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AAE451
SystemDesignReview
March30,2010

Team1
AlexMondal
BethGrilliot
BrienPiersol
HeathCheung
JasonLiu
JeffCohen
JeremyWightman
KitFransen
LaurenHansen
NickWalls
RyanFoley
TimFechner

TABLEOFCONTENTS
EXECUTIVESUMMARY.......................................................................................................................................3
MISSIONSTATEMENT.........................................................................................................................................4
DESIGNMISSION...........................................................................................................................................................4
TYPICALOPERATINGMISSION..........................................................................................................................................5
MAJORDESIGNREQUIREMENTS........................................................................................................................5
AIRCRAFTCONCEPTSELECTION..........................................................................................................................6
ENGINEERINGLOGIC.......................................................................................................................................................6
OUTCOMEANDLAYOUTS..............................................................................................................................................10
COMPLIANCEMATRIX...................................................................................................................................................15
ADVANCEDANDUNCONVENTIONALTECHNOLOGIESUNDERCONSIDERATION.................................................16
CANARDS...................................................................................................................................................................17
FORWARDSWEPTWINGS.............................................................................................................................................18
BLENDEDWINGBODY.................................................................................................................................................19
PROPFANENGINES.......................................................................................................................................................21
LAMINARFLOWCONTROL.............................................................................................................................................21
CONSTRAINTANALYSISANDDIAGRAMS...........................................................................................................23
BACKSWEPTWINGAIRCRAFTCONCEPT..........................................................................................................................24
FORWARDSWEPTWINGAIRCRAFTCONCEPT......................................................................................................................25
BLENDEDWINGBODYAIRCRAFTCONCEPT.........................................................................................................................26
TRADESTUDIES...........................................................................................................................................................28
SIZINGSTUDIES.................................................................................................................................................30
CURRENTAPPROACH....................................................................................................................................................30
DRAGPREDICTION ...............................................................................................................................................35
ENGINEMODEL...........................................................................................................................................................35
ENGINEANDPROPULSIONSELECTION...............................................................................................................37
APPROACHTOMODELENGINE.......................................................................................................................................44
STABILITY..........................................................................................................................................................45
INITIALVERTICALTAILSIZING........................................................................................................................................48
SUMMARYANDNEXTSTEPS.............................................................................................................................50
WORKSCITED...................................................................................................................................................52
APPENDIXA:HOUSEOFQUALITY......................................................................................................................55
APPENDIXB:MERITPOOL.................................................................................................................................56

EXECUTIVESUMMARY
Frommarketresearch,Team1determinedthatalongrangebusinessjet,capableofa
stillairmissionof7100nmiwouldbemostmarketableintheyear2020.Tocompletethese
requirements,Team1sketchedover20aircraftdesignsandassessedthemusingengineering
logic.Threedesignswereselected:abackswept,forwardswept,andblendedwingaircraft.
Weresearchedtheunconventionaltechnologiesofcanards,forwardswept,and
blendedwingbodies,aswellaspropfans.Fromthisresearch,canardsdemonstratedimproved
liftcharacteristicsatthecostofdifficultplacement.Forwardsweptaircrafthaveimprovedlift
characteristics,allowingfordecreasedtakeoffandlandingdistances.However,theirdesignalso
necessitatesimprovedcompositematerialsusedinthewing.Blendedwingbodiesdemonstrate
increasedliftperformance.However,aestheticallyitmaybelessdesirableduetothelackof
windowsinthecabin.
Fromtheconstructedsizingcode,wefoundinitialemptyweights.Forthebackswept
configuration,itsemptyweightwas95,000lbs.Theforwardsweptsemptyweightwas99,000
lbs,andtheblendedwingbodyswas88,000lbs.Withthesedeterminedweights,and
estimatesforthepassengers,fuel,andengines,wecalculatedstability.Wefoundallthree
designstobestable.Thebacksweptaircrafthada5.1%staticmargin,theforwardswept
aircrafthada13.4%staticmarginandtheblendedwingbodyaircrafthada10.2%static
margin.
Overall,thedesignsdemonstratedviability.Furthersizingrefinementwillbetter
quantifytheperformanceofthesedesigns.Wewillbeintegratingourcomponentweightbuild
upintothesizingcodeinordertocreateabetteriterativeprocess.Improvingourdragcode
willalsoprovidebetteranalysisforthegeneratedvalues.

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MISSIONSTATEMENT
Toengineeraconceptualbusinessaircraftsolutioncapableoftransportingesteemed
passengers,inluxury,whileadheringtoNASAsN+2environmentalgoals.
InordertoabidebyNASAsN+2environmentalstandards,ourconceptwillprovide
reducedNOxemissions,reducednoisepollution,increasedfuelefficiency,andanincreased
percentageofrecyclablematerialsusedinconstruction.Thesekeytopicswillhelpaddressthe
primaryconcernsofenvironmentallyconsciousgroups.
DESIGNMISSION
Toreachourmissionstatementgoals,theideaofalongrangebusinessaircraftwas
chosen.Bylookingatlongrangebusinessaircraftcurrentlyinproductionandchoosing
attributesthatwebelievewecanimprove,wecreatedthedesignmissionsummarizedbelow.
1219Passengers+4Crew
CruiseAltitude>40,000ft
CruiseSpeed0.85Mach
StillairRangeof7,100nmi
TakeoffFieldLength4,7005,000ft
LandingFieldLength2,5003,000ft
Ahighoperatingceilinghasmanybenefits.Bychoosingacruisealtitudeofgreater
than40,000feet,ourbusinessjetwilloperateabovethemajorityofairtrafficallowingfor
higherspeedsandacruiseclimbmethod,increasingaltitudeastheaircraftbecomeslighter
fromburningfuel.Thismethodimprovestheoverallefficiencyoftheenginesanddecreases
fuelusage.
Timelyflightsareadesirablecharacteristicthatconsumersdesireinabusinessjet.High
cruisespeeddirectlycorrelatestotheflightduration.Therefore,wechosethecruisespeedof
0.85Machfromhistoricaldataasitoffersahighspeedwhilemaintainingfuelefficiency.
Arangeof7,100nmi,aconservativedistancefromLosAngelestoHongKongwitha60
ktsheadwind,wasthedesignmissionrangefortheaircraft.Destinationflexibilityisalso
importantforadesirablebusinessjetsolution.Withatakeofffieldlengthof4,7005,200feet
andalandingfieldlengthof2,5003,000feet,theseaircraftswillhaveaccesstomanysmall
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airports;thisreducestheaircraftdesignsrelianceonlargerandmorecongestedterminalsand,
thereby,improvesturnaroundtimeanddecreaseswaittimes.
TYPICALOPERATINGMISSION
Itisnotreasonabletoexpectthedesignedaircrafttooperateatthefulldesignmission
atalltimes.Therefore,wedesignedthetypicaloperatingmissiontocarry68passengers,
with3crew,overapproximately2,500nmi.Thismissionallowsfortravelbetweenmanytrans
continentalcities.Asareference,aflightfromNewYorktoLosAngelesis2,139nmi.Whilethis
missiondoesnotfullyutilizetheaircraftscapabilities,theshorttakeoffandlandingcapacity
willallowformoreopportunitiesforshorterrangeflightsinagiventimeframe.
MAJORDESIGNREQUIREMENTS
Fromthedefinitionofthetargetcustomer,wecategorizedtheassumptionsconcerning
desiredcharacteristicsforthebusinessjetbyperformance,aesthetics,service,andextraneous
attributes.Afterevaluatingthesecharacteristics,range,speed,andcomfortareofhighest
priority,followedshortlybydestinationflexibilityandenvironmentalimage.Whilerange,
speed,andcomfortareregularlydesiredqualitiesforatranspacificpersonalbusinessjet,
destinationflexibilityandenvironmentalimagearedevelopingconcerns.Incountriesand
locationswheresmallerairportsareavailable,theabilityforabusinessjettoavoidlandingat
busierairportsgivesthecustomertheabilitytomakedeadlineswithoutworryofexternal
factorspreventingpromptlandings.Toaddressthesefactors,weselectedavarietyof
performancecharacteristics.Thehouseofqualityisagraphictoolthatdefinesarelationship
betweencustomerdesiresandthebusinessjetscapabilities.Fromitsresults,weprioritized
rangevelocityandfuelweight.
Comparingthedesignedjettothecurrentcompetitors,therange,priceandspeedare
comparable,asseenintheHouseofQualitythatislocatedinAppendixA.However,itis
forecastedthatadesirefortechnologywhichislessharmfultotheenvironmentwillprogressin
thefuture.UsingthisHouseofQuality,wedeterminedthatthefollowingpropertieswere
mostimportantformeetingourdesignmissiongoals:
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FuelWeight
EmptyWeight
CruiseSpeed
Range
CabinVolume
TakeoffDistance
CumulativeNoiseLevel
AIRCRAFTCONCEPTSELECTION
Withthepropertiesaboveinmind,Team1producedover20aircraftconceptsfor
considerationanddebate.Theseconceptsincludemanyvariationsofconventionalsweptback
wingswithtails,forwardsweptwings,designsusingcanardsandblendedwingbodies.The
numerousdesignschangedthepositionoftheengines,wings,andtailtoobtainmanydifferent
possibilitiestoconsider.
ENGINEERINGLOGIC
Becauseeverymembercontributedanassortmentofconcepts,alargenumberof
designswerecategoricallysimilar,ifnotidentical.Thegeneralizationsbecameforwardswept,
backswept,andblendedwingbodyconfiguration.EachofthesehadthepossibilityofHtail,T
tail,Vtail,tailmountedengines,wingmountedengines,enginesaboveorbelowthewing,and
canards.Fordiscussion,theaircraftunabletobecategorizedundertheabovedescriptionswill
beanalyzedfirst.
FromFigure1,conceptAisaswingwingaircraftdesign.Team1discardedthisdesign
duetothestructuralproblemssuchadesignwouldencounter.Brepresentsanaircraftwith
twosetsofwingsatdifferentheights.Team1decidedthatsuchadesignwouldsufferfromthe
additionalweightduetotheextrastructures,andthetradeoffwithanybenefitswouldnotbe
worththedifficultiesinovercomingtheadditionalweight.Crepresentsanenginerunning
throughthelengthoftheplane.Whileinteresting,thedesignwouldcreateexcessivevibrations
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andbedisruptivetothepassengers.Lastly,Drepresentsaforwardsweptblendedwingwith
canards,whichwasdiscardedduetotheincompatibilityofthethreedesignfeatures.

Figure1:AircraftofAlternativeClassification
FromFigure2,conceptEisBackSweptAircraftwithaliftingcontrolcanardsandaV
Tail.WediscardedtheVTailbecausetheextrapitchcontrolwasnotneededbecauseofthe
canard.ConceptFrepresentsaHTailaircraftwithabubblecanopy.Whilethisdesigngives
thepassengersanextraview,suchaconfigurationwouldbeunabletoconstructwiththe
numberofpassengersforourdesignmission.ConceptGrepresentsananhedralconfiguration
withpropeller.Thisconfigurationisnotfeasibleforourdesignmissionbecausethepropeller
limitstherequiredMach.ConceptHrepresentsatailmountedengineonabacksweptwing.
Withtheplacementoftheengineontopoftheverticaltail,thepitchmomentwouldbehardto
overcome,deemingthisconfigurationnotfeasibleforthebacksweptwingdesign.

Figure2:AircraftofConventionalClassification
ConceptI,seeninFigure3,isaforwardsweptwingdesignwithintegratedenginesand
strakes.Duetothevibrationsoftheintegratedengine,thisdesignisnotfeasibleforour
mission.ConceptJisanHtailforwardsweptwingdesign.Thisdesignwasverypromisingdue
totheHtailsabilitytoshieldenginenoise.Sincetheenginesaremountedaftofthewings,the
centerofgravitywillbepulledbacktotheaftoftheaircraftmakingtheaircrafthardto
stabilize.Anotherissuearosewiththelocationofcontrolsurfaces.Withacenterofgravityso
faraft,thecontrolsurfacesonthewingandtailwouldbeveryclosetothiscenterofgravity.
Theshortmomentarminbothcaseswouldnecessitatelargercontrollingmechanismsandthe
potentialbenefitswouldnotjustifytheaddedstructuralweight.ConceptKisanengine
mountedforwardsweptaircraftwithaTtail.DuetothestructuralsupportoftheTtail,the
wingscannotbeplacedatthebackoftheaircraft.Thiscausesthecenterofgravitytobe
shiftedforwardandtheaircraftwillbehardtostabilize.ConceptLeventuallybecamethe
baselineofourforwardsweptwing.However,inconceptL,thewingsareplacedabovethe
forwardsweptwing.Whenplacingtheenginesabovethewing,extrasupportisneededforthe
wingwhichmakesthewingsheavier.

Figure3:AircraftoftheForwardSweptClassification
ConceptsMandN,seeninFigure4,areintegratedengineBlendedWingBodyaircraft
withwinglets.Team1discardedthesetwodesignsduetothevibrationsoftheintegrated
engines.Additionally,conceptOcreatedanunbalancedaircraft.Byhavingtheengines
mountedonthetail,theBWBwouldresembleabacksweptaircraftwithaverticaltail.The
separatetailnullifiestheuseoftheBlendedWingBody.ConceptPhascanardswithengines
mountedinpods.Sincetheenginesarefixedtothebody,thevibrationswilloccurthroughout
thecabin.Also,thecanardsdonotaddanyadditionalbenefitsincetheBlendedWingBodycan
betreatedasaliftingsurface.
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Figure4:AircraftoftheBlendedWingBodyClassification
OUTCOMEANDLAYOUTS
Aftertheseconsiderations,threedesignswereobtained:abacksweptwingwith
canards,aforwardsweptwingwithcanardsandablendedwingbody.Thesethreedesigns
incorporatedtheaspectsthatwerethoughtwouldbethemostbeneficialorhadthebesttrade
offswhenmeetingthegivendesignmissionandenvironmentalconcerns.Theoutsideofthe
aircraftcanbeshownusingisometricandorthographicviews.
Figure5andFigure6representaBackSweptWingaircraftwithlifting,controlcanards.
Enginesareplacedfurtherup,nearthetail,inordertoreducethenoiseandvibrations
observedbythepassengers.Thisaircraftisthemoreconventionalapproachcomparedtothe
othertwodesigns.TheBackSweptWingaircraftcanbeassessedwithhistoricaldatasinceitis
similartocurrentaircraft.Anotheradvantagetothisaircraftistheuseofwindowseatsand
passengerplacementinsidethecabin.However,themaindisadvantageisthestabilityofthe
aircraft.Duetothelocationofthecanardandmainwing,thestabilityishardertoimprove.
Sincethecenterofgravityisshiftedaft,theonlymeasuretoimprovethestaticmarginisto
movefuelplacementfurtherforwardintothefuselage.
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Figure5:IsometricViewoftheBackSweptWingDesign

Figure6:OrthographicViewoftheBackSweptWingDesign
Figure7andFigure8representaForwardSweptWingaircraftwithlifting,control
canards.AsseeninFigure7,theenginesaremountedonthewinginsteadofbeingmounted
nearthebacktail.Thisengineplacementwaschosenduetothelackofstructuralsupportin
thetailandalsotoimprovethecenterofgravity.Sincethewingsareforwardswept,the
centerofgravityispushedforward.However,thewingsareplacedattheaftoftheaircraft.
Duetothisplacement,theenginesmustbeplacedonthewingstohelpthestaticmarginand
tomakesuretheaircraftisstaticallystable.Thisconfigurationdoesnotmaximumthenoise
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reduction.Iftheenginescouldbeplacedattheaftoftheaircraft,thewingswouldprovide
shieldingandnoisereduction.Anotherdisadvantageistherequirementofcertainphysical
limitations.Thiswillbediscussedlaterinthedocument.

Figure7:IsometricViewoftheForwardSweptWingDesign

Figure8:OrthographicViewoftheBackSweptWingDesign
Figure9andFigure10representaBlendedWingBodyaircraftwithenginesmounted
abovethewing.Sincetheenginesaremountedabovethewing,noisewillbeshieldedaway
fromthefuselage.Also,theBlendedWingBodyisconsideredaliftingsurface.Thislifting
surfaceleadstoabetterfuelconsumption.Theaircraftallowsforalargecabinvolumewhich
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translatestomorecomfortforthepassengers.Themaindisadvantageisthatthereareno
workingprototypesofthisjettransport.Moredisadvantageswillbediscussedlaterinthis
document.

Figure9:IsometricViewoftheBlendedWingBodyDesign

Figure10:OrthographicViewoftheBlendedWingBodyDesign
Wecreatedcabinlayoutsinordertoproperlyvisualizetheinsideofeachaircraft.For
thebacksweptandforwardsweptdesignsthesamecabinlayoutswereusedsincebothwould
usethesamesizedfuselage.
Figure11andFigure12are16and12passengercabinlayoutsrespectively.Bothlayouts
offeragalley,storagespaces,dualrestrooms,andacrewrestforareservepilot.Thecrewrest
isinplacefortransOceanicflightsbecausetheflighttimeexceedstheworkdayofasingle
pilot.Thecockpit,thoughnotspecificallyshownineitherdesign,wouldbeatypicallayout
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seeninmostbusinessjets.Thetailsection,totherightofthefigures,wouldbelargelyempty,
possiblyhousingabaggagecompartment.Emergencyexitswouldbelocatedonthestarboard
sideoftheplaneandouttheaftpressurebulkheadofthecabin.

Figure11:16PassengerLayoutfortheBackSweptandForwardSweptConcept

Figure12:12PassengerLayoutfortheBackSweptandForwardSweptConcept
Thecabinetsandgalleywillprovideamplestorageforfood,beverages,blankets,
pillows,andotherdesiredcommodities.Thesingleseatsinthecabinwillhavetheabilityto
swivel,whichwouldfacilitateconferencingandothertasks.Theredrectanglesandellipses
denotetableswhichcanbestoredinsidethesidewallswhennotinuse.Thiswillallowfor
increasedpersonalspaceduringotheractivitieswhendeskspaceisnotneeded.Totherearof
thepassengercabinisapairofjoinedseats.Theseareintendedtobeusedforhighcapacity
flightstofitthelasttwopassengersatthecostofsomepersonalspace.Overall,thedesignsare
fairlytypicalofbusinessjetsinthisclassofoperations.
Fortheblendedwingbodyconcept,therearetwocabinlayoutsbeingconsidered.
Figure13isan18passengerlayoutwhichisdesignedlikeanextrawideconventionalfuselage
cabin.Itincludesthesameaccommodationsasthebackandforwardsweptwingcabinlayouts
including2restrooms,agalley,storagecabinetsandacrewrest.Whilenotablesareshownin
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thislayout,theywouldmostlikelyswingupfromthesidesofthechairs,similartoastudent
deskinalecturehall.

Figure13:18PassengerLayoutfortheBWBConcept
Figure14isa16passengerlayoutthattakesadvantageoftheblendedwingbodyto
allowforthecabintoflareoutintotheaftpartofthewing.Thislayoutfeaturestheaterstyle
seatingandincludesthepreviousamenitieslikearestroomandcrewrest.Thislayoutwould
alsoallowforascreentobeinstalledjustaftofthecockpitdoorwaywhichwouldutilizethe
seatingarrangementsothatapresentationorinflightmoviemaybeshown.

Figure14:16PassengerLayoutfortheBWBConcept
COMPLIANCEMATRIX

Table1showsthecompliancematrixthatwascompliedforeachconceptusingthe
performancecharacteristicsobtainedfromtheHouseofQuality.

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Table1:ComplianceMatrixfortheThreeDesigns

Currentlyhistoricaldataisusedtoobtaintheamountofrecyclablematerialandinterior
decibelleveloftheaircraft.Theremainingvaluesobtainedarefromavarietyofmethods.We
foundcabinheightandvolumefromdimensioningourlayouts.TheBlendedWingBodycabin
volumeislargerduetothecabinbeingabletoflareintothewing.Thechosenengines
determinethecruisespeed,andtheN+2goalsdeterminethecumulativecertificationnoise
level.WefoundEmptyandfuelweightbyusingthesizingequationsmentionedabove.The
Groundrolltakeoffdistancechosenaccommodatedthesmallerairportswewishtobeableto
utilize.Thepayloadfortheaircraftisthetotalnumberofmaximumpassengersandcrew
multipliedby225lbs.StillairrangeisthedistancefromLosAngelestoHongKongina60kts
headwind.Thethresholdvaluesweredeterminedbylookingatcompetitorbusinessaircraft
andmakingsurethatwehaveatleasttheabilitytoperformonthesamelevelofour
competition.
ADVANCEDANDUNCONVENTIONALTECHNOLOGIESUNDER
CONSIDERATION
ThedesignteamintendstomeetorapproachNASAsN+2goalsforincreasedfuel
efficiency,decreasedemissions,andreducednoisegeneration.Thesearefairlyloftygoals,and
changesinaerodynamicdesigndemonstratethegreatestpotentialforsignificantimprovement
inperformance.Assuch,theteamisevaluatingseveralunconventionalaerodynamicfeatures
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foruseinthethreeconcepts.Thesefeaturesincludetheuseofcanards,forwardsweptwings,
andablendedwingbodyaircraftdesign.
CANARDS
Althoughbotharehorizontalstabilizers,canardsprovidecertainbenefitsover
conventionalhorizontaltails.Ahorizontaltailexperiencesanoseuppitchingmomentdue
downwashfromthemainwing.Thisadditionaldownwardforcemustbecounteredby
deflectingtheelevator;thisdeflectionaddstrimdragtotheaircraft.Canardsexperienceup
washandanosedownmomentinstead.Theserequirelesstrimmingtomaintainlevelflight
andconsequentlylessdrag.
Canardsareseparatedintotwoclasses:liftingcanardsandcontrolcanards.Lifting
canardsshareaportionoftheliftwiththemainwingwhilealsoprovidingpitchcontrol.This
factallowsformainwingareatobereducedandprovidesforasmallreductioninparasite
drag.Liftingcanardsalsoprovidebeneficialstallcharacteristics.Mostcanardaircraftare
designedsuchthatthecanardstallsbeforethemainwing;whentheaircraftdoesstall,the
canardswillloseliftfirst,andtheaircraftwillnosedownoutofthestallcondition.Inacontrol
canardconfiguration,themainwingcarriesalltheliftingloadoftheaircraft,whilethecanardis
usedforpitchcontrol.Thesearetypicallyemployedonaftwingdesignsorinsituationswhere
anafttailcannotbeutilized.Aswithliftingcanards,deflectionofthecontrolcanardsprovides
asignificantpitchingmomentabouttheaircraftscenterofgravity,helpingtocounterpitchup
andstall.
Theuseofcanardswillprovidesomechallengesinthedesignprocessbecausetheyare
sensitivetoplacement;thereareopportunitiesforflowinteractionbetweenthetwosurfaces
becausecanardsprecedethemainwing.Thiscausesinduceddownwashonthemainwing
whichaddstotheinduceddragoftheaircraft.Theuseofcanardswillalsoimpactthelocation
ofthecenterofgravity.Byplacingthewingsfurtheraftontheaircraft,thisconfiguration
reducestheflowinteractionbetweenthecanardandthemainwing.Whilethisprovidesa
benefittocabinlength,thelongmomentarmfromthewingstothecenterofgravitywill
produceunwantedeffects,suchasrequiringthatthewingonlystoresafractionofthefuel.
Additionally,itislikelythatcomplextrailingedgeliftdevices,suchasFowlerflaps,willnotbe
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feasiblebecauseoftheincreasednosedownpitchingmomentsduringdeployment.Despite
thesechallenges,webelievethatwithcarefuldesign,thereducedtrimdragcanoutweighthe
potentialdrawbacksfacingthecanarddesign.
FORWARDSWEPTWINGS
Therearewelldocumentedadvantagesofforwardsweptwings(FSW).Whencompared
toabacksweptwingofthesamearea,forwardsweptwingsprovidetheadvantagesofhigher
lifttodragratio,higherrangeatsubsonicspeed,improvedstallresistanceandantispin
characteristics,improvedstabilityathighanglesofattack,alowerminimumflightspeed,anda
shortertakeoffandlandingdistance(Vatandas).Duetoalowerleadingedgesweepanglefor
thesamequarterchordsweep,laminarflowtransitionisdelayedonforwardsweptwings.This
resultsingreaterliftatslowerspeedsandloweranglesofattack;thiseffectcanbeseenbelow
inFigure15.Inaddition,theforwardsweptconfigurationcausesairtoflowfromthetips
towardsthefuselage.Thismeansthattheaircraftstallsfirstattheroot,andthusretains
aileroneffectivenessevenduringstallconditions.Asconsequence,lessairflowsoffatthetips
andreducesthedownwashandinduceddrag(Hepperle).

Figure15:Laminarflowincreaseforaforwardsweptwing(Hepperle).
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Therearenotabledrawbackstothisdesignchoice.Forwardsweptwingssufferfrom
aeroelasticdivergence,aconditionthatcancausethewingtipstobendupwarduntilstructural
failureoccurs.Usingcompositematerialsandaeroelastictailoring,asseeninGrummansX29
experimentalfighterdesign,addressesthisproblem.Therefore,bycarefullyorientingthe
compositelaminatefiberdirections,itispossibletodesignstructuralmechanismsto
compensateforthebendingtendency.Byusingthisdesigntechnique,theX29wasableto
achievea15%increaseinlifttodragratio
(Vatandas)
.
Inordertoreduceinterferenceandimprovecontrol,FSWdesignsfavorcanardsover
aftmountedtails.Assuch,theyhavethesamedifficultiesconcerningcenterofgravity,fuel
placement,andhighliftdevicesasabacksweptcanarddesign.Smallcontrolcanardsareoften
used,astheycanprovidelongitudinalcontrolfortheaircraftwhileminimizingflow
interferenceoverthewing.
BLENDEDWINGBODY
Inrecenttimes,variouscompanieshaveplacedagreateremphasisonresearchinto
blendedwingbody(BWB)designs.BoeingandNASAstudieshavedemonstratedthat
remarkablesavingsinfuel,weight,anddragarepossiblewithexistingtechnology.Inone2002
study,BoeingcomparedaBWBdesigntoaconventionallyconfiguredaircraft.Theysizedboth
theconventionalandBWBdesignsusingthesamepayloads,engines,andtechnologyfactors;
theonlydifferencebetweenthetwosetsofrequirementswastheshapeoftheaircraft.The
BWBdesignexhibited27%lowerfuelburn,15%lowertakeoffweight,12%loweroperating
emptyweight,27%lowertotalthrust,anda20%increaseinlifttodragratio(Liebeck).
SubsequentanalysesperformedbyBoeingandNASAconfirmedtheseinitialfindings.
ThesuccessoftheBWBdesignstemsfromseveralfactors.First,theBWBdesignhas
substantiallylessinterferencedragcomparedtoconventionaldesigns.Thisisbecausethe
entireaircraftisonesmoothshapeandhasveryfewsharpcornersorconnectionstocause
interference.Second,inaBWB,thefuselagegenerateslift.Whiletheliftingefficiencyofthe
bodymaynotbeashighasthewings,thelargesurfaceareastillprovidesasignificantamount
oflift.Thisfuselagegeneratedliftreducestherequiredsurfaceareaofthewingsand
consequentlyreducesthewettedsurfaceoftheaircraft.Thereductioninsurfaceareacausesa
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proportionalreductioninviscousdragascomparedtoaconventionaldesign.Third,thespan
loadingoftheaircraftallowsforreducedstructuralweight.Aconventionalaircrafthasthe
fuselageloadconcentratedinthecenteroftheaircraft.Asaresult,heavierstructureisneeded
totakethelargebendingloadspresentatthewingroot.InaBWBaircraft,theloadis
distributedmoreevenlyacrosstheentirestructure,asseeninFigure16.Thecombinationof
thesefactorsmakestheBWBaverystrongcandidatetosatisfythedesigngoals.

Figure16:LoadingcomparisonforBWBandconventionalaircraft.(Liebeck)
WhiletheBWBdesignexcelsaerodynamically,severalissuesneedresolutioninorderto
makeaviableBWBbusinessaircraft.Firstandforemost,theBWBdesignprecludeswindow
seats.Thoughitispossibletohavewindowstowardsthefrontofthecabin,themajorityofthe
passengerareawillnothavewindowsadjacenttotheseats.Thisisamajorconcern,aswindow
locationandsizeisoftenamajorsellingpointforbusinessaircraft.Tohelpalleviatethis
problem,itmaybepossibleininstallskylightsintheaircraft,allowingsomenaturallightingin
thecabin.Aslightlymoreradicalsolutionistoplacecamerasoutsidetheaircraft,withLCD
screensonthebackoftheseatsoronthesidewallsofthecabin.Whilethiswouldeffectively
allowanyseattobeawindowseat,withtheadditionalfunctionalityofasmartboardto
managedocumentsormusic,itisunknownifthiscompromisewouldbeacceptableto
passengers.
ThesecondpotentialchallengewiththeBWBaircraftistheconstructionofthecenter
body.Becausethecenterbodywillbetakingbothpressurizationloadsfromthecabinand
bendingloadsasawing,itwilllikelyapproachitsdesignloadduringeveryflight.Thissubjects
thecenterbodytoverylargelevelsoffatigue.Inthiscase,manufacturingthecenterbodyfrom
aluminumwouldbeprohibitivelyheavy,duetothelargetolerancesneeded.Usingcomposite
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materialsforthecenterbodyisaviablealternativeduetotheircomparativeimmunityto
fatigue(Liebeck).
MuchlikethecanardandFSWaircraftdesigns,theBWBwilllikelybeunabletoutilize
highlifttrailingedgedevices.BecausetheBWBlacksahorizontaltail,thereisnoothersurface
tocounteractthelargemomentgeneratedfromusingsuchdevices.Asaresult,theBWBwill
likelyrequireahigherrotationanglefortakeoffandlanding.Thiscouldleadtopassenger
discomfort,andwillrequirecarefuldesignofthewingsweepandaftconfigurationtoprevent
taildragging.
OneofthemostsignificantconcernsfacingtheBWBdesignisinregardstoscale.Nearly
alloftheresearchcurrentlybeingconductedbyBoeingandNASAisforalargejettransport
BWB,for200450passengers.Thedesignteamhasdeterminedthataspaciouscabinis
possibleforabusinessjetsizedBWB;however,itisunknownwhetherthisdesignwould
achievethesamemeasuresofaerodynamicefficiencyasthelargermodels.Investigationis
ongoing,andfurthersensitivitystudieswillshowiftheBWBdesignisfeasible.
PROPFANENGINES
SincethepreviousSSRreport,furtherresearchregardingtheuseofpropfanshas
revealedseveralissuesinregardstonoiselevels.NASALangleyranseveraltestrunswith
propfanenginesinthelate1980sandearly1990s.Reportsofthesetestsshowthatnoiselevels
foranaircraftatcruisingaltitude(30,000feet)wereofteninexcessof60dBattheground
(GarberandWillshire).Inlightofthisresearch,progressionindevelopmentofpropfanshas
ceasedinfavorofalternativepowerplants.Althoughtheestimatedfuelsavingswouldprovide
asignificantcontributioninreachingefficiencygoals,thenoiselevelspropfansgeneratewill
likelybeunacceptable.Recentresearchprogramshavebeenrestarted,thuswewillcontinue
observingtheresultsofthesestudieswillinordertodeterminewhetherthenoiseissuesmay
bemitigated.
LAMINARFLOWCONTROL
Laminarflowcontrol(LFC)technologyhasbeenindevelopmentsincetheearly1930s.
Theprimarygoalofthesystemistoextendtheareaoflaminarflowoveranaircraftsurface.
22

Extendingthisflowandreducingturbulentzonesresultsinanincreaseinliftandadecreasein
drag.Sinceskinfrictiondragoftenaccountsfor50%ofthetotaldragofasubsonicaircraft,and
laminarskinfrictiongeneratesasmuchas90%lessdragthanturbulent,laminarcontrolcan
achievesignificantsavings.Theprovidedbenefitsallowforbetterfuelefficiency,lowergross
takeoffweight,andincreasedcruiselifttodragratio.
CurrentLFCtechnologyusesacombinationofpassiveandactivesystemstoachieve
greaterlaminarflow.Passivesystemsincludedesigningsurfacesforfavorablepressure
gradientsandlimitingwingsweep,whileactivesystemsofteninvolvesuctionovertheleading
edgeregionofthesurface.Ingeneral,rowsofperforationsareused.Flighttestsdoneby
LockheedMartinin1987usedaperforatedLFCsystemalongtheleadingedgeandfrontsparof
thewingsofaJetstartransportaircraft;thesetestsachieved8090%laminarflowalongthe
wing,resultinginanestimated6%dragreductionfortheentireaircraft(Joslin).
SomeconsiderationsarenecessarybeforethebusinessjetdesigncanimplementLFC.
First,itislikelythatthebusinessjetwillbemanufacturedpredominantlyfromcomposite
materials.Currently,mostoftheLFCtestingandresearchhasbeendoneusingtitaniumor
stainlesssteel.Itremainstobedeterminedifcompositematerialscanbeperforatedwithout
imposinglargermaintenanceorinspectionrequirements.Icingandinsectcontaminationofthe
systemisalsoaconcern.TestinghasdemonstratedthateffectiveuseofaKruegerleading
edgedeviceorliquidspraysareeffectiveforpreventingtheseproblems.However,bothof
thesesystemsaddweightandcomplexitytotheaircraft.Sensitivitystudieswillbenecessaryto
determineifthepotentialbenefitsoutweighthesedisadvantages.
Asstatedbefore,NASAsN+2goalsareadrivingfactorinthebusinessjetdesign.In
ordertomeetthesecriteria,changesinaerodynamicdesignhavethegreatestpotentialfor
significantimprovement.Asadesignproject,theseconceptsareinauniqueposition;without
constraintsduetopreviouscapitalinvestmentorthreatoffinancialloss,theprojectteamis
freetopursuedesignfeaturesthatwouldotherwisebeconsideredtooriskyintheaerospace
market.Thus,byinvestigatingsuchtechnologies,thereisgreaterpotentialformeetingthe
goalsofmarketabilityandenvironmentalsafety.
23

CONSTRAINTANALYSISANDDIAGRAMS
Wederivedtheprocessofsizingthebusinessaircraftfromtheconstraintanalysis.Since
theSystemRequirementsReview,threeaircraftconceptsweredesigned.Thebacksweptwing
aircraft,forwardsweptwingaircraft,andblendedwingbodyaircrafteachhavedifferent
technicalfactorsthatinfluencetheconstraintanalysis.Subsequently,thebacksweptwing
designisaderivationofaconventionalbusinessaircraft;thus,wemadenewerandmore
accurateassumptionsbasedoffthepreviousdesigns.InTable2,theupdatedassumedvalues
arecomparedagainsttheinitialvaluesfromtheSRR.
Table2:ChangesinAssumedPerformanceValues
SRRAssumedPerformanceValues SDRAssumedPerformanceValues
AR=8.0 AR=8.2
CD0=0.015 CD0=0.012
CLTakeOff=1.2 CLTakeOff=1.4
TakeOffGroundRoll=4000ft TakeOffGroundRoll=4500ft
LandingGroundRoll=2700ft LandingGroundRoll=3000ft
CLLanding=1.5 CLLanding=1.7

TheupdatedvaluelistedforC

0
isnowbasedonroughcalculationsratherthanaguess,
henceitsincreasedvalue.Thecalculationswereveryconservativeandthisvaluewilllikelybe
reducedinsubsequentdesigniterations.
Additionally,newconstraintdiagramsfortheblendedwingbodyaircraftandthe
forwardsweptaircraftwereproduced.Theassumedvaluesforalloftheconceptswere
determinedfromengineeringjudgmentandresearch.Eachoftheseconceptshasdifferent
performanceconstraintsbecauseofthediversedesignfeatures.Thefourprimaryconstraints
areTakeOff(TO)GroundRoll,TopofClimb,SecondSegmentClimb,andLandingGroundRoll.
Thesensitivityofthevariousperformancevaluesontheseconstraintsvariesanddepends
heavilyonthedesignitself.TakeOffGroundRoll,LandingGroundRoll,andSecondSegment
Climbareverysensitivetotheassumedvaluesofthemaxcoefficientofliftfortakeoffand
landing.Whenthecoefficientofliftisincreased,theperformanceconstraintseithermoveupor
totheright.AspectratioandinduceddragaffectstheTopofClimbaswellasSecondSegment
Climb.Asaspectratioincreasesorinduceddragdecreases,theconstraintsmovedownorleft.
ThedistancesoflandingandtakeoffgroundrollaffectsTakeOffandLandingGroundRoll.
24

Whenthosedistancesareshortened,theaircraftislimitedtoasmallareainthediagram.Now
theperformancevaluesforeachconceptwillbediscussedindividually.
BACKSWEPTWINGAIRCRAFTCONCEPT
Theassumedvaluesforthefirstconcept,thebacksweptwingaircraft,werebasedon
thedesignskeyfeatures.Thebacksweptwingaircrafthasliftingcanards,aswellasanaft
mountedwing.Thecanardsgivetheaircraftlowertrimdragbutincreasetheinduceddrag.
Thus,theinduceddragis0.02andthemaxcoefficientofliftisincreasedfromaconventional
businessjetat1.5forTOand1.8forlanding.Nikolaismaximumliftoverdrag(L/D)equation
foundthevalueof18.58forthedesign(Nicolai).Theliftingcanardsprovideanincreaseinlift
whichiswhythisnumberishigherthanastandardconventionaljetsL/Dratio.Sincethedesign
missionincludeslandingatsecondaryairports,theassumedTOandlandingdistances
necessitatefactoringintherequirementsforthosesecondaryairports.Furthermore,the
assumedflightvelocitieswerefoundfromresearchdoneonaircraftofthesameclass.Table3
showstheassumptionswhichweremadefortheBackSweptWingDesign.
Table3:AssumptionsfortheBackSweptWingDesign
MajorConstraints AssumedValues
CLMax 1.4forTakeOff;1.7forLand
L/D(max) 18.58
EmptyWeightFraction ~0.5to~0.54
EngineLapseRate/SFCatCruise 0.45
CD0 0.012
OswaldEfficiency 0.8
FlightVelocities Cruise:0.85M;TakeOff:149ktas;Landing:130ktas;Stall:100ktas
AspectRatio 8.2
TakeOffDistance 4,500ft
LandingDistance 3,000ft

Thevaluesthatwereinputintotheconstraintanalysisprogramproducedagraphthat
demonstrateshowtheaircraftisconstrained.ShowninFigure17,thisdesignisconstrainedby
SecondSegmentClimb,TopofClimb,andLandingGroundRoll.Thus,athrusttoweightratioat
sealevelof0.33andawingloadingof80lb/ft
2
areoptimalvaluesforthisaircraft.
25

Figure17:ConstraintDiagramfortheBackSweptWingDesign
FORWARDSWEPTWINGAIRCRAFTCONCEPT
Assumedvaluesforthesecondconcept,theforwardsweptwingaircraft,werebasedon
theuseofcanardsandaforwardsweptwing.Thecanardsontheforwardsweptaircraftare
meantforcontrol.However,unlikeaconventionalbacksweptaircraft,theforwardswept
designdirectsairflowtotherootofthewinginsteadofthetips.Theplaneisthereforeableto
flyathigheranglesofattack.ResearchdonebyNASAindicatesthattheL/Dratioforaforward
sweptaircraftis15%greaterthanatypicalconventionalaircraft(Trippensee).Sothemaximum
L/Dforthesecondconceptisapproximatelytwenty.Theaircraftcanflyathigheranglesof
attackwithoutstallingandcanthenflyatconsiderablylowerspeedsfortakeoffandlanding
whilestillgeneratingsufficientlift.Thisrequireslessdistancetotakeofforland.Theaspect
ratiowasassumedtobethesameasthebacksweptwingaircraftbecausetheplanesare
similarindesignexceptforthesweepangleofthewings.BelowinTable4,aretheassumed
valuesfortheconstraintanalysis.

26

Table4:AssumptionsfortheForwardSweptWingDesign
MajorConstraints AssumedValues
CLMax 1.6forTakeOff;1.9forLand
L/D(max) 20
EmptyWeightFraction ~0.4to~0.54
EngineLapseRate/SFCatCruise 0.45
CD0 0.012
OswaldEfficiency 0.8
FlightVelocities Cruise:0.85M;TakeOff:130ktas;Landing:115ktas;Stall:80ktas
AspectRatio 8.2
TakeOffDistance 4,300ft
LandingDistance 2,800ft

Figure18showsthatthisdesignisconstrainedbySecondSegmentClimb,TopofClimb,
andLandingGroundRoll.Thus,athrusttoweightratioatsealevelof0.32andawingloadingof
85lb/ft^2areoptimalvaluesforthisaircraft.

Figure18:ConstraintDiagramfortheForwardSweptWingDesign
BLENDEDWINGBODYAIRCRAFTCONCEPT
Assumedvaluesforthelastconcept,theblendedwingbodyaircraft,werederivedfrom
engineeringjudgmentandresearchonthisnewdesign.Theblendedwingbodyisaliftingbody
27

acrossitsentiresurface.Thistypeofaerodynamicloadingshouldsignificantlylowerthewing
loading.ResearchdonebyNASAindicatesthattheL/Dratioforablendedwingbodyis15%
greaterthanatypicalconventionalaircraft(NASA).SothemaximumL/Dforthisconceptis
roughlyaroundtwenty.Sincetheentiresurfaceislifting,theaspectratioismoreimportantin
thesizingoftheaircraft.Theaspectratioforthisdesignisat7.8becauseashorterspanis
necessarytocompensatefortherunwaywidthatmostsmallerairports.Theinduceddragon
thisaircraftisdifferentfromaconventionalaircraftat0.010ratherthan0.012.Liketheforward
sweptaircraftdesign,thetakeoffandlandingspeedaswellasthetakeoffandlanding
distanceareshorterbecauseoftheincreaseintheL/D.However,thecoefficientofliftvalues
arelowerthantheforwardsweptaircraftbecausethisdesignisnotabletoflyatahighangleof
attack,sinceithasabacksweptwing.Thisisduetotheaircraftbeingmorestreamlinedthana
conventionalaircraft.BelowinTable5,aretheassumedvaluesfortheconstraintanalysis.
Table5:AssumptionsfortheBlendedWingBodyDesign
MajorConstraints AssumedValues
CLMax 1.5forTakeOff;1.8forLand
L/D(max) 20
EmptyWeightFraction ~0.4to~0.54
EngineLapseRate/SFCatCruise 0.45
CD0 0.010
OswaldEfficiency 0.8
FlightVelocities Cruise:0.85M;TakeOff:130ktas;Landing:115ktas;Stall:100ktas
AspectRatio 7.8
TakeOffDistance 4,800ft
LandingDistance 3,000ft

ShowninFigure19,thisdesignisconstrainedbySecondSegmentClimb,TopofClimb,
andLandingGroundRoll.Thus,athrusttoweightratioatsealevelof0.3andawingloadingof
60lb/ft^2areoptimalvaluesforthisaircraft.
28

Figure19:ConstraintDiagramfortheBlendedWingBodyDesign
Asshownfromtheconstraintdiagramsabove,theblendedwingbodycanflyatalower
thrusttoweightandwingloadingthantheothertwodesigns.Thebacksweptwingconcept
haslowerdragandmoreliftthanaconventionallydesignedaircraft;however,itisalsoless
stable.TheforwardsweptwithcanarddesignhasanincreasedL/Daswellasashortenedtake
offandlandingdistance.Theblendedwingbodyhaslowerdragbecauseofthefuselagebeinga
liftingbodysurfaceaswellasanincreasedLifttoDragratio.
TRADESTUDIES
Tradestudiesarecontinuallybeingproducedinordertomaximizeperformancevalues
foreachaircraftdesign.Throughtheconstraintdiagram,themainvariablestobeconsidered
arethethrusttoweightatsealevelandthewingloading.Byincreasingordecreasingthethrust
toweightatsealevelby0.1,theweightvalueschangedbyroughly500poundsandwhenthe
wingloadingwasincreasedordecreasedby10,theoutputtedweightschangedbyroughly200
pounds.Thesevalueswerederivedfromthesizingcode.Weconcludedthatwingloadingisnot
asimportantasthethrusttoweightratiobecausethechangeofthrusttoweightratioby0.1is
29

morelikelytooccurthanthechangeofwingloadingby10.Whenweightincreases,costofthe
aircraftwillincreaseaswell.
Asfarasperformanceconstraints,whenMachnumberincreases,thetopofclimb
constraintlinerises.Whenthetopofclimbincreases,theconstraintareaissmallerand
increasesthethrusttoweightratio.Thisinturnincreasesweight;however,thetraveltimefor
thecustomerislowered.AnexampleofthisisshowninFigure20.

Figure20:TradeStudyforincreaseofMach
Additionally,sincetheconceptsaremainlyconstrainedbythelandinggroundroll,
secondsegmentclimbandtopofclimb,increasingthetakeoffdistancedidnotplayarolein
thesizingoftheconcepts.Wheneachvariablewasanalyzed,theredidnotappeartobea
featurethatimpactedtheperformancerequirementsdrastically.However,bykeepingthe
thrusttoweightratiolowandthewingloadinghigher,allconceptswillmaintainthelowest
weightpossible.
30

TheapproachtothistradestudyusedTheBayesianTeamSupportapproachfromTrade
StudieswithUncertainInformation(Ullman).Thismethodisawayofdealingwithuncertain
andevolvinginformationrevolvedaroundquantitativeandqualitativeinformation.
SIZINGSTUDIES
Theaircraftmissioniscomposedofatwoparts:adesignsegmentandadetour
segment.Themissionatwhichtheaircraftissizedincludes:10passengers,pilotsandcrewto
havearangeof7,100nmiwhilecruisingatMach0.85.Forthedetour,theaircraftmustbeable
totravelanadditional200nmitoanalternatedestination.Thedesignrangechosenclassifies
theaircraftasalongrangebusinessjet.Furthermore,anotherdesignchoiceisforamaximum
capacityof19passengers.Thisrequirement,however,doesnotplayadirectroleinthecurrent
sizingprocessbecausethesizingisperformedforatypicaloperatingmission.Currentlythe
mainsizingcodeisonlycapableofsizingthebacksweptcanardconcept.
TheconstraintdiagramfortheBackSweptWingstatesthattheminimumthrustto
weightatsealevelrequiredisconstrainedbythetopofclimbandlandinggroundrollonhigh
andhotdays.Thediagramforthebacksweptwingshowsthatatsealevelaminimumthrustto
weightof0.33isrequiredandthattheaircrafthasawingloadingis68lb/ft
2
.Thefollowing
table,Table6,showstheconditionswhichtheaircraftissized.
Table6:Constraints
Constrainingvariables
MaximumRange 7,100nmi
Payload 10passengers@225lbs/person
WingLoading 68lb/ft
2

Minimum(T/W
0
)
SL
0.33
CruiseMach 0.85
CruiseAltitude 42,000ft
CURRENTAPPROACH
Theapproachtakentoestimatethegrossweightoftheaircraftcomesfromthecourse
textAircraftDesign:AConceptualApproachFourthEditionbyDanielP.Raymer.Arubber
engineassumptionwasused,thusallowingthesizeandperformanceofthepropulsionsystem
tochangewiththeweightoftheaircraft.
31

Thesizingoftheaircraftinvolvesbeginningwithdesiredcapabilitiesoftheaircraft,
estimatingremainingvaluesanditeratinguntilthespecifiedconstraintsareobeyed.Thegross
weightiscomprisedofthecrewweight,payloadweight,fuelweight,andaircraftemptyweight.
Thecalculationsforfuelweightbeginvariousfuelfractionestimatesfordifferentsegmentsof
themission.Thefollowingtableshowswherethisapproachwastakenandthecorresponding
values.
Table7:WeightFractionsfortheSizingCode(Raymer)
Taxi&Takeoff W
1
/W
0
0.97
Climb W
2
/W
1
1.0065(0.0325M)
Cruise W
3
/W
2
Discussedlater
Landing W
4
/W
3
0.995
Missedapproach W
5
/W
4
0.97
ClimbtoDetour W
6
/W
5
1.0065(0.0325M)
CruiseToAlt W
7
/W
6
Discussedlater
DetourLoiter W
8
/W
7
Discussedlater
DetourLanding W
9
/W
8
0.995

Thesegmentfractionsandclimbestimateswerealltakenfromthecoursetextbook.
TheBrequetrangeequationwasusedfordeterminingtheloiterfuelfraction,hereitisin
originalform:
R =
I
C
I

ln_
w
-1
w

]
Equation1:Breguetrangeequation(Raymer)
Itcanberearrangedslightlyinordertoformtheenduranceequation,asseenhere:
E =
I

,
C
ln_
w
-1
w

]
Equation2:Enduranceequation(Raymer)
Thiscanfurtherberearrangedtoformtheloiterweightfraction,Equation3.
w
-1
w

= cxp _
-EC
I

,
_
Equation3:Loiterweightfraction(Raymer)
Bothcruisesegmentfuelweightsweredirectlyapproximatedwithdragandspecificfuel
consumptionpredictions,bothofwhichwillbeoutlinedlater.Theanalysisinvolvesdividingthe
cruisesegmentsintosmallerintervalswhereweight,SFC,anddragwereheldconstant.With
32

theflightconditionsandgeometry,dragwasdeterminedfromasubroutine.Theaircraftwas
assumedtobeatsteadystateovertheseintervals,thereforethethrustrequiredwassimply
thatofthedragproduced.
I
cqucd
=
rog
n
cngncs

Equation4:Thrustrequired
Usingflightconditionsandthethrustrequirement,specificfuelconsumptionwas
estimated.Thisproducedenoughinformationtodeterminefuelflowrate,asseeninthe
followingequation:
w
]

= SFC Ibrust
Equation5:Fuelweightflowrate
Withaspecifiedcruisespeedandrangeinterval,aflighttimefortheintervalcanbe
calculated.Thepreviousequationstatesthefuelflowperunittime,withaflighttime,the
actualweightofthefuelwasfound:
w
]
= w
]

Rongc
Cruisc SpccJ

Equation6:Fuelweightconsumed
Theprocesswasrepeateduntilthecruisesegmentwascompleted,theinitialformof
thecodebreakstheeachcruisesegmentinto20intervals.Thestructureofthecodeis
designedsuchthatitcanscaleinsophisticationtoallowforchangesinaltitudeandMachover
thecruisesegment.
Withthefuelweightestimated,theemptyweightoftheaircraftneededtobe
determinednext.Withoutacompletecomponentweightbuild,thefollowingequationwas
usedforapproximatingtheaircraftemptyweight.
w
c
w
0
= o +bw
0
C
1
AR
C
2
(
I
w
, )
C
3
_
w
0
S
, _
C
4
H
mux
C
S

Equation7:Emptyweightfractionfromstatisticalequation(Raymer)
Inthepreviousequation,W
0
isthegrossweight,ARistheaspectratio,[
I
w
0
,
SL
isthe
thrusttoweightratio,
w
0
S
, isthewingloadingandM
max
isthemaximumMachnumber.A
databaseofaircraftincludingtheGulfstreamG650,G550andtheBombardierGlobalExpress
33

wascreatedandthecoefficientsa,b,andC
1
throughC
5
arefoundbysolvingamatrixequation.
Inperformingtheanalysis,thecoefficientsfoundtogivetheleasterrorinthe
correlationofthefiveaircraftpropertiesdidnotfollowlogicalcorrelation.Forexample,itis
obviousfromthepreviousequationthatifthegrossweightweretoincreasetheemptyweight
fractionshoulddecrease,thusC
1
shouldbeanegativevalue.Inanefforttoarriveatarealistic
correlation,thedatabaseofthirteenbusinessjetswasreducedtoonlyfourwhichstillfailedto
givealogicalfit.Itwasconcludedthattheaircraftsinthedatabaseweretoodiversetoallow
forthismethodofdetermininganemptyweightfraction.Inordertodetermineemptyweight
fraction,acorrelationbetweenjettransportaircraftfoundinAircraftDesign:AConceptual
ApproachFourthEditionwasused.TheresultingcoefficientsareshowninTable8.
Table8:Emptyweightfractioncoefficients(Raymer)
CoefficientsforJetTransport
o 0.32
b 0.66
C
1
0.13
C
2
0.30
C
3
0.06
C
4
0.05
C
5
0.05

Acorrectionfactorof1.08wasdeterminedbyaveragingthedifferenceinemptyweight
ratioscalculatedfromEquation7andactualemptyweightsofsomebusinessaircraftsinthe
database.Thus,Equation8isthefinalemptyweightfractionequationusedinthesizing.
w
c
w
0
= 1.u8_u.S2 +u.66w
0
-0.13
AR
0.30
(
I
w
, )
0.06
_
w
0
S
, _
-0.05
H
mux
0.05
_
Equation8:Emptyweightfractionfromstatisticalequation(Raymer)
Uponreachinganestimateofthegrossweight,alogicstatementisposedtodetermine
ifthedifferencebetweentheguessedgrossweightandcalculatedgrossweightsislessthan
1000lb.Ifthegrossweightdoesnotmeetthetolerance,theprocessisiterateduntilthe
constraintsaremet.Figure21isaflowchartofhowthemainsizingpredictsthegrossweightof
theconventionalbacksweptconcept.
34

Figure21:MainSizingCodeFlowchart
Inordertodeterminetheweightestimatefortheblendingwingbodydesign,equations
andestimateswereusedfromDanielRaymerstext.Estimationsfortheweightsofthewings,
verticaltail,landinggear,avionics,crew,passengers,andlavatorieswereobtainedusingthe
roughestimates.Forthefuselageandaftbodyweightestimates,equationsfromtheNASA
reportASizingMethodologyfortheConceptualDesignofBlendedWingBodyTransportsby
KevinBradleywasused.ThisreportdetailedtheprocessofadaptingtheFlightOptimization
System(FLOPS)toprovideanalysisforBWBaircraft.Inthisreport,equationswereprovided
thatrelatedtheweightofthefuselageandaftbodytothesurfaceareaofthecabin,theareaof
theaftbody,andthenumberofengines.Theseequationsarelistedbelow.

Equation9:WeightofFuselageusingW
0
ofconventionalA/C(Bradley)

Equation10:AftWeightofFuselageusingW
0
ofconventionalA/C(Bradley)
35

Inestimatingthegrossweightoftheforwardsweptwingdesign,thegrossweight
estimateoftheconventionalconceptwasagainused.Itwasassumedthatadditionalweightfor
structuralsupportandavionicsforextracontrolwouldberequiredforthisdesign.
DRAGPREDICTION
Thedragpredictionofthesizingcodeapproximatesthedragontheaircraftbysumming
threedragcomponentstogether:induceddrag,parasitedrag,andwavedrag.Thewavedragis
difficulttocalculatewithoutafinalgeometrysoaconservativeestimateof20countsofdrag
wasaddedtothecalculatedcoefficientvaluetoaccountforwavedrag.Parasitedragis
determinedinamannersimilartoacomponentweightbuildup.Theparasitedragiscalculated
bysummingthecomponentdragvaluestogether.
Thesecomponentvaluesarebasedonformfactors,wettedareasandotherfactorsas
discussedinChapter12oftheRaymertextbook.Theinduceddragwascalculatedusingatwo
horseshoevortexmodel.Thissimplemodeliscomprisedoftwohorseshoevorticeslocatedat
eachoftheaerodynamiccenters;oneislocatedatthemainwing'saerodynamiccenterand
oneatthecanards.Thedownwashwasthencalculatedattherespectiveaerodynamiccenters
usingtheBiotSavartLaw.Theinducedangleofattackwasthencalculatedusingasmallangle
approximationbetweenthevaluesofdownwashandtheforwardvelocity.Induceddragwas
calculateddirectlyusingthesamesmallangleapproximationandmultiplyingtheinducedangle
ofattackbytheliftofthesurface.Theparasitedragandtheinduceddragwerethensummed
togetherandreturnedtothesizingcode'smainfunctions.
ENGINEMODEL
Asstatedearlier,arubberengineapproachwasusedinthesizingstudy,whichrequires
theuseofascalingfactorinconjunctionwithabaselineengine.Theenginedatausedasa
basisforthecalculationswasprovidedbythecourseinstructor.Thedataisforahighbypass
turbofanratedforapproximately13,600lbsofthrustatsealevelstaticconditions.Witha
takeoffgrossweightintherangeof90,000lbs,thethrustrequirementfromeachenginewas
expectedtobearound15,000lbsatSLSforathrusttoweightofabout0.33andtwoengines.
Thisproducedascalefactorof:
36

SF =
I
cq
I
buscInc
=
1Suuu
1S6uu
= 1.1u29
Equation11:Scalefactor
Thisvaluewasdeemedcloseenoughtooneandthedatawasusedfortherestofthe
calculations.Tobegin,allofthedataforthisbaselineenginewascurvefittedfordifferent
altitudesandMachnumbers.Fourthorderpolynomialswereused,onthesuggestionfromthe
instructor,foreachaltitudeandMachnumber.
ISFC = oI
4
+bI
3
+cI
2
+JI
Equation12:Curvefits
WhereTisthethrustrequiredforthatflightcondition,thecoefficientsa,b,c,anddarenot
relatedtothoseusedfortheemptyweightfractionestimates.Anoptimalalgorithmhasyetto
bedeterminedforhowtheTSFCshouldbeapproximatedforallMachsandaltitudes;however
whatisinplaceisamethodforapproximatingtheTSFCforcruise.Firstthethrustrequirement
fortheengineisfound:
I
cq
=
rog
Scolc Foctor

Equation13:Curvefits
Fromthere,TSFCsfordifferentMachnumbersataltitudesof35,000ft,37,000ft,and43,000ft
werefoundfromthecurvefits.MATLABsinterpolationfunctionwithHermiteinterpolation
wasthenusedtoestimatetheTSFCforthegivenMachandaltitude.
Withtherubberengineapproach,thescalefactorchangesasanewestimateofgross
takeoffweightiscalculated.Thrusttoweightisadesignvariablewhichstaysconstant,asisthe
numberofengines,thustheSLSthrustcanberecalculatedoneachiteration,whichresultsina
newscalefactor.
Thecurrentdesigntakeoffgrossweightofthebacksweptdesignwithacanardis96,000
lbs.Table9includesmoreestimatesdeterminedbythesizingcode.
Table9:WeightEstimatesfortheBackSweptWingDesign
W
0
95,000lb
W
f
/W
0
0.41
W
e
/W
0
0.53
W
f
39,000lb
W
e
56,000lb

37

Usingthegrossweightestimateoftheforwardsweptcanardconceptisestimatedtobe
99,000lbs.Table10includesfurtherinformationabouttheestimatedweight.
Table10:WeightEstimatesfortheForwardSweptWingDesign
W
0
99,000lb
W
f
39,000lb
W
e
60,000lb

Usingthegrossweightestimateofthebacksweptwingdesign,theblendedwingdesign
conceptwasestimatedtohaveagrossweightestimateof88,000lbs.Table11includesfurther
informationabouttheestimatedweight.
Table11:WeightEstimatesfortheBlendedWingBodyDesign
W
0
88,000lb
W
f
/W
0
0.38
W
e
53,000lb

ENGINEANDPROPULSIONSELECTION
Weconsideredseveralpropulsionmethodsforourbusinessjet.Fromthesepropulsion
methods,severalbasecategorieswerederivedinordertoevaluatetheeffectivenessofthe
engineforourbusinessjet.Thesecategoriesinclude:
1. Thrustrequiredbythebusinessjet(determinedbydrag)
2. Powerrequiredbythebusinessjet(determinedbydragandvelocity)
3. Weightofengine
4. Typeofpropulsionandhencelimitationsofthetype(propeller,turbine,other)
5. OverallEfficiency
6. Fuelconsumption(SFCorTSFC)
7. Powerloading(hp/W)
Throughdeliberationofthesetopics,weappropriatelyselectedthedifferenttypesof
enginesthatwouldbeeffectiveonabusinessjet.Theseincludeturbofansandunductedfans.
Eventhoughtheenddecisionwastoevaluatethesetwotypesofengine,wediscussedmany
othertypesofengines.Theseenginesincludedturboprops,highandlowbypassturbofans,
ramjets,scramjets,turbojets,turbinebasedcombinedcycle,rocketbasedcombinedcycle,
38

counterrotatingfans,gearedturbofans,andunductedfans.Forourconceptuallongrange
businessjet,wehavechosentoimplementtwoturbofanenginesthateachprovides17,000lbs
ofthrust.Thisdecisionwasderivedfromdiscussionandourengineeringjudgment,where
thosetwosatisfiedthedesiredefficiencyandfeasibilityforalongrangebusinessjet.
Sincewehavechosenaturbofanenginetobeusedonourjet,itisappropriateto
discussthespecifictypesofturbofanengines.First,isthelowandhighbypassturbofan.Thisis
theconventionaltypeofturbofanusedoncurrentaircraft.Alowbypassturbofanusuallyhas
abypassratiolowerthan3whileahighbypassturbofanwillhaveabypassofmorethan5.A
turbofanengineisthemostmodernvariationofthebasicgasturbineengine.Aswithothergas
turbines,thereisacoreengine,whichissurroundedbyafaninthefrontandanadditional
turbineattherear.Thefanandfanturbinearecomposedofmanyblades,likethecore
compressorandcoreturbine,andareconnectedtoanadditionalshaft.Aswiththecore
compressorandturbine,someofthefanbladesturnwiththeshaftandsomebladesremain
stationary.Thefanshaftpassesthroughthecoreshaftformechanicalreasons.Thistypeof
arrangementiscalledatwospoolengine(one"spool"forthefan,one"spool"forthecore).
Someadvancedengineshaveadditionalspoolsforevenhigherefficiencyasdiscussedinsome
oftheotherturbofansbelow.
SecondistheDirectDriveTurbofan(DDTF),aconceptdevelopedbyRollsRoyce,which
isthestandarddesignoftoday,butcouldbeimprovedresultingfromincreasingthebypass
ratios,increasingtheturbineinlettemperatures,etc.Materialdevelopmentswouldhelp
containtheweightgrowthaswellasincreasetemperatures.Thegearedturbofanreducesthe
numberofturbinestagesbyallowinguseofhigherrotationalspeedinconjunctionwitha
gearboxfortheslowerrotatingfan.Thegearboxweighsmore,butissomewhatoffsetby
weightsavingsfromfewerturbinestages.Theyarealsomorecomplex,butwouldhelp
decreasefuelburn.(Saravanamuttoo,RogersandCohen)Thecontrarotatingfanincorporates
twofansrotatinginoppositedirectionstoreducenoise(Snecma).Asaresultofthehigher
bypassratiothefanspeedandpressureratiowillbereduced.Thisenginetypewould,
therefore,tradeoffreducednoiseandemissionsforincreasedweight,whichisthemaingoalof
ourbusinessjet.
39

Third,agearedturbofanbeingdevelopedbyPrattandWhitneyandMTUAerohas
showngainsinefficiencyoverthedirectdriveturbofansoftoday,aphotographcanbeseenin
Figure22.Additionally,P&Wflewaconceptdemonstratorin2008andhasaccumulatedmany
flighthoursandenginecyclessincethen.Theredoesnotappeartobeinformationofacontra
rotatingfanindevelopment,muchlessclosetoreadinessby2020.

Figure22:GearedTurbofan(FlightInternational)
PrattandWhitneysgearedturbofan,thePurePowerseries,aimsatimproving
propulsiveefficiency, p
p
,bygearingthemainfantorotateslower.Currentturbofanslinktheir
fansandlowspoolcompressorstothesamelowpressureturbine,whichforceseach
componenttooperateoutsideoftheiroptimalregions.Thegearingofthefanreducesthefan
pressureratio,improvingpropulsiveefficiency,andallowsthecompressortooperateathigher
rotorspeeds,improvingtheirefficiency.Maximizingp
p
allowsforreductionsinfuelburn,noise
production,andemissions,allofwhichareemphasizedinNASAsN+2goals.Thisefficiencyis
showninEquation14.
p
p
=
Ibrust powcr
Ibrust powcr +unuscJ kinctic cncrgy
= =
2
1 +
cxit :clocity
rccstrcom :clocity

Equation14:PropulsionEfficiency
40

Thisismaximizedwhenthemagnitudeofexitflowvelocityisclosetothemagnitudeof
freestreamflowvelocity.However,sincejetthrustisdefinedbyhowmuchagivenmassflowis
accelerated,thelackofaccelerationwouldalsoproducealackofthrust.Therefore,themass
flowrateofairisneedstobeincreasedinorderforthepropulsionsystemtobeuseful.This
resultsinbypassratiosof8:1and1012:1fortheseengines(Norris),thisresultsinlarger
engines,whichpresentsaproblemwithengineplacementforsmalleraircraft.Underwing
placementwouldberestrictedformanyofthemandlargerpylonswouldberequiredfor
standardaftfuselageinstallation.
PrattandWhitneyintendsondevelopingasmallerversionoftheirgearedturbofanfor
Mitsubishisregionaljet.ThePW1215GandPW1217Gareratedforbetween14kto17klbsat
SLSandareclaimedtoreducefuelburnby1215%versuscurrentengines.NO
x
andCO
2

emissionsarereducedduetoanadvancedcombustor,NO
x
emissionsbeing50%underCAEP
(CommitteeonAviationEnvironmentalProtection)6standards.Thesmallergearedturbofans
arealsoexpectedtoreducenoiselevels15decibelsbelowstagefourregulations(MTUAero
EnginesGmbH).ThePW1215GandPW1217Garetohavefandiametersof56inches,whichis
translatestotheenginebeingslightlylargerthanotherhighbypassturbofansinthisthrust
class.RollsRoycesBR710isratedfor15500lbsatSLSandhasafandiameterof48inches.
TheirBR725at17000lbsSLSisabout50inchesindiameter(RollsRoyce).
Weareconductingstudiesexaminingtheeffectsofaddedweightanddragduetothe
pylonsandengine.PrattandWhitneyclaimsthatthePW1000Gseriesarelighterthancurrent
highbypassturbofans,butdoesnotquantifythisamount.Nonethelessattemptswillbemade
tostudytheimpactofalighterengine.NASAsN+2goalscallforanoisereductionof42dB
fromstagefour,NO
x
emissionsreduced75%belowCAEP6,anda50%reductioninfuelburn.
Thepowerplantchoicealonewillnotsatisfytargets,butshouldmakesignificantprogress
towardsbeingabletoflyanenvironmentallysensitivebusinessjet.
Anotherconsideredpropulsionchoice,asdiscussedpreviouslyintheAdvancedand
UnconventionalTechnologiesUnderConsiderationsection,isthePropfanengine.Thisengine
designhasdifficultiesconcerningnoisebutisexpectedtobemorefuelefficient.Theengine
specificswerementionedpreviouslyinthepaperinAdvancedandUnconventional
41

TechnologiesunderConsideration.ThepropfanisalsoknownastheCounterrotatingturbofan.
Thislayoutsimplymeansthattherearetwoindependentshafts,rotatinginoppositedirections.
Attheotherendofthelowpressuresection,theyarejoinedtoalowpressureturbinewith
severalstagesofcounterrotatingblades.Foragivenaerodynamicload,thisconfigurationwill
reducethefanrotationspeedby30%ormore.Thisfanconceptoffersthesameperformance
asaconventionalfan,butwithslowertipspeeds:whichineffectreducesfannoise.Therefore,
enginesdevelopmentwouldbeabletofollowanewtrendenablingahigherbypassratiowith
lowerfuelburn.ThiswouldprovideagoodstarttomeetingNASAsN+2goalsbyreducing
noiseandfuelemissions.
Asshown,therearemanybenefitstousingapropfanengine;however,thereare
importantdrawbackswhichthebenefitscannotovercome.Openrotorsystemswould
maximizepropulsiveefficiency,buthasissueswithnoise,installation,andcertificationdealing
withbladecontainment(Saravanamuttoo,RogersandCohen).
Currentlythereisalackofdetailabouttheabilitytocontrolthenoiseandvibrationof
thepropfanengine.Thenoiseheardinsidethecabinoftheaircraftmustbereducedtoavoid
passengerdiscomfortduringflight,andtheremustbeawaytodelayacousticfatigueinthe
structureofthefuselage.In1983,theacousticnoisemeasuredfromthefuselagewas150dB.
Thishighlevelofnoiseiscausedfromthehighspeedsofthetipblades;however,evenwhen
thetipsareoperatingatsubsonicspeeds,thenoiseimpartedtothefuselageisstillsignificant.
(Bauer)
Therehavebeenadvancedteststodetermineifacousticalresonatorscouldbeplacedin
thewallsofthefuselagetodecreasethenoiseandvibrationscausedfromthepropfanonthe
passengers.Thetonesproducedbytheenginerequirealargeamountoftransmissionloss
throughthefuselagewhichresultedinasignificantweightadditionfromtheresonatorsused.
Onesidewalltreatmentproducedacabinnoisebetween80and85dB(H.L.Kuntz).When
addingsuchresonatorstoreducethecabinnoise,thetakeoffgrossweight(TOGW)ofthe
aircraftisincreasing.Additionally,theSFCbenefitsofthepropfanarelimitedsincetheTOGW
ismuchhigherthananaircraftwithoutresonatorsinthepanel.
42

Evenwithcurrenttechnologiesbeingdevelopedtocontrolcabinnoise,thereisnot
enoughinformationtoprovethatpropfannoiseandvibrationscanbecontrolled.Sinceoneof
themainfeaturesofthisaircraftiscustomercomfort,theabilitytocontrolthenoiseis
extremelyimportant.
Installationofopenrotorsystemsisalsoanissuewiththesetechnologies.Theengine
mustbemovedfromunderthewingtoabovethetail,ortheremustbeahighwingtoallow
clearanceforthefanblades.Iftheenginesaretailmounted,theremustbenewwaystoinstall
theenginessincethisisnotacommonenginelocation.Therehavebeensomeaircraftwhich
havetailmountedengines,butthiswillnegativelyaffectthestabilityoftheaircraft,andmay
causeadditionalunforeseenproblemsonceimplemented(Thomas).
Iftheengineiswingmounted,openrotorsystemsmustdealwiththeconsequencesof
havingunductedfans,andtheassociatedconcernsassociatedwithenginefailure.Currently
therearenocertificationstandardswithbladesafetyforopenrotorsystems,buttheyare
expectedtobemoreseverethanthoseinplaceforturbineorpropellerstandards(Thomas).If
anenginemalfunctions,theremustbeproofthatbladeimpactwillnothinderthesafetyofthe
passengers.Therehasbeentestingforfanbladecontainmentcaseswhichwouldhelp
eliminatetheriskassociatedwithenginemalfunctions;however,thereisnotenough
informationtoassumethiswillbefeasibleby2020(DocumentsforSmallBusinessesand
Professionals).
Anotherenginethatpotentiallyviableistheturbojet.Ifdevelopmentinthenearfuture
toallowfortheenginestoprovidemorethan15,000lbsofthrust,aturbojetwillbeviable.
Untilwecanobtaindatathatprovesthatthiswillbepossibleby2015,wewillnotbeableto
viablyconsideraturbojet.
Asignificantproblemisengineplacement.Belowaretheadvantagesanddisadvantages
ofplacinganengineinparticulararrangements(LeBeau).Figure23showsanoverviewofan
EngineLocationSummaryTable.
43

Figure23:EnginePlacement(LeBeau)
RearMountedEngines:
Advantages
1. Aerodynamicallyclean,particularlywinginterference
2. Smallasymmetricmoments
3. Reducedcabinnoiselevels
Disadvantages
1. Heavierwingstructureforlostbendingrelief
2. c.g.furtheraft,resultinginlargertailtobalancemoments
3. Longslenderbodycausesatendencyfordeepstall
4. Enginesclosertopassengersincrashes
5. Moredifficulttoreachformaintenance
WingMountedEngines
Advantages
1. Canbeplacedforoptimalbendingreliefonwing,arearulingandflutter
2. Easiertomaintainandreplace
44

3. Closertoc.g.,thuseasiertobalanceandinstalldifferentenginesizes
Disadvantages
1. Higherdrag,bothnacelleandinterference
2. Highernoise,bothforpassengersandsurroundings
3. Largerangeofintakeangleofattackresultsininletinefficiencies
4. Enginesclosertoground(FOD,clearanceforsmalleraircraft)
Additionallythewingmountedenginescanbemountedaboveorbelowthewing.
Mountingtheengineinthispositioncausesseveraleffects.Assumingthatwecandesigna
structurallystabledesignwiththeenginesabovethewings,theabovewingmountwouldcause
aslightreductioninexternalnoiseasseeninFigure24.

Figure24:SoundeffectsDuetoEnginePlacement(LeBeau)
Consideringalloftheseadvantagesanddisadvantagesallowsourteamtochoose
whetherornotanenginecanbelocatedintheidealplaceontheaircraft.Atthecurrentstage
theenginesaretobemountedintheoptimallocationaccordingthedesign.Forexample,the
BWBwillhavetheenginesmountedonpylonsattherearoftheplane.
APPROACHTOMODELENGINE
Inordertosizeanenginethatwouldfitintotheoptimalconfigurationofthebusiness
jet,anengineeringmodelwillneedtobeconstructed.Thisengineeringmodelconsistsofan
electronicprogramsuchasONXOFFXoranotherfromthetrade.Inordertoconstructthis
model,abaselineengineischosen.Forourbusinessjet,ahighbypass(bypassratioof5+)
45

turbofanenginewaschosenasthebaselineduetothefactthatitmostcloselyrepresentsthe
currentadvancesinpropulsiontechnology.Thesmallerturbofans,whilebeingmoreofthesize
thatisdesirable,areslightlyoutdatedsincetheywerecreatedmultipledecadesago.
Ouridealchoiceforabaselineengine,therefore,wouldbetheTrent1000.Thisengine
hasverylittledataduetoitsrecentdevelopment,soitwouldbehardtoobtainamodelfrom
it.Aslightlyolderenginewasthereforechosentoactasourbaselineengine.Thecurrent
baselinethathasbeenchosenistheGE90,theenginethatwasusedontheBoeing777and
beganproductionin1990.Itstillisamucholderenginethanwewouldideallyhavefora
baseline,butthisisthebestoptionavailableuntilwecanobtaindataforoneofthenewer
engines.Withthebaselineengine,theresizingprocesswillbeconductedbyiteratingthrougha
processwheretheprogramwillaltervaluesoftheengineproportionallyuntiltheprojected
thrustvaluesaremet.AsampleofthisprocessofinputsisshowninFigure25.

Figure25:ProcessofSizing(NATO)
STABILITY
Initialstabilitywascalculatedforeachdesignbyusingasimplecomponentbuildup
process.Inordertoaccomplishthis,wedrewsketchesforeachdesignintheiroptimal
configurationschosenfromourearlieranalysisofeachaircraftconcept.Fromthesesketches,
wewereabletocloselyestimatethepositionofeachcomponentforeveryconcept.Wethen
46

calculatedthecenterofgravityforeachdesignfromEquation12whereCGisthedesigns
centerofgravity,Wisthecomponentsweight,andListhelocationofthecomponentsweight
measuredfromthenoseoftheaircraft.
C0 =
X(wI)
X(w)

Equation15:CenterofGravity
TheaerodynamiccenterfortheFSWandBWBaircraftwasfoundbyestimatingittobe
locatedatthequarterchordofthemeanchordline.Anadditionalfactorhadtobe
incorporatedwithourbacksweptdesignbecauseofouruseofaliftingcanardthatwillbring
theaerodynamiccenterforward.Forthis,aMATLABcodewaswrittentoestimatetheeffect
onthecanardontheaerodynamiccenter.
Oncewehadobtainedboththecenterofgravityandaerodynamiccenterforeachof
ourthreedesignswecouldcalculatethestaticmargin.Thelocationofboththecenterof
gravityandtheaerodynamiccenterwerenondimensionalizedwithrespecttotheaircrafts
referencelength.Thestaticmarginwasthenfoundsimplyfromthedifferencebetweenthe
aerodynamiccenterandthecenterofgravity.
Table12showstheweightsandlocationsofallcomponentsforourbacksweptdesign.
Almosttheentiretyofourweightliesinthebackofthedesignduetoaftfuselagemounted
engines,theaftverticaltail,andthewingsbeingplacedasfarbackfromthecanardaspossible.
This,unfortunately,movesthecenterofgravityforthedesignbackto63.6%ofthedesign
characteristiclength.Withourestimatedaerodynamiccenterat68.7%ofthedesign
characteristiclengththisproducesastaticmarginofamere5.1%.Althoughthisisultimately
stable,itdoesnothaveadesirablemarginoferror.Therefore,wearecurrentlyexploring
optionstomovethecenterofgravityforwardtoincreaseourstaticmargin,suchaspushing
fuelintothefuselageaheadofthewing.Furtheranalysiswillalsoattempttodetermineamore
optimallocationsfortheboththecanardandmainwing.
Table12:ComponentWeightsandLocationsfortheBackSweptDesign
Wing Tail Canard Engines Gear Fuel* Avionics Crew Passenger Fuselage
Weight(lbs) 5200 500 500 7200 4100 39100 989 900 2250 34761
Location(ft) 80.21 110 16.5 104.5 62.33 80.21 5.5 5.5 60.5 55
*AssumedaWetWing
47

Table13showstheweightsandlocationsofallcomponentsforourforwardswept
design.Similartoourbacksweptdesign,mostoftheweightisintherearoftheaircraft.Here,
however,wewereabletotakeadvantageofourmidwingdesignandusetheextraspace
underneaththewingtohousethenacelles.Thismovestheengineweightfartherforwardand,
therefore,alsomovesthecenterofgravityforthisdesignforward.Theestimatedcenterof
gravityforourforwardsweptdesigniscurrentlyat61.6%ofthedesigncharacteristiclength.
Also,bydesign,forwardsweptwingsallowthewingstobeplacedinthefaraftportionofthe
aircraftpushingouraerodynamiccenterbackto75.0%ofthedesigncharacteristiclength.This
givesourforwardsweptdesignastaticmarginof13.4%,muchbetterthanourbackswept
design.
Table13:ComponentWeightsandLocationsfortheForwardSweptDesign
Wing* Tail Canard Engines Gear Fuel** Avionics Crew Passenger Fuselage
Weight(lbs) 6000 500 500 7200 4100 39100 989 900 2250 38061
Location(ft) 82.5 110 16.5 77 55 82.5 5.5 5.5 38.5 55
*Addedfudgefactorforaeroelastictailoring
**AssumedWetWing

Table14showstheweightsandlocationsofallcomponentsforourblendedwing
design.Thecomponentbuildupforthisdesignwasmuchmorecomplicatedtocompile.Most
oftheweightsandlocationscamefromNASAscurrentlyflyingblendedwingbodyscaleddown
tobusinessjetsize.Thelocationsoftheseweightswereestimatedtothebestofourability.
Wewereabletocapitalizeontheenlargedfuselagevolumeinherentinblendedwingdesigns
andmovethefuelforwardoutofthewings.Wewerethereforeabletoobtainacenterof
gravityof58.4%ofthedesigncharacteristiclengthforthisdesign.Theaerodynamiccenterisat
68.6%ofthedesigncharacteristiclengthgivingthisdesignastaticmarginof10.2%whichis
acceptablystable.
Table14:ComponentWeightsandLocationsfortheBlendedWingBodyDesign
Wing Tail Engines Gear Fuel Avionics Crew Passenger Fuselage
Weight(lbs) 5100 700 7200 4100 35000 989 900 2250 31500
Location(ft) 72.5 83.125 83.125 39.375 52.5 4.375 4.375 30.625 43.75
48

INITIALVERTICALTAILSIZING
Initialtailsizingisakeystepinanyaircraftdesignprocess.Anyaircraftthatfliesmust
bestable,oratleastcontrolledtobestable,inyaw.Withoutalargeenoughverticaltail,
aircraftcouldbecomeunstableandnotabletofly.Inordertopreventthis,theverticaltailon
ourdesignsmustbelargeenoughtobeabletoovercomeanyunwantedyawingmomentswith
amaximumofa20degreerudderasasafetyfactor.
Inordertoensureouraircraftcouldflyunderanycircumstance,tailsizingwas
conductedfortwocases.Thefirstcasewastomakesureourdesigncouldflywithoneengine
out.Thisbeingthecase,oneenginewouldprovideapositiveyawingmomentaroundthe
designscenterofgravityfromitsthrust,whiletheotherenginewouldalsoprovideapositive
momentduetotheextradrag.Thisyawingmomentmustbeovercomebytheverticaltailin
ordertoensurestableflight.Theverticaltailcanbeproperlysizedbysettingthesumofthe
momentsfrombothenginesandtheverticaltailtobezero,asshowninEquation16whereM
eo

isthemomentprovidedbytheoperableengine,M
eu
isthemomentprovidedbytheinoperable
engine,andM
vt
isthemomentprovidedbytheverticaltail.
H
co
+ H
c
+ H
t
= u
Equation16:SumoftheMomentswhensizingtheVerticalTail(Raymer)
Themomentontheoperableenginecanbefoundeasilyfromthethrustgivenbythe
engineandtheenginesdistancefromthecenterlineoftheaircraft.Thedragonthe
inoperableenginecanbeestimatedusinganequationfromRaymersbookshownherein
Equation17,whereDisthedragontheinoperableengine,A
eff
istheeffectiveareaofthefront
ofthenacelle,andqisthedynamicpressure.
= u.SA
c]]
q
Equation17:DragoftheInoperableEngine(Raymer)
Fromhere,onemustsimplysolveEquation16forthemomentoftheverticaltailand
thendividethisbythedistancefromtheaircraftscenterofgravitytotheverticaltailtogetthe
forcetheverticaltailmustproducetoovercomethesemoments.
Oncethenecessaryforcefortheverticaltailwasobtaineditbecamepossibleto
calculatethesizeoftheverticaltail.Thiswasdonebytakingthedefinitionofaliftingforceand
49

solvingfortheverticaltailareaasshowninEquation18andEquation19whereNisthetotal
yawingforce,qisthedynamicpressure,Sistheverticaltailarea,c
n
isthecoefficientofliftdue
tosideslip,isthesideslipangle,c
nr
isthecoefficientofliftduetorudderdeflection,and
r
is
therudderdeflectionangle.
N = qS(c
n

[ + c
n
6
r
o

)
Equation18:TotalYawingForce
S =
N
q(c
n

[ + c
n
6
r
o

)

Equation19:VerticalTailArea
Table15showsatableofthecalculatedsizesfortheverticaltailassumingoneengine
outforeachofourthreedesigns.Asweexpected,thesweptforwardhasamuchlarger
verticaltailthaneitherofourothertwodesigns.Thisisduetothefactthattheenginesonthis
designaremountedonthewings.Thisputsthemfartherfromthecenterlineoftheaircraft
thanontheothertwodesignsandthustheyprovidemuchgreatermomentsaroundthecenter
ofgravitythattheverticaltailmustovercome.
Table15:InitialVerticalTailSizingCalculations
Design VerticalTailArea
ConventionalCanard 99ft
2

SweptForwardWing 176ft
2

BlendedWing 84ft
2

Thesecondcasethatwasneededtoproperlysizetheverticaltailwasatwentydegree
landingsideslipangle.Forthiscase,theverticaltailmustovercomethemomentsprovidedby
thefuselageandthewingsaboutthecenterofgravityduetothissideslipangle.Inasimilar
mannertotheoneengineoutcase,wecalculatedthenecessaryverticaltailsizebysumming
themomentsaroundthecenterofgravity.
Beforethiscanbedone,however,themomentsneededforthiscasemustbe
calculated.Raymersbookprovidesequationsthatallowustocalculatebothoftheunknown
momentsneededforthiscase.Equation20providesanestimationofthecoefficientofyawfor
afuselagesurfaceduetosideslip.Inthisequationc
nf
isthecoefficientofyawforafuselage
50

surfaceduetosideslip,Visthefuselagevolume,S
b
isthefuselagewettedarea,Listhefuselage
length,D
f
isthefuselageparasitedrag,andW
f
isthefuselageweight.
c
n

]
= -1.S
I
S
b
I

]
w
]

Equation20:YawCoefficientforaFuselageSurface
Equation21providesanestimationofthecoefficientofyawforthewingsdueto
sideslip.Inthisequationc
nw
isthecoefficientofyawforthewingsduetosideslip,c
l
isthe
wingcoefficientoflift,Aisthewingaspectratio,isthewingsweepangle,x
ac
isthepositionof
thewingaerodynamiccenter,andx
cg
isthepositionofthecenterofgravityoftheaircraft.
c
n

w
= c
I
2
_
1
4nA
-_
tanA
nA(A +4 cos A)
] _cos A -
A
2
-
A
2
8 cos A
+6
(x
uc
-x
cg
) sinA
A
__
Equation21:YawCoefficientfortheWings
Oncecalculated,thesecoefficientscanbeusedtodeterminetheyawingforce,usingthe
definitionofthesecoefficients,andthensequentiallytheyawingmoment,bymultiplyingthe
yawingforcebythedistancefromtheforcelocationtothecenterofgravity.Thesemoments
canthenbesummedtofindthenecessarymomenttheverticaltailneedstobe.
Fromhere,usingtheexactsamestepsasintheengineoutcase,thesizeoftheverticaltailcan
befoundusingequationsEquation18andEquation19.
Unfortunately,atthistime,ourgroupishavingalotoftroubletryingtocodethis.This
caseissizingourtailonthemagnitudeof10
3
ft
3
.Thisiswaytoosmallforaverticaltailtobe
effective,soweareassuminganerrorincoding.Weareintheprocessoftroubleshootingthis
error;however,webelievethatthismaynotbepossibleuntilweobtainsomebetterdrag
values.
SUMMARYANDNEXTSTEPS
Currently,wehavethreeviableconceptsforourbusinessaircraftproposal.Ournext
stepwouldbetodetermineexactlywhichdesignswewishtomoveforwardwithandbegina
detailedanalysisonthoseaircraft.Thisanalysiswillconsistofrefiningthesizingcodeusedto
determinetheemptyandfuelweightoftheaircraft,moreaccuratelydeterminingthedragover
51

theaircraftandpinpointingtheexactlocationofthecenterofgravityandaerodynamiccenter
usingfinalizedcomponentweightsandlocations.Oncetheaircraftisaccuratelysized,a
detailedCADmodelmustbecreatedtobeabletovisualizeandverifythedimensionsofthe
aircraft.

52

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