1 Stadium

Stadium
2 Stadium
3 Stadium
Thesissubmitted to thefaculty of theCollegeof Architectureand Urban Studiesat Vi rginia
Polytechnic Instituteand StateUniversity in partial fulfillment of therequi rementsfor the
degreeof Master of Architecture.
Mario Cortes
JamesJones
Michael OBrien
Committee Chair
26 July, 2001
Graham Douglas Farbrother
Stadium
4 Stadium
Thisbook isdedicated to my wife, without whosesupport I could never haveaccomplished
this, and to therest of my family, for whom I work to makeproud.
5 Stadium
I would liketo acknowledgethosepeoplewho haveassisted and guided methroughout this
process.
Brad Bittermann
Alan Dodson
Jonathan Foote
AliceHillery
Matthew McNeely
David Snider
Neal Terrell
Andrew Queen
My Colleagues:
My Committee: Mario Cortes
JamesJones
Michael OBrien
JamesMadison University
National CollegiateAthletic Association
6 Stadium
Theproject presented hereisa NCAA Division I capacity football stadium located on the
campusof JamesMadison University in Harrisonburg, Vi rginia.
Thisstadium isavehiclefor exploring and expressing my ideasabout theroleof structurein
architecture, and about an architectsrealm of control in abuilding project. Thetypology of
astadium allowsfor alimited number of functional requirementswhile, at thesametime,
allowing for, if not demanding, acreativestructural solution.
Abstract
7 Stadium
Table of Contents
Dedi cati on 4
Acknowledgements 5
Abstract 6
The Uni versi ty 8
TheInfluenceof Technology 10
Take Me Out to the Stadium? 11
The Landscape 12
Formal Studi es 13
Master Plan 17
Path 18
Bluestone 19
The Stadi um 20
Foundati on 21
Ramps 22
Gameday 23
Tailgating 24
Optimal Viewing 25
Assembly Crews 26
Ki t of Parts 28
Component Studi es 30
TheTripod 32
The Beam 36
The Connecti on 41
The Outri gger 42
The Assembly 43
Bi bli ography 46
Vi ta 47
8 Stadium
James Madi son Uni versi t y si t s i n t he
Shenandoah Valley in Harrisonburg, Vi rginia.
Thecampusisdivided by I-81, with theolder
section to thenorth and thenewer section to
thesouth.
Theolder part of campuscontainstheoriginal
quadranglewhich issurrounded by academic
and dormitory buildingswhich areconstructed
of theuniversitystrademark bluestone. Also
on thenorthern campusisthemajority of the
campus other dormi tori es, academi c and
administrativebuildings, and dining facilities,
aswell asthe old fieldhouse and the current
football stadium.
The newer part of campus houses a f ew
residencehalls, academic buildings, and eating
facilities. However, thepredominant features
of thi s area of campus are the recreati onal
faci l i t i es. The Convocat i on Cent er (for
basket bal l games, i ndoor gr aduat i on
ceremonies, and tradeshows), theUniversity
Recreation Building (thestudent fitnesscenter),
thesoccer stadium, and thearboretum takeup
most of the space on thi s southern si de of
campus.
9 Stadium
Bridgeforth Stadium, thecurrent football facility for James
Madison University, wasdesigned by DEarcy DavisJr. &
Associatesand wasbuilt in 1975. It sitson the northern
section of campuswith itslong axisoriented north-south.
It hastwo seating sections, onealong each long sideof the
field. A largescoreboard standsbehind thenorth end zone,
and a set of temporary metal bleachersfor the marching
band islocated behind the south end zone. At the top of
the eastern seating section standsthepressbox. Thespace
underneath the seatsisenclosed, and housesthe football
offi ces, l ocker rooms, bathrooms, and i s home to the
universitysmilitary sciencedepartment.
To date, the stadium hassufficiently served itsfunctions.
Thanksto football, lacrosse, and intramural games, track
and field meets, studentsjogging on thetrack, and graduation
ceremonies, there ishardly a day when the stadium goes
unused. Thefacilitiesarein good condition and thegrounds
aremeticulously maintained. There areenough seatsto meet
thedemand for tickets..
However, t he st adi um has some short comi ngs, bot h
functionally and architecturally. First, it hasa capacity of
12,500, which fallswell short of the30,000 minimum for
a NCAA Di vi si on I -A footbal l stadi um. The footbal l
program istheuniversitysonly athletic program which does
not enjoy Division I-A status, and would not ever beallowed
to becomeaDivision I-A program without abigger stadium.
Second, thefield ismadeof artificial turf, which isalleged
by many to causemoreinjury to players, and islooked down
upon by football purists.
Lastly, and most architecturally, thestadium lacksasenseof
enclosure. Of courseit isphysically enclosed, by theseating
areason thetwo long sidesand by chain link fenceson the
short ends, but visually thestadium hasno containment.
Theresult isalossof intimacy between thefansand players.
Furthermore, any architectural presencethestadium hasstops
at itswalls, and in thecaseof thechain link fences, doesnot
even makeit to thephysical boundary.
HomeSeatsand PressBox at Bridgeforth Stadium
Stepsand Benchesat Bridgeforth Stadium
VisitorsSeatsat Bridgeforth Stadium
Bridgeforth Stadium Superstructure
1 0 Stadium
Throughout time, technological advanceshavecontinually changed thefaceof architecture.
New and refined materialshaveachieved higher performances. We can support heavier
loads, span incredibledistances, and scrapethesky. Thedevelopment of materialssuch as
concreteand steel, in combination with thepower of cranesand trucks, haveexpanded the
architectspalettetremendously. Structuressuch astheEiffel Tower, theBrooklyn Bridge,
theHoover Dam, and thePetronasTowersall stand asatestament to theadvancesmadein
technology.
However, whiletechnology hasundoubtedly contributed greatly, it hascreated uncertainty
i n architecture. Increasingly, the roleof thearchitect in our society ischallenged. When
corporationshad limited resourcesin the form of paper files, it wascritical that all the
employeeswerein oneplaceto sharethem. At thesametime, thepriceof land demanded
that an owner get asmuch usepossibleout of that land. Constructing skyscraperswasthe
natural response. Computershavevirtually destroyed theneed to haveall theworkersin
thesamecountry, let alonethesamebuilding. Librariessuffer asimilar predicament. With
awealth information amouseclick away, theneed for abuilding to housebookslosesits
utilitarian importance. Somebanksactually discouragetheir customerswith feesfor coming
to thebuilding to do businessthat can bedoneat theATM or over thephone.
Similarly, stadiumscannot avoid the questioning of their existence. Before radi o and
television, theonly way to experiencewasto go to thestadium. Now, going to astadium
must provideenough positivequalitiesto makeup for thecomfortsvisitorsloseby leaving
home. Going to astadium must providesomething to pry sportsfansaway from their big
screen televisionsand out of their recliners, and leavetheir food and drink in their climate
controlled residences. Onecould begin to question if it would not sufficeto simply have
afield with surrounded by television cameras, so that everyonecould stay homeand watch
in comfort.
THE INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGY
Eiffel Tower - 1889 - 320 meterstall
TheWorldsTallest Building until 1930
Brooklyn Bridge- 1883 - 486 meterslong
TheWorldsLongest Bridgeuntil 1890
Hoover Dam - 1936
45,000 psf of water pressureat base
PetronasTowers- 1998 - 452 meterstall
WorldsTallest Building
1 1 Stadium
Despitetheconvenienceand comfort of staying at hometo watch a game, peoplecontinueto flock to
stadiumsmuch asthey did over 2,500 yearsago. Asearly astheeighth century B.C., theGreeksbuilt
stadiumsto facilitatefoot races. Soon, asmoreeventsattracted morespectators, countlessmorearenas,
hippodromes, circuses, and stadiumswerebuilt, themost gloriousexampleof which is, of course, the
Roman Colosseum.
Theseglory daysof stadiumsended asChristianity spread acrossEuropeand peoplespent their architectural
effortson churches. Thanksin largepart to thereestablishment of theOlympicsin 1896, theageof the
modern stadi um began, ascountri esthe world over bui lt stadi um complexesto house the Games.
Meanwhile, peoplewerehungry for other spectacles, and stadiumswere erected for tennis, soccer, rugby,
baseball, and football.
Asthe game of American Football developed throughout the second half of the 19th Century on the
campusesof several colleges, thepopularity with spectatorsgrew. Thegamesattracted not just thestudent
population, but thesurrounding communitiestoo. Soon, therewereso many onlookersthat standing on
thesidelinesno longer sufficed, and permanent stadiumsbegan to go up in the1920s.
Early on, theonly way for a team owner to makeany money wasto havea full house. Stadium design
focused on fitting asmany seatsaspossiblewith littlethought to fan comfort, no thought to accessibility
issues, not to mention architecture. Dueto their sheer sizeand lower frequency of useascompared to
basketball and baseball venues, football stadiumsoften receivelittleconsideration when it comesto high
quality finishesthat might add to theoverall quality of thedesign.
With theadvent of televised sporting events, theinfluenceson designschange. Suddenly, themoney from
owning a team camenot from theticket holders, rather from thetelevision revenues, and thestadium-
going fan wassecondary. Asaresult, stadiumsweredesigned asplatformsfor television broadcasts, and
the fanswerethought of even less. Thelighting needsfor agood television broadcast do not necessarily
equal lighting needsfor good stadium viewing. That isnot to say that achieving proper lighting for both
thetelevision and stadium viewing isimpossible, but thepriority wascertainly in favor of thecameras.
Sincetheadvent of freeagency, team ownersonceagain look to thefansfor that extrarevenueneeded to
keep a franchiseafloat. Thisdoesnot mean a ret urn of trying to pack thestadium full of seats. Rather,
attention isbeing payed to fan comfort in termsof seat size, number of seatsin arow, number of restrooms,
sight lines, amenitiesand so on. Theintroductionof luxury club boxesbring a tremendousamount of
revenuefrom corporationsand, in thecollegerealm, loyal alumni.
TAKE ME OUT TO THE STADIUM?
RaceFansat theNew River Valley Speedway
Dublin, Virginia
Baseball Fansat theHomeof theSalem Aval anche
Salem, Virginia
1 2 Stadium
...acivilizationsgreatest remnants. ...an attempt to demonstratenational strength and pride.
...billboards.
...anationally recognizablesymbol of itsinstitution. ...an integral part of acitysurban fabric.
A stadium isfirst and foremost thestaging ground for spectaclesfor massesof people.
However, thisutilitarian perspectiveislimited and it beliesthebigger implicationsof a
stadiumseffectson theindividual visitor and on thecommunity it serves. Theinfluence
of astadium istremendousin itsimmediatesurroundings, and, in somecases, can befelt
around theworld.
Having set ahistorical context to thestadium building typeand seeing that it hashuge
ramificationson itsenvironment, it iscritical to determine the reasonsfor visiting a
stadium versuswatching a gamefrom home. Morespecifically, it iscritical to determi ne
thereasonsover which thearchitect hascontrol. Clearly, having awinning team drawsa
crowd, but thereismoreto it than that. Even thelosingest teamshavesupporters. There
must bemorereasonsto theexperienceof stadium-going than awinning team, and the
architect must havesomeinfluenceover someof thesereasons.
Looking alittlefurther at todaysstadium, it isclear that it ismorethan just a placefor a
sporting event. What wassimply agamehasbecomeaGameDay, filled with activities
that revolvearound preparing for thegame, watching thegame, and celebrating awin or
mourning a loss. Stadiumscan bethought of asa giant room for 10,000 to well over
100,000 people, where, for at least theduration of thegame, most of thesepeopleare
united with oneanother asthey intensely cheer for thehometeam and viciously boo the
visiting team. They become a community, if only temporarily, dressed i n t he same
colors, waving thesameflags, and chanting in unison.
Thisexperiencebeginseven beforethegame.
For theplayers, it startswhen they load on thebusand head off to thestadium, where
they will put on their uniformsand preparefor thebattleahead.
For thestudent, it startsthat morning when peoplepaint their facesand bodies, and walk
en masseto thestadium.
For the alumnus, it startswhen he shineshisclassring and drivesthe pick-up to the
parking lot wherehefiresup thegrill on thetailgate.
Every oneconvergeson thestadium in their respectivecostumes. Everyoneknowswhat
songsto sing, when to dance, and what routesto run.
In other words, thefirst thing that drawsacrowd istheexperiential, theatrical natureof
gameday and for at least that day, everyonesharesa bond through their participation in
theshow.
Thisiswherethearchitect comesin.
Stadiums can be...
1 3 Stadium
Given all theactivitiessurrounding agame, it
i s appropri ate to posi ti on and desi gn the
stadium to facilitate these variousactivities.
Furt hermore, t he sheer si ze of a st adi um
automatically hasa monstrouseffect on the
landscape i n termsof itsvisibility, aswell as
thedemandsfor spacefor theactual stadium
and all the associated activitieslike parking.
Therefore, thestadiumsrealm of influencedoes
not stop at itsphysical boundaries. Thedesign
must def i ne a new l andscape f or t he
surrounding area. Asa defining element of a
campus, thestadiumsappearance, size, and
location relativeto other campusbuildingsare
critical. Thenew landscapeshould integrate
thespacesfor activitiesoutsidethegame.
The new football stadium isto be the visual
and symbolic center of thisnew sideof campus.
Dueto thestadiumssize(it holdsapproximately
32,000 people) and i tslocati on on top of a
hill, it isthe crowning piece on the new side
and has a presence on the ori gi nal part of
campus, theinterstate, and partsof thetown
of Harrisonburg. In addition, it isencompassed
by a massi ve bl uestone wal l connecti ng i t
symbol i cal l y to the ori gi nal secti on of the
campus.
AlohaStadium in Honolulu, Hawaii
Theinfluenceof thisstadium ripplesthrough its
parki ng l ot . Thesect i onsof parki ng descri be
concentri c ci rcl escentered i n themi ddl eof the
playingfield.
Stadium in Turin, Italy
1972 Olympic Stadium in Munich, Germany
Thiscollaborativeeffort between Gnther Behnisch,
Frei Otto and Fritz Leonardt taketheideaof the
stadi um asl andscapeto greater hei ghtswi th an
undulatingroof system that createsanew symbolic
landscape.
Theelliptical shapeof architectsHotter & Ossolas
World Cup stadium radiatesover thesurrounding
walkwaysand roadsand into theparkinglot.
THE LANDSCAPE
1 4 Stadium
An exploration of formsthrough theuseof folded paper modelsand sketchesbeginsto
answer thequestion of how astadium should look. Although thestudiesfocuson the
overall configuration of seats, with littlethought to theconstruction of thestadium,
someof themodelsdo imply a structural idea. Whilenot every aspect of thesestudies
existsin thefinal design, someof themajor ideasabout overall form and thepiecesthat
makeup thewholearepresent at theearliest stagesof design.
Thesestudiesalso reveal thefact that theform of all stadiumsisderivativeof thebuildings
function, and not theother way around. In other words, stadiumslook theway thedo
because they aredesigned for aspecific task, namely, allowing alarge group of peopleto
simultaneously focuson thesameevent. Accordingly, it would not do to design astadium
with seatsfacing away from thefield, or to haveseating sectionswith no incline. The
formal similaritiesthat stadiumssharestem from their functional requirements, and the
variety of architectural quality found in stadiumsisdue, at least in part, to theresolution
of thesefunctional demands. Thisideaof finding thearchitecturethrough theexpressi on
of theutilitarian isalso applied to design of thepieceswhich makeup thestadium.
Thi s st udy (5) most cl osel y
resembles thefinal design of the
stadium. It showsenclosureon all
sides. I n addition, it represents
peri odi c pri mary st ruct ural
members whi ch hol d up t he
spanni ng seati ng areas. Al l of
t heseel ement sappear, albeit it
different ways, in theend product.
Theconcern here(4) issolely with an overall layout with no consideration for themanner
in which it would beconstructed. Whileit definitely achievesthesenseof aroom thanks
to thecompleteenclosureby extremely sloped seating areas, theseating configuration
leavessomething to bedesired. Seatsalong thelong sideof thefield allow theviewersto
watch themovement of theteamspushingtheir way up and down thefield. Viewersfrom
behind theend zonesget to watch theblockingpatternsdevelop. Thosewho havecorner
seat s arecaught in between and do not get to enjoy either of theseaspects. Thisstudy
helped in therealization that corner seatsaretheleast desirableseatsand that thenumber
of corner seatsshould bereduced whenever possible.
Si mi l ar to JMUscurrent
stadi um, thesetwo-si ded
confi gurati ons(1,2,3) are
unsatisfactory asthey do not
providethefeelingof aroom.
A good stadium should give
asenseof containment that
thesecorridor-likedesigns
si mpl y l ack . T hi s
obser vat i on hel ped i n
decidingto design astadium
that i senclosed on at least
threesides. Thesecond and
t hi rd i mages do i mpl y a
structural hierarchy. In the
second i mage, theseati ng
areas span bet ween t wo
primary arches. In thecase
of t he t hi r d i mage, t he
seating areasspan between
t wo secondary members
whi ch, i n t ur n, ar e
suspended from pri mary
supports. Thefinal stadium
desi gn i snot exact l y t he
same, but thestudy presents
athought about astructural
hi er ar chy even i n t he
primary stagesof design.
5
4
3
2
1
1 5 Stadium
Thisfocuseson thestructural
hierarchy being thedefining
archi tectural qual i ty of the
stadi um. I t al so standsasa
remi nder t hat f unct i onal
elements, such astheli ghts,
must beincluded, and should
be made i nt egral wi t h t he
overall design.
Shown hereisastadium with
t hemaj ori t y of t heseat i ng
al ong t hel ong si desof t he
field, oneopen end that forms
theentrance, and no corner
seating. It also demonstrates,
once agai n, an at t empt of
cr eat i ng an i mpr essi ve
structural solution.
Thisdrawing showsasimple
hor seshoe pl an. T he
i mportant i dearepresented
here i s t hat of a repeat ed
el ement t hat servesast he
primary structurewhilegiving
thestadi um arhythm and a
character.
Thisdealswith thestadiums
r el at i onshi p t o t he
topography. Thehorseshoeis
nestled into thelandscapein
attempt to l ower thevi sual
i mpact on what i s
automatically atremendous
presence. Thistechniquecan
befound in thefinal design.
Thisreflectsan early thought
of maki ng a st adi um
comprised of aseriesof smaller
buildings. Thequestion mark
in thecorner showsthelong-
standing desireto minimize
corner seats.
1 6 Stadium
Theplaying field isat gradeand theseating
area t ouchest heground. Thi screat es an
i nt i macy bet ween t hespect at orsand t he
players, but with respect to crowd control is
hard to justify.
Thisvariation providesaseparation between
thespectatorsand thegrade-level playingfield
with theuseof aheight change.
Thisrepresentsastadium in which thefield is
well below grade. Thishastheadvantageof
loweringtheprofileof thestadium.
Thi ssketch sharesastrong l i kenessto the
final stadium design. Thefield sitsbelow grade
and theentry level separatestheupper and
lower seatingsections.
The sket ch demonst rat esan i dea t hat t he
seati ng secti on i stheroof for an i nhabi table
spacebelow. Thisideacan beseen in thefinal
design asthelocker roomsand servicefacilities
arehoused beneath theseatsof thelower deck.
A simplehorseshoeplan. A entirely enclosed stadium No corner seats
1 7 Stadium
Clearly, oneof themost important aspectsof
a stadium isitsaccessibility to the stadium
visitor. To demonstrate the new stadi ums
location in relation to therest of thecampus,
agreen circlerepresentstheareain aonemile
radi usfrom thecenter of thestadium. This
di st ance was est abl i shed as a reasonabl e
distanceto expect most peopleto bewilling
and ableto walk to thestadium.
The green shaded areasrepresent the total
availablegameday parking on campusother
than theparking directly next to thestadium.
All of theavailableparking spacesfall within
theone-mileradiusof thestadium. In total,
thereareover 5,500 parking spaces. Assuming
threepeoplearrivein each vehicle, over half
thestadiumsoccupancy istaken careof.
Highlighted in bluearetheResidenceHalls.
Most of them fall with a one mile radiusof
thecenter of thestadium.
The red linesindicate the pedestrian paths
from all thedormitoriesand parking lotsto
thestadium.
1 8 Stadium
Thered linehighlightsthemost commonly used foot path to thestadium site.
ThisWest Sideentrancein particular will seethemost traffic astheconnection
from the old campus(highlighted below) isalready developed thanksto the
basketball arenawhich liesjust northwest of thenew stadium.
Thistunnel runsunder thehighway to
connect the old side of campuswith
thenew.
Looking back after exiting thetunnel
on thenew sideof campus.
Continuing up the path towardsthe
Convocation Center
Footprintsof JMUsmascot, theDuke
Dog, lead theway to thestadium.
1 9 Stadium
The ori gi nal bui ldi ngson campusare easi ly recogoni zed by thei r
bluestonewalls. Theperimeter wall surrounding thenew stadium is
also made of bluestone. The use of the bluestone wall connectsthe
stadi um to the ori gi nal secti on of campus. At the same ti me, i t
establishesthestadium asthesymbolic centerpieceof thenew section
of campus.
Insidethelargeperimeter wall standsanother bluestonewall which separates
theopen spacefrom thestadium. Thesethreearchesaresmaller versionsof the
main entrancearch and mark thelocation wherevisitorssurrender their tickets.
Wilson Hall
Main Administration Buildingat theHead of theQuad
MauryHall
BluestoneBuildingsSurround theQuad
Gifford Hall
ResidenceHall in theOlder Section of Campus
Thiscomposition showsthemain entrancethrough thebluestonewall that
surroundsthestadiumssite. Beyond thiswall, thereisopen green spacewith
ampleroom for grillingand picnickingbeforethegame.
2 0 Stadium
Thedesign of thestadium and itssurrounding sitestartswith
thefootball field. Theyard linesact asthe generator for the
placement of thestructural membersand for thelayout of the
parking areaand adjoining open space.
Thelower seating section holds18,932 chairs. In an effort to
createasintimateastadium aspossible, theseatsin thislower
deck completely enclosethefield. Thetop of thissection is
actually at gradelevel. Thismovehelpsto lower theoverall
profileof thestadium. Asis, it ismassiveand thestructure
reachesover 100 feet abovegrade. If thefield wereplaced at
gradelevel, thestadium would beover 160 feet tall.
The upper sect i on hol ds 13,188 seat s i n a horseshoe
configuration. Theopening islocated thenorthern end of the
stadium, pointing to the original section of campusin an
attempt to make a connecti on between the old and new.
During thegames, thesound of theroaring crowd would be
directed towardscampusasif out of amegaphone.
Thespacein between theupper deck seating sectionsisused
for thesystem of rampsand elevators. Theplacement of the
rampsin thesespotshelpsto minimizeundesirablecorner seats,
and they do not cut into to theopen spacesurrounding the
stadium. Therampsalso provideviewsof thefield from certain
pointswhich meanspeopleseated in theupper deck can still
watch thegamewhen coming to or going from their seats.
2 1 Stadium
A view of thefoundation system which also servesasthewall for theareaunderneath the
lower deck seating. Thisisthearea in which thelocker rooms, first aid room, kitchens,
and the mechani cal rooms are housed. The retaining wall utilizesa seriesof tiebacks
which reveal their endson theinsideof thewall in an architectural expression of thework
that thewall isperforming.
2 2 Stadium
Theramps, aswith thestadium, areconstructed from precast concrete
pieces. They feature space wherepeoplecan takeabreak from walking
up theramp without being in themain flow of traffic.
2 3 Stadium
Thegreen shaded area showsan open park-
likeareawith room for grillsand benchesto
encouragepregamefestivities. Theprovision
of thisspaceisconsistent with theposition that
astadium doesmorethan houseagame, rather
it isthe centerpiece of a full day of activity.
Furt hermore, t hi s space coul d be made
availableall year round asopposed to amere
si x or seven Saturdays a year, providing the
campuswi th another place for communal
gathering which did not previously exist.
Thegrey areaspoint to thecar region of the
stadiumsparking lot. Theroads are narrow
with many turnsso asto keep thetraffic speed
down. These540 parking spacesarepremium
spotsand could bea good sourceof revenue
for theuniversity on gamedays.
Thebluezoneisthepedestrian region of the
parki ng lot. The goal i sto provi de ampl e
space i n bet ween rows for comfort abl e
tailgating and to ensurethat pedestriansnever
need enter thegrey shaded zoneto reach the
stadium.
2 4 Stadium
Tailgating hasbecomean integral part of the
gameday experience. At JMUsnew stadium,
spaceisprovided to facilitatecomfortable, safe
tailgating. During gameday, astheparking
lot fills, the pedestrian zoneisenclosed by
protectivewallsof parked vehiclesproviding
an area safe from speedi ng cars. There i s
pl ent y of room for gri l l s and cool ers for
tailgating, and thereisno need for peopleto
be where movi ng cars are. Thi s zone i s
bordered on onesideby asmall bluestonewall
2 5 Stadium
Thi s graphi c del i neates the opti mum and
maximum viewing distancesfor football. The
region within thered circleisideal. Thenext
bigger region istherecommended maximum
distancewhich isdetermined by describing a
150m arc from each of the corners. Beyond
theouter ring, theball would virtually disappear
from view. Thisimagedemonstratesthat the
majority of thestadiumsseatsfall within the
recommended distance, and all of them fall
wi t hi n t he maxi mum di st ance. Thi s i s
consistent with thegoal of providing thebest
gameday experience possible, which includes
bei ng able to clearly watch the game bei ng
played.
The blue linesrepresent linesof sight from
variousseatsthroughout thestadium. In the
plan view, thelinesoutlinea60 degreefield of
vi si on from part i cul ar seat s. Thi s range
approximatesthe range of a personsvision
looking straight ahead. In the section view,
thebluelinesdemonstratetheability of aperson
to seethefield from variousseats. Theupper
deck seating hasagreater slopethan thelower
deck, to ensure that the people who si t the
farthest away from thefield still areableto see.
2 6 Stadium
It used to bethat construction crews weremadeup by groupsof craftsmen. Thearchitect
wasconsidered amaster builder and had theultimatecontrol on aconstruction site. Now,
construction crewscould moreprecisely becalled assembly crews.
The architect no longer playsthe role of master builder and must rely on the assembly
crewsto realizehisvision. Given theinconsistent and sometimesinferior workmanship in
theconstruction industry, thearchitect takesabig risk by leaning too heavily on thebuilders.
If thedesigner cannot control thebuilders, then what iswithin thedesignerscontrol ?
Thearchitect can control thebuilding blocks.
Thebuilding should beviewed asa set of pieces, each oneof which should beableto be
critiqued on itsown, but cometogether asawhole.
Thisidealendsitself particularly nicely to aproject aslargein scaleasastadium. Thesheer
sizeof thestructuremakesfor an astronomically high cost, but theinitial investment into
sophisticated concreteformscould berecovered in such aproject.
ASSEMBLY CREWS
For that matter, wholehousesaretrailered to their foundations, set in place, and thehomeownerscan movein within
amatter of days.
2x4 wallsarriveon thejob sitenailed together and sheathed. Theframingcrew simply hasto put thewallsin theright
placeand plumb them up.
Steel framing iscraned into placeand theworkerstighten theboltsor weld them together.
2 7 Stadium
James Stirling
Residence Hall for the Universityof St. Andrews
For thedesign of a ResidenceHall at
theUniversity of St. Andrews, James
Stirling choseaprecast concretepanel
system becauseof alack of skilled local
building workers. Stirling designed a
set of componentsthat could becraned
into position, leaving littleopportunity
for the bui lders to do anythi ng but
assemblethepieces.
Li ke pi eces of a gi ant
puzzle, the crane puts
al l the panel s i n thei r
proper places.
The result i s a bui ldi ng whi ch
derivesitsarchitecturefrom the
clarity of itsmanufacture. The
fact that the precast concrete
panelsare not hidden behind a
facade i ndi cates that Sti rl i ng
looked to hisprefabricated pieces
for thearchitectural expression of
thebuilding.
2 8 Stadium
Section of Lloydsof London
OneFloor of Lloydsof London
Thearchi tectureof thi sbui ldi ng
st emsfrom t hel egi bi l i t y of t he
individual piecesthat makeup the
whole.
Ri chard RogersseestheLloydsof
London buildingasa flexiblekit
of parts. Hestatesthat thekey ...
i sthelegi bi li ty of theroleof each
technological component, which is
functi onal l y stressed to theful l .
Thusonemay recogni zei n each
part, i tsprocessof manufacture,
erection maintenance, and finally
demolition: thehow, why and what
of thebui ldi ng.
A KIT OF PARTS
The new stadium takesitsarchitecture from the set of piecesthat make up the whole. Here isthe actual number of piecesthat make up the major
componentsof thestadium. All of thepiecesaremadeof precast concreteand can beassembled on site.
2 9 Stadium
Pier Luigi Nervi
Santiago Calatrava
Train Station
Thedesignsof Santiago Calatravaand Pier Luigi
Nervi areinfluential in acoupleof ways. For one
thing, they both find their architecturethrough
structural expression. Thebeauty of their work
comesfrom thesimpleclear solutionsto structural
problems. Also, they both treat concrete with a
lightnessand sensitivity that only someonewith a
trueunderstanding of thematerial can.
3 0 Stadium
Thismodel attemptsto perform several
functionsat onetime. Itsfront issloped
to hold seats. Underneath theseatsthere
iscirculation area, including platformsfor
walkwaysthat could be part of a ramp
system. The top of the model coul d
contain an integrated lighting system for
thefield.
Thismodel embodiestheideaof having
a pri mary st ruct ural member whi ch
fulfillsseveral functionssimultaneously.
In thiscase, thecantilevered section of the
model wasto bethesupportsfor seating
sectionswhich would providea canopy
for theseatsbelow it. At thesametime,
thispiece allowsfor passage through it
below.
Thi s model al so t akes i t shape by
providing support for seatsand, at the
sametime, aspacefor circulation.
These two sketches, l i ke some of the
modelssearch for an element that actsas
the pri mary structure whi l e creati ng
circulation spaceand isvisually distinctive.
3 1 Stadium
Thisisanother model of two converging arches. It questionstheconstructability of such an
object by treating thewholeasthesum of layers.
Theseimagesdepict amodel madeof two arches. Thelower arch supportsthe upper one,
and hintsat acirculation spacebeneath. Theupper arch actsasthesupportsfor thebleachers
and asacanopy.
3 2 Stadium
In theplan and elevation viewsof thetripod above, thestacking of theprecast blocksisshown.
Heretheindividual layersof thetripodsclearly demonstratetheway in which theforcesaredistributed.
Thefirst major element
i n t he upper deck
seating areaisthetripod.
Thetripod holdsup the
mai n beam whi l e
providing space below
for crowd ci rculati on.
Usi ng a t r i pod, as
opposed t o a si ngl e
larger support, reduces
thevisual massivenessof
the member. Likewise,
theindividual legsof the
tri pods have a faceted
hexagonal cross-section.
Thefacetscatch light in
a way t hat gi ves t he
i mpressi on t hat t he
member s ar e much
lighter than they appear.
T he t r i pods ar e
constructed of precast
concrete blocks. Each
bl ock stands four feet
tall and issix feet across.
The fact that the block
i s angl ed means t hat
thereisonly oneway to
stack thepieces, leaving
little room for error on
thejob site.
3 3 Stadium
Theindividual piecesof thetripod stack upon
oneanother likeaset of childrensblocks. Each
piece isfed onto post-tensioning cableslike
beadson astring. Thecable, which isconnected
to thefoundation, istightened when each leg
of the tripod iscomplete, thusputting each
leg into extremecompression and holding the
separateblocksin place.
3 4 Stadium
The tripodsestablish a rhythm for thebuilding. Thefront leg
of thetripodsarein linewith theten-yard lines, which connects
the outsi de of the stadi um wi th the i nsi de. Also a zone for
circulation iscreated in thespaceunder thetripods. Thetripods
help to designateaborder linebetween theinsideand outside
of thestadium.
3 5 Stadium
Each leg sitson abaseto indicatethat thebottom of acolumn
isa special instance deserving of recognition. Thebaseof the
legsisthezoneof human interaction. Thebaseprovidesaplace
to sit against thecolumn
3 6 Stadium
Thisbeam istheshowcasepieceof thestadium. Aswith theother pieces, and thestadium asawhole, thebeam design stemsfrom thejob it hasto do. In thecase
of thisbeam, it must span between two membersand support theupper deck bleachers. Asthemoment forcesmovethrough thebeam, different depthsare
required, hencethechanging curvatureon thebottom of thebeam. Thecircular voidsand thethinner middlesection of thebeam indicatethat, although acertain
beam depth iscalled for, it doesnot haveto besolid material. Thetop of thebeam isstepped to receive precast concrete bleacherswhich span beam to beam.
Finally, thebeam isdesigned to receivethelighting system at itstop.
3 7 Stadium
Thediagram to theleft tracesthemoment forces t hrough the main support beam. The
moment force equalszero just left of thesupport on theright. Thisspot istheperfect place
for thejoint of thepiecesto occur. At thispoint, thebeam must only resist the shear forces.
Also, thebeam iscantilevered to help reducethemaximum moment force, thusallowing for
ashallower beam.
Thedrawingson theright show themethod of transportation for thecomponentsof the
main beam. The length of the beam componentsare short enough to be trucked on the
highway. They also act astheir own trailer by simply attaching aset of wheelsto theend.
3 8 Stadium
Thisseriesinvestigatesdifferent possibilitiesof making theseam between thetwo partsof thebeam.
The two piecesare welded to one another at the seam. The bottom left beam waschosen because it
providesagreat amount of spacein which to weld, it makesit exceedingly difficult for thetwo partsto
slide away from each other, and neither of thepiecesaretoo long to truck to thesite.
3 9 Stadium
Theupper component islowered onto thebottom piece. A short rod of steel isplaced in thecirclein thejoint, and all thepiecesarewelded
together. With all thepartswelded in place, thetwo piecescannot slideapart from one another.
4 0 Stadium
After one beam comestogether, two large beams are connected by yet another piece. Thismiddle piece separatesthe two beamsthe
appropriatedistanceand isformed to receivethebleacher components. By joining two beamsin thismanner, thefinal assembly hasawidth
of fivefeet.
4 1 Stadium
Thispiececonnectsthetripodsto thesupport beams. Thisconnection tiesthethreelegsof thetripod together. At thesametime,
thebeamsrest on theshouldersof thisconnection piecewhiletheprotruding part of theconnection sitsbetween thetwo beams.
4 2 Stadium
The last major piece of the assembly isthe outrigger which sitsin the space between the
upper endsof themain support beams. Theoutrigger iswelded to thebeamswith asteel rod
the same diameter asthe rod that weldsthetwo beam componentstogether. Theshapeof
theoutrigger isreminiscent of themain beam, and it also hasanotch from which thelighting
system or bannerscan span.
4 3 Stadium
The componentsall come together and the
main support beam spansfrom thetripod to a
concrete box on two rowsof columns. The
concretebox transferstheload from thebeams
to thecolumnsbelow. Therowsof columns
sit at the top of each flight of stairsthat lead
into the lower deck seats. The concrete box
also containsany electrical and plumbing needs
to servetheneighboring spacesthat contain the
pressand luxury boxes.
4 4 Stadium
Thepiecesget stacked up likeaset of blocks. Each structural assembly sits30 feet from thenext one. Thisdistanceis
spanned by concretebleacher sectionswhich tieall theassembliestogether. Theend result isa stadium madefrom a
system of pieceswith aclear structural hierarchy
4 5 Stadium
4 6 Stadium
Bibliography
Geraint, John and Rod Sheard. Stadia: A Design and Development Guide. Boston, MA: Architectural Press1997.
Stewart, AlvaW. CollegeFootball Stadiums: An Illustrated Guideto NCAA Division I-A.
Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland and Co. 2000.
Gaines, ThomasA. TheCampusasaWork of Art. New York, New York: Praeger 1991.
Raitz, Karl B. TheTheater of Sport. Baltimore, MD: JohnsHopkinsUniversity Press1995.
IESCommitteeon Sportsand Recreational AreasLighting. Current Recommended Practicefor SportsLighting.
New York, New York: IlluminatingEngineeringSociety of North 1989.
Nervi, Pier Luigi. St ruct ures. New York, New York: F.W. DodgeCorp. 1956
Sudjic, Deyan. Norman Foster, Richard Rogers, JamesStirling: New Directionsin British Architecture.
London, England: Thamesand Hudson 1986.
Tzonis, Alexander and LianeLeFaivre. Movement, Structure, and theWork of Santiago Calatrava.
Basel, Boston: Birkhauser 1995.
Puhalla, Ji m and Jeff Kransand MikeGoatley. SportsFields: A Manual for Design, Construction, and Maintenance.
Chelsea, MI: Ann Arbor Press1999.
Nicolin, Pier Luigi and Marcel Meili. TheDaring Flight.
New York, New York: Rizzoly International PublicationsI nc.1987.
Mitchell, William. Do WeStill Need Skyscrapers? Scientific American. December 1997.
Kroloff, Reed. Pay to Play. Archi tecture. November 1998.
Stoddard, BrookeC. Trendsin Stadium Construction. TheConstruction Specifier. July 1998.
Fenley, Goreth. Wheel MeOut to theBall Game. Archi tectural Record. July 1992.
www.jmu.edu
www.timbertruss.com
www.ccsteel.com/about.htm
www.sunwayhomes.com/H.S.S.2.html
www.royalhomes.com
www.reidsteel.co.uk
www.cp-tel.net/bmwj/building.html
www.ballparks.com
Pasti er, John. TheSportingLife. Architectural Record. August 1999.
Pelli, Cesar, and CharlesThornton, and Leonard Joseph. TheWorldsTallest Buildings Scientific American. December
1997.
4 7 Stadium
Vita
Graham DouglasFarbrother
Born on 25 January, 1975
Fai rfax, Vi rginia
JamesMadison University, 1993-1997
Bachelor of Artsin Modern Foreign Languages
Minor in BusinessAdministration
PhillipsUniversitt, 1995-1996
Marburg, Germany
Vi rginiaPolytechnic Instituteand StateUniversity, 1998-2001
Master of Architecture