105

()

106

199

(Major)



(Minor)

/

5

/

107

(Major)

(Minor)

/
6
EMM
/

108

200

(Major)



(Minor)
/

4
/

109

Workshop

110

201

 -2

202

203

1-8
4

204

Outputs

205

206

Technical & Personnel Development Focuses

Financial & Accounting Focuses

Effort

Gaining Control

Investing

Maintaining
Control

Technical & Financial Focuses

Time
10

207

/
/

(Line Manager)

/
/

11

12

208

4
3

2
1

0
13

High Balance

Low Balance

U-Shaped

N-Shaped

Trough

Peak

Unbalanced

14

209

Policy

4
3
2
1
0

Organizing

2.4

2.6

Motivation

0.68

Marketing

1.7

1.6

1.28

1.20

15

16

210

Investment

2.3

0.94

Information
System

1.21

1.2
1.23

17

18

211

Commitment

19

20

212

Diesel

NG

Electricity

Gasohol 95

LPG

Thermal
Company Fleets
Forklifts

XYZ

Plant A

Plant B

Plant C

Plant D

Plant E

Plant F

Plant g

Canteen

Office

21

Pie Chart

Line Chart Trend

Line Chart Pattern

1

22

213


(/)

(kWh/)

Target Electricity Consumption

= 1,807,679 kWh
.. 2010
= 50,000

(kWh/)

kWh = 31.46 x

(/)

23

24

214

+ 234,679

25

Level 1: /
Level 2: /
Level 3: /

26

215

 1:

2:

3:
(Benchmarking)

250

Power Consumption (kWh)

200

y = 0.798x + 49.722

150

100

50

20

40

60

80

x 100 Degree Days

27

28

216

100

120

140

160

29

investment

high

measures for short

& medium terms

measures for long term

require detailed study

low

low hanging fruits

measures for immediate action

measures for
medium term

easy

difficult
technical possibility

30

217

/
/

/
/

31

awareness
interest
desire
action

Presentation

Awareness

Interest

Workshops

Training

Action

Video

House magazines

Energy newsletter

Posters

4
4

Competitions
Promotional gifts
Local groups

32

218

Desire

4
4

33

34

219

3
(Operation Control
Charts)

Control Chart
Moving Average

Time-series view of expected consumption

Different Values Plot

Cumulative Sum of Deviations

35

36

220

 ()

(Lumen)

(.)
Color (K)

Philips Sylvania

Toshib
a

98.00

79.00

65.00

69.00

570

595

620

531

570

6,000

8,000

8,000

8,000

8,000

6,000

6,500

6,500

6,500

6,500

6,500

6,500

GE

Osram

Panasonic

69.00

79.00

590

37

38

221

39

Non-Conformance

40

222

Non-Conformance

41

42

223

1,000,000

750,000

500,000

250,000

43

Retrofit Isolation Methods

Measures only the effect of the retrofit

Option A: Key Parameter Measurement
Option B: All Parameter Measurement

Whole Facility Methods

Measures all effects in the facility

Option C: Whole Facility
Option D: Calibrated Simulation

44

224

250.00

CUSUM (x 100 kWh)

October

September

July

August

May

June

April

March

January

February

December

October

November

September

July

August

May

June

April

March

January

December

October

November

July

August

May

September

-250.00

June

April

0.00

February

1

40,000 kWh

-500.00

-750.00

2

79,000 kWh

-1000.00

-1250.00

-1500.00

45

46

225

226

kW
Flow Rate, Pressure

( )
3

Unplanned Breakdown

227

1
2

SEC

Examples
Chiller:
kW/TR
Air Compressor:
kWh/100scfm-hr

Pie Chart

Line Chart Trend

Line Chart Pattern

1

228

Examples
kWh
unit of A

MJ
unit of unit A

Examples
kWh
unit of products
MJ
unit of products

Energy consumption vs Production

Energy consumption plotted against production
will produce a straight line of the general form:

y = mx + c
or
Energy = slope x production + intercept
where
c = the intercept (no load or zero production
energy consumption)
m = the slope (characteristic of the system being
analyzed)
8

229

Energy Intensity Time Series Plot

10

230

Linear Regression of Entire Data Set

11

we are able to determine a functional relationship between

consumption and production by means of the linear regression
tool.
Place a trend line on the scatter plot, and to show the algebraic
expression that defines the line.
Electricity consumed/week (kWh) = 476.48 x production (ton) +
59611
There are two parameters in this model:
the slope, 476.48, represents the incremental energy consumed
per ton of production;
the y-axis intercept, 59611, represents the no-production
energy consumption, or base load
12

231

Total variation is made up of two parts:

SST
Total sum of
Squares

SSE
Sum of Squares
Error

Sum of Squares
Regression

SSE ( y y )2

SST ( y y)2

SSR
SSR ( y y)2

SST = total sum of squares / Measures the variation of the yi values around their mean y
SSE = error sum of squares / Variation attributable to factors other than the relationship
between x and y
SSR = regression sum of squares / Explained variation attributable to the relationship
between x and y
13

The coefficient of determination is the portion of

the total variation in the dependent variable that
is explained by variation in the independent
variable

The coefficient of determination is also called Rsquared and is denoted as R2

SSR
R
SST
2

14

232

where

0 R2 1

x
y

x
y

x
R2

15

=1

0 < R2 < 1

R2 = 1 is a perfect fit
R2 = 0.75 or more .a high degree of confidence in the energy performance model
generated

(/)

(kWh/)

Target Electricity Consumption

= 1,807,679 kWh
.. 2010
= 50,000

(kWh/)

kWh = 31.46 x

+ 234,679

(/)

16

233

Lighting

Motors

Air

Compressor

Fan

Cooling Tower

Cooler

Chiller

HVAC
Pump

Boilers
Furnaces

17

18

234

Pump

Steam

Steam
Turbine
Heat
Exchanger

Compressor

Generator

19

Motor
Pump and Fan
Air compressor
Boiler
Air conditioning & Refrigeration
Cooling tower
Absorption chiller

20

235

Ask whether the

system is doing
a useful job
Reduce the
system losses

Switch it off

Select the
driven
machinery for
best efficiency

Select the
motor for best
efficiency

Slow it
down

Reduce
transmission
losses

21

High Efficiency Motors

No
? ()

Yes

Motor

Pattern

Flow/Load

VSD
Yes

?
No

22

236

High Efficiency Motors

Variable Speed Drives

23

plate

kW

Volt, kW

% Efficiency Full
Load
% Load
% Efficiency Load

22 kW
:
400.8 V, 16.77 kW

hFL = 88.5% ( chart )

%Load =

kWactual
100

kWPlate
h
FL

= 67.46%

hL = 88.2% ( chart )

24
29

237

100.0%

88.5%

90.0%

88.2%

80.0%
70.0%

% Efficiency

60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
30.0%
20.0%
10.0%
0.0%

67.46%
0.0%

10.0%

20.0%

30.0%

40.0%

50.0%

60.0%

70.0%

80.0%

90.0%

%Load

100.0%

110.0%

Motor: 22 kW

25
29-1

Pump Fluid power definition

The BHP is the power input to a pump.
The power output is the power transmitted to
the water.

26

238

120.0%

Pump Efficiency definition

The power input to a pump is always greater
than the power output because of friction and
other unavoidable losses.
The efficiency (E) of a pump is defined as

27

Pump Pump curve

28

239

Pump Pump curve

29

Pump

30

240

Pump
The steepness of the flow/head curves varies
among centrifugal pumps, depending of their
design.
The pumps with flat head characteristic curves
should be used for hydronic system.
If there is a large change in flow rate, there
will be a corresponding small change in pump
head.
This makes balancing and controlling flow
rates easier.
31

Pump - System characteristics

The pressure loss in a piping system changes with
the flow rate through the system.
The pressure loss-flow rate relationship is called
the system characteristic.

32

241

Pump - System characteristics

If the pressure loss is calculating on one flow rate,

it can be found at any other flow rate.
33

Pump - Pressure loss in open systems

An open piping system is one that is open to the atmospheric at

some point.
An example is a condenser-cooling tower water system.

34

242

Pump - Pressure loss in closed systems

A closed piping system is one where the water is re-circulated

continuously and there is no gap or opening in the piping.
There is no net change in elevation of the water around the
whole circuit, and therefore the change in He is 0 in the flow
energy equation.
An example is a chilled water system.
35

Pump Pump curve and System curve

36

243

Pump Pump curve and System curve

37

Fan - Backward centrifugal fan

38

244

Fan - Axial flow fan

39

Pump Fan - Affinity laws

It is a common practice to modify the performance of a
pump by changing the rotational speed or impeller
diameter.
Flow rate, Head, Shaft power are related to the new
and old speeds of impeller diameters.
The laws governing this relationship are called as
affinity laws
The affinity laws may be used in conjunction with the
system characteristic to generate a new pump head
characteristic.
40

245

Pump affinity laws

Fan affinity laws

Q2
N
= 2
Q1
N1

N
= 2
N1

N
= 2
N1
BHP1

P2
P1
BHP2

Where
Q = flow rate in m3/s or CFM
P = pressure in kPa or in.wg
BHP = brake horsepower in watt or hp
41

LC

Discharge

42

246

Blowers
Conveyor
Belts
Cooling Water
Pumps
Chilled Water
Pumps
Level Control
Pumps

speed valve
n
damper
Q Q
2

Reduce
Speed

System
characteristics

Pump/fan characteristics

44

n1

n
H 2 H1 2
n1
Increase resistance
when damper closes

43

n
P2 P1 2
n1

Note:
Q = Flow
H = Head
P = Power
n = Speed

picture source: CTV050 compressed air opportunities for businesses

247

Inlet Flow rate = 14.55 m3/min

= 38.95 C
= 1 atm
= 30
= 37.95 kWh
= kWh/100 scfm-hr

45

Air compressor Why standard condition ?

Exercise
What is the flow rate of air entering the duct heater in previous
example, expressed in CFM?

 
46

248

 





 






 


Air compressor Why standard condition ?

When rating the capacity of equipment such as air compressors,
fans, coils, air handling units
The manufacturers do not know the conditions of temperature and
pressure that each user will apply.
CFM of the equipment
is often expressed at standard air conditions, free air delivery (FAD)

Standard air is defined at

Specific volume = 13.3 ft3/lb d.a.
Density = 0.075 lb/ft3 d.a. = 1.2 kg/m3
Temperature = 68 deg F = 20 deg C
Pressure = 29.92 in. Hg. = 1 barg

P1 V1
T1

P2 V2
T2

47

Inlet Flow rate = 14.55 m3/min = 522.88 cfm

= 38.95 deg C = 38.95 + 273 = 311.95 deg K
= 1 atm
= 30 = 0.5 hr
P1 V 1
P2 V 2
P1 Q 1
P2 Q 2
=
=
T1
T2
T1
T2
1
P1= 1 barg = 2 bar abs
Q1= unknown
T1= 20+273 = 293 deg K

(2 ) x Q1
48

293

2
P2= 1 barg = 2 bar abs
Q2= 522.88 cfm
T2= 38.95 + 273 =311.95 deg K

(2) x (522.88)
311.95

Q1 = 491 scfm

249

Q1 = 491 scfm
= 30 = 0.5 hr
= 37.95 kWh
>> kWh/100 scfm-hr

= 37.95 kWh
= 0.1546 kWh
scfm-hr
491 scfm x 0.5 hr
= 0.1546 kWh X 100

scfm-hr 100

= 15.46 kWh
100 scfm-hr

49

Inlet Flow rate = 14.55 m3/min

= 38.95 C
= 1 atm
= 30
=37.95 kWh
= kWh/100 scfm-hr
15.46

best
17.24
50

250

average
21.63

worst
50.93

 (Compressed Air
Generation)
(Treatment)
(Distribution)
(Leaks)
(Use/Misuse)

51

Compressors
Compressors
Pre-Cooling

52

251

Compressors

Compressor
Compressor

53

Lubricated Piston

Non-Lubricated Piston

Oil-injected Vane/Screw

Non-Lubricated Toothed
Rotor/Screw
Non-lubricated
Centrifugal

Capacity (l/s)

Specific Power (J/l)

Part Load Efficiency

2-25

510

25 250

426

250 1,000

361

2-25

552

25 250

467

250 1,000

404

2-25

510

25 250

446

250 1,000

404

25 250

429

250 1,000

382

1,000 2,000

382

250 1,000

446

1,000 2,000

382

2,000

361

54

252

(J/l)/21 kW/100 cfm

Dirt, Water, Oil & Microbial

Quality
Class

Dirt/Particle Size

Dirt/Concentration

Water/Dew Point

Oil

micron

mg/m3

mg/m3

0.1

0.1

-70

0.01

-40

0.1

-20

15

+3

40

10

+7

25

+10

Oil

Dirt

Water

General Maintenance Shop

Paint Spraying

Process Control Instruments

Pneumatic Tools

55

Dew Point

Dryer

+10 C

Deliquescent

1%

+3 C

Refrigeration

5%

-20 C

Membrane

28%

-20 C

Waste Heat Regenerative

Air Compressor

3 5%

-40 C

Desiccant Heatless

10 15%

-40 C

Desiccant Heated or External Blower

8 12%

-70 C

Desiccant Heatless

21%

56

253

Pipe Nominal Bore (mm)

Pressure Drop/100 m (bar)

Equivalent Power Lost (kW)

40

1.8

9.5

50

0.65

4.4

65

0.22

1.2

80

0.04

0.2

100

0.02

0.1

note: for air flow rate = 250 l/s @ 7 barg

1 bar Specific Energy (kWh/unit volume) 7%

57

(Free air delivery)

300
Pipe Inner Diameter: Actual = 90 mm
Working Pressure 9 barg
Pressure Drop 0.04 bar
58

254

59

60

255

300
Pipe Inner Diameter: Actual = 90 mm
Working Pressure 9 barg
Pressure Drop 0.04 bar
Free air flow = 200 L/s
= 0.2 m3/s

ID = 90 mm = 0.09 m
A = 0.00636 m2
V = Q/A = 0.2 / 0.00636 = 31.4 m/s (Free air velocity)
61

High Pressure Compressed Air

Air Compressor 3 barg

7 barg 33%

7 barg

air knifes, blow guns (recommended 2 bargs),

air agitation

62

256

High Pressure Booster

/
/

De-Bottleneck

Intelligent Flow Control

VSD
Heat recovery Air Compressor

63

64

257

Boiler Efficiency

Steam Pr oduction Rate Steam Enthalpy BFW Enthalpy

100
Fuel Flowrate Fuel Lower Heating Value

Enthalpy

/
Boiler Feed Water (BFW)
BFW Steam Table
(Enthalpy)

65

Higher heating value(HHV)

= gross energy =upper heating value
= gross calorific value (GCV) = higher calorific value (HCV))
The HHV takes into account the latent heat of vaporization of
water in the combustion products
Lower heating value (LHV)
=net calorific value (NCV) = lower calorific value (LCV))
LHV is determined by subtracting the heat of vaporization of
the water vapor from the HHV.
66

258

 A word of caution: when comparing efficiencies, it is important

to know if the efficiency is based on the high heat value (HHV)
or low heat value (LHV) of the fuel. Both are essentially
correct, but comparing an efficiency based on HHV to one
based on LHV would not be correct.
In the United States, boiler efficiencies are typically based on
the HHV.
In Europe, they are typically based on the LHV and result in a
higher value than when based on HHV.
The general relationship is: Efficiency based on LHV = Efficiency
based on HHV multiplied by 1.11 for natural gas and multiplied
by 1.06 for diesel fuel oil.
67

(Boiler Feed
Water) 75C

(Saturated Steam)
50 Ton/hr
6.5 barg

30,000

Lower
Heating Value
40,070.00 MJ/t

6,500
(Thermal Efficiency)?

68

259

Boiler Efficiency

Steam Pr oduction Rate Steam Enthalpy BFW Enthalpy

100
Fuel Flowrate Fuel Lower Heating Value

/
Boiler Feed Water (BFW)
(Enthalpy)
BFW Steam Table
Steam Table
69

70

260

50 Ton/hr
30,000 Ton/ ;
6,500
6.5 barg = 7.5 bar abs
75 deg C
40,070.00 MJ/t ( )
314.03 kJ/kg
2,765.7 kJ/kg

71

input
= 6,500 hr/yr
= 30,000 Ton/yr
= 30,000/6,500 =4.62 Ton/hr
heating value = 40,070 MJ/Ton
= 185,123 MJ/hr
output
(saturated steam) 50 Ton/hr
enthalpy = 2,765.7 - 314.03 = 2,452 kJ/kg
(output) = 2452 kJ/kg x 50 x 1000 kg/hr
=122,600,000 kJ/hr = 122,600 MJ/hr
= output / input = 122,600 / 185,123 = 66%
72

261

Flue Gas
(Dry Basis)

Flue Gas
Monograph
Flue Gas
Monograph

Boiler

73

% CO2 Flue Gas 8%

Flue Gas 175 C
% Flue gas loss

Natural gas

74

262

Steam

35
12

30

25

6
20

% Flue Gas Losses

% Dry Flue Products by Volume

10

18.2%

16.9%
16.1%

2.1 %

3.2 %

15
15.0%

1.3 %

20

75

40
60
% Excess Combustion Air

% CO2
Flue Gas Flue Gas (deg C)

80

100

10

% Flue gas loss

175

18.2

10

175

16.9

130

16.1

10

130

15.0

An optimal content of carbon dioxide - CO2 - after combustion is

approximately 10% for natural gas
approximately 13% for lighter oils
76

263

% Dry Flue Products by Volume

30

10

20

10

20

264

100

20

40

15

30

10

20

10

78

80

20

40
60
% Excess Combustion Air

80

100

% Flue Gas Losses

% Dry Flue Products by Volume

77

40
60
% Excess Combustion Air

% Flue Gas Losses

15

79

Fuel

80

Excess Air (%)

O2 in Flue Gas (%)

Min

Max

Min

Max

Natural Gas

10.0

15.0

2.0

2.7

Fuel Oil

20.0

25.0

3.3

4.2

Coal

30.0

50.0

4.9

7.0

Typical excess air and oxygen to achieve

highest efficiency for different fuels

265

Blowdown

5%

81

Boiler blowdown is the removal of water from a boiler.

A blowdown of the boiler is a routine operation necessary due
to the increased concentration of Total Dissolved Solids - TDS in the boiler during the steam production.
Its purpose is to control boiler water parameters within
prescribed limits to minimize scale, corrosion.
Blowdown is also used to remove suspended solids present in
the system.
These solids will contaminate control valves, heat exchangers
and steam traps
These solids are caused by feedwater contamination, by
internal chemical treatment precipitates, or by exceeding the
solubility limits of otherwise soluble salts.
82

266

BD = S x TDS
TDSmax - TDS
% BD =

TDS
TDSmax - TDS

BD
= blowdown rate (kg/h)
S
= steam consumption (kg/h)
TDS
= Total Dissolved Solids - TDS - in the feed water (ppm)
TDSmax = maximum allowable Total Dissolved Solids - TDS
in the boiler water (ppm)

83

The blowdown can range from less than 1% when an

extremely high-quality feedwater is available to greater
than 20% in a critical system with poor-quality feedwater.
The blow down rate of a boiler depends on
1) steam consumption (steam used in the process and
not returned as condensate to the boiler)
2) concentration of impurities in the feed water
3) maximum allowable TDS in the boiler

Boilers are normally operated in the range 2000 - 3500 TDS

84

267

135 C

28.5 C

37.5 C

218.4 C

Stefan-Boltzman Equation

W
Loss 2 5.67 108 T 4
m
Temperature in Kelvin unit
85

Basis

, Condensate, Hot Oil

(60 80C)
Stefan-Boltzman Equation

W
Loss 2 5.67 108 T 4

60 C

86

268

Thermal Conductivity
(W/m-K)
Calcium Silicate
@ 50C: 0.055
@ 100C: 0.058
@ 300C: 0.088

Rock Wool

@ 50C: 0.037
@ 100C: 0.043
@ 300C: 0.088

87

Flue Gas

Basis

Flue Gas

(> 250 C)

Flue Gas

Acid Dew Point

Flue Gas

250C
7

Acid Dew Point
Flue Gas (1.5 Acid Dew
Point)

88

269

 When sulfur-containing fuels are burned, the sulfur is oxidized to

SO2.
If sufficient oxygen is available, some of that SO2 oxidizes further
to SO3.
If water is present, it may react with the SO3 to form H2SO4 in a
reversible reaction
Condensation of these vapors leading to corrosion and tube
failures.
Above 500C, it is almost entirely free SO3
At low temperatures, below 200C, all of the SO3 is present as
H2SO4
SO3 + H2O > > H2SO4
sulfur trioxide + H2O >> sulfuric acid
89

Empirical Data

Condensate

Flash Steam
Condensate

90

270

Boiler - (Flash Steam)

(condensate)
(latent heat)

7 barg 0 barg
= hfg = 2,257 KJ/kg
(Flash steam) 1 kg (steam)
0 barg = 2,257 KJ/kg

Flash Steam

Flash tank
91

Air conditioning system

.. 2552
92

271

Air cond split type

(Condensing unit) (Fan-coil
unit) 50

93

Air cond - chiller

94

272

COP (coefficient of performance)

Cooling output at evaporator
COP =
Work input at compressor
EER (energy efficiency ratio)
EER =

Cooling output at evaporator (Btu/hr)

kW/TR
kW/TR =

Work input at compressor (Watt)

Work input at compressor (kW)
Cooling output at evaporator (TR)

where as

95

1 TR = 1 ton of refrigeration
1 TR = 12,000 Btu/hr = 3.52 kW = 4.71 hp
1 watt = 3.4 Btu/hr
1 Btu = 1.055 kJ

An 1 TR air conditioning unit consumes 1,100 watt of electrical

power. Determine the coefficient of performance (COP), energy
efficiency ratio (EER), and kW/TR.
Cooling capacity = 1 TR = 3,520 watt = 12,000 BTU/hr

COP =

EER =

3,520 watt
1,100 watt

Cooling output at evaporator (Btu/hr)

=
Work input at compressor (Watt)

kW/TR =
96

Cooling output at evaporator

=
Work input at compressor

12,000 watt
1,100 watt

1.1 kW
=
Cooling output at evaporator (TR) 1 TR
Work input at compressor (kW)

= 3.2

= 10.9

= 1.1

273

 (COP)
COP

QL
Ecomp

QL = , kW
Ecomp = , kW

COP

(System COP,
SCOP)

97

Air cond

98

274

Air cond split type

(1)

99

Air cond split type

100

275

Air cond Split type - Compressor

101

Air cond Split type -

(COP)
()

COP

102

276

h1 h4
h2 h1

h1 = , kJ/kg
h2 = , kJ/kg
h4 = , kJ/kg

Air cond Split type -

HP = 250 psi
LP = 70 psi

103

xxx psia

xx psia

104

277

Air cond Chiller -

105

Air cond Chiller -

()

106

278

Air cond Chiller -

(Central System)
(Air-cooled System)
(Water-cooled System)

107
107

Air cond - Chiller Compressor

reciprocating

108

screw

centrifugal

centrifugal

279

Air cond Chiller

()

0.5 kW/TR

109109

109

Air cond Chiller -

SI -

QL mwc p ,w (Tw,in Tw,out )

mW = , kg/s
cp,w = , kJ/kg.K
Tw,in = , C
Tw,out= , C

mw wVw
W = , kg/m3

VW = , m3/s
110

280

Air cond Chiller -

IP -

QL

Vw (Tw,in Tw,out )
24

QL = , TR
VW = , GPM
Tw,in = , F
Tw,out= , F

111

Air cond Chiller -

480 GPM
55F 45F
120 kW

= 480 x (55 - 45) / 24

= 200 TR (2,400,000 Btu/h 702.7 kW)

EER
= (2,400,000) / (120 x 1000)
= 20.0
COP
= (702.7 x 1000) / (120 x 1000)
= 5.85
kW/TR
= (120) / (200)
= 0.6

112

281

Air cond FCU/AHU -

113

Fan Coil Unit

Air Handling Unit

Air cond FCU/AHU -

SI-

QL ma (hi he )
QL = , kW
ma = , kg/s
hi = , kJ/kg
he = , kJ/kg

ma
a va Adiff
aVa
a = , kg/m3

Va = , m3/s
va = , m/s
Adiff= , m2
114

282

Air cond FCU/AHU -

115

Air cond FCU/AHU -

SI & IP-

Q
5.707 103 Va (hi he )
L
QL = , TR
Va = , m3/min



-

116

283

Air cond FCU/AHU -

Split type
0.5 m/s 0.9 m2
16C 79 %RH 25C 58 %RH
2.4 kW
38 kJ/kg 55 kJ/kg
= 0.5 x 60 x 0.9 = 27 ../
QL = 5.707 x 10-3 x 27.0 x (55 38)
= 2.6 TR (30,879 Btu/h 9.1 kW)
EER = (30,879)/(2.4 x 1,000)= 12.9
COP = (9.1)/(2.4) = 3.8
117

Cooling Tower

Counter Flow

Cross Flow

118

284

Cooling Tower
Performance of cooling tower is measured in term of its approach.
Approach means how close temperature of cooled water comes
closes to wet-bulb temperature of the ambient air, when water is
cooled through the desired range.
Cooling range = Ti To
Approach = Ti-Twb
Cooling tower thermal efficiency = Cooling range / Approach

Ti

Twb

To
119

Cooling Tower spec cooling tower

120

285

Cooling Tower
Water flow in
temperature
Ti = 100 deg F
= 37.8 deg C

Ambient temperature
T DB = 95 deg F = 35 deg C
RH = 63%
T WB = 84 deg F = 28.8 deg C

Water flow out

temperature
To = 90 deg F
= 32.2 deg C

t to
CT i
t i t wb

100

ti = 37.8C
to = 32.2C
twb = 28.8C
hCT = 62.2%

121

Cooling Tower
Water flow in
temperature
Ti = 100 deg F
= 37.8 deg C

Ambient temperature
T DB = 95 deg F = 35 deg C
RH = 63%
T WB = 84 deg F = 28.8 deg C

Water flow out

temperature
To = 92 deg F
= 33.3 deg C

t to
CT i
t i t wb

100

ti = 37.8C
to = 33.3C
twb = 28.8C
hCT = 50.0%

122

286

Absorption chiller
Exhaust gas
Steam
Hot water
Waste heat
Heat source

Chilled water

Natural gas
Biogas
LPG
Diesel
Solar energy

123

Absorption chiller - Process

124

287

Absorption chiller - Refrigerant

(NH3)- (H2O)
(LiBr) (H2O)

Refrigerant

Absorbent

Water

LiBr

Ammonia

Water

125

Vapor compression VS Absorption chiller

condenser

metering
device

compressor

evaporator

Vapor compression
126

288

Absorption chiller

Absorption chiller Refrigeration cycle

127

Absorption chiller Internal structure

128

289

Absorption chiller Single stage

129

Absorption chiller Double stage

130

290

Absorption chiller R 718

~ 0.01 bar absolute

~ 0.1 bar absolute

131

Air cond Absorption chiller -

: 1 kg/cm2 130-150oC
COP 0.65

: 8 kg/cm2 180-200oC
COP 1.1



(190-204oC)
COP 1.1

132

291

Air cond Absorption chiller -

(3)

133

133

Air cond Absorption chiller -

()

134

292

Air cond Absorption chiller -

()

135

Lighting

Automatic On/Off Mechanism

High Efficiency Lighting System
Natural Lighting

Motor

High Efficiency Motor

Resizing
Variable Speed Drive

Air
Compressor

Higher Efficiency Air Compressor

Intelligent Flow Control (IFC) System
Heat Recovery

Cooling
Tower

Chiller

Higher Efficiency Heat Exchange Element

Variable Speed Drive for Cooling Water Pump
Recovery Heat within Process (Pinch Analysis)
Higher Efficiency Chiller
Absorption Chiller
Better Building Envelop

136

293

Boiler

Blowdown Heat Recovery

Flue Gas Heat Recovery
Boiler/Piping Insulation Installation/Improvement
Better Combustion Control
Process Improvement Resulting in Steam Consumption Reduction

Furnace

Flue Gas Heat Recovery

Furnace Insulation Installation/Improvement
Better Combustion Control
Process Improvement Resulting in Fuel Consumption Reduction

137

294

% Dry Flu
ue Products
s by Volume

10

12

20

40
60
% Excess Combustion Air

80

100

10

15

20

25

30

35

Boiler FlueGasLoss Natural

Gas
% Flue Gas Losse
es

295

80

100

0
40
60
% Excess Combustion Air

0
20

10

20

30

10

15

Boiler FlueGasLoss FuelOil

% Dry Flue Produc

cts by Volum
me

296
% Flue Gas Loss
ses

% Dry
y Flue Produ
ucts by Volum
me

40
60
% Excess Combustion Air

80

100

20

10

20

30

15

10

40

20

Boiler FlueGasLoss Coal

% Flue
e Gas Losse
es

297

Aircompressor Nomograph
298