Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Technical Manual
Cement & Concrete
Imprint
Copyright
C2013, Holcim (Vietnam) Ltd
All rights, including the partial re-print of parts or
entire section of the book in Vietnamese version
and/ or English version (including photo copy, micro
copy, CD-Rom, or any other way of copying and
presenting it in public), the storage in date centers
and the translation, are reserved to the authors.
Special permission must be requested in writing to
Holcim (Vietnam)
Authors
Technical consultant team
Holcim (Vietnam) Ltd
A special thank to Silvia Vieiria Mcs, PhD Holcim
Group Support Ltd
Publication
1st edition 2013 in Vietnamese
1st edition 2013 in English
Disclaimer
Alone the complete standards referred hereto serve
as reference. They can be sourced at the respective
organizations. Holcim (Vietnam) is not liable for
misapplication and/or interpretation of the content
of this manual.
Preface
To develop Vietnam in the 21st century and to meet the requirements of modern society, many high rise
buildings and infrastructure projects, like ports, roads, bridges are being designed and constructed by
national and international developers, designers and contractors.
These structures are expected to be in service for long time, sometimes for 100 years, with low maintenance
costs. The durability of concrete as building material is a key element for long lasting projects. This Technical
Manual offers an overview of good practices in concrete as well as an overview of relevant Vietnamese and
international standards.
A better understanding of cement/concrete standards can make it easier for designers, consultants and
contractors to choose the type of cement and concrete, suitable for their specific project. With good concrete
practice at the jobsite, the high quality building material concrete will be molded and transformed into
long lasting concrete structures, to build Vietnam for future generations.
As the different standards are complex to summarize and the construction industry changes quickly in
Vietnam, it is possible that there are inaccuracies in this Technical Manual. We are looking forward to any
feedback or input for improvement on technical.service-vnm@holcim.com.
Yours sincerely,
Pieter Keppens
Technical Marketing Manager
Index
Chapter I
Cement & Concrete
11
A. Components of concrete
1. Cement
2. Mixing water
3. Fine aggregate
4. Coarse aggregate
5. Admixtures
6. Additions
11
11
12
13
14
16
17
20
20
23
27
33
37
38
41
43
45
47
Chapter II
Applications with specific requirements
49
A. Infrastructure
1. Introduction
2. Cement for infrastructure
49
49
49
B. Aggressive environments
1. Introduction
2. Sulfate resistant Portland cement
3. Sulfate resistant blended cements
50
50
50
51
C. Massive structure
1. Introduction
2. Cement for massive structures
3. Concrete for massive structures
52
52
52
53
54
54
55
56
56
57
58
58
58
59
61
Chapter III
Causes and prevention of concrete defects
62
A. Segregation of concrete
63
B. Cracking
1. Plastic settlement cracks
2. Plastic shrinkage cracks
3. Surface crazing
4. Drying shrinkage cracks
5. Early thermal cracking
64
65
66
67
67
68
69
70
70
71
71
E. Chemical attack
1. Classification
2. Preventive measures
72
72
73
74
G. Fire Resistance
1. Concrete in fire
2. Preventive measures
75
75
75
Chapter IV
Overview of cement & concrete standards
76
A. Cement
Vietnamese standards TCVN
American standards ASTM
European standards EN
77
77
83
86
B. Concrete
Vietnamese standards TCVN
American standards ASTM
European standards EN
British standards BS
89
89
91
93
95
97
97
97
Reference
98
10
Chapter I:
A. Components of concrete
1. Cement
General
Cement is a hydraulic binder a material that
hardens after being mixed with water, either in the
air or under water. The hardened cement paste is
water-resistant and possesses high strength. For
all concrete without specific requirements, the type
of cement generally used in Vietnam is a blended
Portland cement, type PCB 40, according to the
Vietnamese standard TCVN 6260. For plaster/mortar
in rural areas, PCB30, a lower strength class, is
sometimes used as well.
Several types of blending materials are used, like
limestone, puzzolan or slag, depending on the locally
available materials.
International standards, comparable to TCVN 6260,
are:
American Standard ASTM C1157: type GU
(General Use)
European Standard EN 197-1: CEM II/A or CEM
II/B 42.5
Other types of cement, which are used worldwide, like
Ordinary Portland Cement OPC (TCVN 2682,
ASTM C150, EN 197-1 CEM I)
Blast Furnace Slag cement (TCVN 4316, ASTM
C1157, EN 197-1 CEM III)
are not available in Vietnam as general use cement.
The test methods of the TCVN standard are very
close to the EN standard, with the correction of
testing temperature (27oC instead of 20oC), to take
the local climate conditions into account.
The ASTM standards use a completely different
set of testing methods and the requirements
cannot be compared to the TCVN/EN standards. In
Vietnam, several 3rd party laboratories are equipped
to test cement according to TCVN & ASTM, but not
according to the EN standard.
Holcim recommendation
11
12
A. Components of concrete
2. Mixing water
Water for mixing concrete and mortar must comply
with TCXDVN 302:2004 or ASTM C1602. Water that
meets these requirements, can be used for washing
aggregate and curing concrete sample. According to
these standards, drinking water can be used as
mixing water without testing. Water from rivers and
canals is in most cases not appropriate to make
concrete. The use of seawater in reinforced concrete
is strictly forbidden.
General
Mixing water is the total amount of water contained
in fresh concrete. It is the sum of:
The water added directly to the mix
The surface moisture of the aggregates
The water content of the concrete admixtures
and additions, if applicable
(silica fume, pigment in suspension, etc.)
Mixing water has two functions in concrete
technology. It is required for hydration of the
cement, and for the production of a plastic concrete
that can be well compacted.
Maximum Level
(mg/l)
Purpose of mixing water
Soluble
Salt
Sulfate Ion
(SO4-2)
Chloride Ion
(Cl-)
Insoluble rest
1. Pre-stressed concrete.
2000
600
350
200
2. Reinforced concrete.
5000
2000
1000
200
3. Non-reinforced concrete.
10000
2700
3500
300
Table I.1 - Limit sulfate and chloride content in mixing water for different purpose
A. Components of concrete
3. Fine Aggregate
Grading
Fine aggregate shall consist of natural sand, crushed
sand, or a combination thereof. For concrete
production, fine aggregates must comply with TCVN
7570 : 2006 or ASTM C33 (Standard Specification for
Concrete Aggregates). In the south of Vietnam, 3
sources of fine aggregates are used in concrete (FM
= fineness modulus):
Sand from Dong Nai river : FM = 2.40 (good not
available in significant quantity)
Sand from Mekong river : FM = 1.1 -1.6 (too fine)
Manufactured (crushed) sand : FM = 4.0 (too
coarse)
Usually when the sand is very fine, the mix is
un-economical because the increase of water
demand will lead to the increase of cement. When it
is very coarse, the mix is harsh and unworkable
because there are so much voids between the grains
and the cement paste can not fill the voids.
According to ASTM C33, a reference for good sieve
curve of fine aggregates for concrete is like Fig I.1.
In the south of Vietnam, sand compliant to ASTM
C33 cannot be found. The current practice is to
combine Mekong sand with manufactured sand, to
reach the best performance.
Organic Impurities
Fine aggregate must be free of deleterious amounts
of organic impurities. Fine aggregates that contains
many organic impurities, will lead to delay in
concrete setting, loss of strength and durability of
concrete.
Fine aggregate should be tested before use on
organic impurites according to standard TCVN
7572-9 : 2006 or ASTM C40 (Standard Test Method
for Organic Impurities in Fine Aggregates for
Concrete). When a sample has a color darker than
the standard color, or Organic Plate No. 3, the fine
aggregate under test contains possible injurious
organic impurities. It is advisable to perform further
tests before approving the fine aggregate for use in
concrete.
Other Impurities
Impurities like silt, dust, clay content also have a
disavantage effect on concrete. It should be tested
before use for concrete according to standard TCVN
7572-8 : 2006 (Standard test method for silt, dust,
clay content) or ASTM C117 (Standard Test Method
for Materials Finer than 75-m).
13
4.75
9.50
100
2.36
1.18
0.60
0.30
0.15
90
Mekong sand
80
70
Passing (%)
60
Manufactured sand
50
40
30
20
10
0
10.0
0.1
1.0
Sieve openings (mm)
Combination
Akali-Silica Reaction
For concrete that is subjected to wetting, extended
exposure to humid atmosphere, or contact with
moist ground (for example, foundations, bridges,
tunnels,), the aggregates (both fine and coarse)
shall not contain any materials that are deleteriously
reactive with the alkalies in the concrete to cause
Alkali Aggregate Reaction. This expansive reaction
can create cracks in the concrete, which reduces
both the concrete strength and the durability.
Potential Alkali-Silica Reactivity of Aggregates
should be tested according to standard TCVN 757214:2006 (Determination of alkali silica reactivity ) or
ASTM C289 (chemical method), ASTM C1260 or
ASTM C227 (mortar bar method).
Fig I.2
Organic
impurities test
using organic
plate.
14
A. Components of concrete
4. Coarse aggregate
General
Coarse aggregates form the skeletal structure of the
concrete and must comply with TCVN 7570 :2006 or
ASTM C33 (Standard Specification for Concrete
Aggregates).
Characteristics
The most important characteristics of coarse
aggregates are:
Specific gravity
Bulk density (unit weight) and moisture content
Mineral composition, grain shape, and surface
texture
Purity
Grading (grain size distribution) and aggregate
fractions (range of sizes)
Soundness
Table I.2
Classification of
aggregates by
specific gravity
Aggregate type
Aggregate Material
Standard aggregate
2700
Reinforced and
non-reinforced concrete
Heavy aggregate
>3000
Lightweight aggregate
< 2000
Hard aggregate
> 2500
Application
Specific gravity
The aggregate specific gravity is the ratio of the
weight of a given volume of aggregate to the weight
of an equal volume of water. Aggregate specific
gravity is needed to determine weight-to-volume
relationships and to calculate various volumerelated quantities such as voids in mineral
aggregate. The test standard for coarse aggregate
specific gravity and water absorption is the TCVN
7572-4 : 2006 or ASTM C127 (Determination of
apparent specific gravity, bulk specific gravity and
water absorption).
State
Ovendry
Air dry
Damp or wet
Total moisture
None
Equal to potential
absorption
Greater than
absorption
A. Components of concrete
Purity
Adhesive impurity on coarse aggregate surface, such
as dust from degraded rock, reduces concrete
quality, for example, by disturbing setting properties
and reducing the contact area between aggregate
and cement paste. It is suggested to wash coarse
aggregate before use in concrete (Fig I.4.).
15
Grading
The grading and maximum size of coarse aggregate
is an important parameter in concrete mix. The
grading of aggregate is measured according to
TCVN 7572-2 or ASTM C136 (Standard Test Method
for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates)
Fig I.6
Grain shapes of
aggregate
Desirable
Rounded
Angular
Less Desirable
Irregular
f
II-
III-
IV-
a
For pumped concrete
Flaky
Elongated
Flaky
Elongated
16
A. Components of concrete
5. Admixtures
Definition and classification
Concrete admixtures are chemical substances that
are added to concrete to change, through chemical
and/or physical action, some of its properties, such
as workability, setting, hardening.
In Vietnam, the performance requirements for
different types of admixtures comply with standards
TCVN 8826 : 2011 or ASTM C494 (Standard
Specification for Chemical Admixtures for Concrete).
Dosage
Admixtures are added to concrete mainly in liquid
form and in very small amounts. The dosage is
generally about 0.4 to 2% in relation to the weight
of cement. In certain cases the amount will be
recommended by the manufacturer. If the dosage
exceeds about 1%, the water introduced with the
admixture, must be considered as part of concrete
mixing water. Too low dosage can reduce
significantly the desired effect, and too high dosage
can produce unwanted effects such as retarded
setting or loss of compressive strength.
The most important and common types of
admixtures
According to ASTM C494, there are seven types of
admixture (from type A through type G). In Vietnam,
three types are commonly used:
a/ Water reducing and retarding admixture.
This type of admixture, based on lignosulphonate,
can be used at dosage 0.4 - 0.6% to reduce the
quantity of water required (6% - 12%).
Water reducing admixtures require less water to
make a concrete of equal slump which improves the
concrete strength, or increase the slump of concrete
at the same water content.
A. Components of concrete
6. Additions
Fibers
Polypropylene fibers are organic fibers, used in
concrete to prevent plastic shrinkage cracks. About
0.7kg - 1kg of fibers is required per m3 of concrete
(Fig I.8).
Steel fibers, uniformly distributed in concrete,
improve
certain
mechanical
characteristics,
particularly ductility (toughness) and tensile
strength. The efficiency of steel fibers greatly
depends on their length, diameter, and shape. The
main use of steel fibres is in industrial floors, to
replace the steel mesh in the concrete (Fig I.9).
17
Fig I.8
Polypropylene
fibers
Fig I.9
Steel Fiber
Fig I.10
Glass fiber, cut
and bundled
progresses
slower,
thus
is better protected against
Caution
Adding silica fume to a concrete mix reduces
the workability and changes the rheologic
characteristics (flow characteristics)! Adequate
workability can be achieved by adding special
superplasticizers.
As silica fume is very fine, the homogeneous
distribution into the concrete is an important
issue that requires specific attention. If the silica
fume is not well distributed into the concrete,
its efficiency in increasing strength and
durability will be reduced.
Fig I.11
Silica fume
18
A. Components of concrete
Inorganic pigments
Inorganic pigments are used to dye concretes and
mortars (Fig I.14). Oxide pigments are virtually the
only ones that can meet the demanding criteria of
stability and grading. Pigments have no chemical
effect on concrete. Because of their high fineness,
they increase the concrete water demand. This can
be counteracted by adding a highrange water
reducer. Pigment dosage, usually a few percent
measured by weight of cement, depends on the
desired color intensity. Amounts are recommended
by the suppliers.
Concrete component
19
20
21
Fig I.17
Influence of the w/c
ratio on 28-day
compressive
strength of
concrete
Fig I.18
Poor filling of
void spaces, high
permeability
concrete with
only one size of
aggregate
(schematic)
Minimum cement
content (kg/m3)
No direct contact
350
Direct contact
400
Fig I.19
Good filling of
void spaces, low
permeability
concrete with a
smooth grading
curve (schematic)
22
Volume (m3)=
Mass (kg)
Specific Gravity
(kg/m3)
Example:
Specification: Cement dosage
Water/Cement ratio
Plasticizer
Assumption: Normal porosity
325 kg/m3
0.48
1% based on cement mass ( = ~ 3 kg)
1.5% entrapped air (=15 l)
Specific Gravity
(kg/m3)
Component
Mass (kg)
Cement
325
3,100
0.105
Mixing water
156
1,000
0.156
Plasticizer
~ 1,000
0.003
0.015
Entrapped air
Subtotal
484
Dry aggregate
Fresh concrete
0.279
2,700
1 - 0.279 =0.721
2,431
1) Mixing water = water added + moisture of aggregates. The number through indicate the sequence of the
calculation.
Change
Workability
23
28-day
compressive
strength
Smoother grading
More rounded aggregate
Table I.4
Effect of various
factors on
workability and
strength of
concrete
negative influence
2. Workability
To achieve a high quality concrete structure, the
method of placing and compaction as well as the
shape of the concrete element and reinforcement
arrangement, should be considered to select the
workability of the concrete.
The concrete workability affects the speed of
placement and the degree of compaction of
concrete. Inadequate compaction may result in the
reduction in both strength and durability of
concrete.
Different test methods for workability are available
including slump, Vebe time, flow table, etc. The
choice of the test method depends on the concrete
workability and its application.
To get reliable results, each test method for
workability should be applied within its test range
(EN206):
Slump
Vebe time
Flow diameter
no significant influence
a. Slump test :
The slump test is the most well-known and widely
used method to characterize the workability of fresh
concrete. This simple test is used at the job sites to
quickly determine whether a concrete batch should
be accepted or rejected.
The slump test measures the ability of concrete to
flow under its own weight, without vibration. This
method is suitable for medium to high workability
concrete with slump ranging from 10 to 210 mm
(EN 206).
The test method is widely standardized throughout
the world:
TCVN 3106
ASTM C143
EN 12350-2
The apparatus used in the slump test are: mold,
tamping rod, measuring equipment (Fig I.20):
Fig I.20
Apparatus to
determine slump
24
True Slump
Shear Slump
Depending on the application of concrete, the following slump values are recommended:
Slump Range (mm)
60-80
Application
100-160
180-200
Illustrated photo
b. Slump flow:
The slump flow test method is used to determine
workability of very flowable concrete with a very
high slump. At this high slump > 200mm, normal
concrete has the tendency to segregate, which
impacts the concrete quality significantly. To reach a
high quality concrete at very high workability, the
mix design needs to be specially developed to avoid
segregation and achieve the required stability.
Two types of concrete can be distinguished
(see Chapter II.E):
- Very flowable concrete (slump flow: 450- 650mm)
-
25
Fig I.26
Transfer beam
c. VEBE test:
For semi-dry concrete with a low workability, the use
of the Vebe test is recommended. The Vebe time is
the time needed to level and compact fresh concrete
in Vebe consistometer and ranges from 5s to 30s
(EN 206). Some typical applications are:
Fig I.24 - Determine slump flow for fresh concrete
Upright mold
Inverted mold
26
Fig I.27
RCC for hydraulic
dams
TCVN 3107:1993,
EN 12350-3,
ASTM C1170.
Container
Vebe Table
Clip
40mm
Handle
Mold
30mm
200mm
Bottom
Plate
Top Plate
Hinge
700mm
3. Concrete strength
One of the most important characteristics of
concrete is the strength, as strength is an important
input parameter to the design of the concrete
structure. Concrete is a very strong material when it
is used in compression and it is however, less
resistant to tension.
There are different ways to measure the concrete
strength, such as compressive strength, flexural
strength, and tensile strength tests.
27
a. Compressive strength:
Compressive strength is the capacity of a material or
structure to withstand axially directed pushing
forces. When the limit of compressive strength is
reached, the concrete fails and breaks.
The compressive strength of concrete is the most
common performance parameter used by the
engineer in designing building and other structures.
The compressive strength is measured in cylindrical
(150x300mm) or cubical (150mm) concrete
specimens that are casted, compacted, cured and
tested in standard conditions.
Cube
specimen
Cylinder
specimen
100x100x100
0.91
1,00
1.05
1.1
1.16
150 x 300
1.2
200 x 400
1.24
Correlation factor
28
b. Flexural strength
The flexural strength of concrete is measured by
loading 150x150mm concrete beams with a span
length at least three times the depth. The flexural
strength is expressed in MPa and is determined by
standard test methods ASTM C78 (four-point
loading), ASTM C293 (three-point loading) or EN
12390-1.
1/2 Load
Load
1/2 Load
29
EN
TCVN
ASTM-ACI
Making
EN 12390-2
TCVN 3105:1993
ASTM C31
Curing
EN 12390-2
TCVN 3105:1993
ASTM C31
Compressive strength
EN 12390-3
TCVN 3118:1993
ASTM C39
Table I.7
Test methods for
making, curing
and sampling
concrete
specimen
Fig I.36
Satisfactory
failure of cube
specimens
Fig I.37
Unsatisfactory
failure of cube
specimens
Fig I.38
Satisfactory
failure of
cylinder
specimens
Fig I.39
Unsatisfactory
failure of
cylinder
specimens
30
Specimens
Cause
The surface of the cube is not flat and parallel
Cube
Cylinder
Compressive machine
TCXDVN 356:2005
TCXDVN 374:2006
ASTM C94:2005
BS 5328:1990
EN 206-1:2000
Cylinder 300x150mm
Cube 150mm
Cube 150mm
1 set = 2 specimens
Cylinder
300x150mm
TCVN 4453:1995
Type of
sample
Cube 150mm
1 set = 3 specimens
1 set = 3 specimens
Method of
Sampling
Foundation: 1set/100m3
Foundation under
machinery: 1set/50m3
31
V 40m3: 1 / 10m3
V 80m3: 1 / 20m3
Take 2 or more
specimens per set.
V 200m3: 1 / 50m3
fc : the specified
compressive strength.
Measure
compressive strength
of the specimens.
fmin: strength of
the specimen with
lowest strength
fmax: strength of
the specimen with
highest strength
1 = fmax - fmed ;
2 = fmed - fmin
fcm = average
strength of all
specimens
Compliance
checking
Otherwise, f = fcm
If either 1 or 2 is
larger than 15% of fmed,
then favg = fmed
Compressive
strength
assessment
favg fck
fmin 85% x fck
The average of 3
consecutive strength tests
shall be equal to or greater
than specific strength-f'c
If f'c 35 MPa:
individual strength test
fc - 3.5(MPa)
favg fck + 2
Criteria 2 (Individual):
All valid samples: f fck - 2
If (fmax fmin) /
fcm > 15% then
the sample was
invalid.
Otherwise, f = fcm
favg = average
strength of all valid
samples
Criteria 1 (Rolling
average):
favg fck + 4
Criteria 2 (Individual
sample):
All valid samples:
f fck - 4
32
TCVN
BS
EN 206
M300
C30
C25/30
M350
C35
M400
C40
C30/37
M450
C45
C35/45
M500
C50
C40/50
4. Special characteristics
a. Concrete density
The density of both fresh and hardened concrete is
of interest to the engineers for different reasons
including structural design and impact on
compressive strength.
By choosing suitable aggregates and mix design, the
density of concrete can be increased significantly
(heavy concrete) or reduced (light-weight concrete).
For fresh concrete:
The density plays an important role in controlling
concrete yield (compared to the mix design) at
readymix batching plant. Typical readymix concrete
density varies from 2200 2500kg/m3 (TCXDVN
374:2006), depending on the aggregate type and
mix design.
Based on the density of compacted fresh concrete,
plant operators are able to check if the mix design is
over- or under yielding: this means that the mix
design gives more or less than 1m3 concrete after
compaction. Fresh concrete density test method
complies with ASTM C138; EN 12350 6; TCVN
3108:1993.
For hardened concrete:
Before testing the compressive strength, the density
of concrete samples (cube, cylinder) should be
checked and compared with the mix design to
confirm the sampling, compaction, presence of
entrained air.
b. Air content
Air content of concrete is also an important
characteristic to indirectly assess the quality of
concrete.
Fresh concrete always contains a significant amount
of air bubbles. One of the main reasons to compact
the concrete is to remove them. If the concrete is
not well compacted, some air will remain in the
concrete, reducing the strength significantly.
Normally, a typical compacted concrete will have air
percentage varies from 0.5 2.5%. Concrete with
high slump usually has lower air content than low
slump concrete. Besides, the plasticizer/super
plasticizer admixture can increase the air content in
concrete, which may lead to lower strength.
A rule of thumb
1% excessive air
reduces the concrete strength by 4-5%.
In some cases, the air content in the concrete is
increased with an air-entraining admixture up to
4-6%, to improve the resistance of the concrete
against deterioration caused by freeze-thaw. For the
tropical climate in southern Vietnam, air entrained
concrete is normally not used for this purpose.
Air content test method is complied with ASTM
C231, TCVN 3111:1993
Pump
Petcock B
Pressure gage
Air bleeder valve
Petcock A
33
Air chamber
Clamping device
Extension
tubing for
calibration
checks
Bowl
Fig I.40
illustration of the
pressure method
for air content
c. Bleeding
Bleeding is a particular form of segregation, in
which the water from the concrete appears on the
surface of the concrete. Bleeding is predominantly
seen in very wet mixes with high workability.
Excessive bleeding can have a negative impact on
the quality of the concrete:
Dusty surface, linked to cement particles that are
carried to the top of the concrete layer
Discolorations of the concrete surface
Reduction of the bond between large aggregates
/ steel bars and mortar.
Not all bleeding is harmful for the concrete. A
limited amount of bleeding protects the concrete
surface against plastic shrinkage, in hot and windy
weather.
34
4000
Final Setting
3000
2000
1000
0
Initial Setting
Outlier
Warning
35
e. Permeability
To determine the durability of concrete, the concrete
permeability is more important than the
compressive strength.
There are two types of concrete permeability,
frequently used in Vietnam:
Water permeability for water-tightness of concrete
Chloride permeability for concrete in aggressive
environment (seawater, brackish water)
Permeability to Water:
For specific structures which directly get in contact
with water such as : basement for high rise building,
dams, dikes, the water tightness of concrete is
required, in addition to strength.
The concrete to permeability to water is classified
into 6 levels: B2, B4, B6, B8, B10 and B12 and the
testing method is specified in TCVN 3116:1993.
The level for permeability to water is the maximum
water pressure for which water has not gone
through 4 in 6 test samples.
Fig I.45
The test method
to determine the
water
permeability of
concrete
3
6
1
4
4
Concrete Grade
30
B6
35
B8
40
B10
45 - 50
B12
Table I.11
Estimation of
water permeability
base on concrete
grade
36
Permeability to chlorides
The permeability of concrete to chloride ions is an
important indicator to measure the durability of
concrete in aggressive environment. At a low
chloride permeability, the steel reinforcement will
be protected against the chloride-linked pitting
corrosion and the durability of concrete will be
increased.
The method to measure the rapid chloride
permeability of concrete is specified in ASTM C1202
or TCXDVN 360:2005.
The test method consists of monitoring the amount
of electrical current which passes through 51 mm
thick slices of 102 mm nominal diameter cores or
cylinders during a 6 hours period. The total charge
passed, in coulombs, has been found to be related to
the resistance of the specimen to chloride ion
penetration.
Fig I.47
The rapid
chloride
permeability test
equipment
Chloride Ion
penetrability
> 4000
High
2000 4000
Moderate
1000 2000
Low
100 1000
Very low
< 100
Negligible
Fig I.48
Homogeneity of
the mix as a
function of
mixing duration
The dispersion
The mixing effect
The optimal effect of admixtures
Plant efficiency
Mechanical wear
37
38
Structure
Workability of concrete
(Slump)
Picture
8 -10 cm
Fig I.49
Bore piling
> 18 cm
Fig I.50
Method of conveying
Chute
Fig I. 49
Fig I.50
Bucket
8 - 14 cm
Fig I.51
Pump
12 - 18 cm
Fig I.52
Fig I.51
Fig I.52
39
Compaction
Good compaction is the prerequisite for durable
concrete. The advantages of well-compacted
concrete are:
Higher density
Improved durability
Good compressive strength
Better bond between reinforcement and concrete
Fig I.55
The structure
with good
compaction
Method of compaction
Selecting the best method of compaction will
depend on the workability of the concrete and the
reinforcement density/rebar spacing of the element.
The most common effective method of compaction
is vibrating. Vibrating is most often done with
internal vibrators (poker-type vibrators) or external
vibrators (form vibrators or surface finishers with
surface vibrators).
Vibration almost completely overcomes the internal
friction between the aggregates. The separate
particles move closer together, and entrapped air
escapes to the surface in the form of air bubbles
(the content of entrapped air after compaction is
about 1.5 % by volume). The voids become filled
with fines paste and the fresh concrete is
consolidated under its own weight.
Effective range of electrical high-frequency vibrator
heads (Table I.14).
Diameter of
vibrator head
(mm)
Effective range
diameter
(mm)
Spacing
between
inserrtion
points (cm)
< 40
30
25
40 bis 60
50
40
> 60
80
70
Table I.14
Reference values
for the effective
range diameter
and spacing of
insertion points
Rule of thumb
Fig I.57
Spacing between
insertion points,
depositing fresh
on fresh
300-400 mm
Right
1-2xD
Wrong
insertion point
II
III
150 mm
40
8-10 D
8-10 D
II
III
Rule of thumb
10 liters of extra mixing water per m3 concrete
causes a 10-percent drop in 28-day strength.
To keep the drop in concrete strength due to hot
weather within narrow limits, the temperature
of fresh concrete should be controlled carefully.
Some projects in Vietnam require the temperature of fresh concrete from 30 to 32oC.
In addition to the decrease in strength and
durability, higher concrete temperatures produce
other negative effects:
41
Fig I.59
Cooling concrete
by liquid
nitrogen
42
43
8. Pumped concrete
Application Range
The use of pumps is recognized as a modern and
efficient method of transport and placing concrete.
Pumped concrete can be used for practically any
construction task, and is particularly useful when
high performance in placing is required or when the
pouring location is poorly accessible. In general,
there are two types of concrete pumps: stationary
and mobile.
Admixtures
The rules that apply to using admixtures in concrete
also apply to pumped concrete. It should be kept in
mind when using air entrainers, that fresh concrete
with an air content greater than 4% can reduce the
delivery capacity of concrete pumps.
Consistence
Pumped concrete must have a plastic to soft
workability.
Fig I.62
Casting a large
concrete floor
slab. Mobile
pump fed by a
truck mixer
44
45
Fig I.63
9. Curing
Purpose and objectives
The purpose of curing is to protect concrete from
water loss and harmful influences during the early
hardening period. Compressive strength alone does
not guarantee durability; the concrete must also be
dense. Especially in the surface layer, hardened
cement paste with high density and low-as-possible
permeability is very important.
This gives better resistance to carbonation and other
types of attack. Curing includes all the measures
taken to protect freshly placed, young concrete
while it develops adequate strength. The chief
objectives of curing is to protect the concrete from:
Fig I.64
Preventive measures
Leaving forms in place
Covering with a membrane (Fig I.63)
Wrapping with insulating material (Fig I.64)
Covering with water-retaining
(burlap, geotextiles)
fabrics
Fig I.65
Rate of drying
The rate of drying depends on:
air temperature
concrete temperature
relative humidity
wind speed
kept constantly
moist
40
46
kept moist
for 7 days
30
20
not
kept moist
unprotected concrete,
wind speed 10 km/h
2
concrete protected
with a curing compound
10
unprotected concrete,
wind speed 20 km/h
28
90
Testing age [days]
12
18
24
Time [hours]
relative humidity
concrete temperature
%
'C
100
80
40
60
35
30
40
20
0
10
20
ambient temperature
15
10
20
25
30
(0C)
4
wind speed
10
m/sec
rate of drying
(kg/m2 hr.)
6
2
2
0
47
Fig I.69
Results of a leaky
form
Fig I.70
Peeled-off
concrete skin
Fig I.71
Concrete skin
adhered to
wooden forms
Steel, aluminium
Requirements for forms
Dimensional accuracy
Watertightness (Fig I.69)
Stiffness, no deformation
Cleanness
Low adhesion to hardened concrete
(Fig I.70 and Fig I.71)
Attractive surface texture (Fig I.72)
Form types
Absorptive forms usually produce a smooth, closed
concrete surface, because they absorb surplus water
and air bubbles. The face of wooden forms should
include only boards which have been used for an
equal number of times, because the absorption
capacity of the wood decreases with each use, which
has an effect on the color of the concrete surface.
Raw wooden boards should be coated with cement
paste before initial use to remove the wood sugar
that disturbs hydration of cement. This coating also
evens out any variations in absorbency of the boards
(Fig I.73).
Fig I.72
Example of a
successful
textured
concrete surface
Fig I.73
Non-uniform
absorbency of
wood used in
forms affects the
concrete surface
48
Fig I.74
Effect of form-release agents on the concrete surface:
- Left: surplus form-release agent removed with a cloth
- Right: excessive form-release agent used
Applications with
specific requirements
Chapter II:
A. Infrastructure
1. Introduction
Holcim recommendation
49
50
B. Aggressive environments
(sulfate, seawater ...)
1. Introduction
To assure the long life of the construction in
aggressive environments, special care has to be
taken for the concrete: cement choice, mix design,
placing and compacting, and last but not least,
curing.
A key element is the choice of cement, as concrete
can be exposed to different aggressions:
Sulfates in the environment attack the cement
matrix (C3A cement mineral) and create cracks in
concrete
Chlorides penetrate into the concrete pores and
can lead to the dangerous pitting corrosion of
steel reinforcement of the structure
Other aggressive elements (low pH, acids,..) can
attack the cement matrix, by dissolving its
constituents
For aggressive environments, 2 main types of
cement are generally specified:
Sulfate resistant portland cement (only for
sulfate attack)
Sulfate resistant blended portland cement
Attention
Durability of concrete is a lot more complex
than the use of sulfate resistance cement.
To improve concrete durability, the Four C can
be used as a rule of thumb:
Cement choice,
adapted to the aggressive environment
Water/cement ratio,
to reduce pore space
Concrete cover,
to protect steel reinforcement
Curing of concrete,
for high quality concrete cover
TCVN
ASTM
Type II (MS)
ASTM
Type V (HS)
BS 4027
3.5
% C 3A
51
1000
LOW
MODERATE
2000
3000
HIGH
4000
Chloride Permeability
Fig II.3
The rapid
chloride
permeability test
equipment
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
7d
14d
21d
28d
56d
91d
105d
112d
180d
Normal Cement
Holcim recommendation
Coulomb
C. Massive structure
52
1. Introduction
In massive concrete elements, the heat of hydration
of cement will increase the concrete temperature at
the center of the mass element significantly. During
the hardening phase, the temperature can rise up to
85 100oC for thick elements, with general use
concrete. When the hardened concrete in the center
then cools down, the thermal shortening of the
concrete creates stresses in the element, which can
lead to thermal cracking.
Fig II.4
Heat of
hydration
development
inside mass
concrete can lead
to thermal
cracking
Temperature rise, 0C
80
70
Inside
60
Surface
40
Form
removal
20
T > 200C
no cracking
Unprotected surface
cools fast
0
0
Days
Fig II.5
Timing of
formwork removal
impacts the risk of
thermal cracks
C. Massive structure
1T
5M
4M
3T
2T
2M
1M
3M
5B
4B
1B
2B
3B
Holcim recommendation
To reduce the risk of cracks in
massive elements, a combination of
several measures is required:
Low heat cement compliant with TCVN
7712:2007 or ASTM C1157 type LH
to reduce risk of thermal cracks.
5T
4T
53
54
1. Introduction
High strength concrete offers significantly higher
strength and stiffness (higher E modulus) than the
conventional concrete. A concrete is considered to
be high strength concrete from 60MPa to 100MPa.
Above 100MPa, the concrete is classified as ultra
high strength concrete.
High strength concrete is mainly used for elements
in compression, like columns and core walls in high
rise buildings. Other applications are prestressed
beams for bridges.
Because of its high strength, the column size can be
reduced up to 45%, compared to standard concrete.
This gives a number of benefits:
During construction:
Savings in steel & reduced cost /m column
Reduced weight and savings on foundation
For the building:
Thinner columns, more architecturally pleasing
More available floor space
6000
100%
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
B40
B60
B80
Concrete grade
B100
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
90%
5000
generation
super
plasticizer
Holcim recommendation
High strength concrete (60MPa 100MPa)
Strength class: B45-B80 (TCXDVN 356:2005)
or C50/60 C80/95 (EN 206)
Slump : > 180mm
To control the quality of the concrete, the
readymix plant is equipped with:
Moisture probe in sand bin
Automatic dosing system for silica fume
Comprehensive quality management system
The internal laboratory has been assessed and found
conform with requirements of ISO/IEC 17025
55
56
between
concrete
and
steel
Flow
Applications
Self compacting
concrete
660
850mm
No vibration
required during
casting
Very flowable
concrete
450
650mm
Normal concrete
<450mm
Compaction is
required
generation
super
plasticizer
&
segregation
Fig II.12 - L-box and J-ring test for self compacting concrete
Holcim recommendation
Very flowable concrete / self compacting
concrete
Strength class: B25-B45 (TCXDVN
356:2005) as required for the construction
Flow: as required by application +/- 50mm
To control the quality of the concrete,
the readymix plant is equipped with:
Moisture probe in sand bin
Comprehensive quality
management system
The internal Laboratory has been assessed
57
58
Pavement
Base course
Loading
Road
structure
Subbase
Soil
Soil
stabilized
by CDM
or
o 22TCN 333-06
o ASSHTO T180 - ASSHTO T99
2.16
2.14
Dry Density (g/cm3)
59
2.12
2.10
2.08
2.06
2.04
2.02
2.00
Optimal moisture
5%
6%
7%
8%
9%
10%
Moisture
11%
12%
13%
14%
101.6 x 116.4 mm
71 x 142 mm
Ratio of Length to
Diameter (L/D)
Strength Correction
Factor
2.0
1.0
1.75
0.98
1.50
0.96
1.25
0.93
1.00
0.87
Table II.2
Strength
correlation factor
for different
sample size
60
Curing
o The specimens are cured in the moulds in
moisture room for 12h
o The specimens are removed from the moulds
by the extruder
o The specimens are returned to moist room
o At the end of the moistcure period, the
specimens are immersed in water for 4 hours
Unconfined compressive strength is than tested
according to the standard ASTM D1633
o A screw power testing machine, with the
moving head operating at approximately
0.05 in. (1 mm)/min when the machine is
running idle, may be used
o With hydraulic machines, adjust the loading
to a constant rate within the limits of (140
70 kPa/s)
Workability period of cement treated aggregates
o Just like normal concrete, cement treated
aggregates have a workability period, during
which the material has to be transported,
placed, leveled and compacted.
o The workability period will depend strongly
of the type of cement and aggregates, the
mix design and the temperature of the mix.
It can range from 2-3 hours up to 10 hours
and even more.
fs
f
Wpc
4. Optimization of cement
treated aggregates
In South of Vietnam, there are many types of sand
with variable quality so the selection of sand is very
important, as well as the choice of cement that
offers a good compatibility with the selected
aggregate.
To optimise the cement content, laboratory tests are
required at different dosages e.g: 3%, 5% and 7%
(ratio of cement to aggregate on dry weight).
Based on project requirements for a targeted
strength, the optimal cement dosage can be
determined through regression analysis.
Additionally, an in-situ test at the project needs to
be conducted to confirm the laboratory tests with
the real mixing and compaction equipment, before
execution.
After compaction of the layer, a suitable curing layer
(sprayed bitumen + sand) is recommended to:
MPa
61
6.00
5.52
5.00
4.00
2.57
3.00
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.00
1.83
1.19
1.02
3.03
1.43
0.67
3%
3.6%
4%
5%
7 Days
28 Days
7%
Cement dosage
Required strength
Holcim recommendation
For cement treated aggregates, Holcim recommends to use
cement PCB40 according to TCVN 6260:2009 or TCVN 4316:2007.
Before execution of the project, a laboratory study is required to
optimize the mix design:
Determine optimal water content and optimal density of
the mix
Test the compressive strength of at least 3 different cement
dosages
By regression, determine the optimum cement dosage, to
reach the design strength
62
Causes and
prevention of concrete
defects
Chapter III:
A. Segregation of Concrete
Various types of segregation can occur when
concrete is transported, conveyed, poured and
compacted. Segregation impairs the quality and /or
appearance of concrete to varying degrees.
63
64
B. Cracking
Control of Cracking
Why control the cracks in concrete? A fundamental
requirement of any concrete structure is its
performance over its intended design life. Concrete
must be able to withstand wear and deterioration
given the environment and maintenance regime for
which it was designed. If a concrete structure meets
its intended design life when exposed to its
anticipated environment, then it can be described as
being durable.
Cracks Classification
There are many types of cracks in a concrete
structure, but they can be classified into 5 main
types: plastic settlement, plastic shrinkage, early
thermal, drying shrinkage, surface crazing (Fig III.3).
4
9
4
13
10
6
11
5
5
12
1
14
a. Plastic settlement : 4, 5, 6, 13
b. Plastic shrinkage : 1, 2 , 3
c. Early thermal : 11, 12
d. Drying shrinkage : 8
e. Surface crazing : 9, 10
Hours
Days
Plastics Settlement
Plastics Shrinkage
Early thermal
Drying Shrinkage
Fig III.4 Time period of cracking occurrence
B. Cracking
65
Preventive measures
Settlement cracks
Reinforcing
bar
Large aggregate
particles
SECTION A-A
Fig III.5
Plastic
settlement
cracking
direction in
concrete
structure
SECTION A-A
Settlement
cracks
(a)
Differential
settlement
cracks
(b)
66
B. Cracking
Preventive measures
sub
grade
and
B. Cracking
3. Surface Crazing
Preventive measures
67
68
B. Cracking
Preventive measures
Preventive measures
69
ThiTime
gian (nm)
(years)
Preventive measures
70
D. Degradation in seawater
environment
In seawater, concrete can be degraded by two main
attack mechanisms:
Chloride-induced corrosion of the steel
reinforcement
Sulphate attack of the cement matrix
In general, the degradation from chloride-induced
corrosion advances significantly faster than the
sulphate attack of the cement matrix, and is the
biggest threat for concrete structures in contact
with seawater.
For this reason, Ordinary Portland Cement OPC with
a low C3A-content (sulfate resistant OPC according
TCVN 6067 or C150 OPC type V) is not
recommended for seawater environment, as it has a
lower chloride resistance, compared to standard
cement PCB40 (Refer Chapter 4 of ACI 201.2R-01).
1. Chloride-induced corrosion
of the steel reinforcement
Concrete in contact with sea water or close to the
sea can be damaged by attack by the chloride ions in
sea water (Fig III.15). Chloride ions can also be
introduced into concrete by the mixing water, by
contaminated aggregates (for example: marine
aggregates) or chloride-based accelerators (which
are forbidden in most countries).
Concrete carbonation
(distributed corrosion)
Chloride corrosion
(concentrated pitting corrosion)
Fig III.15
Corrosion of
steel
reinforcement in
concrete in sea
water
3. Preventive measures
Refer chapter II.B (Application for aggressive
environment)
71
72
E. Chemical attack
1. Classification
The durability of concrete does not only depend on the mix design but as well on the environment where the
concrete is exposed. An in-depth analysis on the aggressive environment is crucial to guarantee a long life
time of the concrete structure. According to standard EN 206, we can classify three levels of aggression
chemical environment following sign XA1, XA2 and XA3 (Table III.1 - Limiting value for exposure class for
chemical attack from natural soil and ground water)
Chemical
Characteristic
Reference
test method
XA1
XA2
XA3
SO4 -2 (mg/l)
EN 196-2
pH
ISO 4316
CO2
(mg/l aggressive)
Pr EN 13577 :
1999
> 15 and 40
> 100 up to
saturation
NH4 (mg/l)
ISO 7150-1 or
ISO 7150-2
Mg (mg/l)
ISO 7980
> 3000 up to
saturation
EN 196-2
2000 and
Acidity (ml/kg)
DIN 4030-2
Ground water
Soil
3000(*)
XA1 : Slightly aggressive chemical environment; XA2 : Moderately aggressive chemical environment
XA3 : Highly aggressive chemical environment
(*) : The 3000mg/kg limit shall be reduced to 2000mg/kg, where there is a risk of accumulation of sulfate ions in the
concrete due to drying and wetting cycles or capillary section
Table III.1 - Limiting value for exposure class for chemical attack from natural soil and ground water
according to standard EN-206 (attack from seawater is discussed separately)
acid attack
E. Chemical attack
73
2. Preventive measures
Protecting concrete from external chemical attack
requires a dense concrete:
Suitable cement choice
Low porosity, with a maximum w/c ratio
For external chemical attack, blended cements offer
significant benefits over Ordinary Portland Cement
OPC, as the blending materials (for example slag) will
reduce the pore size of the concrete and improve the
resistance to chemical attack.
If attack by dissolved sulfates is expected, these
measures must be combined with the use of cement
with high sulfate resistance.
Additional measures include:
Increased concrete cover over reinforcement
(sacrificial layer)
Special attention to curing
Concrete is relatively resistant to weak acids (XA1) only.
Moderately strong acids and strong acids can attack
concrete to the point of unserviceableness. In case of
strong acids or when no degradation is allowed,
additional acid-resistant coating (synthetic resin,
ceramic, etc.) should be considered by the designer.
Fig III.18
Prefabricated
jacking pipe
elements for
waste water
tunnel
74
Fig III.19
Heavy cracking
due to swelling
of concrete
caused by
alkali-aggregate
reaction
Preventive measures
Use a cement with low alkali content (%
Na2O eq = % (Na2O + 0.658xK2O) < 0.6%)
Determination of the potential reaction of
these aggregate, through various tests
(chapter I). This should be done extensively
for different layers of the quarry, used at
the project.
G. Fire Resistance
1. Concrete in fire
Concrete has a high resistance against fire. Even
when exposed to extremely high temperatures,
concrete emits no smoke or toxic gases. Rather,
concrete prevents fire from spreading. When fire
impacts concrete, the temperature of the concrete
increases slowly. Therefore concrete offers excellent
protection against the spread of fire, without
requiring any fire-resistance treatment. Only after
long and intensive exposure to fire, portions of the
concrete may delaminate or spall off (Fig III.20).
2. Preventive measures
Concrete offers excellent intrinsic protection against
fire and high temperatures.
In most buildings, no additional precautions or
coatings are required to resist fire.
In specific cases, the protection can be enhanced by
increasing the reinforcement cover.
Critical temperature:
Reinforced and non-reinforced concrete can
withstand temperatures up to 300C without
damage. This critical temperature of concrete is
reached only very slowly with exposure to fire.
Studies show that it takes one hour for the critical
temperature of 300C to penetrate 2 cm into the
concrete when the surface is exposed to a flame
temperature of 1000C (Fig III.21). This temperature
roughly corresponds to that of a blazing wood fire or
gas flame. Under these test conditions, the critical
temperature reaches a depth of 5 cm after 2 hours.
75
76
Overview of cement
and concrete standards
Chapter IV:
To understand quickly the requirements of each standard, this chapter gives an overview of the main
referenced standards in this manual. For the complete details of each standard, please refer to the official
standard itself.
As worldwide there are many standards available, this overview only lists the standards that are currently
used in Vietnam.
A. Cement
VIETNAMESE STANDARDS TCVN
Portland Blended Cement Specifications
TCVN 6260 : 2009
Portland Cement Specifications
TCVN 2682 : 2009
Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement
TCVN 4316 : 2007
Sulfate Resistant Portland Cement
TCVN 6067 : 2004
Sulfate Resistant Blended Portland Cement
TCVN 7711 : 2007
Low Heat Blended Portland Cement
TCVN 7712 : 2007
B. Concrete
VIETNAMESE STANDARDS TCVN
TCXDVN 374:2006
AMERICAN STANDARDS ASTM
ASTM C94
EUROPEAN STANDARDS EN
EN 206-1:2000
BRITISH STANDARDS BS
BS 5328
C. Recommendation for
limiting values of concrete
composition
A. Cement
77
2. Classification
Portland blended cement consists of 3 grades:
PCB30, PCB40 and PCB50 with
PCB is defined sign of portland blended cement
30, 40 and 50 is the minimum compressive
strength of standard mortar sample at 28 days in
MPa, testing method complies with TCVN 6016 :
1995 (ISO 679 : 1989)
3. Physical Specification
No
1
Characteristics
Compressive Strength
- 3 days
- 28 days
Setting time
- Initial set
Unit
Requirement
Test Method
PCB30
PCB40
PCB50
MPa
min
min
TCVN 6016:1995
14
30
18
40
22
50
minute
- Final set
Fineness
- Retained content on
sieve 0.09mm
- Specific surface - Blaine
Soundness
(1)
min
max
45
TCVN 6017:1995
420
max
(cm2/g)
min
mm
max
TCVN 6017:1995
10
max
TCVN 7711:2007
0.8
Unit
Requirement
Test Method
10
TCVN 4030:2003
2800
4. Chemical Specification
No
Characteristics
PCB30
PCB40
max
1.0
- Mineral additives
Content
- Filler Content (in
mineral additives)
%
%
max
max
40
20
max
TCVN 141:2008
5.0
SO3 content
max
TCVN 141:2008
3.5
PCB50
78
2. Classification
Portland cement consists of 3 grades: PC30, PC40
and PC50 with
PC is defined sign of portland cement
30, 40 and 50 is the minimum compressive
strength of standard mortar sample at 28 days in
MPa, testing method complies with TCVN 6016 :
1995 (ISO 679 : 1989)
3. Physical Specification
No
Characteristics
Unit
Requirement
Test Method
PC30
PC40
PC50
MPa
min
min
TCVN 6016:1995
16
30
21
40
25
50
Compressive Strength
- 3 days
- 28 days
Setting time
- Initial set
- Final set
minute
min
max
TCVN 6017:1995
45
375
Fineness
- Retained content on
sieve 0.09mm
- Specific surface - Blaine
%
(cm2/g)
max
min
TCVN 4030:2003
10
2800
Soundness (mm)
mm
max
TCVN 6017:1995
10
Unit
Requirement
Test Method
4. Chemical Specification
No
Characteristics
PC30
PC40
max
1.0
SO3 content
max
TCVN 141:2008
3.5
MgO Content
max
TCVN 141:2008
5.0
Loss of ignition
max
TCVN 141:2008
3.0
Insoluble rest
max
TCVN 141:2008
1.5
Alkali content
%Na2O eq = %Na2O +
0.658%K2O
max
TCVN 141:2008
0.6
(1)
(1)
Define for Portland Cement when using with aggregate which may cause alkali-silica reaction
PC50
79
2. Classification
Portland blast furnace slag cement is classified into
2 types:
Type I: slag content is from 40 % to 60% - signed
PCBBFSI
Type II: slag content is from 60 % to 70% - signed
PCBBFSII
3. Physical Specification
Type I
No
Characteristics
Unit
Requirement
Test
Method
Compressive
Strength
- 3 days
- 28 days
MPa
min
min
TCVN
6016:1995
Setting time
- Initial
- Final
minute
min
max
TCVN
6017:1995
45
10
Fineness
- Specific
surface -Blaine
(cm2/g)
min
TCVN
4030:2003
3300
Soundness
mm
max
TCVN
6017:1995
10
PCBBFS
30
14
30
PCBBFS
40
PCBBFS
50
PCBBFS
30
18
40
22
50
12
30
Type II
PCBBFS PCBBFS
40
50
16
40
4. Chemical Specification
No
Characteristics
Unit
Requirement
Test Method
PCBBFS
SO3 content
max
TCVN 141:2008
3.5
MgO Content
max
TCVN 141:2008
6.0
Loss of ignition
max
TCVN 141:2008
3.0
20
50
80
3. Physical Specification
No
2. Classification
Portland cement consists of 3 grades: PCSR30, PCSR40
and PCSR50 with
Characteristics
Unit
Requirement
Test Method
PCSR30
PCSR40
PCSR50
Compressive Strength
- 3 days
- 28 days
MPa
min
min
TCVN 6016:1995
12
30
16
40
20
50
Setting time
- Initial set
- Final set
minute
min
max
TCVN 6017:1995
Fineness
- Retained content on sieve
0.08mm
- Specific surface - Blaine
%
(cm2/g)
max
min
TCVN 4030:2003
Soundness
mm
max
TCVN 6017:1995
10
max
TCVN 6068:2004
0.04(1)
45
375
12
2800
10
3000
8
3200
4. Chemical Specification
No
Characteristics
Unit
Requirement
Test Method
PCSR30
PCSR40
SO3 content
max
TCVN 141:2008
2.5
MgO Content
max
TCVN 141:2008
Loss of ignition
max
TCVN 141:2008
C3A content
max
see Note 1
3.5 (2)
max
see Note 2
25
Alkali content
%Na2O eq = %Na2O +
0.658%K2O
max
TCVN 141:2008
(2)
0.6
Residue insoluble
max
TCVN 141:2008
BaO content
max
TCVN 141:2008
PCSR50
81
1. Composition
Sulfate resistant blended portland cement is
produced by grinding portland cement clinker with a
necessary gypsum content and:
2. Classification
Sulfate resistant blended portland cement is
classified into 2 types: PCBMSR30, PCBMSR40, PCBMSR50,
PCBHSR30, PCBHSR40, PCBHSR50.
3. Physical Specification
Level
No
Characteristics
Compressive Strength
- 3 days
- 28 days
Setting time
- Initial set
- Final set
Fineness
- Retained content on
sieve 0.08mm
- Specific surface-Blaine
Unit
Requirement
Test
Method
MPa
min
min
TCVN
6016:1995
minute
min
max
TCVN
6017:1995
max
cm2/g
min
Sulfate durability
(Defined by the
expansion of mortar
bar in sulfate
solution):
PCBMSR
PCBHSR
30
40
50
30
40
50
18
30
20
40
22
50
16
30
18
40
20
50
45
375
10
TCVN
4030 :2003
2800
TCVN
7713 :2007
- 6 months
- 12 months
max
max
0.10
-
0.05
0.10
The expansion of
mortar bar in water
after 14 days
max
TCVN
6068 :2004
0.02
The expansion by
autoclave method
max
TCVN
7711 :2007
0.8
82
1. Composition
Low heat blended portland cement is produced by
grinding portland clinker with a necessary gypsum
content and:
Blast furnace slag
(comply with TCVN 4315 : 2007)
Other mineral additives
(comply with TCVN 6882 : 2001)
2. Classification
Low heat blended portland cement is classified into
2 types: PCBMH, PCBLH
PCBMH is defined sign of moderate heat of
hydration blended portland cement, it consists:
PCBMH30, PCBMH40
PCBLH is defined sign of Low heat of hydration
blended portland cement, it consists: PCBLH30,
PCBLH40
30 and 40 is the minimum compressive strength
of standard mortar sample at 28 days in MPa
(testing method complies with TCVN 6016)
3. Physical Specification
Level
No
Characteristics
Unit
Requirement
Test method
30
Heat of hydration
- 7 days
- 28 days
Compressive strength
-7 days
-28 days
Setting time
- Initial set
- Final set
kJ/kg
(cal/g)
max
max
TCVN
6070:2005
MPa
min
min
TCVN
6016:1995
minute
min
max
TCVN
6017:1995
Fineness
- Retained content on
sieve 0.08mm
max
- Specific surface-Blaine
cm2/g
min
max
The expansion by
autoclave method
TCVN
4030 :2003
Low heat
PCBLH
Moderate heat
PCBMH
40
30
290 (70)
335 (80)
18
30
250 (60)
290 (70)
24
40
18
30
45
375
10
2800
TCVN
7711 :2007
40
0.8
24
40
83
1. Composition
Blended hydraulic cement a hydraulic cement consisting of two or more inorganic ingredients which
contribute to the strength-gaining properties of the cement, which or without other ingredients, processing
additions, and functional additions
2. Classification
No
Type of Cement
Type GU
Type HE
Type MS
Type HS
Type MH
Type LH
3. Physical Specification
No
Cement type
Unit
Requirement
Test methods
GU
HE
MPa
min
ASTM C109/
C109M
13
10
20
MS
HS
MH
LH
11
11
290
250
0.05
Strength range
1
- 1 day
- 3 days
- 7 days
2
3
- 28 days
Autoclave length
change
Time of setting,
Vicat test
- Initial
28
%
max
ASTM C151
minute
min
max
ASTM C191
max
ASTM C186
max
ASTM C1038
- Initial
Heat of hydration
- 7 days
5
6
- 28 days
Mortar bar
expansion 14 days
Sulfate expansion
(sulfate resistant)
- 6 months
- 1 year
- : Not required
kJ/kg
max
max
11
11
25
18
18
5
-
21
0.8
45
420
max
17
ASTM C1012
290
0.02
0.1
-
0.1
84
Type of cement
Type I
For use when the special properties specified for any other type are not required
Type II
Type III
Type IV
Type V
When air-entraining is desired, cement type IA, IIA and IIIA are specified
2. Physical specification
No
Characteristics
Air content of mortar,
volume
Fineness, specific surface
Unit
Requirement
Test methods
II
III
IV
max
ASTM C185
12
12
12
12
12
150
150
150
150
min
m /kg
2
min
- Turbidiameter test
max
min
245
ASTM C204
Autoclave expansion
Compressive strength
MPa
max
- 7 days
ASTM C151
- 28 days
260
260
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.8
12
12
10
24
19
17
15
17
21
45
45
45
45
45
375
375
375
375
375
minute
- Vicat test
- Time of setting
min
- Time of setting
max
- : Not required
260
430
ASTM
C109/C109M
- 3 days
Time of setting
260
max
- 1 day
4
ASTM C115
ASTM C191
85
3. Chemical specification
No
Characteristics
Unit
Requirement
Test methods
II
III
IV
max
ASTM C114
6.0
max
ASTM C114
6.0
6.5
max
ASTM C114
max
ASTM C563
6.0
3.0
3.0
3.5
2.3
2.3
3.5
4.5
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.5
3.0
Loss on ignition
max
ASTM C114
Insoluble residue
max
ASTM C114
max
ASTM C114
35
min
ASTM C114
40
max
ASTM C114
15
10
(C4AF+2(C3A))content or
(C4AF+C2F), as applicable
max
ASTM C114
25
0.75
86
EUROPEAN STANDARD EN
COMPOSITION, SPECIFICATIONS AND CONFORMITY CRITERIA
FOR COMMON CEMENTS
EN 197-1: 2011 (Old version EN 197-1:2000)
2. Classification:
Standard strength :
1. Composition
Depend on type of cement, which cement comply
with EN standard can consist of different main
constituents as:
Portland cement clinker
Blast furnace slag
Pozzolan
Fly ash
Burnt shale
Limestone
Silica fume
Beside the minor additional constituents can be
used to improve the physical properties of the
cement.
3. Physical Specification
No
Characteristics
Early strength
(MPa)
1
Standard
strength (MPa)
Test
methods
Cement
Type (1)
2
days
7
days
EN 196-1
All
28
days
Requirements
Strength class
32.5N
32.5R
32.5L*
42.5N
42.5R
42.5L*
52.5N
52.5R
52.5L*
10.0
10.0
20.0
20.0
30.0
10.0
16.0
12.0
16.0
32.5
42.5
52.5
52.5
62.5
EN 196-3
All
Soundness /Expansion
(mm)
EN 196-3
All
10
LH
270
Heat of hydration(J/g)
EN 196-8
at 7 days
EN 196-9
at 41 h
75
45
(1): Types of cement were given below about the composition of each of the 27 products in the family of common cements
(*): Strength class only defined for CEM III cements.
87
4. Chemical Specification
No
Characteristics
Test reference
Cement
type
Requirements
Strength class
32.5N
32.5R
42.5N
42.5R
Loss on ignition
(% by mass)
EN 196-2
CEM I
CEM III
5%
Insoluble residue
(% by mass)
EN 196-2
CEM I
CEM III
5%
4
5
Sulfate content
(as %SO3 by mass)
Chloride content
(% by mass)
Pozzolanicity
EN 196-2
CEM I
CEM II (1)
CEM IV
CEM V
3.5%
52.5N
52.5R
4.0%
4.0%
EN 196-2
All (3)
0.1% (4)
EN 196-5
CEM IV
Cement type CEM II/B-T may containt up to 4.5 % sulfate for all strength classes.
Cement type CEM III/C may containt up to 4.5% sulfate.
(3)
Cement type CEM III may containt more than 0.1 % chloride but in that case the maximum chloride content
shall be stated on the packaging and/or the delivery note.
(4)
For pre-stressing applications cements may be produced according to a lower requirement. If so, the value
of 0.1% shall be replaced by this lower value which shall be stated in the delivery note.
(1)
(2)
CEM I
Main types
Main constituents
(types of common cement)
Portland
cement
Portland-slag
cement
Portlandsilicafume
cement
CEM II
Portlandpozzolana
cement
Portland-fly
ash cement
Portland
-burnt shale
cement
Portland
limestone
cement
CEM III
Blast furnace
cement
CEM IV
Portlandcomposite
cement (c)
Pozzolanic
cement (c)
Composite
cement (c)
Clinker
Slag
Silica
fume
Pozzolana
(b)
Natural
Natural
calcined
Fly ash
Burnt shale
Limestone
Siliceous Calcareous
Minor additional
constituents
CEM V
88
DM
LL
CEM I
95-100
0-5
CEM II/A-S
80-94
6-20
0-5
CEM II/B-S
65-79
21-35
0-5
CEM II/A-D
90-94
6-10
0-5
CEM II/A-P
8 -94
6-20
0-5
CEM II/B-P
65-79
21-35
0-5
CEM II/A-Q
80-94
6-20
0-5
CEM II/B-Q
65-79
21-35
0-5
CEM II/A-V
80-94
6-20
0-5
CEM II/B-V
65-79
21-35
0-5
CEM II/A-W
80-94
6-20
0-5
CEM II/B-W
65-79
21-35
0-5
CEM II/A-T
80-94
6-20
0-5
CEM II/B-T
65-79
21-35
0-5
CEM II/A-L
80-94
6-20
0-5
CEM II/B-L
65-79
21-35
0-5
CEM II/A-LL
80-94
6-20
0-5
CEM II/B-LL
65-79
21-35
0-5
CEM II/A-M
80-88
0-5
CEM II/B-M
65-79
0-5
CEM III/A
35-64
36-65
0-5
CEM III/B
20-34
66-80
0-5
CEM III/C
5-19
81-95
0-5
CEM IV/A
65-89
0-5
CEM IV/B
45-64
0-5
CEM V/A
40-64
18-30
0-5
CEM V/B
20-38
31-50
0-5
:The values in the table refer to the sum of the main and minor additional constituents.
:The proportion of silica fume is limited to 10 %
(c)
:In portland-composite cement CEM II/A-M and CEM II/B-M, in pozzolanic cement CEM IV/A and CEM IV/B and in composite cements CEM
V/A and CEM V/B the main constituents other than clinker shall be declared by designation of the cement.
(a)
(b)
B. Concrete
89
Plasticity (mm)
Vebe (second)
TCVN 3107 : 1993
> 50
Dry concrete
C4
31-50
C3
21-30
C2
11-20
C1
5-10
Plastic concrete
D1
10-40
D2
50-90
D3
100-150
D4
160-220
260-400
Upper limit
SC
- 20 seconds
C4
- 15 seconds
+ 10 seconds
C3 C1
- 10 seconds
+ 5 seconds
D1 D2
- 10mm
+ 20mm
D3 D4
- 20mm
+ 30mm
90
Average compressive
strength of standard
sample, MPa
Grade of
concrete
Class of
concrete
Average compressive
strength of standard
sample, MPa
Grade of
concrete
B3.5
B5
B7.5
B10
B12.5
B15
B20
B22.5
B25
B27.5
B30
4.50
6.42
9.63
12.84
16.05
19.27
25.69
28.90
32.11
35.32
38.53
M50
M75
M100
M150
M150
M200
M250
M300
M350
M350
M400
B35
B40
B45
B50
B55
B60
B65
B70
B75
B80
44.95
51.37
57.80
64.22
70.64
77.06
83.48
89.90
96.33
102.75
M450
M500
M600
M700
M700
M800
M900
M900
M1000
M1000
3. Assessment
Concrete which is considered to meet the required grade of concrete (M) must satisfy 2 below conditions:
The mean compressive strength of one set (3 samples) is not less than designed grade of concrete
Strength of each sample in set is not less than 85% designed grade of concrete
Concrete which is considered to meet the required class of concrete (B) must satisfy 2 below conditions
at once:
With the initial period or without standard deviation:
- The mean compressive strength of one set (3 samples) is not less than 1.3 times designed
class of concrete (MPa)
- Strength of each sample in set is not less than 1.1 times designed class of concrete (MPa)
B
MPa
1 - 1,64v
B
MPa
1 - 1,64v
Plus tolerance
Minus tolerance
40mm
65mm
Tolerance
+/- 15 mm
+/- 25 mm
+/- 40 mm
Greater than 35
fcr = f c + 1.34s
f cr = 0.90f c + 2.33s
(*)
(***)
With:
f c = the specified compressive strength
f cr = the required average compressive strength
s = the standard deviation
(*): Formula to achieve the satisfactory average of three consecutive strength tests.
(**), (***): Formulas for the minimum strength test result of an individual strength test (average of two
cylinders test) result.
91
92
B. When a new mix design or strength level and no standard deviation data is available. Required average
strength for mix design
Specified strength
f c, MPa
Less than 21
f cr = f c + 7
21 to 35
fcr = f c + 8.5
Greater than 35
fcr = 1.1f c + 5
3.5
5.0
6.0
7.5
No SD data
unknown
35
49
62
71
85
100
110
130
fc + 7
29.5
43.5
60.0
71.0
87.5
105.0
115.0
137.0
26
40
55
65
80
95
105
125
29
43
57
67
82
97
107
127
32
46
59
68
83
98
108
128
Bold numbers identify levels of specified strength where the standard deviation should be considered
unusual or inappropriate.
2. Strength assessment (ASTM C94)
Assess compressive strength
The average of 3 consecutive strength tests shall be equal to or greater than specific strength f 'c
- If f 'c < 35 MPa: individual strength test ( average of two cylinder tests) f'c-3.5(MPa)
- If f 'c > 35 MPa: individual strength test (average of two cylinder tests) 0.9f 'c
93
Test methods
Requirement
Slump
EN 12350-2
10 mm and 210mm
Vebe
EN 12350-3
Degree of compactability
EN 12350-4
Flow table
EN 12350-5
Table 1:
Slump classes
Table 2:
Vebe classes
Table 3:
Compaction classes
Table 4:
Flow diameter in mm
Class
Flow diameter
in mm
Class
Slump in mm
Class
Vebe time in
seconds
Class
Degree of
compactability
F1
340
S1
10 to 40
V0
31
C0
1.46
F2
350 to 410
S2
50 to 90
V1
30 to 21
C1
1.45 to 1.26
F3
420 to 480
S3
100 to 150
V2
20 to 11
C2
1.25 to 1.11
F4
490 to 550
S4
160 to 210
V3
10 to 6
C3
1.10 to 1.04
F5
560 to 620
S5
220
V4
5 to 3
F6
630
The consistence may be specified either by reference to a consistence class according to table 1, 2,3 and 4 or,
in special cases, by a target value. For target values, the related tolerances are given in table 5.
Table 5: Tolerances for target values of consistence
Slump
Target value in mm
40
50 to 90
100
Tolerance in mm
10
20
30
11
10 to 6
Tolerance in sec
Target value
1.26
1.25 to 1.11
1.10
Tolerance
0.10
0.08
0.05
Vebe time
Flow diameter
Target value in mm
Tolerance in mm
All values
30
94
C8/10
10
C12/15
12
15
C16/20
16
20
C20/25
20
25
C25/30
25
30
C30/37
30
37
C35/45
35
45
C40/50
40
50
C45/55
45
55
C50/60
50
60
C55/67
55
67
C60/75
60
75
C70/85
70
85
C80/95
80
95
C90/105
90
105
C100/115
100
115
Strength assessment
Assess compressive strength
- Criteria 1 (rolling average)
:
favg fck + 4
- Criteria 2: (individual sample) :
f fck - 4
With:
fck: specific strength of concrete.
favg: The average strength of all valid samples.
f: Any individual test result.
95
From December 2003, the standards BS-EN 206-1 and BS 8500 replace the BS 5328 series of standards.
However, some projects in Vietnam still refer to BS 5328, to specify concrete.
I. Workability
Guidance on the workability appropriate to different uses
Workability suitable for different uses of concrete
Use of concrete
Form of compaction
Heavy vibration
Workability
Very low
See NOTE 1
Low
50
Medium
75
High
125
Very high
See NOTE 2
Tamping
Strip footings
Mass concrete foundations
Blinding
Normal reinforced concrete in slabs,
Poker or beam vibration
beam, walls and columns
and/ or tamping
Sliding formwork construction
Pumped concrete
Vacuum processed concrete
Domestic general purpose concrete
Trench fill
In situ piling
Self-weight compaction
Poker
Diaphragm walling
self-levelling super plasticized
concrete
Self-levelling
(1) Cohesive mixes may give adequate place ability at lower values of slump than those given here.
NOTE 1. In the "very low" category of workability where strict control is necessary, e.g. pavement quality
concrete placed by "trains", measurement of workability by determination of compacting factor or Vebe
time (see BS 1881:parts 103 and 104) will be more appropriate than slump.
NOTE2. In the "very high" category of workability, measurement and control of workability by
determination of flow is appropriate (see BS 1881: part 105).
96
C7.5
7.5
C10
10
C15
15
C20
20
C25
25
C30
30
C35
35
C40
40
C45
45
C50
50
C55
55
C60
60
Strength assessment
Assess compressive strength
Criteria 1
Criteria 2
Average strength of
samples,
favg (MPa)
C20 to above
First 2 samples
First 3 samples
Any 4 consecutive
samples
favg fck + 1
favg fck + 2
favg fck + 3
f fck - 3
f fck - 3
f fck - 3
C7.5 to C15
First 2 samples
First 3 samples
Any 4 consecutive
samples
favg fck
favg fck + 1
favg fck + 2
f fck - 2
f fck - 2
f fck - 2
Specified grade
Group of samples
Maximum w/c
Minimum Strength Class
Minimum cement
content (kg/m3)
XS1
XS2
XS3
0.50
0.45
0.45
C30/37
C35/45
C35/45
300
320
340
XS1 - Exposure to airborne salt but not in direct contact with sea water
XS2 - Permanently submerged
XS3 - Tidal, splash and spray zones
Maximum w/c
Minimum Strength Class
Minimum cement
content (kg/m3)
XA1
XA2
XA3
0.55
0.50
0.45
C30/37
C35/45
C35/45
300
320
360
Other requirements
Sulfate-resisting cement *
97
98
Reference
A. Components of concrete:
Cement
Specific requirement
Cement Type
Vietnamese standard
American Standard
European Standard
Portland Cement
ASTM C150
EN 197
ASTM C1157
EN 197
ASTM C150
BS 4027
TCVN 7711:2007
ASTM C1157
EN 197
ASTM C1157
EN 197
Characteristic
Vietnamese Standard
American Standard
European Standard
Compressive strength
TCVN 6016:1995
ASTM C109
EN 196-1
Setting time
TCVN 6017:1995
ASTM C191
EN 196-3
Fineness
TCVN 4030:2003
ASTM C115
ASTM C204
Soundness
TCVN 6017:1995
Autoclave expansion
TCVN 7711:2007
EN 196-3
ASTM C151
ASTM C1012
ASTM C1038
Heat of hydration
ASTM C186
EN 196-8
EN 196-9
Chemical analysis
ASTM C114
EN 196-2
Vietnamese Standard
American Standard
Grading
TCVN 7572-2:2006
ASTM C136
Organic impurities
ASTM C40
ASTM C117
TCVN 7275-14:2006
ASTM C227
ASTM C289
ASTM C1260
Grading
TCVN 7572-2:2006
ASTM C136
Specific gravity
TCVN 7572-4:2006
ASTM C127
TCVN 7572-6:2006
ASTM C29
TCVN 7572-13:2006
Water
Specific requirement: TCXDVN 302:2004, ASTM C1602
Admixture
Specific requirement: TCVN 8826:2011, ASTM C494
Aggregate
Specific requirement: TCVN 7570: 2006, ASTM C33
Test methods
Characteristic
Fine aggregate
Coarse aggregate
Reference
99
B. Concrete
Specification for ready-mix concrete: TCXDVN 374:2006, ASTM C94, EN 206-1:2000
Test Methods
Characteristic
Vietnamese Standard
American Standard
European Standard
Slump
TCVN 3106:1993
ASTM C143
EN 12350-2
Slump flow
ASTM C1611
EN 12350-8
Vebe Test
TCVN 3107:1993
ASTM C1170
EN 12350-3
Density
TCVN 3108:1993
ASTM C138
EN 12350-6
Air content
TCVN 3111:1993
ASTM C231
Setting time
ASTM C403
TCVN 3105:1993
ASTM C31
EN 12390-2
Compressive strength
TCVN 3118:1993
ASTM C39
EN 12390-3
Bleeding
TCVN 3109:1993
ASTM C232
Permeability to water
TCVN 3116:1993
Permeability to Chlorides
TCXDVN 306:2005
ASTM C1202
Fresh concrete
Hardened concrete
TCXDVN 306:2005
BS 8110
Vietnamese Standard
American Standard
European Standard
22 TCN 333-06
ASSHTO T180
ASSHTO T99
22 TCN 246
ASTM D1632
ASTM D55
Workability period
EN 13286-45
Unconfined strength
ASTM D1633
100
Reference
E. Source of figures
Figure number
Source
Figure: Fig I.1, Fig I.2, Fig I.3, Fig I.5, Fig I.6, Fig I.7, Fig I.9, Fig I.11, Fig I.12, Fig I.13,
Fig I.15, Fig I.16, Fig I.21, Fig I.22, Fig I.23, Fig I.24, Fig I.25, Fig I.26, Fig I.27, Fig I.30,
Fig I.31, Fig I.32, Fig I.33, Fig I.34, Fig I.35, Fig I.36, Fig I.37, Fig I.38, Fig I.39, Fig I.40,
Fig I.41, Fig I.42, Fig I.43,Fig I.44, Fig I.45, Fig I.46, Fig I.47, Fig I.48, Fig I.49, Fig I.50,
Fig I.51, Fig I.52, Fig I.53, Fig I.55, Fig I.56, Fig I.58, Fig I.60, Fig I.61, Fig I.62, Fig II.1,
Fig II.2, Fig II.3, Fig II.4, Fig II.5, Fig II.6, Fig II.7, Fig II.8, Fig II.9, Fig II.10, Fig II.11, Fig II.12,
Fig II.13, Fig II.14, Fig II.15, Fig II.16, Fig II.17, Fig II.18, Fig II.19, Fig II.20, Fig II.21, Fig II.22,
Fig II.23, Fig III.1, Fig III.3, Fig III.4, Fig III.5, Fig III.6, Fig III.7, Fig III.8, Fig III.9, Fig III.10,
Fig III.11, Fig III.14, Fig III.15, Fig III.16, Fig III.18
Holcim Vietnam
Fig I.4, Fig I.8, Fig I.10, Fig I.65, Fig III.17
Holcim Swiss
Fig I.14, Fig I.17, Fig I.18, Fig I.19, Fig I.20, Fig I.28, Fig I.29, Fig I.63, Fig I.64, Fig I.66, Fig
I.67, Fig I.68, Fig I.69, Fig I.70, Fig I.71, Fig I.72, Fig I.73, Fig I.74, Fig III.2, Fig III.12, Fig
III.13, Fig III.20, Fig III.21
Antoine Carnot
Lubica Pistanska
101
102