-/-

1,1

THE IMPORTANCE OF HAVING ATRANSPORT SYSTEM IN SOME

MU LTICELLU LAR ORGANISMS
Learning Outcornes:
o Identify the problems that could be faced by multicellular organisms in obtaining
their cellular requirements and getting rid of thejr waste products
o Suggest how these problems are overcome in multicellular organisms

Problems Faced by Multicellular Organisms in Obtaining Their Cellular Requirements

and Removing Their Waste Products

1. Big size - the total surface area to volume

2.Cells are often

(TSA/V ) is d.9.e.1.9.?.f.9........

far away from the external

Rate of diffusion of substances

inio and out

19.S9.tS.-d.

sudace of the body

of all body cells is 1.9.S.......

How multicellular organism overcome these problem?

1. Have sreg:.*1i:S.$..... structure to increase the s.Y.ff.9.9.9....... a.t9.9.... for the exchange of
respiration gases

2. Have t.r.-q.l$RSftsystem to get gases respiration in and out of tissue

and

to take excretory

waste/ urea from ihe liver to the kidney and skin

3. Have d.i.frQ..ty.gsystem to bring in food from surroundings into alimentary canal, digest and
absorb into small intestine. Digested food are then transported to the body cells through
blood and lymphatic system.

Unicellular organisms {Eg. Amoeba sp and Pararnecium sp)

'1, Have small size - the TSfuV is ni.9. Exchange of substances between organism ar
surrounding occurs easily

2. Body cells is directly in contact with surroundings. No need specific organ for gas
exchange.
3. Transpori system not required as gases exchange can takes place by plasma

membrane. Excretory waste are directly eliminated from cells to the surroundings
through the cell membrane

4.

Does not need digestive system because food is directly taken in from surrounding
through plasma membrane by pht-9.9SJt-o.-.'S..., then digested by intracellular enzyme
in food vacuole

zllea-sr'*.

Sarnple Question 2 PaPer 3

The fate of gxqhqnge of SUbEtances in an organigm depends on the sr;face area that is
in contict with the surroundings. However, the amount of substances the organism
requires also depends on the volume of organism, The ability to meet these
iqqqlrgmqnts depends an the tqta! surtuce area tA vglume ratig.

the above statement, design a laboratory experiment to investigate the effect of

total suface area to volume ratio on the rate of diffusion of substances.
Base on

of

Objective

To investigate the effect of total sudace area to volume ratio on the rate of
diffusion of subtances.

Problem

What is the effect of total surface area to volume (TSA/V) ratio on the rate of
diffu sion of substances?

Statement

Hypothesis

The larger the total surface area to volume ratio, the higher the rate of diffi]sion
of substances.

Variables

MV: size of potato cubes /total surface area to volume raUo (of the potato cube)

rd

RV: rate of diffrrsion

percentage of coloured area

FV: time taken/ volume/concentration of coloured water

lsm aI

zyme

Material &
Apparatus

Potatoes, cslored solution/liquid //red inV filter paper

Beaker, white tile, knife, ruler and grid (transparency)lgraph paper, stop watch

Teehnique

Measure and record area stain with colored solution by using grid
(transparen cy) lt calculate and record the rate of diffusion by using formula
Rate of diffrrsion = prcohge of colored area/ time taken(o/o min-1)

r
1"

Procedure

1.

Cut the potatoes into cubes with side 1cm, 2cm and 4cm respectively.

2. Immerse the three potato cubes into the beaker, of colored liquid for 30

minutes.

the potato cubes from the beaker, the outer

surface of the cubes are dried with filter paper
4, Cut each potato cube into half
5. The colored area in each cube is estimated by using grid (transparency)
6. The percentage of eoloured area and the rate of diffi-tsion of each cube is
calculated and the results are recorded in the table.
3. After 30 minutes, remove

C[r

Result
Size

of
cubes
(cm)

Total
surface
area

Volume
(cmt)

(c*')

Total
surface
area I
volume

Percentage
of colored
area (o/o)

Rate of
diffusion
(% min-l)

(cm-1)
1

Conclusion

ExCreise

The larger the total surface area to volume raUo, the higher the rate of diffusion
of substances

{ (Rclating size to TSAM

Examine cuboid A and B. Calculate the TSAIV of both cuboids.

Assurne that the euboids ere two organisms. Whieh oFgaRisms

obtain their cellular requirement (O2 and nutrient) and removing

their waste produets {COzand urea) easily? Why?

Answer

m'

m;

LI

(r

1.2

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Learning Outcomes:
State what a circulatory system is
State the three components of the circulatory system in human and animals
State the medium of transport in humans and animals
State the composition of human blood
Explain the function of blood and haemolymph in transport
Describe the structure of human blood vessels
Explain how blood is propelled through the human circulatory system
Explain briefly how blood pressure is regulated
Compare and contrast the circulatory system in the following: human, fish
and amphibians
Conceptualise the circulatory system in human

o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Circulatory System in Humans and Animals

1.

Tlle circulatory system helps organism in:

a) delivering n.:*.fi9.S.{.. and oxJ9.311...... to cells

,b) carrying .9.9*..... andw.9ft9... p.f9SY9..+.f.. away from the cells
c) protecting the body from infections

2.

The circulatory system includes three components:

Components of circulatory system

a) Medium of transport/ BL?.9.9...

1'

A.'ti.r.tglf ..

blood

lnvertebrates

h.e.::l3.llPf.h.

Functions as a
c.sPi*31i.?.*

It creates the

(plasma, blood
V= 54
27

cells and

m.Y.f.e.}J.9l. p..Y.$P

aodatubular heart

p.t.9.:LT.19... that

forces the b.l.?3-d...

platelets)

through the blood

vessels throughout

haemolymph

the whole body of

the organism.

6l@EK

1.2

;l

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Learning Outcomes:
State what a circulatory system is
State the three components ol the circulatory system in human and animals
State the medium of transport in humans and animals
State the composition of human blood
Explain the function of blood and haemolymph in transport
Describe the structure of human blood vessels
Explain hbw blood is propelled through the human circulatory system
Explain briefly how blood pressure is regulated
Compare and contrast the circulatory system in the following: human, fish
and amphibians
Conceptualise the circulatory system in human

o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

":l
*''
l

Circulatory System in Humans and Animals

i

1.

Ttle circulatory system helps organism in:

a) delivering n.nt f.i?.S.{.. and o}fl9.3!?...... to cells

.b) carrying .S.g:s..... andw.gf!.9... p.*$:t9.-+.f.. awayfrom the cells

c)

_l

2.

protecting the body from infections

The circulatory system includes three components:

Components of circulatory system

T1]
a) Medium of transport/ B!.?.9S...

1'

A nr lflQlS
n..,.....4;..

blood

lnvertebrates

c arteries

. csPll\*li.?.f....
. veins

h.3.:.39.1rrr.b.

(plasmi
rsma, blood
V= 54
27
-2-

cellss ar
and

b) Blood vessels

aortatubular heart

Functions as a
m.Y.-s.9.Y.19.

It creates the

p.r.9.ff.1i.9... that

capillaries
VCINS

platelet
:elets)

!.. p. -u.$f

forces the b.l.*S...

through the blood
vessels throughout

haemolymph

the whole body of

the organism.

6I@:EY

Composition of Human Blood

Blood is a kind connective tissue that are composed of.

(
Human Blood

p.139.113....

Celiular components 45%

ssz

Le.{s.e}ls:

Pt9.ls.l9.ts..

(wBC)

Platelets are
fragments of large cells
from the bone marrow.
. They have no nucleus
. They are important.in
the orocess of b19.9*..

/--\ n
(,,.)}t
\.-/

acid)

. lr,rinir"ut salts (eg .+S].,..lLpi.l.

.cl
\
'..' '.. .... '..,
. Dissolved qases (o*J.99lt

an

d.931'.P9.-3. 9:

g::,ii$

. Hormones (eg: insulin)

. Waste products (eg: urea and

c.letti.h9.

V---,tr
(: q,,\/

Nutrients (e.g: glucose, amino

-+

uric acids)

p.
| o= z-r

. Antibody
. Plasma protein eq: albumin,

\u$ I

g.t g.b.:l.{in.., fibrin"ogen a nd

prothrombin

Ae.f.g

Granulocytes (70%)
G !:9.0.!l l3!:.. cyto plasm
Lobed nuclei

Eosinophils *
-controll
allergic
responses
.f*no

r.-

!Tr.1

99.e,.1S1 3 0 % )

Clear cytoplasm

Lr

N.tl.9.!9.1.. are not lobed

Neutrophils - most
abundant
WBC

Monocytes

-Origin from
bone marrow

Lgtl.Pt'9.9J.+.9:

-produce
antibodies
-neutralize
toxins.

*:

3)
immobile
Notes: .

mobile

Phagocytes ='cell eater'

8a-

Sca'tz

Differentiate Red Blood Cells and White Blood Cells

Complete the table below:

Characteristic
1. Shape

wBc'

RBC
a)Eryth rocytes are b.lSSl.9g.Y.* discs,

Leucocytes have nll.-c.t9.Y.1. uut oo

SETVES

not have

.lncrease s!t#9.9.-e...

a.trg-.S.

to volume

ratio for diffusion of gases across its

s.9IP.qP.!9.f.1. f

h"/"r"

larger than erythrocytes and do

not have fixed shape.

plasma membrane.
b) Erythrocytes have no

n.Y.9!.9.11S.

to

gives space for great quantities of

h.e..s.illp.g.lI9i.n..

2. Function

atom and is the site of o.LH.9S.?... and

for the
"glg,!'g:pg?sible
d.9f:.?.:.-e...... of orga nisms against

carbon binding.

diseases.

Has haemoglobin that contains iron

Le,v999Vtes

Haemoglobin will combine with

oxygen or carbon dioxide depend on

their partial pressure and carry those
gases during respiration.

3. Diameter

8pm

10-15 pm

4. Number of
blood cell/mm3

5 million/ mm3

6000-'10000/ mm3

5. Lifespan

120 days

A few days

7. Manufactured

B.q19... m.9.L1.9.H...

'

in

Bone marrow (granulocytes), but

may migrate to the thymus gland or

lymph nodes for their growth and

development stages.

.
8. Destroyed in

By phagocytosis process

liver and spleen

Ratio:

L,9!P.P.l.q.* scg.t.gP. (agranulocytes)

WBC:700

RBC

ellea-s,*.

Fu

Functions of Blood in Transport

1

)Transport of oX9.9.9n.....

. T rans port oxyg e n f rom l.9.DSf .ial.Y.99.l.Yl

r

to all parts of the body/ cells.

ln the lung, oxygen combines with
h99f9.-e.l.q.htn. in tne erythrocytes to form
oxyhaemoglobin. Erythrocytes is then
pumped to the body tissue.
I n tiss u e, o.r.v. h.-q. 3 :L9.s. J.9I i3. d s soci ates
into haemoglobin and oxygen, and
oxyqen is thereby supplied for c3ll.l.J.1l.

4)Transport.of excretory waste products

. D93.T!.:.9f.-o.?. of excess amino acids occurs
in the 1.1Y.91"... to form urea.

From liver urea is transported by blood to

the ki.9lSif... to be excreted.

r.s.*rt3]l9?..

5)Tra

sport of

h.9.1.T,?.t).9f.....

Blood transports hormones produced by the

e.qC.9.91i.1.9.. g.l.?.1.S.1.... to the target organs.

Lung

Hb + Oz -----+ HbO
hffiv.eEn

For example, insulin and g.1.T.9.-a.9Sl'1.. are

carried by blood from the pancreas to the
liver.

2)Transport of water to tissues

r Water is transportqd by blood to prwide
a m ed u m fo r b l:9.9h.9.T iS9. :.... r.e..9.!*9Ll.
i

re)Tt
'n.99-u.l9l9body temperalure by distributing heat, especially
|.
I from muscle & liver to other oarts of the bodv

{n"tion"ore}

./

.Jt'ansoo|
3) Transport of carbon dioxide

Cel u la r resoi
'
dr:e.?:{S.9.....
I

Glucose +

ration releases

c.-q.L9.-o.?......

Oz ----> Energy + COz

+ water

. Carbon dioxide is transported

from cells
to the lungs/alveolus in the form of
o hd.9.{99.9.?.. c.9.qh9391:.. ions in
plasma
b.sl..b..l.t'll.::ghs.s.n99lghiliin RBC)
o Dissolves directly in the blood
plasma
When the blood reaches the lungs, the
carbon dioxide is released and. diffuses
out of the blood into the aLy.igli.......

What is transported?
From where?
To where?

7) Transpoft of absorbed food materials

. Soluble digested tood, v.itgfil.Jano mineral
are absorbed into the c.3fi.ll:.ll9f. of the villi
in the small intestine. For examples:
o stl*tl3.... s.YgS.l.. e.g glucose
o amino acids
o water soluble vitamins ie ..Y.i*..P..
o mineral salts
. Thgy are transported by the hgf$t.*. p9ltgl
v.g.il.. frorn slR-q.!I. i.T'.*.*ilg to the liver and
then to the heart.
. Other food materials are absorbed into the
1.99.t331+..... in the villi. For examples:
acids
o fattyg ceFol
rrl
^v Y.....r...'...1r
o vitamins A, D, E and K( fat soluble
vitamin)
r They are then transported by the l.{.{lPh. into
the blood circulatory system via the left
subclavian vein.

For what?

ollea-s,,*

I
I

Fulnction of Haemolymph in Transport

' lr

insects, the h9glng.lH.TPh. is

a circulating

main blood

blood-like nutritive fluid which fills the entire

bcdy cavity called haemocoel.

2.

A circulating system in insects is called oFS.?'

ci.r:.g..t].9if.t9... slr:.*3.P... because the

tract

haemolymph

.
.

digestive
haernolymph

flows into haemocoel

is not confined to vessels onlY.

bathes the tissues and internal organs directly

Nutrients from di.9.-e.f.t-e.9.. f.9.9.{.+ and h9..ll}-o..*S. diffuse from the haemotymph into the cells.

Waste products diffuse out from the cells into the haemolymph.
The haemolymph does not transport respiratory gases. Respiratory gases are transported
via the tracheal system.

I
Bio-brain

Complete the table below to show where certain substances enter and leave

the blood

Substance

Carried from

Amino acids

lle qrtl

Carried to

Liver

Urea
Skin

Heat
Endocrine gland

lollEiose*.
I l--

Target organs

Structure of Human Blood Vessels

There are three types of human blood vessels: artery, c.g.Pi]].SLy... and vern

Human Blood Vessels

A.n*g19......
Blood vessels that
carry oi1).9:nL:.9...
bL-o.9.3..

respiratory gdQes, nutrients

away from the

h.9.9f1... to all parts of

the body except

pulmonary artery.

vg.i.t...

c.-q.P.l.lSLY..,

. Sites for the efS.\9!'t9..-e. ot

Veins transport

and

d.g.g.)P.91-q.-r.3.1

wastes between blood and body

b1.99.9...... from all

cells.

parts of the

Capillary is the smallest blood

to the heart except

vessel which joints artery and vein.

pulmonary vein.

Venule

Capillary

Arteriole

Artery

-t
I
J

r*
t--

deoxygenated biood

Different types of blood vessels

Connective tissue

Endothelium
Lumen

Smooth muscle
Elastic tissue

Cross section of typical blood vessel

Note:

Artery branch out into smaller vessels called arterioles

Afierioles branch to form capillaries.

.
.

Capillary ioin with one another to form venules.

Venules join together to form vein

ttlle;.-s,

".

b.*J

back

3. The differences between arteries, capillaries

and veins

Veins

Capillaries

Arteries

Characteristic

Endothelium

Collagen fibre
(connective tissue)

dothe

Diagram
Single layer of
epithelialcells
Elastic fibre

muscle

muscle

Direction of blood

flow

Blood content

Wall

Transport blood away

from ihe h.egLt.. to the

Connect

tissuesicells

venules

Transport oxygenated

Act as the sites for

blood except the

eI3h9.t].9S.... of

Transport
d eoxgg8 no'te{;,

pulmonary artery

substances with the

except the pulmonary

cell

vein

One cell in

T!:'1.'l1Sf ...... wall

Th.i.".S..... muscular wall

a.r*9ri9l.ff

Transport blood from the

to

tissues to the heart

tso{

thickness (thinnest
wall)
Lumen size

Small

V.-e.|J.... s. !ll9.tl..

Large

Valve

No valve (except aorta at

No v.9.1Y9...

Valyes present along of

Blood pressure

the base of aoda and

the vessel to prevent

pulmonary artery)''

back flow of blood

*
H.i9h.... (with pulses)

Lower than arteries

L9.::l'.... than arteries

but higher than

(No pulse)

veins (No pulse)

- Pulse '. The wave oTpressure on artery due to pumping action of the heart

121@:8,"*.

r'
How Blood is Propelled Through the Human Circulatory System?

1.

A heart, is an organ that generates the p.L9.8..{.9.f9'. to pump the blood

2. The basic structure

of the human heart

\//a,,

..e.e.:t.9...

il\lr

PulmonaryarterY

superior
vena cava

Pulmonary
vein
&rr.!m

Right atrium
Left atrium

W*Ii
neill'litiT

Bicuspid valve

F-il'qtlt

*
Chordae tendinae

inferior
vena cava

Ii,F

-:i-

r:

Left ventricle

Right ventricle

*Chordae tendinae control the

closing of the valve and prevent the
bi/tricuspid valve from turning inside

\li*-.t=. =

dr

out during systole ventricle*

a)

The human heart has four chambers:

A.f*5;:-q.

.. (singular, atrium) (upper chambers right and left) which receive blood

returning to the heafi.

.
b)
c)

V.?.tlLlig.q:..... (lower chambers right and left) which pump blood out of the heart.

The s.eP.tY.T...... separates the right chambers from the left chambers.

The valves in the heart ensure that blood flows only in o.Q,9.. di.19.9.'1i.9f.. There

are

iq

three types of valves:

S.g.Til-u.?.11..

Bicuspid valve

Tf.i3.lt:fi9. v.9,r,Y.9.....

wlye- the valves at the base of the aorta and pulmonary artery

the valve between the 19f.1... a.tl'.ig.*. and t9.fi.

v.9f1.'.'.SJ'9.'..

- the valve between the right atrium and right ventricle.

c) The heart is made up of c.9.fii.9.9. muscles. lt is said to be m,Y9.99L19.... because

il,

the

heart muscles able to contract and relax automatically (auto rhythm) throughout life and

d)

are not controlled by the nervous system.

E*:a:

The r.r.9Jtt. p.9.TP....... forces deoxygenated blood to the lungs. The left pump forces

/hnrswr

o.T.999.L9.t-.9... b.19.9.9...... to other parts of the body

of

6c4'>e444

ilrl,e

--e

p;mping of the heart

b) Systole Atrium {0.1

- bicrispid'&
tricuspid

valves opened

- semilunar
valves closed
c) Systole Ventricle (0.3

- bicuspid'& tricuspid
I

valvesclosed-'''
- semilunar valve
opened

a) Position of SAN and

''"

I
I

ffihsr an'e SAN and AVN? Mark the position of SAN and AVN on the diagram (a) above.

tne sin9..-.,q.l.fi:I.n9.L?..

1Snf.f 1 is a specialised

bundle of tissue, located in the ri9h.t.....

a*.r.iS1......... wall, near the entrance of the anterior v-9.L9...'

i"

)d

c'lL9-...'.'..

It acts as p5.99.T:19.f...... which generate a wave of e)t9.i.t9l9I-v. irnPl.Y-s.9i... tne

impuls is then spread to atria, causing them to c.q.?IL9.tJ..... simultaneously. Hence,
blood is then forced into the v.S.$.f 1.9.}-e.f......'. (right and left)-

Further more, the impulse is then stimulates the second node atTl'.9..-.L9'lJIl9.Y!:f.'?9-d.e

rt.

(AVN) lying at the base of the ri.9.\.t..... a'i.l'r.Y.f.'........'.

lmpulses from the AVN are conducted by specialised muscle fibres called b.q.rl9.1:... .9f.
.!1f .{.... and p.\.111}1.:. fi.qf.9.f..... to the ventricular walls. This causes the

tre

cgf,.t!S.9t9.L....... of both ventricles to pump the blood out of the heart.

The

r.i9.h.t

ventricle pumps the blood into the pulmonary artery, which forces the

blood to the l.$$3:.............

l|l

the

The 1.9.f*...... ventricle which is thicker and more mtlP.9.YlSL... than the right ventricle,
pumps the blood into the aorta which forces the blood to the whole parts of the body.

rnd

les

E*r ain vihy the left ventricle is thickdr and more muscular than the wall of the right ventricles?
Answer: The left ventricle needs tb generate grelater p.r..e.f.).19,.1o pump blood to all. p9rti

d the bgC.V. white the right ventricle pumps blood to the l.Y.l.$f ... only.

141 6@'>c444

'

a
4.

What is cardiac cycle?

Answer:

Cardiac cycle is the series of events that occur during one complete heartbeat, rncluding ihe
go.n+IEelb.{systole) and r.?.13.L:tt:9.?... (diastole) of both the atria and the ventricles.
1 systole and 1 diastole equal

to

t hearlbeat (0.8 sec)

Therefore, the heartbeat is 75X per minute

5.

How does the blood in the veins flow back to the heart?

. The pumping of the heart generates

sufficient

f.-o.19..9.....

to move the blood through the

at.t9.ll.S., arterioles and capillaries. However, when the blood reaches the v.9i.?S..., the
pf9ff.'lf.e.. produced by the heart is i$.e:t$:.9Le.tl. to force it back into the

. When the body moves,

hear1.

the s.t3l9l9]. m$f .9.1f. around the veins contract and press on the

veins. The veins cCn*l..fi*.. and the blood pressure increases, to open the valves and
push the blood towards the heart.

Upper valve

t
I

Blood flow
towards the
heart

a) Muscles relaxed,
. valves closed.

b)

Muscles coRtract,

upper valves
and . b.lood

6.

is

open

forcqd

c) Muscles relaxed, upper

valves closed, lower valve
opens as a result of muscle

upwards, lower valve

contraction elsewhere and

remain closed.

blood,flows forwards.

"

The sin9.-ai.fj.9.l. node can initiate the heartbeat on its own. But the heart rate may

be

modified by certain external factors. The sJ.$f91.!.9.1J:. nerve carrying impulse to the hear
can increase the heart rate and the parasympathetic nerve can sJ.9.f... it down.
7.

The heart rate increase when:

(a) an increase

in the secretion of hormone (e.g aC.l9L9.llL9....l while a person is e.L9.it3*..,

(b) an increase in partial pressure ot c3199.?.....

d1.9.T.1.9S.. in

(c) body 1.9.'1f9.q9.t5.? is elevated.

the

blood.

,,tE

F':

6.0- >cd4e

grriatory Mechanism of Blood Pressure

E,E,ri

ing

pressure'(bp) is the

the *p-s.slS.

f.o..r199..

of the blood exerted on the w.-q.lt.. of the arterial blood

Normal bp for an adult is 120/80 mmHg.

r;:ei'ial blood pressure is highest during ventricular s5ff.9J.9. (120 mmHg), and lowest during
dt*?.'l-4.!:. (80 mmHg) ie resting phase at the heart.

rr-e biood pressure is regulated by b9.T.9.I9.*l!9!swhich is located in the walls of the asl.t9
a,-J cg.lStl'.9. arteries branch out from the aorta to the head"
rgh the

Ssnematic diagram for regulatory mechanism of blood pressure:

i..., the

'e Blood pressure stretches b.9'I9!::::ffTs

(stretch-sensitive recePtors)

on the

es and

lmpulses are sent to the cardiovascular

control centre in the m.9.9.Y!J.9

o.hl.?.1.9.?.1'9

From that impulses are then sent via the

parasympathetic nerve to..tf,9.fe3rt and

bloodvessel
ncrease

,:.::.j.

Decrease

Decrease the heart rate

o Dilate

the diameter of arteries

hence

reduce the resistance

Normal blood
pressure
(120/80 mq Hg)

Normal blood
pressure
(120/80 mm Hg)

er
VE

scle
rnd

o Baroreceptor are inhibited

rn9.q91*9.:.. stt.*s!.9.11.:l'ot

the sA

lncrease

node by the sYmPathetic nerve

may

o This increases the contraction of the

be

a) csr.9.'.9.9 mT.SlSS. hence increase

,he hean

in heart rate
b) s,lll9.9.fh.. mil.{.S.|9S. of the arteries,
hence decrease. the diameter

,eifed

de:

Blood pressure can increase because of increase in heart beat, resistance of blood

lmel, viscosity of blood and stress.

rcll&b-s*,1

,Gircuiatory SYstems in lnsects, Fish, Amphibians and Humans

. The circulatory system of large muliicellular organisms can be divided as follows:

!ar,'1rr

I l*llrl i
. *,,: :i'

Circulatory system
c.l9s..#. circulatory system

Open circulatory sYstem

e.g rnsecl

,,i':
t"* -

Single
e.g flsh

Complete

t.q'.s9P.el.9f9

e.g human

e.g amphibian

i'

*,,&/1.

Girculatory Systems

Diagram

in:

lnsects - Open circulatorY system

One or more h99.ftS pump the hg.9ll|9!'l.Pf!l through the

:-

vessels into the body cavity called h3'-'.T9''c'9':l

Here, materials are exchange directly between the

haemolymph and the body cells through diffusion'

illil,arnr

> l/: l:

e When the hearts relax, the haemolymph is drawn through

pores called of.*.J.9. (singular, ostium)back into the hearts'

,r - *lflows into haemocoel

Fish - Single closed circulatory system

Heart consists of two separate chambers, an a*'T''l-o'T anO

a v.gntf.i9L9

r 'a
I Gill
i-capillarie 'i-+

The d9.9.f.9S"e.1P.!$ut9.9.9"., enters the atrium and then the

Oxygenate'

ventricle.

bloo

. The ventricle pumps the blood to the c.:.fi!l::'19'{ in the

gills where gaseous exchange occurs'

The oxygenated blood leaves the gLt'I.{.' and flows directly

to the b495., il.+S.1{9.s....

ln the systemic capillaries,

tt:99.J.9.f..

ox,99'9.Q.

while cgl.Lg.?. utg.*'i$.9"... diffuses out of the

tissues and into the caPillaries.

.
.

I roo,
caoillari

diffuses into the

The deoxygenated blood then flows back to the

Deoxygenated
blood

Te

h'9'9ft""

The blood flows through the heart only o'!"c'9' in a

complete cYcle.

ll

ll&i"lF.-

Scon"

Girculatory SYstems in
hr*chihians - lncomplete double closed
; *:u atory sYstem
, -::: ;onsists of thr.99' chambers with two airia

;*:
, l-::
:.-

:^3 ventricle.
genated blood from the body is carried into
r'"i.9t.1. al.ri.'l.T while oiiJ.99.L 3l*l u'e:$.. from the
,

,--s

-,

ts sent to

the left atrium.

r I,*r3iated blood is miXgC'. with deoxygenated

: ::: in the ventrtcle.
.--z ventricle then pumps the blood through a
-- ftonq.r-s.... cif:.'llSil.9.D s.99.t9t1..' and systemic
E

'..'r.rrrr'

: -:-lation sYstem.

| --: blood contains *ower,levels of oxygen but is

r heart : -- cient. to meet the cellular requirements - of
-

=-ahibians.

plete dou ble closed

hla nr m als'- Gom

st'Stem

ci

rculatory

..

r --nans have a four:chambered heart: two at'tl'9"'

remocoel

Gill
'capillarie

: two vgntl.i:i.9.{...

, --e four-chambered heart pt'-e'I.9.tlt.l.'.'

the mixing of

::e oxygenated and deoxygenated blood'

--rinans have a

d9.9.q19.. clp.f.?.-d.

"irg.y't:'*ll

sgf't9{?"

::nsisting of the pulrllonary and systemic circulatory

)xygenate
bloo

*:

rstems.

. '

Bodv
capillari

the pulmonary circulation system, deoxygenated

: ood in the r.i9hL..- v.enltL.gl'9:' is pumped into the
p.:r.l$.9.ffiIJ. af.f9.1.'.9.s- to the l''lng.L' and oLJ'9'9'?9191'
atri'9'T'
b.i9.?:1... from the l.9nP:.' returns to the l9f!"

Diagram

r the systemic circulation, blood is barried from the

h3.9.f.t. to the other parts of the body except the
l..l,?.?.:...

and transported back to the heart'

. rhe blood enters the heart twice during

one

:omplete cYcle.

rcllf,a.-sro*
I l---

Body capillaries

a
Figure shows schematic diagram of the circulal.-,ry sysiem in human.

a) Draw

Pulmonary circulatory system with

Systemic circulatory system

b) Draw

C.:flnr

with

--
Y:..'ii:til::)

Oxygenated blood as

V':il]//.4|11

tl

Deoxygenated blood as

Carotidartery

Jugular veln
Head and neck

Sub-clavian
vein

Sub-clavian
bheiY

Pulmonary artery

Pulmonary veins

Hepatic

vein

Left veniricle
HePatic artery

Small intestine
Renal

vein

Renal artery

5ao- >co4a

and Human
Gmnnpanison between the Circulatory System in Fish, Amphibian

Similarities

Differences.

Fish

0rganisms

Human

Amphibian
.i.

.,.j!.

D,ragram of closed
;rculatory sYstem

lncomplete

Type of circulatorY
system

Single

D.o..9.b.1S....

C1.999S... circulatorY

Closed

Complete

i Double

circulatory I Closed

system

system

Number of heart
chambers

Two

Three

F.9.-.'.f.

Number of atria

o.t.-e..

Two

Two

D"lumber of

One

on.e..

Two

ventricles

zollsi"-sr

".

I sYstem

circulatory

t-

1.3 THE MECHANISM

OF BLOOD CLOTTING

Learning Oulcomes:
o Explain the necessity for blood ciotting at the site of damaged blood vessels.
o Explain lhe mechanism of blood clotting
o Predict the consequences of impaired blood clotting in an individual

Necessity for Blood Clotting

1.

To prevent e1f99ff.1.Y.9...... bl.qgS...

1.9.9.-s..

from the body when there is a damage of the blood

vessel.

2. Maintain bl993.. p.t9f.-s.9ll to ensure proper blood circulation.

3. Prevent the entr.y of mj.9.1.99f9:$:.T.1. and foreign particles

into the body through the

wound.

4.

Promote wound healing.

Blood Clotting Mechanism

lnjury in blood vessels
Platelets clump at the wound
Vitamin K
+

:. .

Clot forms to stop further blood loss

Base on the diaqram above, describe the blood clottinq mechanism

When you get cut, blood vessels around the wound immediaiely constrict to reduce blood loss.

The platelets in the blood exposed to air become sticky and clump together to plug the wound.
Thrombokinase and other clotting factors are released by platelets.
ln the presence of c919i.Y.T. ions, thrombokinase converts prothrombin into thrombin. Prothrombin
is synthesized in the liver and requires .Y.itS.T.il..K..

Thrombin converts soluble plasma protein, f:.!.fi.?9991. into insoluble t:.h.fi.L.

form

meshwork of threads over the wound.

As the blood flows out, erythrocytes and platelets are trapped in the fjbrin fibres and a blood clot
forms. lt dries to form scab.

When ihe wound heals, new skin is formed and the scab peels off.

ztlle,b'Sr*.

Consequences of an lmpaired Blood Clotting Mechanism

problems related to blood clotting include haemophilia and thrombosis.

Haemophilia

Haemophitia is a h9!:9.-q.:.19.f.Y.. dl:.9S.9.9.. due to the lack of certain gene for the

production of certain clotting factors (eg: factor Vlll)

e blooc

. This is an i.rllP9,J9.S. cJ.?.tfnp... m.9,9!f.tP.T. which causes

serious bleeding

particularly in the joints.

. The afflicted person may die as a result of excessive

rgh

bleeding from even

minor cuts and bruises because blood clotting cannot take place.

the

Sometimes a local blood clot (thrombus) is formed on the d-q:L9'9.S1'. or rough

inner wall of the artery, for example deposition of cholestrol. This may cause
blockage of the artery, a condition known as t.t't9.P.9'*.1.:.

drslodges and is carried away by blood circulation, it is

known as an e:T.f9l.Y.{.... The embolus may be trapped in a small artery where

. When the thrombus

it btocks the blood flow. This condition is called e.11.\9!if.T....

lf the thrombosis occurs in coronary artery ( vessel that carries blood to the
heart) the supply of o+.V.99.1...,. and nutrients to the heart muscles is cut off,
hence causes h,?.9:.1.. af!:9SI....

Bio-brain:
The figure shows a human heart.
OSS

a)complete the table to show whether the blood in vessels w, X, Y and

Z is oxygenated or deoxygenated, and under high or low pressure.
Blood oxygenated

.)5S.

nd.

rrombin

Z.

Blood under pressure

igh

o*USeoqted

ole - oxYgeogte d

Low

de-

His h

ox39e oo+e sl

orggena+eq

fli9h

state two substances in food that are believed to cause heart dis

e' eL9l9**'to!"4

"+'

t':'t'l:''

"

r form a

artery rather than an artery

suggest one advantage an{ one disadvantage of using the patient's own
transplanted from another person.

rod clot

oo"".,"n".ls.f.".|.9i:t..l.::y3..ir.t.T9':1s'?.1..

i:il i: "-tr::i:f3ll) lirr:P:t rlel

;;";;;;;n"'qn*orlerJ'
wqlls +hQn

-a:

onfeny 4.9 ii hgs th;nner

1.4 THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

Learning Outcomes:
o Describe the formation of interstltial fluid
o State the composition of interstitial fluid
o State the importance of interstitial fluid
o Describe the fate of interstitial fluid
o Describe the structure of the lymphatic system
o Explain how the lymphatic system complements the circulatory system
o Compare the contents of blood, interstitial fluid and lymph
o predict whatwill happen if the inter:stitjal fluid fail-s to return to the.circulatory system
o Conceptualise the relationship between the lymphatic system and the circulatory system

Formation of the lnterstitial Fluid and Lymph

(2)

{1)

. When the blood flows from arteries into

csp.tlqgti** there is higher tr.u9f.gS.t91lg..

walls, it is called i.?.t9!'.fiit'l:1....'

or

pressure at the.arterial end of the capillaries.

. This high pressure

nt

lc.9.tl y.|.9.1. s

p.S.

9.9f.. . .. between

tisf 113...

f.l.Y::9.

rhe

fills the

spaces

interstitial fluid

forces some plS-".1?.9".

between the cells and constantlY

to pass through the. capillary walls into the

i

Once the fluid leaves the capillary

the cel|s.

bathes the cells.

(3).

90% Qf

the

interstitial

fluid

has not been r.9.iF.fp.':b.9.{.... into

diffuses back into

the bloodstream goes into the

tp. PR!'...... c9.?i.rlsllsl once

lAok.of the interstitial fluid that

blood capillary
.

inside ,t[9, Jymp,,h capillaries, the

fluid is knowr as l.Y.TP.h

nl@:8,*"

rrTme{rs-iitlaI

Fluid

Oomposition of the lnterstitial Fluid

lmportarice of the lnterstitial Fluid

. --:

"

composition of the lnterstitial

lnterstitial fluid is important because

o lt forms the illt*.fl?.?J eItYI.t-b.?-S'9'?.f'. of

'u C is similar to the blood Plasma

axcept there is no erythrocYtes,
pr*1.9.19.-+.1. and plasma protein

the body
o lt, ba"thes the cells and supplies them

with

'inolecules (albumin, globulin and

'brinogen).

o.'fH9..9P...

and nutrients .which

diffuse from the b1.q99....... through the

intgLs*:i-".t t.ly,i*... into the cells.

o-eucocytes especially phagocytes

can pass through the capillary wall

o Excretory

wflitS.

p.*S.Y.9.ti (carbon

and can be present in the interstitial

dioxide and ureq) di.t8.+.fi o.-ql' of the

iuid.

cells into the interstitial fluid.

lnterstitial Fluid

Fate of the lnterstitial Fluid

Approximately 90o/o of the interstitial fluid ftows back into the

v.-e.FP.Y.f...

capillary system where the hydrostatic pressure is low'

r The remaining 10% of the interstitial fluid enters the

called lsra.P.l'....,
o Lymphatic capillaries from all parts of the body converge to form lymphatlc vessel-

lymph also originates from blood plasma. lt has almost the same
composition as the interstitial fluid which lack of erythroc$es, platelet and plasma

r lt is clear now that

r lf excess interstitial fluids unable to

;r
into

return to the blood circulatory system,

accumulate and cause tissue swelling known as o'9.*.9'T'9"".'"'

i::l
'^"1

__l

2al@:8,-*,

it

Lymphatic System
a) Structure of the Lymphatic $ystem

The lymphatic system is a oft-w9.$. s,9S.t9{?... consisting of

cstill.?.r. i.es., u$.p.1.9*i 1.. v.e.{f fl .1,.. a n d l.Y,*P h..,

n.:i

Pf ..

Lymphatic vessels

ill

\\

The lymph capillaries are bJr'.F.9...-en.9.9.dt.'tb.g.q.. located in the spaces between the
cells.

The interstitial fluid that

l-tas

'not

I}

been
t

reabsorbed into the bloodstream goes into

'l'il

the' ts.flPh. '69ni!l9l'.igf. Once inside the

lymph capillaries, the fluid is known as
lfmP.h... Lymph is the colourless fluid found
i

lr
\

n the I x:Tlr.b.:ll:9.... v.gf.i.9LL.

I lJ
i1

Lymph capillaries converge into larger

lymphatic vessels.

t,^

'l

i\;
r. I

1t

t(

{l

Lymphatic vessels form two main lymphatic

a\

,\t
vi
/\ t,
1r

ducf -right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct

\]'

ll
\ 'l t

\,/.

Located at intervals along the lymphatic

vessels are lymph nodes. The lymph nodes
Enlargement of Lymph node

produce lrnp.!'-g.s*r..19-s. tfrat involve in the body

defence against infections.

r Hence

lymph contains a higher number of

lymphocytes than blood.

Valve

Within the lymphatic vessels are one-way

valves to ensure the

c9'f1l:r.)l-c.-'1.9.. f.19.9

of the

lymph to prevent the b.9.95f J.9* of the lymph.

8'

a one-way valves

- Seo'rz

Tiie Relationship between the Lymphatic System aitd Circulatory System

!
:

i-,,mph is returned
r"h.9r.q.9i9

r -:e
crc

dl{9.tand the ri.ghL lJ.Pnh:i.l9

vessels from the

l9f.t

sj'9.9..

Lung

d'Y.g.t

of the body (the

mentary canal and the right slde of the lower part

:: the body) flow into the thoracic duct. The'thoraeic'

a,

-___l

il'l

to the circulatory system via the

iuct is the largest lymphatic vessel in the body that

carries lymph to the l.gft s'Y.f.:1.-o.:11". v.-e.!'l.. back

t
)clavian
n

Lymphatic
System

,nto the b1.9.o.i.{}f '?'9.m

The right lymphatic duct transport lymph from the

-tTi,+g.

of the head and chest into the

Blood CirculatorY
System

r.i9.b.f

s.itb.9.l?.Y,l3l v.ci.tr..

.
\i
I

way
The movement of lymph along lymphatic vesselis aided by hydrostatic pressure, one
squeeze the
valve, contraction of surrounding skeleton muscles and respiratory movement
vessels.

Complete the diagram below-

Blood capillaries

Left subclavian vein

Right subclavian vein

V
t

nt-.i$.tj.t-ql f t

.,{.i9.

Lymph capillaries

Lflf.Q.Ph.

v9*iSll..

and circulatory system

Diagram shows the Relationship between the Lymphatic system

zallEa-sco*
t F-.#

r
Role of the Lymphatic System iri Transport

Coilects the i.r.,.t.9:fi.1:.1.. t.l:f J.i. and returns it to the blood circulatory system.

"

F.9ii9

,agiC..", g1999.191....... and fat-soluble vitamins are absorbedinte through

l.-q.99.?,|.{, in villus and

The LYaPh

(i)

n99.9.s..

produces phagocytes and lymphocytes.

Phagocytes engulf and destroy foreign particles.

(ii) Lyrnphocytes produce anil..5.9$.i9f.. which aid in the destruction of pathogens

and the neutralization of toxins. Hence, lymph nodes filter out pathogens and the
foreign particles and protects our body from diseases.
Compare the contents of blood, interstitial fluid and lymph

B!.ood

lnterstitialfluid

Composition

'mg

transported to the blood circulatory system.

P.lSf.lPS. and
cellular component
(wBC, RBC,
platelets)

Plasma without

. Plasma

without

plasma protein,

p1.3.f.s.9. p.qe.L?I1.,

and cellular

erythrocytes and
p.ts.L9l?tl

component except
WBC-

. More

fatty

substances and a

higher number of
lymphocytes

produced

by

the

lymph nodes.

*WBC may escape frorn blood capillary and goes into intercellular space
due to flexible shape.

zzllSa-s,'*.

tu

rgh

ROLE OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEIS IN THE BODY'S DEFENGE SYSTEM

Learning Outcomes:

.
:
:
:,

3ns

the

stute another function of the circuiatory system besides transporl.

Identify the the body's three lines of defence mechanisms'
Describe the process of phagocytosis.

State the meaning of antigeii and the

iil'dI s Defence
ies
:"'

antibdy.

Mechanisms

oes transport function, our circulatory system also defends the body against disease abolition

:*e disease-causing microorganisms or pathoqens.

: -" aodies have three lines of defence against pathogens:

:
:,

First line of defence - prevention of pathogens entering the body'

Second line

of defence - killing the pathogens that entered our body by action of

Phasocvtic white blood cells.

Third line of defence - killing the pathogens by means of antibodv actions.

First Line of Defence

al Prevention of pathogens entering the body

Tears and Saliva

by mean of physical and chemical barriers

DJ

. Contain

A non-spesific defence, that is never

which protect the eYes

differentiate among various type of

and rnouth

pathogens. This includes:

As a physicalbarrier, skin is made up

Gastric juice in stomach

of a dead keratinised laYer, tough

" Contain hvdrochloric

enough for pathogens to penetrate.

from

pathogen invasion.

Skin

lvqozv-{nes

lf thgre is a scratch or cut, the blood

acid which dqstroYs

most pathogens in

clots to sealthe wound and avoids

foods and drinks taken-

infections.

Also acts as chemical barrier as it

Mucous membranes

seeretes sweat whieh eontains salt.

. Secrete mucus in nasal cavitY and

trachea to trap the dust particles and

Sebaceous glands Produce sebum

whieh esntains aeid and oil. All these

^o

substances are unfavourable for

growth of microorganisms.

'

Sweat also

contains-.lysc@ which

destroys Pathogens.

spores

. The cilia in the respiratory track sweep

the irapped particles to the pharynx and
stimulates sneeze or cough to expel out
the paihogens.

,'

Second Line of Defence

(a) The killing action brought by some of the white blood cells like neutrophil and monocvte.
They are calted phaqocvtes and the process is phaqocytosis

(b) lt is also a non-specific defence.

(c) Phagocytosis occur when pathogens get through the first line of defence, Phagocytes

move

the infected area due to the stimulation by chemicals released by damaged cells, example
skin.

(d) The steps involved in phagocytosis by a phagocyte e,g. Neutrophil

Useful product of
digestion is then

absorhed and
assimilated by
phagocyte

Complete the diagram above.

(e) Sometimes the phagocytes are killed by toxins produced by the pathogens.

(f)

Dead bacteria, tissue cells anci phagocyies may accumulate to form pus at the site of injury

Third Line of Defence

(a) The third line of defence in the body is antibodv.
(b) Antibody is a kind of protein released by lymphocyte in response to the presence

of

fore

substance, called antiqen in our body-

(c)

Lymphocytes are white blood cells found in lvmph nodes and in the blood circulatory systr
There are two types of lymphocytes, Bjvmphocvte that secretes antibodies and Tlvmphoc,
that helps B-lymphocyte in antibody production.

(d) An antigen is a subtance (usually protein) normally found on the outer surface
Different types of pathogen act as different types of antigen.

29

of

pathog

---.::ci line of defence is a sF9.9.i.f:.9... O.g.f.g.1:9..... because when a specific antigeir

- .-:s the bociy, lymphocyte rs stimulated and produces specific antibody to destroy
-..=

--:
lEe.

scecific antigens.

-esponse is known as i.T.P.Y.IS....... r.9i.P.911.f9.... because it resists ihe body from

-:jens or diseases.
--:-an rnfection, some lymphocytes remain in ihe body as m'9'T.9.|X"...-' c'9ll-{-'.. which
*
ast for several months or years. This memory cells help to defend the body against
: ; "-

:es move

)xample

"

-:,. infection by the same aniigen. During this period,

-T:1.!.9.9. .. for that particular disease.

someone

is said to

be

--=-:fore, the word 'immunitl refers to the g|l.t'iY..9.t.:1..919.:.1:-"'T..t9..9.:tsl9'.t::tl

ae3

lt.{. ir.f
.

.9.q1 i 9.1.

.h .9 .

.P.: i. f,.g.e.9.rls.

..

-ai is the mechanism used by antibodies to destroy antigen?

.
.

Antibody b.in,i9........ to the specific antigen binding site

hence, i.aSStiY.g.t9.i.... antigen by several ways

.
r.l.e:$r9lif.31l9l

)isintegration

Diagram

Explanation

Ways

Antibody called

antlj9Iit.'..

coats

the bacierial toxin or

viral

binding sites and neutralize

it.

Bacteriurn

Antibody called l.9.fj.l.l.

binds

to the antigen

causing

antigen to rupture or disintegrate.

re:J:1i.?.11e.!

to pathogens cause to clumP

together and stoP their movement
and stimulate phagocYtosts.

fore

Opsonins modifies antigen

tory systt
lvmphoc'

Bacterium

Agglutinins are antibodies that bind

rf injury.

of

oPs..?.lHs-+.e?.

attaches itself to the bacteria

surface and thus stimulates

hqgaCJtosis
^t,,,..'..

pathog

bY

= Antibody molecule

Antigen
rnolecules

Learning Outcomes:
o State the meaning of immunit and immunization'
o Relate antigen and antibody to immunity to immunity'

Name and give examples of various types of immunlty'

Types of lmmunitY

1.
2.

disease.
lmmunity is the body resistance to p9.th.o.?.9lll which cause a specific
production of anij.P.93jli.,.
lmmunity depends on the presence of lymphocytes and the
whjch give a specific immune response'

3. There are various

tYPes of tmmunitY:

Graph

(a) Natural Active lmmunitY

When a person is attacked by a kind of

pathogens, antigen of the pathogens
stim ulate an

.
r

lT.PlllS. . ...

r.9. 9.P'?.1S.1.'.'
o

lrlll

the blood stream to destroy pathogens'

v,

After the person recovers from the

.o

L.9lLP.h9:.Y.tSs

release antibodies into

(Ec
infection, some lymphocyte remain as +3
o>
ol:
m.9.t119.t9.... c9!!1..... in the bodv

(E-O

During second infection, this memory ocell initiate rapid immune response to

O-o

produce more antibodies and the the

person becomes i'11lT.Y.?.g.'

to

that
Time (weeks)

particular disease.

E.g: Chicken pox virus, measles virus'

vlls,b- s,,,1

Graph

Types

s,.t.''cial Active lmmunity

l::ained after a person is given (orally

:- :y

injection) a v.qPSi.A9.. before the

Booster dose (2tu)

stimulates a faster and
longer lasting

-::ction occur.
as

c -i

of making immunity by
-:'cducing a vaccine is called
process

n.T.Y.ti.{lt:911....

dies

sI

-o

',,s661pg

n,'.

9-a.t?.1S9. antigens (bacteria/viruses)

is a suspension of killed or

r!tr
o>
6S

1" dose usually

si]

induces a slow and

shorter lasting

(g_O

"".rich is not harmful to the person.

lmmunity level

'o

--l

resp0nse.

E6

."accine stimulates l.9P.P.l3S..).tSl in tne

0ro9
xo
()-o

::dy to produce antibodies that capable

::

destroy living antigens which causes

1"t

: sease.
=rerefore, for the coming invasion of the

:athogenic microorganisms, the body

is

e to d estroy them i.fl .T.9.1j:.L91.Y.

...

...

vaccination

2'd

vaccination

Time (weeks)

Finally, we can say that the body has

acquired immunity throug h v.qS:j.qSJi9l.

Examples. BCG vaccine againsi

:ecause it already has the antibody.

tuberculosis. Salk vaccine against

^P. oliorngel;+iS
"..'

munity
level

\aturally Passive immunity

. Obtained from the mother either across
:he p.t9.9.9.?t9..... to the foetus or

o Early mother's milk

ff

foetus received several type of

maternal antibodies during pregnancy

All these antibodies protect the baby in the

first few months after birth.

Examples . Antibodies to avoid pneumonia

and common cold.

-f---->

Artificial Passive lmmunity

Obtained through injection of a

also

contain antibodies.

ihrough the mother's milk to the infants.

or c.:l.9flLY*...

F.?.f.Y.T..

wh ich co nta i ns s P.t9jf. iS. . .. a I)l!.9 9.L i 9.f.

zzllgi"-sr"*.

Graph

This serum containing antibodies

is

prepared from blood of human or other

animals, for example horse.

The ready made antibodies is given to

the person who needs the antibodies

-c

urgently like t,t:g.'{-e.!!9L:.. or the patient

.9
:o

t,gtgll)l:...,.
and s.QSF.9.... b.itgf.....

who are seriously ill. E.g:

botulinum

d)

.=

o
o

-o
,

c:

o>
ol:

The injection gives a quick immunity but

cannot last longer because this foreign

o_
Xo

()-o

antibodies breakdown in the body and

are not r.9.Pt3.i.9.1

Examples: Anti-tetanus, rabies and

diphtheria

Differences between active and passive immunity

Atrificial

Artificial

Active immunity

Passive immunity

V.9.9S.:n9..... contatning dead

S.9.1.Y.T,..... containing specrfic

or weakened pathogen.

antibodies.

Aspect

1. Type of injection

2. Time of injection

Before

person

is

infected

with a disease.

At the time when a Person ls

rnfected or high risk of getting
the disease.

Ready made antibodies give

i.l?.T91i: L?..... i.n.p.v. ril. H..

3, Time taken to achieve

Body needs time to synthesise

lmmunity

antibodies.

4. Duration of immunity

L.?.t.9....,. lasting of immunity

5. Necessity of booster

Needed for certain diseases

oose

like hepatitis B because the First injection offers

first injection usually induces

lasting of immunity

slow and low level of antibody.

zzllg,a- s,*z

Normally not needed.

immunity

sufficien

*ear-ning Outcomes:
Slate the effects of the human immunodeficiency virus (HiV) on the body's

c:lence mechanisn^s.

Describe the transmlssion of HIV'

suggest ways to prevent the spread of Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome (AIDS).

-.:quired

level

-:=-:,

-1,

HIVvirus
HiV virus

n'

Transmission Methods

The Effects of HIV

. HIV only

:rril;:{: :.e central nervous system

il'-r -::3r r..991!1., in the body's

: S,'Stem.
' -'q :,:- --cef fs are essential to activate
! : '.. .. ', lymphocyte in antibody

eks)

such as s3.99.1......, blood

. Therefore, HIV can be

* , -r3js B -

10 years

of

contaminated needle used

in9:tp'9.119.n

I :e'ore the sYmPtom aPPears.

* -": -*une system of infected person
weakened and
r, ":: -a ,l becomes

lerson

-:

rf gettir;

r'*'=-::ress against many pathogens'

: cf.9.99.9f.. in function of central
"

lies
,ni.t

gi',i

:rmunity

'*

- : ,s system followed bY

p.{9.99}.13.... or br.9.3.:t.T1If..

"'...

. HIV cannot be spread bY touching,

sharing of food or through the use of

bodY

public torlets.

* :,i-i-?ily death occurs.

The

patient

:,"== :rct die from AIDS itself but from

s.9.eg.a.{31^.Y.

infections such

as

-onia and meningitis, tuberculosis,

sufficieii

inlect

. HIV infected pregnant mother can

pass HIV to her babY through

e 9.h1..... loss.

infections

to

drugs.

r',:- :

J Specli:

transmitted

through s.3.LY.?.1'.. intercourse, blood

t.1.9.?.qf)'!.ii.qf...... or injection with

-- ^n

and

v.9.?!n91.... fluid.

Ix.

ty

survive in body fluid such

or certain forms of

:ike Kaposi's sarcoma.

Prevention

Avoid i.U.9.9:1."...'

.
.

Using c.9!];d.9.T.1.. during copulation.

s.91"'..'

Using only s9.1-".?19.9.. otooo in blood

transfusion.

Educational programs

ancsS!r,9.?

s+ll,n-s,,*.

for p.1Llit"""

c.|i1.1.f91....".

lt-

1.5 APPRECIATING A HEALTHY CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

Learning Outcomes:
o Select and practice sultable ways to malntain a healthy cardiovascular system
Card iovascular disease

1.

o.i:.erlsl ...ffiodcircutarorysystem

L.

Examples: Hypertension,

3.

Risk factors: L.....

R.Q.91.1.9.,..,

c.g.qg.q9fy...thL?.T.q:fi.l, nrtS.li9.:.:!:.1"..fi:.

s..........., age and family history

Ititllliurrulltr

CCIUSCS

Ull

Lumen

Cross-section blood artery

iihuN

fr
I

Cardiovascular
Disorders

The heart has to

pump harder

Blood clot may occur in

narrow coronary artery
Coronary
artery

Coronary artery is a
speciaiised blood vessel to supply

Notes

"Angina
(chest pain)
Severe

"Heart attack
(Miocardiai infarciion)

oxygen and nutrients to the heart.

6@- >c442

THE TRANSPORT OF SUBSTANCES IN PLANTS

Learning Outcomes:
plants.
o slate the necesslty for transport of substances ln leaf'
o Identify the vascular tissue in the stem, root andof substances'
o state the role of vascular tissue in the transporl
o Describe the structure of vascular tissue'
o Relate the structure of xylem to transport'
o Relate the structure of phloem to transport
o Predlct the effect of removlng a ring of phloem tissues from a plant'

nos;s

f,1il1,*.*:essity

for Transport of Substances in Plants

, : a^is absorb wgfit..... and ml.?.9.1-a!...... i.9.?.:....... from the soil to all parts of the body'
: ,,3.3r- fleeded by ptants to carry out p.\919:.-5,?ti'.S.ll acts as a solvent and rSSgt3t'f" in
-;

--l

and d.9.I'?-19t.T.9'f'1" ""'

"eral ions are,.required for healthy growth
ratio and a
3-all multicellular plants such as m9.S.{9f.,.. and liy'9'l:.qLtshave a large TSAA/
requtre transport
s ir.g,rL........ distance for diffusion of substances. Therefore, they do not

t,
r

,*

il
;-l

l
l
l

:-. -r:em.

TSAJV
have a s'P'9'l\
-:,,vever, in large flowering plants, conifers and ferns, they
-:to and gf.9-qt9.f.-.... distance for a diffusion of substances. Hence, they require an

;,;
""1

cell metabolisms'

-:ernal transport system in their body'

ll

rscular Tissues in Plant

'
I
i
I

t'i:'f'Y':""""
ransportation of substances in plant is carried out by v'9'eS'I!':'1""
-here are two types.of vascular tissue: xJl9f..-... and p.b)'93T""""' tissues'
o.,item transports w.9L9!1...,.. and di.qf'?l'Y9-9...

m!'lr.9l9'!"" s'?'t't'l"""' absorbed by roots

plant'

:: the upper parts of the plants. lt also gives s.Y.P.P.gtl'.-.' to the

:hioem iransports o.f.93Iti9.....,. s.g.l:iS.lStl' synthesized by the leaves
p,f.9t9.{.Ytt}.9.ii:.. to other parts of the plants'

: I agram 1 shows the locations of vascular tissues in a dicotyledonous

6@'>aa44

plant'

during

F:

(a) Cross-secticn of a Leaf

Cuticle

substance to
" Wax
\^, qre.l.
I oSS

Xylem

'

Vascular bundle in vein.

Contain vascular tissues that

are continuous with those in
the stem and root.

reduce

Phloem

s.l9.T.:

/
(

,/

Epidermis

(b) Cross-section
of a Stem

One-celled thick with cuticle

layer outside
Has l .?.11i.'.9Jlfor respi ration.

Consists of c.?ll:tSh9.T.9
cells in outer region and
p.9.'.9.1.?1.

LT.9... cells in tnner

region

Provides support to the stem.

.r ench$rho
Consists of large P.9....
^^il^
LUil5.

F..9:1..... storage
Arranged
Vascular
bundle

in

the

around the pith.

Xylem and phloem separated

by c.?.TFI.YS...... tissue

(b) Cross-section
of a Root

Root hair

A specialised eP.i.*T.T3l, cell

lncrease

the s.Y!T9,9S

a.f93..... for water absorption.

,tr

Epidermis

t'

Does not have c.Y.{i.9.1.9........

Absorbs water and i9.?.f..........

from soil.

,i'

t)

Endoderm

ricycle

Single layer of cells

Consists of sg.l.9.f.l.?l)lCItissue

which provide

mechanical

support to the root

Phloem

Consists of vascular tissue and

pericycle

Xylem radiates from the centre

si.9f....... shape.
o Phloem fills the area between
forming

Diagram

xylem.

6.4- >c444

$1,r)",:;*-e of Vascular

Tissue Related to the Transport

educe
Sieve

tubes

I Phloem
I

Companion cett

Fibre

=tI
>s that

ose

in

PHLOEM
Also consists of 4 types of cells, i.e. sieve tube,

XYLEM
)I" :r' t.;.i.., parenchyma ano t.ih.1.9.......

cuticle
ltion.

jr :- ',,eSsel
r f - ?iti vessels are long, hollow and
: er.1i

chg rn o

r
r

and
inner

stem.

l.Y.?)'l:....... tubes.

. D F..q.9..... c.9J19...., no protoplasm

cs.q1P.Lli9.l.... c.3.\t...,, fibre and parenchyma.

1.

Sieve tube

Cylindrical

The end wall of each cell are perforated to form

si.9L9..... p.t:1S.... and allow

r,?.lll., deposited in various patterns

a.9.i9..... to pass from one cell to another.

. The sieve tube is a

,- : gives m.g.eI-q.LiLll...... support.

P.9......

-"::heid
ll. cell
\6

;il;;

chanical

sue and

centre

3.

between

cellulose wall of sieve tube.

.
.

. =arenchyma stores food.

. =ibres provide support.

ATP to help the food transPort in

Sieve plate
the sieve tube.

I:l$

\/

Parenchyma and fibre.

ffiI=ffi
l'. I [,^.] l

. lt provides

ll,11

ffi
il1lJ

:::anchyma and fibres

Xylem vessel
(Patterns of
lignin deposited)

d)

They are adjacent and closely related to with

the sieve cell.

dtJ*

tcrnted end and pitted.

Normal cellwith nucleus, cytoplasm and many

mitochondria.

/,\\

LS of tracheid
Ll55UC

There is a ihin layer of c.p.Lq.R.!9J.T.. lining the

Companion cell

=55Ut.

..

. ^^^^l

ItQ.r^^..^

during

disintegrates.

r - sc dead cells and hollow but more

:nger and smaller than xYlem

living cell but

maturation, many organelle including nucleus

cell wall with numerous hole or

e.*,., to allow w.?.t.T.. and mineral

::ss side way between the cells.

laratec

food

substances such as s.:t9.Pf9.. and ani.1.9...

r -3 ceil walls are strengthened by

. *-:

elongated

sJ,?.Y.9..... c.9.!1....., arranged end to end.

: - :asier the flow of water.

ch$rno

in shape, consisting of

.
.

Parenchyma cells store food

Fibres provide support.

.q

o)

U)

Thin cytoplasm

HEH
Pit
spiral

_o

Companion cell

r!

6c4- >c442

1.8 TRANSPORT

OF SUBSTANCES IN PLANTS

Learning Outcomes:
o State what translocation is,
o Explain the importance of translocation in plants'
o Describe the process of transpiration.
o Explain the importance of transpiration,
o Describe the pathway of waler from the soil to the leaves

o
o
o
o

State external conditions affeciing transpiration

Design experiments to study factors affecting the rate of transpiralion
fxpliin the role of cohesion and adhesion of water in the movement of water in plants.
Conceptualise the transport mechanism in plants'

Transport of Orga n ic Substances (Translocation)

1. Definition : Translocation is a transport of soluble o.q9?.Li9.....
anO a.!'li!.|9.....

a.Si$...... from the leaves to other parts of the

s-'l!.fJ:l*f'

sucn as sucrose

plants.

in
Translocation is a two directional transport, uf.Y-q.19.... and dsl.Y.L.*.919". ano occurs
ihe s.r1,P.Y.9,..., t.Yp.-e...." of the phloem tissue.

2.

The importance of translocation : to enable the product of photosynthesis moves from the
leaves to the:

(a) G.q:.*.t.\.. region such as shoots, roots, and young fruits'

(b) Storage organs like t.'Y!.9.1.'...
(c) Other parts of the planis to be a raw materialfor cell r.9.Lfll3lP-l.'...
To show the role of phloem . Bark Ringing Experiment (Practical Book:Experiment

3.

Method
(a) Choose a healthy small branch of

the ring swell

tree.

(b)

Result
The tissue above

By using a knife, remove

complete ring of bark, about 2cm

below the

length.

withers.

(c) Leave

Explanation
(a) J he trssue removeo togelner
wiih the bark is p.t:J.?.9.T......

uP,

whereas the one

(b)

This disrupts the flow

of

organic substances from the

ring

leaves down to the root.

{c)

it for one month.

1.7 pS.15)

Accumulation of

these

substances causes

s.Y.1.ll.'.?.9. above the ring.

(d)

The leaves of small branch

do lot wilt because the
x.H!.9.T..... has not

After one month

been

removed. So, uPward flow of

water is not disruPted.

3sllgb-s,*1

--ansport of Water and Mineral lons

' ::cm the soil, water enters the root by of.3.9.liL. whereas mineral ions by agliy9t.fq.l.f Pgfl

-.,e presence of root hairs increase the siilflS.9.... a.f9.1...... for absorption.

-re

movement of water from the root

:: the leaves is aided by three

a)
c)
c)

factors

Root pressure

(c) TranspirationalPull
. During the day, water eY93'?'tSI9':
mesophyll cells into

Capillarity ( capillary action

From here, the water vapour diffuses to the

. The loss of water from the

atmosphere is called

Transpiration in

(b)

the

HzO

**"

t.nL:.f.in.ll.gf

to

the

..

ihe leaves pull up the waier

force of c 9..hSti?.1

no a *.h.e..ii-o.1,

combination

uP

Xylenr
ROOT

vessel

em

Cgh.9.lfiY.9. force is the attraction

of one molecule to other molecule

r[ET@t
1.15)

of water.

Meanwhile, ad.b3.i1.Y.9... force is

the attraction between water

molecules and the wall of xYlem
vessel.

Encloclent

of

Capiltary action is

along the narrow xylem vessel.

Stonra

logether

Capillary Action

which enable the water move

. Therefore,

xylem vessel forms

continuous column of water from

irom the
rot.

root through the stem

t----------.H

these
u5d

(a) Root Pressure

: rrng.

I branch
use the

leaves

from the soil, a force called t.t)Sl.fi.fglign p.y.l..

;curs in

oi

in

surrounding air through the stoma.

iucrose

flow

ihe intercellular space

the leaves.

Transpirationalpull

]-EAVES

from the

the

leaves.

The surrounding soil water is h.9P.9.'13.t].*... to the cell sap of root hair because ii contains
salt,

to

s.9.99.1

and amino acid.

Therefore, water diffuses into root hair by o.9.T.?.f.'t""

'd flow of

The entry of water into root hair diiutes its cell sap to become hypotonic to the a$'9.9.91'tcells.
The water moves again to the next cell untrl it crosses the c.9.f.t.9f ...... tissue by osmosis.

d.

This water concentration gradient existed in the cortex creates a force called r,9'9'f".'."

been

p.{9.*.Y.1.1....... to push water into xyiem.

6@- >c442

1.9
1.

2.

Water Loss from the Plants (Transpiration)

Definition: The loss of water in the form of w9t9f ... v.9t99.f. from a plant to the atmosphere.
Atmost (99%) of the water taken by ptants is e.Y3 f 9.i9.n9.. by transpiration, only 1% is used
for p.ti9.tliy.lfl.q:.i:.. and io remain t"Y'l:J.1""""
About 90% of transpiration iakes place through the s.*1.?.t3. .....,|oh through the

cllll3.l9

and 5% evapoiated from the 1.9.?:j'?.?,''{..... of the stem'

3. The importance

(a)

of transpiration

Creates a tfg,?fP.iL:.1:L:]... p.:.11.....,. that sucks water and dissolved mineral salts
from the soil. Mineral salts are used for cell activities while the water is used for

(b)

photosynthesis and keeps the cells turgid to give support to the leavesMaintains oS.T.9l,iL.... p.f9Li.Yl,9... in the cells due to elimination of excessive water
in.plant bodY.

(c)
4.

Gives c9.qli|r.?....... ef.f.9.9.t... due to absorption of latent heat by water to evaporate.

Measuring the rate of transpiration.

{a)

The pulling force developed by transpiration can be demonstrated in an experiment by

usins p9i9.TS.tS!'..'

(b)

This photometer can also be used to measure the rate of photosynthesis under
different envi ronmental condition.

(c)

From the diagram shows, the rate of

water loss'is indicated by the speed

of which the air bubble moves along

the graduated capillary tube. (from X

to Y)
Rate

of

water loss

(d)

DistanceXtoY(cm)
time

Notice that, the potometer does not

measure transpiration directly and

will give an accurate indication only if

the rate of water loss is

PreciselY

equal to the rate of water uPtake.

However, for most purpose the estimated transpiration obtained from the experiment
is satisfactory.

6.4- >c442

:rr:irr-s Affecting the Rate of Transpiration

aro

sed

Graph

Explanation

''

i, r-.3( vapour
a .9

3.'l.T

.Yl.?.1

ic,lQ

','l--ving

that diffuses out of

stomata

9:.. . .. arou nd the leaf surface.

air carries water vapour away.

This

c)
(o

c.[.93.t9.f.... the concentration gradient between

rlts

-',aier vapour inside the leaf and outside the leaf.

'-

-lence, the rate of transpiration is increased.

Cg

U)

- -re

rate of transpiration increases when the

rcvement of air is increased.

Iter

"

{n increase

Air movement

in temperature, increases the rate

cf transpiration due to:

. lncrease in water e.Y9.P.9.*Jl]9.?....

. lncrease in d.iF.F.Y.9i,9.?.....,... rate

ate.

rate

a)

(!

C
o
.E

(g

lt

by

'o-

D.9.9.f.9.::9..... in humidity of surrounding air

a
c

(g

F
Temperature ( 'C)

'

During the day, high light intensity stimulates

s.igP.g.t9... opening, so the rate

trans

:.

pi

rations

i .-P 9.

l'.9.9.f.9.9.

of

Heat energy also increases evaporation of

water.

i. At night, stomata close and the rate of

transpiration decrease.

c)

>\

=ca

.a

,c

'd

-.c

U)

-J

(g

0)

(o

_9

(g

0000 0600 12a0 1800

i.

24aa

At the l.9.Yl. relative humidity (dry air) the

concentration gradient at water vapour between

the leaves and surrounding is high, so the rate

of transptration is i.?.:.L-e.?.9S3.....'..

lent

2.

When the relative humidity is high, the air is

c)

t
.F

'o<t,

s*3tY.*L1.1... with water vapour. The water is

unable to evaporate from the leaves'

C.

F
Relative humiditv

The Regulation of Transpiration by Stomata

1.
2.

$riiilllll:-,i

Each stoma consists of a pair of kidney shapecl

git9.*..

c9.l!.{ surrounding st.qt9'19 p.9f'9"

ceilwall
Unlike other celts, guai"d ceils are sP.3.9j3.1*93 epidermal cells with a thicker inner
and also contain c.h.lg.tSf

rlll

'{3i'L:'

lgHgl ... epidermis while

on b9i'b.""'. lower and upper epidermis'

ln dicotyledonous leaves, stomata are found on the

J.

monocotyledonous leaves have stomata

4.

l:l

,,,rll:: l

,,iil;

ln general, stomata oPPl.{..... during the day and c.\9j9-s"...' at night.

Closing

Opening

E.Fi9:tT.3.'....

;.ii*

-ffi

v.:.9.q.9J.e....... d(<-

;il;,..ii.;
Thin outer cel!

\\
-'ii;)

wall-fiF1t,U\ i, , i Jl');n,

#;;i::'ff
Nucleus -r YV;rctornqtel
v.....
(a)

oF
n
t'"'..'"'

t-* * *" tr"*t,r"tis "*r't

g.t'Y.n9.{9.

a)

guard cells and produce

(b)

K* ions are ap.t!y.9!J...... pumped from

(translocation)

surrounding epidermal cells into the guard

cells.
(c)

An accumulation of K+ ions and glucose

increases the of.T.$.f.1.. p'l9ll'Y.T" of
guard cells.

(e) The guard cells become

t.''lt9i'9..'...'.

K+ ions move out of the guard cells into

the epidermal cells.

cells move into the

g.'J.q.1.9..... cells by osmosis

Therefore, osmotic pressure of guard cells

d

s.: r.q3:.f.f.....

(d) Water diffuses out into the epidermal cells

by osmosis.

and

curve outward, the stomata open'

(f) Hence, water

(b)

(c)

(d) Water from epidermal

ln the dark, photosynthesis does not

occur. Sugar and amino acid are
translocated out of the guard cell

(e) The guard cells become

the stomata closed.

vapour diffuses out from the

sub stomata air space to the surrounding'

fl.?.3.1i.1.".. and

(f)

Water vapour cannot diffuse out to the

surrounding. Transpiration stops.

6.4- >c442

!t

dQuestion 1 paper 3
was carried out by a few Form Four students to investigate the effects of air movement
1.1(a)'
6l1i i;-anspiration in Hibiscus plant. The set up of the apparatus is shown in Diagram
mffapparaius is left on the laboratory table. The stopwatch is started when the fan speed as
the air
ffifnm lmutiat air bubble position are set at 0 as in Diagram 1.1(b). The tirhe taken for
ffim,mnove

a distance of 10 cm, or PQ is recorded down.

experiment in Diagram 1.1(a) is repeated with the fan speeds set at 1,3 and 5 respectively1lll2(p) shows the result obtained from the experiment.
llibiscus plant

^K+

-\il

bubble

(l:rpillalv tube
'50 cm

DIAGRAM

1 .1

(a)

Scirle

!514131211109 8 7 6 5 4 3 21

Ocm

Initiirl Position
of irir bubble,

fuu
*so T

I
45d1

to

.N

l\{inute

krt

30

DTAGRAM 1.1(b)

conditions faced by the Hibiscus plant are:

Condition

Fan speed

Air movement

Slow

Moderate

tr

Fast

2
?

Table 1.2(a)

++ll9i"-sr*1

5'D

Ei

!f"''
Condition

Fan speed

f.ss
*so
1

Time taken (min

Observation

so

s\
10"

4s ,P
-4o ,/

kfr

30 21;l

20

{sa
'50

60

s'\

3+

15

1oa

4s\ls
-49 \

a3

eo_

\"lu 30 'tg
50

10

4s oliu
40

le

20

Fsoz{
Table 1.2(b)
1. (i) From Table 1 .2(b), state two different observations

1. When the fan speed is ..1.,... the air bubble takes ..?.1.. minutes to move from P to Q
2. When the fan speed is ..f.....tne air bubble takes ...i?.... minutes to move from P to Q
(ii) State the inference which corresponds to the observation in 1 (i).
1. Speed fan 1 is a 1.9.*... speed, the water loss from the Hibiscus plant is s1.93.......

2. Speed fan 5 is a hi9.h... speed, the water loss from the Hibiscus plant is f.9.f1.......
2, Write down the time taken for the air bubble in the potometer to move a distance of PQ for the

differcnt fan speed respectively in table 1.2(b).

n
t#

tf

tl
r*

il

+sl!e:f,"*.

l:,-:

ele Table 'i.3 based on this expertment

Method to handle the variabie

Variable

: -;aied variable

Use d.r$e-q9.Lt.. tan speeds which are

.peed

:,:::
--e
:

speed1,3and5.

rding variable

:.i.T.9..... taken for the air

::

3 to move a o l.i t3?.99. ..,

for the air bubble to move a distance

from P to Q by using a

'::r:- = iO Q
- : -:'ciled variable

*--

M99S.Y.19.. and record the time taken

tJP9........ of plant

sIffl.'H:*'i..

F.H......the type of Plant that is

Hibiscus plant.

4 i :r:: :'e hypothesis

Tth,*

Table

1.3

for this exPeriment.

* J!9i.tfre fan speed, the sltg.r)fL the time taken for the air bubble to move from P to Q

g l.sed on Table 1.2(b), construct a table and record the results of the experiment which
r: -de the following asPects:
: -he fan speed
: r'-ne time taken for the air bubble to move from P to Q
- The rate of transpiration of Hibiscus plant (cm/nin)
Tqe pon sPeed

'lifne fqKen fon*h elr bubbt

*o move f rom P to q cmin)

The Fote oF +naosPilo+ion

of

gol

sam P lani (

orn

/m;o)

toQ
toQ

o-ei

for the

o.6J

le

plant
the table ln S(i) aOoue, Ora* tne g-rph of the rate of transpiration of Hibiscus
against the fan speed.
Fi-om

taken for
in 5(i) above, explain ihe relationship beiween the fan speed, the time
plant.
Hibiscus
of
:-e air bubble to move from P to Q and the rate of transpiration

:-:m the table

from P to Q is
*\,ren the fan speed is hi.?1t9.1,.., the time taken for the air bubble to move
atmosphere
r.t:,.".i.ti.1., if..r" rat" of transpiration is h.LQlr.9.f...caused more water loss to the

46llF,,b-S*f