K u v e m p u U n i v e r s i t y

Assignments for B.Sc.(IT) & M.Sc.(IT) Courses

Subject: Advanced Computer Networks
Subject Code: BSIT 63
By: Rajiv Phukan(Pathsala)

Assignment: TA (Compulsory)

1. What is DNS? Why is DNS required? What is the basis to choose the domain to an
organization?
ANS:-DNS, the Domain Name System is a distributed hierarchical naming system for computers,
services, or any resource connected to the Internet or a private network. It associates various
informations with domain names assigned to each of the participants.This is required because
domain names are alphabetic, as theyre easier to remember. The Internet however,is really
based on IP addresses. Every time we use a domain name, therefore, a DNS service must
translatethe name into the corresponding IP address. For example, the domain name
www.example.com might translate to 198.105.232.4.
The basics of choosing domain to an organization by attaching random names to IP address and
managing them is too nontrivial. So, a structured approach is needed.
Best way is to employ the postal addressing system.
o Country
o State
o District
o Taluk
o City
o Street
200 Internet is divided into Domains at Top level
Each top-level domain is further divided into sub domain.
Each sub domain is further divided into one or more levels of sub domains.
Top level domain can be split into two major classes.
o Generic generic domain names include
? Om, int, mil, gov, org, net, edu
? 2000 biz, info, name (recent addition Nov)
? aero, coop, museums (new ones)
Country each country has one entry, in, ae, us, jp etc
Top level domain should be unambiguous and non-contentious.
2.What are the different components of Internet cloud? How does WWW isconnected with
Internet cloud? Explain.
ANS:- A cloud client consists of computer hardware and/or computer software that relies on
cloud computing for application delivery, or that is specifically designed for delivery of cloud
services and that, in either case, is essentially useless without it. Examples include some
computers, phones and other devices, operating systems and browsers Cloud application
services or Software as a Service (SaaS) deliver software as a service over the
Internet,eliminating the need to install and run the application on the customers own computers
and simplifying maintenance and support. Key characteristics include
(i) Network-based access to, and management of, commercially available (i.e., not custom)
software
(ii)Activities that are managed from central locations rather than at each customers site, enabling
customers to access applications remotely via the Web
(iii)Application delivery that typically is closer to a one-to-many model (single instance, multi-
tenant architecture) than to a one-to-one model, including architecture, pricing, partnering, and
management characteristics
(iv)Centralized feature updating, which obviates the need for downloadable patches and
upgrades.
Cloud platform services or Platform as a Service (PaaS) deliver acomputing platform
and/or solution stack as a service, often consuming cloud infrastructure and sustaining cloud
applications. It facilitates deployment of applications without the cost and complexity of buying
and managing the underlying hardware and software layers. Cloud infrastructure services or
Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) delivers computer infrastructure, typically
a platform virtualization environment as a service.Rather than purchasing servers, software, data
center space or network equipment, clients instead buy those resources as a fully outsourced
service. The service is typically billed on a utility computing basis and amount of resources
consumed (and there fore the cost) will typically reflect the level of activity. It is an evolution
of virtual private server offerings. The servers layer consists of computer hardware and/or
computer software products that are specifically designed for the delivery of cloud services,
including multi-core processors, cloud-specific operating systems and combined offerings.
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard
Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network of networks
that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local
to global scope that are linked by a broad array of electronic and optical networking technologies.
The Internet carries a vast array of information resources and services, most notably the inter-
linked hypertext documents
of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the infrastructure to support electronic mail. Most traditional
communications media, such as telephone and television services, are reshaped or redefined usi
ng the technologies of the Internet, giving rise to services such as Voice over Internet Protocol
(VoIP) and IPTV. Newspaper publishing has been reshaped into Web sites, blogging, and
web feeds. The Internet has enabled or accelerated the creation of new forms of human
interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking sites.
3.What are the advantages of good routing protocol? Explain one of therouting protocols
in detail.
ANS:-The main objectives of the network layer are to deliver the packets to the destination. The
delivery of packets is often accomplished using either a connection-
oriented or a connectionless network service. In a connection-oriented approach, the network
layer protocol first makes a connection with the network layer protocol at the remote site
before sending a packet. When the connection is established, a sequence of packets from the
same source to the same destination can be sent one after another. In this case, there is a
relationship between packets. They are sent on the same path where they follow each other. A
packet is logically connected to the packet traveling before it and to packet traveling after it.
When all packets of a message have been delivered, the connection is terminated. In a
connection oriented approach, the decision about the route of a sequence of packets with the
same source and destination addresses can be made only once, when the connection is
established. The network device will not compute the route again and again for each
arriving packet. In a connectionless situation, the network protocol treats each packet independe
ntly, with each packethaving no relationship to any other packet. The packets in a message may
not travel the same path to their destination. The internet protocol (IP) is a connectionless
protocol. It handles each packet transfer in a separate way. This means each packet travel
through different networks before settling to their destination network. Thus the packets move
through heterogeneous networks using connection less IP protocol.
DIRECT AND INDIRECT ROUTING
There exits two approaches for the final delivery of the IP packets. In the Direct delivery, the final
destination of the packet is a host connected to the same physical network as the deliverer
1 (Figure ). Direct delivery occurs when the source and destination of the packet are located on
the same physical network or if the delivery is between the last router and the destination
host.The sender can easily determine if the delivery is direct. It can extract the network address
of the
destination packet (Mask all the bits of the Host address) and compare this address with the addr
esses of the networks to which it is connected. If a match is found, then the delivery is direct. In
direct delivery, the sender uses the destination IP address to find the destination physical
address. The IP software then delivers the destination IPaddress with the destination physical
address to the data link layer for actual delivery. In practical sense
a protocol called address resolution protocol (ARP) dynamically maps an IP address to the corre
sponding physical address. It is
to be noted that the IP address is a FOUR byte code where as the Physical address is aSIX byte
code. The Physical address is also called as MAC address, Ethernet address and hardware
address.When the network part of the IP address does not match with the network address to
which the host is connected, the packet is delivered indirectly. In an indirect delivery, the packet
goes from router to router until it reaches the one connected to the same physical network as its
final destination. Note that a delivery always involves one direct delivery but zero or more indirect
deliveries. Note also that the last delivery is always adirect delivery. In an indirect delivery, the
sender uses the destination IP address and a routing table to find theIP address of the next
router to which the packet should be delivered. The sender then uses the ARP protocol tofind the
physical address of the next router. Note that in direct delivery, the address mapping is between
the IPaddress of the final destination and the physical address of the final destination. In an
indirect delivery, the address mapping is between the IP address of the next router and the
physical address of the next router.Routing tables are used in the routers. The routing table
contains the list of IP addresses of neighboring routers.When a router has received a packet to
be forwarded, it looks at this table to find the route to the final destination. However, this simple
solution is impossible today in an Internet work such as the Internet because the number of
entries in the routing table make table look ups inefficient. Several techniques can make the
sizeof the routing table manageable and handle such issues as security.
4.What is streaming? Give some examples of streaming. What are the challenges
in designing multimedia networking?
ANS:-
Streaming. In a streaming stored audio/video application, a client begins play out of the
audio/video of few seconds after it begins receiving the file from the server. This means that the
client will be playing out audio/video from one location in the file while it is receiving later parts of
the file from the server. This technique, known as streaming, avoids having to download the
entire file (and incurring a potentially
longdelay) before beginning playout. There are many streaming multimedia products, such as Re
alPlayer,QuickTime and Media Player.
Examples are :
Streaming stored audio/video,
Streaming live audio/video
Real-time interactive audio/video.
Packet Loss
Consider one of the UDP segments generated by our Internet phone application. The UDP
segment is encapsulated in an IP datagram. As the datagram wanders through the network, it
passes through buffers (that is, queues) in the routers in order to access outbound links. It is
possible that one or more of the buffers in the route from sender to receiver is full and cannot
admit the IP data gram. In this case, the IP datagram is discarded, never to arrive at
the receiving application.
End-to-End Delay
End-to-end delay is the accumulation of transmission, processing, and queuing delays in
routers; propagation delays in the links; and end-system processing delays. For highly interactive
audio applications, such as Internet phone.
5.What is the purpose of E-mail? What are the tools provided in the E-mail?Mention
different E-mail service providers and their special features.
ANS:- Electronic mail is the most widely used tool in the present world for fast and reliable
822 communication.It is based on RFC .
E-mail system supports five basic functions.
1) Composition: Helps in creating message and answers, supports many
functions such as insertion of address after extraction from the original message during replying
etc.
2) Transfer: Causes movement of message to the destination. Connection establishments and
passage of message is done here.
3) Reporting: Do involve in reporting the origin of email whether it is delivered,lost or abandoned.
4) Disposition: Do involve in invoking certain tools to enable reading email message which come
as attachment.
Ex: Abode to read a pdf file attachment.
5) Disposition: Involves, Reading, discarding, savings, replying, forwarding etc.
Additional features of E-mail system
Forwarding: forward email to another email ID
Mail box: storing/retrieving email
Mailing list: Send copies to the entire email list.
Other functions: CC: carbon copy BCC:
Blind copy
High priority
Yahoo, Gmail, Hotmail, AOL etc.
6.How does UBL work? Explain the various steps of server side operation.Give an
example.
ANS:- XML is only the foundation on which additional standards can be defined to achieve the
goal of true interoperability. The Universal Business Language (UBL) initiative isthe next step in
achieving this goal.
The UBL effort addresses this problem by building on the work of the ebXML initiative. EbXML is
a joint project of UN/CEFACT, the world body responsible for international Electronic Data
Interchange (EDI), and the Organization for the Advancement of Structured Information
Standards (OASIS), a nonprofit consortium dedicated to the open development of XML
languages. UBL is organized as an OASIS Technical Committee to guarantee a rigorous, open
process for the standardization of the XML business language. The development of UBL within
OASIS also helps ensure a fit with other essential ebXML Specifications.
Server Side Operation
Upon clicking a URL, the server side offers the following operations.
(i) Accepts a TCP connection from a client.
(ii)Get the name of the file requested disk.
(iii)Get the file from the disk.
(iv)Return the file to the client.
(v)Release the TCP connection
Problems with this type is the disk access with every request
SCSI disk have a disc 5 200 access time of ms. so it permits disks access per second
It is still lower if the files are larger.
To overcome this, the web server maintains a large cache space which holds n most recent
files.Whenever a request comes, the server first look into caches and respond appropriately.
To make the server faster, multithreading is adapted.
There exists different concepts and design in one design. The server has a front end module
and k processing modules (threads). The processing modules have access to
the cache. The front end module accepts input request and pass it to one of the module. The
processing module verifies the cache and responds if the file exists else it invokes disk search
and caches the file and also send the file to the client. At any instant of timet out of k modules,
K-X modules may be few to take requests, X modules may be in the queue waiting for disk
access and cache search. If the number of disks is enhanced then it is possible to enhance the
speed.

1.Each Module does the following.Resolve the name of the Web page requested.
E.g.: http:// www.cisco.com
2.There is no file name here. Default is index .html.
3.Perform access control on the client check to see if there are any restrictions.
4.Perform access control on the web page. Access restrictions on the page itself.
5. Check the cache.
6.Fetch the requested page.
CACHE
Front end
- - - - K Processes
K Module
Threads
In coming
Request.Out going
Reply
7.Determine MIME type
8.Take care of miscellaneous address ends.
(Building User profile, Satisfaction.)
9.Return the reply to the client.
10.Make an entry in the server log.
If too many requests come in each second, the CPU will not be able to handle the processing
load, irrespective of no of disks in parallel. The solution is to add more machine with replicated
disks. This is called server form. A front end still accepts the request and sprays them to all
CPUsrather than multiple threads to reduce the load on that machine. Individual machines are
again Multithreaded with Multiple disks.

It is to be seen that cache is local to each machine. TCP connection should terminate at
processing node and not at front end.
7. What are the criteria consider to develop a routing protocol? Explain the OSPF routing
protocol in detail?
ANS:- There exits two approaches for the final delivery of the IP packets. In the Direct delivery,
the final destination of the packet is a host connected to the same physical network as the
1 deliverer (Figure ). Direct delivery occurs when the source and destination of the packet are
located on the same physical network or if the delivery is between the last router and the
destination host.The sender can easily determine if the delivery is direct. It can extract the
network address of the destination packet (Mask all the bits of the Host address) and compare
this address with the addresses of the networks to which it is connected. If a match is found, then
the delivery is direct. Indirect delivery, the sender uses the destination IP address to find the
destination physical address. The IP software then delivers the destination IP address with the
destination physical address to the data link layer for actual delivery. In practical sense a protocol
called address resolution protocol (ARP) dynamically maps an IP address to the corresponding
physical address. It is to be noted that the IP address is a FOUR byte codewhere as the Physical
address is a SIX byte code. The Physical address is also called as MAC address,Ethernet
address and hardware address. When the network part of the IP address does not match with
the network address to which the host is connected, the packet is delivered indirectly. In an
indirect delivery, the packet goes from router to router until it reaches the one connected to
the same physical network as its final destination.
Note that a delivery always involves one direct delivery but zero or more indirect deliveries.
Note also that the last delivery is always a direct delivery. In an indirect delivery, the sender use
s the destination IP address and a routing table to find the IP address of the next router to which
the packet should be delivered.
The sender then uses the ARP protocol to find the physical address of the next router. Note that
in direct delivery, the address mapping is between the IP address of the final destination and the
physical address of the final destination.
In an indirect delivery, the address mapping is between the IP address of the next router and
the physical address of the next router.Routing tables are used in the routers. The routing table
contains the list of IP addresses of neighboring routers. When a router has received a packet to
be forwarded, it looks at this table to find the route to the final destination. However, this simple
solution is impossible today in an Internet work such as the Internet because the number of
entries in the routing table make table look ups inefficient. Several techniques can make the
size of the routing table manageable and handle such issues as security.
* OPEN SHORTEST PATH FIRST(OSPF)
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a routing protocol developed for Internet Protocol (IP)
networks by the Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) working group of the InternetEngineering Task
1988 Force (IETF). The working group was formed in to design an IGP based on the
ShortestPath First (SPF) algorithm for use in the Internet. Similar to the Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol (IGRP),OSPF was created because in the mid-
1980s, the Routing Information Protocol (RIP) was increasingly incapable of serving large,
heterogeneous internet works. This chapter examines the OSPF routing environment,underlying
routing algorithm, and general protocol components.OSPF was derived from several research
efforts, including Bolt,Breakneck, and Newmans (BBNs) SPF algorithm d 1978 eveloped in for
the ARPANET (a landmark packet- 1970 switching network developed in the early s by BBN), Dr.
Radia Perlmans research on fault-tolerant broadcasting of routing information 1988 ( ),
BBNs work on area routing 1986 ( ), and an early version of OSIsIntermediate System-to-
Intermediate System (IS-IS) routing protocol. OSPF has two primary characteristics.The first is
that the protocol is open, which means that it is in the public domain. The OSPF specification
is published as Request for Comments (RFC) 1247. The second principal characteristic is
that OSPF is based onthe SPF algorithm, which sometimes is referred to as the Dijkstra
algorithm, named for the person credited with its creation. OSPF is a link-state routing protocol
that calls for the sending of link-state advertisements (LSAs)to all other routers within the same
hierarchical area. Information on attached interfaces, metrics used, and other variables is
included in OSPF LSAs. As OSPF routers accumulate link-state information, they use the
SPFalgorithm to calculate the shortest path to each node. As a link-state routing protocol, OSPF
contrasts with RIP and IGRP, which are distance-vector routing protocols. Routers running the
distance-vector algorithm send all or a portion of their routing tables in routing-update messages
to their neighbors.
8.Why is BGP needed? Explain com 1BGP used in place of 1 the GP?
ANS:- The Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is the protocol backing the core routingdecisions on
the Internet. It maintains a table of IP networks or prefixes which designatenetwork reach ability
among autonomous systems (AS). It is described as a path vector protocol. BGP does not
use traditional Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) metrics, but makes routing decisions based on
path, network policies and/or rule sets. For this reason, it is more appropriately termed a reach
ability protocol rather than routing protocol. BGP wascreated to replace the Exterior Gateway
Protocol (EGP) routing protocol to allow fullydecentralized routing in order to allow the removal of
the NSFNet Internet backbonenetwork. This allowed the Internet to become a truly decentralized
1994 system. Since ,version four of the BGP has been in use on the Internet. All previous
versions are . The major enhancement in version 4 was support of Classless Inter-Domain
Routing and use of route aggregation to decrease the size of routing tables. Since 2006 J anuary ,
4 version is codified in 4271 RFC , which went through more than 20 draftsbased on the earlier
1771 4 4 RFC version . RFC 271 version corrected a number
of errors,clarified ambiguities and brought the RFC much closer to industry practices. Most Intern
et users do not use BGP directly. Since most Internet service providers must use BGP to
establish routing between one another (especially if they are multihued), it is one of the most
7 7 important protocols of the Internet. Compare this with Signaling System (SS ), which is the
inter-provider core call setup protocol on the PSTN. Very large private IP networks use BGP
internally. An example would be the joining of a number of large Open Shortest Path First
(OSPF) networks where OSPF by itself would not scale to size.Another reason to use BGP is
multihoming a network for better redundancy either tomultiple access points of a single ISP (RFC
1998) or to multiple ISPs.BGP neighbors, or peers, are established by manual configuration
179 19 between routers to create a TCP session on port . A BGP speaker will periodically send -
byte keep- 60 alive messages to maintain the connection (every seconds by default). Among
routing protocols, BGP is unique in using TCP as its transport protocol. When BGP is running
inside an autonomous system (AS), it is referred to as
Internal BGP (IBGP or Interior Border Gateway Protocol). When it runs between
autonomous systems, it is called External BGP (EBGP or Exterior Border GatewayProtocol).
Routers on the boundary of one AS exchanging information with another AS are called border or
edge routers. In the Cisco operating system, IBGP routes have an administrative 200 distance of ,
which is less preferred than either external BGP or any interior routing protocol. Other router
implementations also prefer EBGP to IGPs, andIGPs to IBGP.
Assignment : TB (Compulsory)
PART A
1. Explain Domain Name System (DNS).
Ans- DNS stand for Domain Name System. It translates the domain name into IP address and
also maps the domain name into Common Generic Name.Working of DNS:- Whenever an
application program calls a library procedure calledResolver with its domain name as
parameter. The Resolver sends an UDP packet to the local DNS server. The DNS server
searches its table and returns the IP address which matches the domain name. Now, the
program can establish a connection or send UDP packets.
2. Explain Post Office Protocol (POP).
Ans- 3 3 POP stands for Post Office Protocol version . It begins when a user starts the mailreader.
The mail reader calls up the ISP and establishes a TCP connection with themessage transfer
110 agent at port .Once the connection has been established, the POP3 protocol goes through
three stages in sequence:
Authorization:- This state deals with the user log inTransactions:- This state deals with the user
collecting e-mail messages and markingthem for deletion from the mailbox.
Update:- The update state causes the e-mail messages to be deleted. During the authorization
state, at times, when the server is set for three passwords trials, if you givethe wrong password
thrice, your mail box will get locked.
3. List out the advantages and disadvantages of WLAN.Ans-
Advantages :-
i) WLANs are more flexible. With in radio coverage, nodes cancommunicate without further
restriction.
ii) Wireless network allow communication without previous planning.
iii) Wireless networks can survive in disasters.
Disadvantages:-
i) WLANs offer lower quality due to less bandwidth than wired
networks.
ii) WLAN adapter are very costly. Ex- PC-Card is available in the range 100 from pounds.
iii) WLANs are limited to low power senders and certain license-free frequency bands.
iv) Using radio waves for data transmission might interfere with other high-techequipment.
4. Explain conventional encryption model.
Ans- CONVENTIONAL ENCRYPTION MODELBefore the development of public key encryption,
the conventional encryption (single-key encryption) was available to secure the networks. There
are two types of encryption, classical encryption and modern encryption techniques. These are
key based algorithms known as symmetric and public key algorithms.In conventional algorithms,
the encryption key can be calculated from the decryption key. Alternatively, the decryption key
can be calculated from the encryption key. In these algorithms, the encryption key and the
decryption key are same.
5. Compare direct and indirect forms of routing.
Ans:-
Direct Routing: - It occurs when the source and destination of the packet are on same physical
network. In direct routing the final destination of the packet is a host connected to the same
physical network.In direct routing, the sender extracts the network address of the destination
packet and compares this address with the addresses of the network to which it is connected.
If match is found, then packet is delivered directly. The sender uses the destination IP address to
find the destination physical address. ARP maps the address of final destination to its
corresponding physical address.
Indirect Routing: - In an indirect delivery, the data packet goes from router to router until it
reaches to its final destination connected to the same physical network.In an indirect routing, the
sender uses the destination IP address and a routing table to find the IP address of the
next router to which the packet should be delivered. ARP protocol is also used to find the
physical address of next router. ARP maps the address of the next router and the physical
address of the next router
(i) Substitution cipher,
(ii) Mono alphabetic cipher,
(iii) Play fair cipher,
(iv) Hill cipher, &
(v) Transposition cipher.
PART B
1. a) Explain Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) routing protocol.
Ans:- Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a routing protocol developed for Internet Protocol (IP)
networks by the Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) working group of the Internet Engineering Task
1988 Force (IETF). The working group was formed in to design an IGP based on the Shortest
Path First (SPF) algorithm for use in the Internet.
OSPF was derived from several research efforts, including Bolt, Beranek, and Newmans
1978 (BBNs) SPF algorithm developed in for the ARPANET (a landmark packet-switching
network develop 1970 ed in the early s by BBN), Dr. Radia Perlmans research on fault-tolerant
1988 1986 broadcasting of routing information ( ), BBNs work on area routing ( ), and an early
version of OSIs Intermediate System-to- Intermediate System (IS-IS) routing protocol.
OSPF has two primary characteristics. The first is that the protocol is open, which means that its
specification is in the public domain. The OSPF specification is published as Request For
1247 Comments (RFC) . The second principal characteristic is that OSPF is based on the SPF
algorithm, which sometimes is referred to as the Dijkstra algorithm, named for the person
credited with its creation.
6. a) Explain internet security model.
Ans:- When two parties exchanging their information through internet. They need securityso that
no one could access their information or messages. To accomplish it, a securitymodel will
designed to protect the information transmission form an opponent who may present a threat
to confidentiality. This technique has two components:
i) A security-related transformation on the information to be sent.
ii) Some secret information shared by the two principals and it is hoped, unknown to the
opponent.A third party is needed to achieve secure transmission Or a third party is needed to
arbitrate dispute the two principals concerning the authenticity of a message
transmission.Designing of Internet Security Model include following:-
i) Design an algorithm for performing the security-related transformation.
ii) Generate secrete information to be used with the algorithm.
iii) Develop methods for the distribution and sharing of the secret information.
iv) Specify a protocol to be used by the two principals that makes use of the security algorithm
and the secret information to achieve a particular security service.
b) What is steganography ? Explain.
Ans:-Steganography :-
This is technique that hides the message in other messages. Thesender writes an innocuous
message and then conceals on the same piece of paper. Somemethods of stenography are: -
Character marking:- Selected letters of printed written text are over written in pencil.These marks
are ordinarily not visible unless the paper is held at an angle to bright light.
Invisible inks :- A number of substances can be used for writing but leave no visible trace until
heat or some chemical is applied to the paper.
Pin punctures:-Small pin punctures on selected letters are ordinarily not visible unless the paper
is held up in front of a light.
Typewriter correction ribbon:- It is used between lines typed with a black ribbon, theresults of
typing with the correction tape are visible only under a strong light.
The advantage of steganography is that the parties can employ the stenographer toreveal the
secrecy of the message. It main disadvantage is that it requires a lot of overhead to hide few bits
of information and once the system is discovered, it becomes useless without maintaining the
secrecy.
7 802.11 802.11 802.11 . Compare IEEE a, b, g WLAN architectures and blue
tooth.
8. Write short note on :
a) Time out timer Ans- Time out timer is used to help purge invalid routes from a RIP
node. Routes that arenot refreshed for a given period of time are likely to be invalid because of
some change inthe network. Thus, RIP maintains a timeout timer for each known route. When
a routestimeout timer expires, the route is marked invalid but is retained in the table until
theroute-flush timer expires.
b) CSMA/CA mechanism
Ans:- CSMA/CA is a network contention protocol that listens to a network in order toavoid
collisions, unlike CSMA/CD that deals with network transmissions once collisionshave been
detected. The basic mechanism is shown in following figure:
If the mechanism is sensed idle for at least the duration of DIFS, a node can access themedium
at once. This allows for short access delay under light load.If the medium is busy, nodes have
to wait for the duration of DIFS, entering a contention phase afterwards. Each node now
chooses a random back off time with a contentionwindow and additionally delays medium access
for this random amount of time.The additionally waiting time is measured in multiples of slots.
Slots time is derived from the medium propagation delay, transmitter delay and other PHY
dependent parameters.
c) Best effort service.
Ans:-
best effort service by which we can make several design decisions and employ afew tricks to
improve the user-perceived quality of a multimedia networking application.Limitations of the best
effort service are:
* Packet loss,
* Excessive end-to-end delay
* Packet jitter