the mo4ement of a precision 2atch or a "iant 2ind
t%rine3 "ears pla! an essential role in the performance of the prod%cts that 2e
rel! on in o%r e4er!da! li4es. +ears fall into t2o "eneral cate"ories: motion5
carr!in" and po2er transmission. ,otion5carr!in" "ears are "enerall! non5ferro%s
or non5metals s%ch as plastic3 2hile load earin" po2er transmission "ears are
%s%all! man%fact%red from ferro%s allo!s. 9he foc%s of this article 2ill e on heat
treatment of "ears intended for hea4! d%t! ser4ice applications.
9o %nderstand 2h! heat treatin" is important 2e looC to the ,odel of ,aterial
*cience ('i". 1) represented as a series of interlocCin" rin"s %nderscorin" the
interdependence of each element in the model. 6e see that the end %se
performance capailit! of the prod%ct is defined ! its (mechanical3 ph!sical3 and
metall%r"ical) properties3 2hich are in t%rn determined ! the part microstr%ct%re
that is prod%ced ! a specific heat treatment process in a "i4en piece of
e>%ipment.
6hat is clear from this model is that the man%fact%re of precision "earin"
depends to a "reat e7tent on heat treatin" as a core competenc!. 0ts contri%tion is
4itall! important for cost control3 d%railit!3 and reliailit!. Heat treatin"
represents a si"nificant portion (M 30 percent) of a t!pical "ear man%fact%rin"
3$
cost ('i". 2). 0f not properl! %nderstood and controlled3 it can ha4e a si"nificant
impact on all aspects of the "ear man%fact%rin" process ('i". 3).
H"-T T3"-TM"'T P3+"SS"S: P3"4H-3!"'I'&
*e4eral heat treatments can e performed efore or d%rin" the "ear man%fact%rin"
process to prepare the part for man%fact%rin". 0n man! cases these steps are
essential to the man%fact%re of a >%alit! "ear.
-nnealing
Annealin" is primaril! intended to soften the part and to impro4e its
machinailit!. 9here are se4eral annealin" processes3 all of 2hich in4ol4e heatin"
to and holdin" at a s%itale temperat%re follo2ed ! coolin" a specific rate
%s%all! thro%"h a critical ran"e of temperat%res. )rocesses %sed for "ears incl%de:
f%ll or s%percritical annealin" 2here a "ear lanC is heated &051(0I. (1/05325I')
ao4e the %pper critical temperat%re (Ac
3
) of the steel and then slo2 cooled in the
f%rnace to aro%nd 315N. (/00N')O intercritical annealin" 2here the "ear is heated
to a temperat%re et2een the %pper and lo2er critical temperat%re (Ac
1
) and then
rapidl! cooledO and s%critical annealin"3 2here "ears are heated to 1053(I. (505
100I') elo2 the lo2er critical temperat%re follo2ed ! a slo2 cool in the
f%rnace.
'ormali5ing
NormaliLin" pla!s a si"nificant role in the control of dimensional 4ariation d%rin"
hardenin" and case hardenin". NormaliLin" is a process that in4ol4es heatin" the
"ear ao4e the %pper critical temperat%re and then coolin" at a rate e>%i4alent to
that of still air to relie4e resid%al stresses in the "ear lanC and for dimensional
stailit! in s%se>%ent heat treatment processes. 0n a thermal sense3 normaliLin"
is simpl! a%stenitiLin". 0n a microstr%ct%ral sense3 normaliLin" is intended to
prod%ce a more homo"eno%s microstr%ct%re. A normaliLed part is 4er!
machineale3 %t harder than an annealed part.
3(
Stress 3elief
*tress relief3 as its name implies3 is intended to relie4e internal stresses created in
the "ear as a conse>%ence of its man%fact%re. 0t is recommended for intricate
shapes3 especiall! if a""ressi4e machinin" methods are %sed or 2hen lar"e
amo%nts of stocC are ein" remo4ed. *tress relief in4ol4es heatin" to a
temperat%re elo2 the lo2er critical temperat%re3 holdin" lon" eno%"h to f%ll!
soaC the part then coolin" slo2l! eno%"h3 %s%all! in air3 to minimiLe the
de4elopment of ne2 resid%al stresses.

H-3!"'I'& P3+"SS"S
A 4ariet! of heat treatment process choices e7ist for hardenin" a "ear3 each
desi"ned to increase "ear hardness. 9hese %s%all! in4ol4e heatin" and rapid
coolin" and are t!picall! classified as thro%"h hardenin"3 case hardenin"
(car%riLin"3 caronitridin"3 nitridin"3 nitrocar%riLin")3 and s%rface hardenin" !
applied ener"! (flame3 laser3 ind%ction).
Thro,gh 1'e,tral2 Hardening
9hro%"h hardenin" refers to heat treatment methods 2hich do not prod%ce a case.
9he hardness is achie4ed ! heatin" the material into the a%stenitic ran"e3
t!picall! (155&00N. (150051/50N')3 follo2ed ! >%enchin" and temperin". 0t is
important to note that hardness %niformit! sho%ld not e ass%med thro%"ho%t the
"ear tooth. *ince the o%tside of a "ear often cools faster than the inside3 there 2ill
e a hardness "radient de4eloped. 9he final hardness is dependent on the amo%nt
of caron in the steel. 9he depth of hardness depends on the hardenailit! of the
steel as 2ell as the >%ench se4erit!. 17amples of commonl! thro%"h hardened
"ear steels are *A1 10453 41303 41403 41453 43403 and (/40.
9hro%"h hardenin" can e performed either efore or after the "ear teeth are c%t.
6hen "ear teeth 2ill e c%t after the part has een hardened3 s%rface hardness and
3&
machinailit! ecome important factors especiall! in li"ht of the fact that
machinin" 2ill remo4e some or most of the hi"her hardness material at the
s%rface.
+ase Hardening
.ase hardenin" is %sed to prod%ce a hard3 2ear5resistant case3 or s%rface la!er3 on
top of a d%ctile3 shocC5resistant interior3 or core. 9he idea ehind case hardenin"
is to Ceep the core of the "ear tooth at a le4el aro%nd 30540 HR. to a4oid tooth
reaCa"e 2hile hardenin" the o%ter s%rface to increase pittin" resistance. 9he
hi"her the s%rface hardness 4al%e the "reater the pittin" resistance. Ho2e4er3
endin" stren"th increases for s%rface hardness %p to ao%t 50 HR.3 after 2hich
the increase is offset ! an increase in notch sensiti4it!.
Carburizing
.ar%riLin" is the most common of the case hardenin" methods. A properl!
car%riLed "ear 2ill e ale to handle et2een 30550 percent more load than a
thro%"h hardened "ear. .ar%riLin" steels are t!picall! allo! steels 2ith
appro7imatel! 0.10 to 0.20 percent caron. 17amples of commonl! car%riLed
"ear steels incl%de *A1 101(3 43203 51203 (/203 and &3103 as 2ell as
international "rades s%ch as 20,n.r53 1/,n.r53 P'5$#3 20,o.r43 and <2525.
.ar%riLin" can e performed in the temperat%re ran"e of (00N. (14$5N') to
10&0N. (2000N'). .ommon ind%str! practice toda! finds the maHorit! of
car%riLin" operations taCin" place et2een ($0N. (1/00N') and 1010N.
(1(50N'). .ar%riLin" case depths can 4ar! o4er a road ran"e3 0.135(.25 mm
(0.005Q50.325Q) ein" t!pical. Ho2e4er3 it is common to %se the caronitridin"
process for case depths elo2 0.4 mm (0.015Q).
A 4er! "ood compromise et2een cost and performance is achie4ed !
atmosphere car%riLin" ('i". 4)3 the present da! de facto standard processin"
method %sed in the "ear ind%str!.
40
All indications3 ho2e4er3 are that the "reatest potential for f%t%re "ro2th 2ill
come from lo2 press%re 4ac%%m car%riLin" ('i". 5). 9his method of car%riLin"
has een sho2n to offer pro4en metall%r"ical and en4ironmental enefits.
Atmosphere carburizing is an empiricall! ased3 time5pro4en process in 2hich a
caron5rich atmosphere s%rro%ndin" a 2orCload is %sed to chemicall! react 2ith
the s%rface of the parts to allo2 an ade>%ate >%antit! of caron to e asored at
the s%rface and diff%sed into the material.
0n atmosphere car%riLin" parts are heated to a%stenitiLin" temperat%re in a
Rne%tralQ endothermic or nitro"enAmethanol containin" appro7imatel! 40 percent
h!dro"en3 40 percent nitro"en3 and 20 percent caron mono7ide. *mall
percenta"es of caron dio7ide (%p to 1 S percent)3 resid%al h!drocarons (%p to S
percent) and trace amo%nts of o7!"en and 2ater 4apor are also present. 8ther
atmosphere cominations s%ch as nitro"enAnat%ral "as are also possile. 9his
Rne%tralQ or Rcarrier "asQ atmosphere is "enerall! neither car%riLin" nor
decar%riLin" to the s%rface of the steel ein" heated.
0n order to perform the car%riLin" process enrichin" "as is added to the carrier
"as atmosphere. 9he enrichin" "as is %s%all! either nat%ral "as 2hich is ao%t &05
&5 percent methane (.H
4
) or propane (.
3
H
(
). 0n atmosphere car%riLin" it is
common practice to e"in the flo2 of enrichment "as H%st after the f%rnace has
reco4ered setpoint. 9his practice contri%tes to case non5%niformit! as 4ario%s
parts of the 2orCload are not %niform in temperat%re and car%riLe at different
rates.
9he 2ater "as reaction (1>%ation 1) is important in the control of the atmosphere
car%riLin" process. 0nstr%ments s%ch as de2 point anal!Lers monitor the
H
2
8AH
2
ratio of this e>%ation 2hile infrared (35"as) anal!Lers and o7!"en proes
looC at the .8A.8
2
ratio.
.8 F H
2
8 T .8
2
F H
2
(1)
41
0n atmosphere car%riLin"3 inter"ran%lar o7idation (0+8) is one of the phenomena
taCin" place as a res%lt of the constant chan"es occ%rrin" in the f%rnace
atmosphere. 9his can e e7plained ! considerin" an alternati4e form of the 2ater
"as reaction (1>%ation 2). Here 2e see that the transfer of caron in atmospheres
containin" .8 and H

is connected 2ith a transfer of o7!"en3 "i4in" rise to an
o7idation effect in steel 2ith allo!in" elements s%ch as silicon3 chromi%m3 and
man"anese.
.8 F H
2
T U.V F H
2
8 (2)
Ad4anta"es of atmosphere car%riLin" incl%de:
W 9he lo2est initial capital e>%ipment in4estment cost.
W .apailit! of hi"h 4ol%me o%tp%t %sin" a 2ide 4ariet! of e>%ipment st!les3
t!pes3 and 2orCload siLes. '%rnace t!pes incl%de o73 pit3 mechaniLed o7
(inte"ral5 or sealed5>%ench f%rnaces)3 p%sher3 con4e!or (mesh elt and cast linC
elt)3 shaCer hearth3 rotar! hearth3 rotar! dr%m (rotar! retort)3 and carottom
st!les.
W Ade>%ate process controlO that is3 all of the process 4ariales are %nderstood and
reliale control de4ices are a4ailale to pro4ide a meas%re of process
repeatailit!.
W .apale of ein" easil! a%tomated 2ith recipe andAor part5n%mer control of
heat treat c!cles.
W 6ell5%nderstood process prolems allo2in" tro%leshootin" ased on an
estalished theoretical and empirical Cno2led"e ase.
9he last point is 4er! important. 8ften in the real 2orld3 prolems cannot e
a4oided3 %t it is the ailit! to >%icCl! and easil! address the iss%es that arise3
2hich dictates the s%ccess of a "i4en technolo"!. 9his certainl! is one of i""est
ad4anta"es of atmosphere car%riLin".
42
Disad4anta"es of atmosphere car%riLin" incl%de:
W @no2led"e "ained thro%"h empiricall! methods is re>%ired to achie4e
repeatale res%lts. 9his is d%e to a 2ide 4ariailit! in the t!pe of e>%ipment3 its
operation3 maintenance3 and constantl! chan"in" process conditions.
W 9he need to RconditionQ e>%ipment if idled or sh%t do2n prior to processin"
2orC.
W 9he need for lar"e material allo2ances for post5processin" operations d%e to
acc%rac! and finish re>%irements. .ase depths t!picall! are specified in 2ide
ran"es (e.". 0.$5 to 1.25 mm (0.030 to 0.050 in.) to compensate for c!cle ind%ced
4ariailit!.
W .ase depth >%alit! iss%esO the est part of the case often is lost d%e to the
amo%nt of stocC remo4al re>%ired.
W )rocessin" techni>%es that prod%ce non5%niformit! of case and caron profiles
thro%"ho%t the "ear "eometr! (tip5pitch line5root). Root case depths are t!picall!
/55(0 percent of those at the pitch line.
W 9he need to constantl! e concerned ao%t safet! and fire pre4ention iss%es
(e.".3 fire from com%stile "ases and >%ench oils3 hot contact s%rfaces3 and pinch
points).
W 9he need to monitor en4ironmental poll%tion incl%din" air >%alit! (for
potentiall! haLardo%s "ases3 s%ch as .8 and N87)3 2ater >%alit! (for
contamination concerns s%ch as oil3 minerals3 etc.)3 2aste disposal (>%ench oils)3
and safet! iss%es.
0t is important to note that a "reat deal of the non5%niformit! of case depth can e
a4oided if ade>%ate soaC time at temperat%re is %sed or if load preheatin"
techni>%es are emplo!ed.
43
Vacuum carburizing is a pro4en method of p%re car%riLin" and p%re diff%sion in
2hich caron penetrates into the s%rface of the steel ein" processed 2itho%t
interference from e7ternal infl%ences s%ch as "as chemistr! or s%rface
contaminants.
<ac%%m car%riLin" is a modified "as car%riLin" process in 2hich the
car%riLin" is done at press%res far elo2 atmospheric press%re ($/0 9orr). 9he
t!pical press%re ran"e for lo2 press%re 4ac%%m car%riLin" toda! is 3520 9orr.
9he ad4anta"e of this method is that the steel s%rface is cleaned d%rin" heat%p
and the 4ac%%m en4ironment maCes the transfer caron to the steel s%rface faster
(hi"her caron transfer 4al%es) since atmosphere interactions s%ch as those fo%nd
in the 2ater "as reaction do not taCe place. 0n addition3 inter"ran%lar o7idation
cannot occ%r.
9he h!drocaron c%rrentl! ein" %sed for 4ac%%m car%riLin" are acet!lene
(.
2
H
2
)3 acet!leneAh!dro"en (.
2
H
2
AH
2
)3 acet!leneAeth!leneAh!dro"en .
2
H
2
A
.
2
H
4
AH
2
3 propane (.
3
H
(
)3 propaneAmethane (.
3
H
(
A .H
4
) and c!clohe7ane (.
/
H
12
)3
a li>%id. ,ethane (.H
4
) alone is still %sed in certain applications %s%all! at
temperat%res ao4e &40I. (1$50I').
0n 4ac%%m car%riLin" the reaCdo2n of h!drocaron "ases in4ol4es non5
e>%iliri%m reactionsO the acet!lene reaction is sho2n in 1>%ation 3. 9his means
that the s%rface of the steel is 4er! rapidl! raised to the sat%ration le4el of caron
in a%stenite. #! repeatin" the oost and diff%se steps desired caron profile and
case depth can e achie4ed.
.
2
H
2
X 2. F H
2
(3)
9he control of the lo2 press%re 4ac%%m car%riLin" process is on a time asis.
9he caron transfer rates are a f%nction of temperat%re3 "as press%re3 and flo2
rate. *im%lation pro"rams 2ith empirical data inp%t capailit! ha4e een created
to determine the oost and diff%se times of the c!cle.
44
-d6antages of 6ac,,m carb,ri5ing incl,de:
W Asence of inter"ran%lar o7idation.
W .apailit! of hi"her temperat%res d%e to the t!pe of e>%ipment and the nat%re of
the process.
W )rocess and c!cle fle7iilit! allo2s a 2ider 4ariet! of materials to e processed.
W )rocessin" methods prod%ce more %niform case and caron profiles thro%"ho%t
the "ear tooth "eometr! (tip5pitch line5root). Root case depths are t!picall! (55&0
percent that those at the pitch line.
W 1as! inte"ration into man%fact%rin". 9he process is clean3 safe3 simple to
operate3 and eas! to maintain. Also3 2orCin" conditions are e7cellentYthat is3
there are no open flames3 heat3 and poll%tion.
W '%ll a%tomation capailit! %sin" recipe or part5n%mer control of heat treatin"
c!cles.
W )recise process control achie4ed %sin" comp%ter sim%lations3 2hich allo2
adH%stments to estalished c!cles.
W 8n5demand cons%mption of ener"! ! the e>%ipment and process onl! 2hen
needed d%e to the nat%re of the 4ac%%m operation.
W 9!picall! less distortion res%lts pro4ided ade>%ate meas%res are taCen in
loadin".
Disad4anta"es of 4ac%%m car%riLin" incl%de:
W Hi"her initial capital e>%ipment cost than atmosphere car%riLin" e>%ipment.
W )art cleanliness is more critical in order to achie4e desired res%lts.
W 1mpirical process control3 2hich re>%ires processin" loads to determine
optim%m settin"s or to fine t%ne sim%lator.
W 'ormation of soot and possil! tar3 2hich occ%r d%e to the t!pe3 press%re3 and
>%antit! of h!drocaron "as introd%ced.
45
0t is important to note that research d%rin" the past si7 !ears has s%cceeded in
findin" cominations of press%re3 "as t!pe3 and flo2 parameters to minimiLe soot
and tar formation and eliminate these factors as a concern in the 4ac%%m
car%riLin" process.
!ar%onitriding
.aronitridin" is a modification of the car%riLin" process3 not a form of
nitridin". 9his modification consists of introd%cin" ammonia into the car%riLin"
atmosphere in order to add nitro"en to the car%riLed case as it is ein" prod%ced.
17amples of "ear steels that are commonl! caronitrided incl%de *A1 101(3
111$3 and 12=14.
9!picall!3 caronitridin" is done at a lo2er temperat%re than car%riLin"3 et2een
$00 and &00I. (1300 and 1/50I')3 and for a shorter time. .omine this 2ith the
fact that nitro"en inhiits the diff%sion of caron3 and 2hat "enerall! res%lts is a
shallo2er case than is t!pical for car%riLed parts. A caronitrided case is %s%all!
et2een 0.0$550.$5 mm (0.003Q50.030Q) deep.
Nitriding
Nitridin" is another s%rface treatment process that has as its oHecti4e increasin"
s%rface hardness. 8ne of the appeals of this process is that rapid >%enchin" is not
re>%iredO hence dimensional chan"es are Cept to a minim%m. 0t is not s%itale for
all "ear materialsO one of its limitations ein" that the e7tremel! hi"h s%rface
hardness R2hite (or compo%nd) la!erQ prod%ced has a more rittle nat%re than sa!
the s%rface prod%ced ! the car%riLin" process. 0on (plasma) nitridin" techni>%es
ha4e een %sed to address the compo%nd la!er iss%e. 17amples of commonl!
nitrided "ear steels incl%de *A1 41403 41503 43403 $1403 (/403 and Nitrallo!
allo!s.
4/
Nitridin" is t!picall! done in the 4&555/5I. (&25 to 1050I') temperat%re ran"e.
9hree factors that are e7tremel! critical in prod%cin" s%perior and consistent
nitrided cases and predictale dimensional chan"e are steel composition3 prior
str%ct%re3 and core hardness. .ase depth and case hardness properties 4ar! not
onl! 2ith the d%ration and t!pe of nitridin" ein" performed3 %t are also
infl%enced ! these factors. 9!picall! case depths are et2een 0.2050./5 mm
(0.00(Q50.025Q) and taCe from 10 to (0 ho%rs to prod%ce.
Nitrocar%uri)ing
Nitrocar%riLin" is a modification of nitridin"3 not a form of car%riLin". 0n the
process3 nitro"en and caron are sim%ltaneo%sl! introd%ced into the steel 2hile it
is in a ferritic conditionO that is3 at a temperat%re elo2 that at 2hich a%stenite
e"ins to form d%rin" heatin". A 4er! thin 2hite la!er is formed d%rin" the
process3 as 2ell as an %nderl!in" Rdiff%sionQ Lone. =iCe nitridin"3 rapid
>%enchin" is not re>%ired. 17amples of "ear steels that are commonl!
nitrocar%riLed incl%de *A1 101(3 11413 12=143 41403 41503 51/03 (/203 and
certain tool steels.
Nitrocar%riLin" is normall! performed at 550 to /00I. (1025 to 1110I') and can
e %sed to prod%ce an e>%i4alent 5( HR. minim%m hardness3 2ith this 4al%e
increasin" dependent on the ase material. 6hite la!er depths ran"e from 0.00135
0.05/ mm (0.00005Q50.0022Q) 2ith diff%sion Lones from 0.0350.(0 mm (0.0013Q5
0.032Q) ein" t!pical.

-pplied "nerg/ Hardening
<ario%s methods of hardenin" ! %se of applied ener"! are %sed in the
man%fact%re of "earsO incl%din" flame hardenin"3 laser s%rface hardenin"3 and
ind%ction.
4$
Fa#e
'lame hardenin" can e %sed for oth small and lar"e "ears ! either spinnin" or
! a pro"ressi4e heatin" techni>%e. 0n the pro"ressi4e heatin" method3 the flames
"rad%all! heat the "ear in front of the flame head3 and sometimes this effect m%st
e compensated for ! "rad%all! increasin" the speed of tra4el or ! precoolin".
A 2ide ran"e of "ear siLes and materials can e hardened ! this techni>%e3
incl%din" plain caron steels3 car%riLin" "rades3 cast irons3 and certain stainless
"rades.
9he principle operatin" 4ariales are rate of tra4el of the flame head or 2orCO
flame 4elocit! and o7!"en5f%el ratiosO distance from the inner flame cone or "as
%rner to the 2orC s%rfaceO and the t!pe3 4ol%me3 and an"le of >%ench. 9he
s%ccess of man! flame hardenin" operations for small prod%ction r%ns is
dependent on the sCill of the operators.
Laser
=aser s%rface hardenin" is %sed to enhance the mechanical properties and s%rface
hardness of hi"hl! stressed machine parts and as s%ch is of interest to "ear
man%fact%rin". 9he %se of lasers for s%rface treatments is relati4el! limited d%e to
the hi"h cost of lar"e ind%strial lasers and the narro2 (455 mm) and of material
that can e hardened 2itho%t m%ltiple o4erlappin" passes. Addin" to the e7pense
is the fact that lasers are not 4er! efficient from an ener"! standpoint. +ear
materials s%ch as *A1 10453 43403 and cast irons ("ra!3 malleale3 d%ctile) are
"ood candidates for this technolo"!.
Induction
0nd%ction hardenin" is commonl! %sed in the heat treatment of "ears. 0nd%ction
heatin" is a process 2hich %ses alternatin" c%rrent to heat the s%rface of a "ear
tooth. 9he area is then >%enched res%ltin" in an increase in hardness in the heated
area. 0t is t!picall! accomplished in a relati4el! short period of time. 9he t!pe of
4(
steel3 its prior microstr%ct%re3 and the desired "ear performance characteristics
determine the re>%ired hardness profile and res%ltin" "ear stren"th and resid%al
stress distri%tion. 17ternal sp%r and helical "ears3 e4el and 2orm "ears3 and
racCs and sprocCets are commonl! ind%ction hardened. 9!pical "ear steels incl%de
*A1 10503 10/03 41403 41503 43503 51503 and (/503 H%st to name a fe2. 6ith
allo! material s%ch as 41403 41503 43503 and 51503 stress relief or temper as soon
as possile from ind%ction hardenin" to pre4ent a risC of cracCin".
9he hardness pattern prod%ced ! ind%ction heatin" is a f%nction of the t!pe and
shape of the ind%ctor %sed as 2ell as the heat mode. 8ne techni>%e for ind%ction
hardenin" of "ears is the %se of a coil encirclin" the part. An ind%ctor 2hich is
circ%mferential 2ill harden the teeth from the tips do2n2ard. 6hile this pattern
is acceptale for splines and some "earin"3 hea4ier loaded "ears 2here pittin"3
spallin"3 tooth fati"%e3 and end%rance are an iss%e need a hardness pattern 2hich
is more liCe that fo%nd in a car%riLed case. 9his t!pe of ind%ction hardenin" is
called conto%r hardenin" and is prod%ced 4ia tooth5!5tooth or "ap5!5"ap
techni>%es ! appl!in" either a sin"le5shot or scannin" mode. )attern %niformit!
is 4er! sensiti4e to coil positionin".
An alternati4e 2hich has the same effect as conto%r hardenin" %tiliLes d%al
fre>%enc!. A preheat %sin" 3@HL or10 @HL rin"s the core temperat%re %p to H%st
elo2 a%stenitiLin" temperat%re. 9hen the %nit chan"es to medi%m or hi"h
fre>%enc! dependin" on the re>%irement of the "ear. 9he ad4anta"e of this
method is shorter c!cle times. 0n a 4er! lar"e "ear conto%r heatin" 2ill e more
cost effecti4e since coils ecome 4er! e7pensi4e as the! increase in siLe.
4&
PST4H-3!"'I'& P3+"SS"S
After hardenin"3 "ears t!picall! %nder"o se4eral thermal and mechanical
processin" steps.
S,b47ero Treatment
9he %se of cr!o"enic treatments is ecomin" more common for hi"h performance
"earin". 92o t!pes of treatments are %sed toda!: deep freeLin"3 or Rshallo2Q
coolin"3 in the temperat%re ran"e of 5(5N. (5120N')O and cr!o"enic3 or RdeepQ
coolin" in the 51&5N. (5320N') ran"e. 0n some instances this treatment is
comined 2ith s%se>%ent temper operations.
9he p%rpose of cr!o"enic treatment is to transform retained a%stenite and raise
the hardness of the as5>%enched str%ct%re. 0n addition3 etter dimensional stailit!
is often achie4ed. *%5Lero treatments ha4e as their %ltimate "oal an increase in
2ear resistance3 impro4ed endin" fati"%e life3 and minimiLin" resid%al stress.
Tempering
An! temperat%re %nder the lo2er critical temperat%re can e %sed for temperin"3
%t it is the alance of hardness3 for stren"th3 and to%"hness re>%ired in ser4ice
that determines the final temperin" temperat%re. 9emperin" in the ran"e of 1505
200N. (3005400N') is common for "earin" prod%cin" a sli"ht increase in
to%"hness that is ade>%ate for most applications re>%irin" hi"h stren"th and
fati"%e resistance 2here loadin" is primaril! compressi4e. Do%le temperin" is
sometimes performed on "ears for the p%rpose of ens%rin" completion of the
temperin" reaction and to promote stailit! of the res%ltin" microstr%ct%re.
50
Shot Peening
*hot peenin" is a cold 2orCin" process in 2hich the s%rface of the "ear is
omarded 2ith small spherical media called shot. *hot peenin" is a controlled
process in 2hich the siLe3 shape3 and 4elocit! of the media are caref%ll!
monitored and controlled. A common re>%irement for shot peenin" of "ears is to
peen the tooth roots 2ith o4erspra! allo2ed on the flanCs. *hot peenin" sho%ld
not e conf%sed 2ith shot lastin"3 a cleanin" process.
9he p%rpose of shot peenin" is to ind%ce a resid%al compressi4e stress on the "ear
s%rface that is %sed to enhance tooth endin" fati"%e properties. 9he resid%al
compressi4e stress offsets the applied tensile stress that ma! ca%se endin"
fati"%e fail.

&"-3 M-T"3I-# S"#"+TI'
)o2er transmission "ears are man%fact%red from a 2ide 4ariet! of steels and cast
irons. 0n all "ears3 the choice of material m%st e made onl! after caref%l
consideration of the performance demanded ! the application end5%se and total
man%fact%red cost3 taCin" into consideration s%ch iss%es as machinin" economics.
@e! desi"n considerations re>%ire an anal!sis of the t!pe of applied load3 2hether
"rad%al or instantaneo%s and the desired mechanical properties3 s%ch as endin"
fati"%e stren"th or 2ear resistance3 all of 2hich 2ill define core stren"th and heat
treatin" re>%irements.
1ach area in the "ear tooth profile sees different ser4ice demands. .onsideration
m%st e "i4en to the forces that 2ill act on the "ear teeth 2ith tooth endin" and
contact stress3 resistance to scorin" and 2ear3 and fati"%e iss%es ein" paramo%nt.
'or e7ample3 in the root area "ood s%rface hardness and hi"h resid%al
51
compressi4e stress are desired to impro4e end%rance or endin" fati"%e life. At
the pitch diameter3 a comination of hi"h hardness and ade>%ate s%s%rface
stren"th are necessar! to handle contract stress and 2ear and to pre4ent spallin".
*ome of the factors that infl%ence fati"%e stren"th are: hardness distri%tion (e.".
case hardness and depth3 core hardness)O microstr%ct%re (e.". percenta"e of
retained a%stenite3 "rain siLe3 carides (siLe3 t!pe3 distri%tion)3 the presence of
non5martensitic phases)O and e7traneo%s factors (e.". "eometr!3 s%rface finish3
incl%sion (e.". t!pe3 distri%tion) resid%al compressi4e stress pattern3 inter"ran%lar
to%"hness).
Altho%"h material represents onl! a small percenta"e (M 10 percent) of the cost to
man%fact%re a t!pical "ear3 material selection (9ale 1) is a comination of ra2
material cost and performance capailit!. @no2led"e of the f%nction of each of
the allo!in" elements present in the material and their effect on the ph!sical
properties of the allo! is critical in material selection. )roperties to e alanced
! material selection incl%de tensile3 !ield and impact stren"th3 as 2ell as
elon"ation.
Hardness in the part section of interest needs to e considered 2hen maCin" the
selection of a material. 0f the core hardness is too lo2 it 2ill not s%pport the case
%nder hi"h load and if the core hardness is too hi"h Rchippin"Q of the "ear teeth at
the caseAcore interface can occ%r.
52
HOBBING
Hobbing is a ,A.H0N+ process for +1AR .;990N+3 c%ttin" *)=0N1*3 and
c%ttin" on a hobbing machine3 2hich is a special t!pe of ,0==0N+ ,A.H0N1.
9he teeth or splines are pro"ressi4el! c%t into the 2orCpiece ! a series of c%ts
made ! a .;990N+ 988= called a hob. .ompared to other "ear formin"
processes it is relati4el! ine7pensi4e %t still >%ite acc%rate3 th%s it is %sed for a
road ran"e of parts and >%antities.
0t is the most 2idel! %sed "ear c%ttin" process for creatin" sp%r and helical "ears
and more "ears are c%t ! hoin" than an! other process since it is relati4el!
>%icC and ine7pensi4e.
A t!pe of *@0<0N+ that is analo"o%s to the hoin" of e7ternal "ears can e
applied to the c%ttin" of internal "ears3 2hich are sCi4ed 2ith a rotar! c%tter
(rather than *HA)1D).
Hoin" %ses a hoin" machine 2ith t2o sCe2 *)0ND=1*3 one mo%nted 2ith a
lanC 2orCpiece and the other 2ith the ho. 9he an"le et2een the hoZs spindle
and the 2orCpieceZs spindle 4aries3 dependin" on the t!pe of prod%ct ein"
prod%ced. 'or e7ample3 if a sp%r "ear is ein" prod%ced3 then the ho is an"led
e>%al to the H1=0K AN+=1 of the hoO if a helical "ear is ein" prod%ced then
the an"le m%st e increased ! the same amo%nt as the heli7 an"le of the helical
"ear. 9he t2o shafts are rotated at a proportional ratio3 2hich determines the
n%mer of teeth on the lanCO for e7ample3 if the "ear ratio is 40:1 the ho rotates
40 times to each t%rn of the lanC3 2hich prod%ces 40 teeth in the lanC. Note that
the pre4io%s e7ample onl! holds tr%e for a sin"le threaded hoO if the ho has
m%ltiple threads then the speed ratio m%st e m%ltiplied ! the n%mer of threads
on the ho. 9he ho is then fed %p into 2orCpiece %ntil the correct tooth depth is
53
otained. 'inall! the ho is fed thro%"h the 2orCpiece parallel to the lanCZs a7is
of rotation.
;p to fi4e teeth can e c%t into the 2orCpiece at the same time. 8ften m%ltiple
"ears are c%t at the same time.
'or 4er! lar"e "ears the lanC can e +A*H1D to the ro%"h shape first to maCe
hoin" easier.
54
55
RO(GH FA!ING * BORING
0n ,A.H0N0N+3 boring is the process of enlar"in" a hole that has alread!
een DR0==1D3 ! means of a *0N+=1 )80N9 .;990N+ 988= (or of a
orin" head containin" se4eral s%ch tools)3 for e7ample as in orin" a +;N
#ARR1= or an 1N+0N1 .B=0ND1R #orin" is %sed to achie4e "reater acc%rac!
of the diameter of a hole3 and can e %sed to c%t a tapered hole. #orin" can e
4ie2ed as the internal5diameter co%nterpart to 9;RN0N+3 2hich c%ts e7ternal
diameters.
9here are 4ario%s t!pes of orin". 9he orin" ar ma! e s%pported on oth ends
(2hich onl! 2orCs if the e7istin" hole is a thro%"h hole)3 or it ma! e s%pported
at one end (2hich 2orCs for oth thro%"h holes and). #ineboring(line orin"3
line5orin") implies the former. *ac8boring (acC orin"3 acC5orin") is the
process of reachin" thro%"h an e7istin" hole and then orin" on the ?acC? side of
the 2orCpiece (relati4e to the machine headstocC).
#eca%se of the limitations on toolin" desi"n imposed ! the fact that the
2orCpiece mostl! s%rro%nds the tool3 orin" is inherentl! some2hat more
challen"in" than t%rnin"3 in terms of decreased toolholdin" ri"idit!3 increased
clearance an"le re>%irements (limitin" the amo%nt of s%pport that can e "i4en to
the c%ttin" ed"e)3 and diffic%lt! of inspection of the res%ltin" s%rface (siLe3
form3 *%rface Ro%"hness). 9hese are the reasons 2h! orin" is 4ie2ed as an area
of machinin" practice in its o2n ri"ht3 separate from t%rnin"3 2ith its o2n tips3
tricCs3 challen"es3 and od! of e7pertise3 despite the fact that the! are in some
2a!s identical.
#orin" and t%rnin" ha4e arasi4e co%nterparts in internal and
e7ternal .B=0ND1R +R0ND0N+. 1ach process is chosen ased on the
re>%irements and parameter 4al%es of a partic%lar application.
5/
SPLIN BROA!HING
*roaching is a ,A.H0N+ process that %ses a toothed tool3 called a broach3 to
remo4e material. 9here are t2o main t!pes of roachin": linear and rotary. 0n
linear roachin"3 2hich is the more common process3 the roach is r%n linearl!
a"ainst a s%rface of the 2orCpiece to effect the c%t. =inear roaches are %sed in
a broaching machine3 2hich is also sometimes shortened to broach. 0n rotar!
roachin"3 the roach is rotated and pressed into the 2orCpiece to c%t an a7is
s!mmetric shape. A rotar! roach is %sed in a =A9H1. 0n oth processes the c%t is
performed in one pass of the roach3 2hich maCes it 4er! efficient.
#roachin" is %sed 2hen precision machinin" is re>%ired3 especiall! for odd
shapes. .ommonl! machined s%rfaces incl%de circ%lar and non5circ%lar
holes3 *)0=0N1*3 @1B6AB*3 and flat s%rfaces. 9!pical 2orCpieces incl%de
small to medi%m siLed .A*90N+3 scre2 machine parts3 and *9A,)0N+*. 14en
tho%"h roaches can e e7pensi4e3 roachin" is %s%all! fa4ored o4er other
processes 2hen %sed for hi"h5>%antit! prod%ction r%ns.
#roaches are shaped similar to a sa23 e7cept the hei"ht of the teeth increases o4er
the len"th of the tool. ,oreo4er3 the roach contains three distinct sections: one
for ro%"hin"3 another for semi5finishin"3 and the final one for finishin".
#roachin" is an %n%s%al machinin" process eca%se it has the '11D %ilt into the
tool. 9he profile of the machined s%rface is al2a!s the in4erse of the profile of the
roach. 9he rise per tooth (R)9)3 also Cno2n as the step or feed per tooth3
determines the amo%nt of material remo4ed and the siLe of the chip. 9he roach
can e mo4ed relati4e to the 2orCpiece or 4ice54ersa. #eca%se all of the feat%res
are %ilt into the roach no comple7 motion or sCilled laor is re>%ired to %se it.
A roach is effecti4el! a collection of *0N+=1 )80N9 .;990N+ 988=*
arra!ed in se>%ence3 c%ttin" one after the otherO its c%t is analo"o%s to m%ltiple
passes of a *HA)1R.
5$
+'+#9SI'S
,an! options e7ist for the heat treatment of >%alit! "ears3 %t the selection of the
ri"ht comination of heat treatment processesYalon" 2ith control of process and
e>%ipment 4arialesYremains essential.

5(
*I*#I&3-PH:
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222."oo"le.com
222.en.2iCipedia.or"
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5&