Flowing and Gas-lift Well Performance

ABSTRACT
The paper describes the tao-phase vertical-lift
lunctlon, explains the hydraulics of natural flow,
outlines t ~ o - p h a s eflow through orifices, sumnlarlzes
methods for estimating individual well capabilities,
and includes approximations for solutlon of naturalflow and gas-lltt problenls for tubing of the 1.66-,
1.90-, 2.375-, 2.875- and 3.50-ln. API sizes, and
crude 011s in the gravlty range from 25 t o 40 API.
INTRODUCTION
Advances I n knowledge of the diHerent lifting
methods do not lend theniselves to evaluation qulclily or i n slmple econoniic ternis. I n the aggregate,
however, they constitute the necessary b a s ~ sfor
in~provedl l f t ~ n gp o l i c ~ e sand profitabilities, wherever oil is r a ~ s e d .
Production by natural flow rightly tops the llst of
llftlng methods, inasmuch a s it produces more 011
than all other methods con~blned. It proceeds with
n ~ l n i n ~ ucost
n ~ In relatlve absence of operating difficulties; and 1s relinquished finally In an atnlosphere
charged with regret, and supercharged with explet i v e s intended to fortify the conclusion that the
stoppage 1s an irreversible act of Providence. Nevertheless, production men have been haunted for years
by the thought that a more defin~teknowledge of
flowlng performance would suggest means of resuming flow after premature stoppages, permit more effective well control, more appropriate How-string
selections, and serve In general to Increase the proportion of oil quantities economically recoverable
by natural flow.
bevelopment of organized
information on v e r t ~ c a l
flow has been s o far a matter of slow growth. A presentatlon in 1930 of the baslc theory by the late
Professor boctor J. Versluys' prov~dedan initial
impetus for current developments, but h a s been applied only to a liniited extent because of practical
difficulties in evaluating factors which appear in
the Versluys differential.

* N. V . De Bataafsche Petroleum
t

'

Maatsch~pp~,
The Hague, The
Netherlands
Presented at the sprlng meet~ngof the P a c ~ f i cCoast D ~ s t r ~ c t ,
D ~ v l s ~ oofn Product~on,Los Angeles, May 1954.
References are at the end of the paper.

An Interesting attempt to solve the problem of

t testing flow through short
two-phase vertical l ~ f by
(67-ft) tubes was reported in 1931 by 1. V. Moore
and H, 1). Uilde.' Failure of this project to provide
the deslred generalization seems attr~butableto use
of tube lengths s o short that representative condltions were not attained. kemler and Poole,' in a paper on flow~ngwells presented before the American
Petroleunl Institute I n 1936, developed a limited
correlation between gas-llquid ratlo and pressure
drop per unit of tublng length, and explained a niethod of estinratlng flowing Ilfe. The work of C. J. May
and A. Laird4" resulted in vertical-l~ft peneralizations well adapted to predlct results within a restricted range of condltlons. The interesting paper
by Poettn~an and Carpenter6 appeared subsequent
to the tinie of derivation of the material here presented.
"Gas-Llft Principles and Practices" by S. E'.
Shaw,' the pioneer consultant on vertlcal flow, provides an lnterestlng discussion of gas-lift history
and methods with correlations which, though limited
in scope, were none the l e s s useful. Shaw's observation, that power lunctions may be applied in approximat~ngthe relationships between nlininiuni gaslift Intake pressures and glven liquid production
rates, has been used here.
The excellent paper by L. C. Babsone added considerably to knowledge of vertical Bow, particularly
in the range lor gas-llquld ratios greater than 2.0
Mcf per bbl. T o a large extent the present paper i s
a result of reviewing Babson's data and work after
addlng a considerable fund of depth-pressure information involving gas-liquid ratios l e s s then 2.0 blcf
per bbl. Thus, Shah, Babson, and the late L. N.
R,lerrill mentloned by Babson, provided the prior hork
nlainly used In the appended correlations of vertlcal
flow.
It will be noted that no distinction is made here
between gas-lift and natural flow. In the gas-lift
range covered by Babson, n ~ i s tHow and annular flow
predominate and no perceptible diHerences are to be
expected. hhere foam How exists, one would be led
to expect son~ewhatsteeper gradients for natural

FLOWING AND G A S L I F T WELL PERFORMANCE

flow than for gas-lift wlth the same total gas-l~quid
ratios, because for natural flow more of the g a s
would be in solution, and the ratios are small enough
that the g a s in solution could be an appreciable part
01 the total available. I n any c a s e , i t may only be
sald that no fimi differences between gas-lift and
two-phase natural flow have been observed; and the
results here presented involving foam flow are derived from flowing-well data and would therefore tend
to represent foam-flow g a s requirements conservatively.
The present purposes are to explain flowing and
gas-lift well performance i n the light of what is now
known of vertical flow, and to provide procedures
and empirical correlations which have been usefully
applied over a period of years i n solution of practical problems. It i s believed that the p a p h i c a l procedures suggested are ~ l d e l yadaptable. I'he gradient data, however, should be used with care and
are oflered in the hope that they may encourage development of more specific data in forms readily
adaptable to field use.

A PRIhlARY DISTINCTION
T o develop an understanding of the behavior of
flowing and gas-lift wells, l t is essential first to
recognize that there i s one s e t of conditions affecting
f l o ~of gas-liquid mixtures into a bore hole, an entirely different s e t of conditions affecting flow of
mixtures from the bottom to the top of the well, and
a third s e t affecting flow through beans at the s u r face. We may designate the first a s "inflow performance, 1 9 the second a s "vert~cal-lift perforn~ance,"
and the third a s "bean performance."
Inflow Perfornlance
Knowledge of individual well inflow performance
i s a basic necessity in equipping and operating 011
wells for n~aximumprofit under any s e t of imposed
conditions.
Rigorous determination of the inflow performance
of a well at any s t a t e in i t s producing llfe would involve:
1. Measurement of the static pressure in the well
at the midpoint of the producing interval.
2. Measurement of the mass rate of inflow of each
fluid phase corrected to midpoint conditions for
each of a s e r i e s of steady operating pressures
measured at the midpoint.
Fortunately, such detailed deternlinatlons are seldom
necessary; but one or more very complete determinations in a particular field can prove helpful in de-

127

ciding what short-cuts and approximations are locally practicable.

The liquld inflow performance of a well at any
stage in i t s decline may be defined by ~ t static
s
pressure (in pounds per square inch) and maxirnunl
inflow rate when the increment of inflow per unit of
pressure or productivity index (PI, measured in barr e l s per day per pound per square inch) i s a constant. The gas-liquid ratio (GLR measured in thousand cublc feet per barrel)may be, for practical p u r
poses, constant. Under such simple conditions the
inflow perforn~ancecan be depicted a s shown in Fig.
1. Individual-well inflow-performance trends may be
depicted a s shown in Fig. 2. T h i s latter type of
graph i s useful in predicting both the timing and
character of lifting changes needed to mantain production and implement the local reservoir policy.
The relation between the midpoint pressure and the
liquld inflow rate (inflow performance relationship,
or IPH, a s mentioned later) i s not always a straight
line a s shown in Fig. 1, but may be concave to the
origin a s shown in Fig. 3. Even l f this curvature i s
marked, it is posslble by study of a group of such
curves from a given field tp develop a locally applicable nrethod of predicting the IPH from the well's
static pressure and a single drawdown deterniination.
Gas-liquid ratio control i s a principal factor i n
development of reservoir policy. Hatios in practice
are affected by cumulated withdrawals; and, at any
one stage of withdrawal, they are altected by production rates, a s has been pointed out by H. J.
S u l l i ~ a n . Generally,
~
of all factors bearing upon
future well performance, the gas-liquid ratio is the
least predictable.

Lu

i? 5

2000

z Z
0
4 z
Lu

w3
LU
cd

I-

1000

200

400

boo

800

PRODUCTION IN BID

Fig. 1-Diagram of lnflaw Performance

W. E. GILBERT

128

@)

STATIC PRESSURE

MAXIMUM GROSS
INFLOW RATE

@(CUT Ctzi%

GASILIOUID RATIO
CURVE)

.
0

CUMULATED OIL WITHDRAWALS

Fig. 2-Graph

of watercut curve shown in F'lg. 1 generally indic a t e s water influx predon~inantlyfrom a relatively
low-pressure source, and the cut curve in Fig. 3
a predominantly high-pressure source. Cut-cumulative curves such a s the one shown in Fig. 2, are of
well-known value in estimating future oil recoveries
fronr wet wells.
In selecting the best operating gross rate for an
individual wet well, it IS sometin~eshelpful to plot
the approximate water IPH from the gross IFH and
two or three cuts a s indicated in E'ig. 4. However,
if s p e c i d t e s t s are necessary for this purpose, it i s
desirable to remember that temporary use of abnornlally high inflow rates can induce a permanent in@ GROSSLIOUID IPR

of Individual-well Inflow-performance
Trends

DETERMINATIONS

3 CORRESPONDING WATER RATES

There have been instances of gas-oil ratio reduct ~ o nfollowing a change in the tubing setting depth
In flowing wells. However, the practice i s not recommended, especially i f it involves killing the
well with water, inasmuch a s the change In tubing
depth can have only a very minor effect of the drawdown opposite gas s a n d s for a given liquid rate;
and if the water reduces gas production, i t i s likely,
at the same time, to reduce the well's future oil potential.

DEFINING WATER IPR

MAXIMUM GROSS

LIQUID INFLOW RATE

hater can be a useful agent In an oil reservoir;

but on reaching the well bore, i t s usual tendency i s
to mininilze flowing life, ultimate recoveries, and
total profits. The operator i s fortunate when water
production can be economically excluded. The type
Fig. 4-Procedure

for Outlining the Water IPR

MOO
GASlLlOUlD RATIO = 1 5 MCFIBBL

2000

1OOO

PRODUCTION IN BID

F i g . 3-Diagram

of Inflow Performance with

Curved IPR

crease in water productivity under some circunistances, e.g., if the water shut-off i s insecure, or if
there is a wide disparity between water and oil viscosities, gentle formation dips, and edge water
close to the bore.
Lilfierential depletion i s progressive during sustained flowing periods wherever the ratio of lateral
permeabilities to vertical permeabilities i s large;
and interflow through the bore between producing
layers takes place durlng any subsequent periods of
shutdown unless a suitable mud i s spotted in the
producing interval. Thus any water inflow from a
relatively high-pressure source tends to seek out
and enter the more depleted oil layers during a shutdown period, and with permanent injury in some
fields to effective oil pernleabilities. After long pe-

FLOWING AND GAS-LIFT W E L L P E R F O R M A N C E

n o d s of flow, a two- or three-week shutdown can

cause from 20 to 40 percent permanent reduction of
the inflow capacity of a well tapping a depletiontype reservoir even if the water cut i s no greater
than 5 percent. Thus, differential depletion i s a factor requiring close consideration in many fields if
the operator's equity in operating wells i s to be protected.
Generally, the rate of liquid inflow increases a s
the operating pressure in a well i s reduced, and the
absolute maximum'liquid inflow would result if zero
absolute pressure could be maintained at the bottom of the well. T h i s condition, of course, cannot
be attained, and l e a s t of all in a flowing well, because a pressure drop in the tubing from the bottom
to the top of the well is necessary to sustain verti:a1 flow. A large pressure at the bottom of a well
facilitates vertical outflow but discourages lateral
inflow. In this sense, the pressure requirements for
inflow and those for vertical lift are opposed to one
another, and, in particular c a s e s , when an effective
compromise can no longer be made by adjustment of
controllable factors, flow must cease. For any steady
flowing condition, the sum of 1 , the effective pressure dfop from the drainage radius to the bore, 2,
the pressure drop i n the vertical column, and 3, the
pressure drop across tbe bean (or orifice) at the surface is substantially equal to the difference between
the well's static pressure and the flow-line pressure.
Vertical-lift Performance
All we need know about two-phase vertical flow
i s how much pressure i s required to lift the well
liquid a t a given rate from a given depth with a give n gas-liquid ratio through tubing of a given size.
T h i s problem i s more complicated than the problem
of single-phase flow in surface pipelines because
we are dealing w ~ t hthe flow of a gas-liquid mixture,
and because the input pressure must be sufficient
not only to overcome flow resistance in the pipe and
the bean a t tbe surface, but must in addition be sufficient to support the total weight of the compressible mixture in the pipe. In single-phase horizontal
flow, the total pressure drop for a given flow rate
can be represented a s so. many pounds per square
inch per thousand feet of length. No such convenient
can be used for vertical two-phase
flow because the pressure drop per unit of length i s
not constant, but increases with depth. For this
reason, in proceeding to systematize field information on vertical flow for pressures l e s s than the
bubble-point pressure, we find there i s a different

129

depth-pressure gradient for each s i z e of pipe, each

rate of liquid flow, and each gas-liquid ratio.*
Depth-Pressure G r a d ~ e n t s

The depth-pressure gradient i s the basic unit of

two-phase vertical flow, and solution of individual
well problems i s largely a matter of having available a representative family of gradient curves covering suitable ranges of tubing s i z e s , rates of liquid
flow, and gas-liquid ratios.
h e are not concerned here with any detailed analy s e s of the physical phenomena which cause the
pressure gradients observed or derived from practical field information. However, it is of interest to
know that a single gradient curve represents a sequence of different types of flow. I hus, starting a t
the upper end of a gradient like that for 200 bbl per
day in 2.875-111. tubing w ~ t h1.0 Mcf per bbl gasliquid ratio, a s shown at A in Fig. 5, mist flow will
predominate a t the lowest pressures, modified progressively by an upwardly moving oil film which
clings to the inside surface of the pipe and increases
in thickness with depth. T h i s film, combined with
mist flow in the center of the pipe, has been described a s annular flow. A s relative depths Increase,
the film becomes s o thick and wavy that it occasionally bridges across the section, resulting In
slug f l o ~ .At still greater depths, slug flow merges
into foam flow, and this finally merges into singlephase flow a t the pressure beyond which all of the
gas is in solution.
Fig. 5 illustrates the use of a gradient curve in
determining the tubing pressure from the intake pressure, or the intake pressure from the tubing pressure,
for a given production rate and ratio for a well of any
depth. For instance, as shown a t t) in Fig. 5, 5,000ft wells with 2.875-in. tubing producing 200 bbl per
day with 1.0 Mcf per bbl will have an intake pressure
of about 440 psi if the tubing pressure at the surface
is one atmosphere (zero gage
and, a s
shown a t C, they will have an intake pressure of
about 1,750 psi if the tubing pressure i s 800 psi.
Similarly, as shown a t D in Fig. 5, an 8,000-ft well
for the same conditions having an intake pressure of
*Grad~entspresumably are a l s o affected by many other factors
lncludlng 11qu1d surface tenslon, v ~ s c o s ~ tand
y gravlty, flowlng temperatures, g a s gravlty, and gas-l~quids o l u b ~ l ~ t ~Howes.
ever, there 1s a reasonably c l o s e correspondence between results whlch have been obta~nedIn the 11ght-011 (25 t o 40 API)
fields of Long Beach, Santa F e . Domlnguez, Ventura, Canal,
and T e n S e c t ~ o n ,and several forelgn fields, vv~thoutad~ustlng
for such factors. Also, d has not been found necessary to correct grad~entsfor water cuts. However, the grad~entsare Inadequate to predlct the effects of emulsions.

W. E. GILBERT

130

2
4

6
8
10
12

PRESSURE

14

PRESSURE IN
HUNDREDS OF P S 1

Fig. 5-Use of Gradient Curves

1,390 psi will have a tubing pressure of 200 psi. Thus

by using the gradient for the desired production rate
and ratlo and interpolating when necessary, we nlay
estimate either the tublng pressure or the intake
pressure in a well of any depth when one of these
pressures i s known.
Empir~calgradient curves for 2.875-111. tubing are
glven in Fig. 23 through 27,*t and slmilar families
of g a d i e n t curves for 1.66-, 1.90-, 2.375- and 3.50in. tubing are given in Fig. 28, 30, 31, 32, and 33.*$
l'he 2.875-1n. gradients are based upon correlation of
data with gas-liquid ratios ranglng from 0.4 to 2.0
Mcf per bbl from 8,000-ft wells in Ten Section F ~ e l d ,
combined with Babson's generalizations in the gaslift range. Errors attributable to the 2.875-in. curves
for 100,200,400, and 600 bbl per day should not exceed 15 percent. The gradients for 50 bbl per day
in the 2.875-in. s l z e and for 50, 100, 200,400, and
600 bbl per day In the other s i z e s are based upon
information which is far l e s s con~plete. However,
they are offered In the belief that they reliably indicate the relative characteristics of each s i z e and
are not likely to lead to nl~sapplications if conservatively employed. Further, it may only be s a ~ dthat
they represent a fair correlation and interpretation
of the 'lnformation readily available.
The Two-phase Vertical-lift Functlon

Using the process outlined in Fig. 2, and a s e t

s , a s those on Fig. 23 through
of g r a d ~ e n t . c u ~ esuch
*In each plate, group A includes gradients for gas-llquld ratios
whlch a r e ' l e s s than the optimum, and group B includes gradients for ratlos greater than the optimum. The gradient for
the optlmum gas-llquid ratlo (called optimum because it prcvldes the lowest pressure for the given rate of flow) 1s at the
bottom of group A and I S marked wlth an m o w pointing t o the
ratio. The grad~entshave been dlvided Into two groups slmply
to avold crossing of Ilnes.

t See p.

145-149, ~ n c l .

$ See p. 150, 154-157. incl.

'

27, the t ~ o - ~ h a sfunct~on

e
for any particular depth
and tubing-outlet pressure may be constructed. For
example, confining attent~onto 8,000-ft wells, 2.875in. tubing, and zero gage tubing pressure, the function may be represented either in terms of intake
pressure and gas-liquid ratio, a s shown at A in Fig.
6, in terms of Intake pressure and production rate,
a s shown at B in Fig. 6, or in terms of intake pressure, production rate, and gas-liqu~dratio, a s shown
a t C in Fig. 6. All three q a p h s represent equivalent
information: At A i s the type of graph used by
Babson; the fornl of illustration B is interesting because the ordinates and abcissae are the same a s
those for the inflow performance (1PH)of a well, and
the two types of data may thus be superimposed.
They are cons~dered following in connection with
estimates of the duration of flowing life. Several
general characteristics of two-phase vertical flow
may be observed at C In Fig. 6. In particular, it
may be noted that:
1. For any constant gas-liquid ratlo there i s a rate
of flow which requires minimum intake pressure.
Also, this rate of Bow for minimum pressure and the
minimum pressure itself both increase a s the gasliquid ratio i s decreased a s indicated by curve 1.
(These observations are of Interest in connection
with flowing wells because of the tendency of flowing wells to have a more or l e s s constant gas-liquid
ratio a t any one tlme.)
2. For any constant rate of flow, there i s a gasliquid ratio which prov~desminimum intake pressure. 1his minimum intake pressure i s directly related to the rate of flow, while the gas-liquid ratio
for minimum intake pressure 1s inversely related to
the rate of flow a s ~ndicatedby curve 2. ( I h e s e o b
servations are of interest in connection w ~ t hgaslift w h ~ c hpermits control of gas-liquid ratios.)
The form of the two-phase function i s largely the
result of the Interaction of flow resistance *and s l ~ p page of g a s through the oil, the resistance factor
being least important when slippage i s greatest and
vlce versa. It i s more or l e s s obvious that the column pressure, being the result of the weight of the
mixture, i s greatest at low gas-liquid ratios. However, it i s l e s s obvious that for any gas-liquid ratio
and depth there i s a rate which requires minimum
lifting pressure with lower rates requiring more lifting pressure because of slippage, and h ~ g h e rrates
requiring more lifting pressure because of resistance.
$

13 1

FLOWING AND G A S L I F T WELL P E R F O R M A N C E

0
1

GAS I LIOUID RATIO IN M C F 1 B

LlOUlD PRODUCTION IN B I D ----a

Fig. 6-The Two-phase Vertical-lift Function for 2.875-in. Tubing Set

(Tubing Pressure = Zero P S I Gage)

at

8,000 F t

132

W. E. GILBERT

For the reader who finds difficulty with this s e t

of facts, the following explanation may prove helpful:
a. Imagine for this purpose a 2,000-ft length of
2.875-in. API tubing mounted vertically on the
face of a precipice in the Hocky Mountains with
s
end where the
a wind-swept platform at ~ t upper
reader may observe results, and a special-type
pump station a t i t s lower end capable of continuously injecting oil of, say, 0.85 gravlty and
g a s with a constant ratlo of, say, 1.2 hlcf per
bbl.
l
a s 0.01 bbl per day of oil
b. Taklng the i n ~ t l a rate
with the 1.2 Mcf per bbl ratlo, the liquid level
would appear a t the upper platforn~after about
115 days (2,000 0.01 x 172.7 = 115.8). Out of
the oil column the observer would s e e g a s bubbling a t the rate of about
cu in. per s e c
(1,200 x 0.01 x 1,728 + 1,440 x 60 = 0.24); and
the pump a t the lower end would be operating at
an input pressure approximating the l ~ q u i dgradient pressure, amounting to 736 psi (2,000 x
0.433 x 0.85 = 736.1). kiost of the gas punlped
Into the tubing durlng the 115-day period would
have slipped out of the column by the time the
level of the mixture reached the observation platform.
c. Now, I pumplng of the same mixture were maintained a t 400 bbl per day, because the l ~ q u l d
alone would fill the pipe in l e s s than 45 min,
(2,000 x 1,440
400 x 172.7 = 41.7+), there
would be very llttle tlme for slippage of g a s
through the oil and the 480 hlcf per day of g a s
(400 x 1.2 = 480) accompanying the oil would
soon produce an oil mlst around the top of the
pipe, the gas-oil volun~eratio at that point belng
about 213 volun~esper volume (480,000/400 x
5.614). The input pressure would be about 150
psi.
d. Last, with an i n j e c t ~ o nrate of 4,000 bbl per
day, slippage would be obviated by extreme turbulence and the input pressure, increased by resistance, would be about 230 p s ~ .
Similarly, if we hold the liquid rate constant and
increase the gas-llquid ratlo, the intake pressure
decreases, from a starting point with zero g a s when
the pressure 1s the sum of the l l q u ~ dwelght and the
l i q u ~ dflow r e s ~ s t a n c e ,to a mlnlmum, and then increases steadily for greater ratios due to increasing
resistance accon~panyinghigher fluid v e l o c i t ~ e s .
'1 he observations sun~marizedin Par. 1 and 2 apply In general to two-phase v e r t ~ c a lflow from any

Y1

rm
200
m
LIQUID PRODUCTION IN B / D

F i g . 7-comparison
from

5,000

I
400

of T u b i n g S i z e s for V e r t i c a l - l i f t

F t w i t h Z e r o T u b i n g Pressure

depth wlth an educter of any s l z e or type and any

given outlet pressure.
l h e relative effects of the difierent tubing s l z e s
are indicated In Fig. 7 (which was constructed from
the gradlent curves of Fig. 23-28,30-33). In general,
the smaller tubing s u e s offer the advantage of lower
Intake pressures at comparatively low rates of flow,
and therefore tend to prolong the flowing l ~ f eof low
gas-l~quidratio wells. The smaller s i z e s , however,
limit rates of Bow, especially for the higher gasliquid ratios.
Annular flow i s not treated here. However, it may
be mentioned that the poorer an annulus i s as a flow
section for slngle-phase flow, the more effective it
will be for two-phase flow In minimlzlng gas s l ~ p p a ~ e
and in improving g a s utilization in the slippage
range a s compared with a circular flow string of equal
s e c t l o n d area.

Two-phase Bean Performance

"Bean" i s the 011-country term for the orifice used
on the tublng outlet to control the production rate
of a flowlng well. Product~onmen are accustomed to

FLOWING AND G A S L I F T WELL P E R F O R M A N C E

selecting bean s i z e s for particular wells on a trialand-error b a s i s and no correlation for two-phase flow
through beans has been generally applied.
The following approximation i s derived from regularly reported daily individual well production data:

435 r 0 5 4 6 B
=

1.89

wherern:
P = tubing outlet pressure, in psig
r = gas-liquid ratio, in klcf per bbl
= gross liquid, i n bbl per day
5 = bean s i z e , in sixty-fourths of an inch
' Approximate solutions for any one of the lour variables when the other three are known, may be made
by use of Fig. 29. Directions for use of this chart
with examples are given on p. 151. The constant
(435) used in the formula i s based upon Ten Section
data with beans of the types shown in Fig. 29, the
results of one sanipling from the Ten Section Field
being shown in Fig. 8.
An error of '/,,,-in. in bean s i z e can effect an
error of 5 to 20 percent in pressure estimates. In
many c a s e s , gas-liquid ratios are reported bnly to
the nearest 50 or 100 cu ft per bbl and are frequently difficult to determine because of fluctuations
which occur In many wells. Spot readings of pressure at heading wells are not representative of daily
averages. For reasons of thls kind, no fornrula could
be expected to maintain a 100 percent correspondence with observed data at individual wells even
though it correctly correlated the variables involved.
As an exan~pleinterpreting the forn~ula,the p e r
formance of ''/,-in. beans 1 in. in length i s illustrated
13

15

11

18

ACCURACY

20

7
/
40

60

80

100

PERCENT OF READINGS

Fig. 8-Indicated

Range of Accuracy of

Bean-performance Formula
(Ten Sect~onData)

LlOUlD PRODUCTION IN B I D

Fig. 9-Performance

of

''4, -in.

Pressures More than

70

Percent Greater than the

Bean for Tubing

Lead-l ine Pressure

in Fig. 9. In the type of formula used, it i s assumed

that actual mixture velocities through the bean exceed the speed of sound, for which condition the
downstream, or flow-line, pressure h a s no eflect
upon the tubing outlet pressure (i.e., pressure on
the upstream side of the bean). 1hus, the formula
applies for tubing pressures at l e a s t 70 percent
greater than the line pressure. Fo; tublng pressures
l e s s than 70 percent greater than the line pressure,
the bean s i z e indicated by the formula will be too
small for the given conditions. fio study has been
made of two-phase bean performance for tubing pres-.
sures in the range from zero to 70 percent greater
than line pressure. Field men usually try to avoid
operation in this range because fluctuations of line
pressure affect the well's operation.
Flowing-well Performance
Individual well problems in natural flow may be
analyzed quite simply by graphical means, a form
which has general application being shown in Fig.
10. In this figure, curve A represents the inflow p e r
formance of a well with tubinglntake pressures
plotted against liquid production rates. The gradient curves B for 2.0 hlcf per bbl gas-liquid ratio
were then plotted starting with the known intake
pressures for 0 , 50, 100, 200, and 400 bbl per day.
The intersections of these gradients at the surface
establish the tubing pressures which the well will
sustain, and the tubing-outlet performance may then
be plotted a s shown by curve C . The depth vs.
pressure diagram of Fig. 10 illustrates the part

W. E. GILBERT

134

played by gradients in flowlng-bell perforniance.

liowever, curve C may be obtpned dlrectly iron,
curve A by subtracting the total gradlent pressure
for each of several rates of flow. Supenniposlng the
perfornlance curve I) for a ''/,,-in. bean, we conclude that the well should flow a t about 96 bbl per
day with a tublng pressure of about 850 psi. Cons ~ d e r i n gcurves C and L), a s shown i n Fig. 11, it
will be seen that there are p o s s ~ b l eequllibr~un~
eaamAL W

U DATA

S I A K FUESlR # PSI = ZYI)

INROW RATE IN BID = YX)
W l W U D RATK) IN M C F I B B L = 2
UOUDWGT INPSIPER 100 Fl = 3 8

nu

PRODUCTION IN BID

illustrating Equilibrium Conditions

a t the Well Head
(For same w e l l as shown I n Fig. 10)

Fig. 11-Diagram

ratlo. Both the tubing- outlet curve C and the bean

curve 13 change with each change in the gas-liquid
ratio after the manner shown a t B in F'ig. 12, but for
each ratio there IS a stable equil~briumpoint.
The relationship between bean s i z e and production rates i s of the type shown at A in Fig. 12. Two
similar curves derived from wells where several
bean s i z e s were used over a short period of time
(6 months or l e s s ) are shown In Fig. 13. Neither of
these wells could be expected to maintain steady
flow a t rates of l e s s than 50 bbl per day, although
they both would produce satisfactorily a t h ~ g h e r
rates. The reason for t h i s limitation l i e s in the fact
that the differential pressure, available to increase
product~onwhen the rate of flow temporarily drops
below the stable equilibrium rate, progressively
dlmlnishes a s the bean s i z e i s reduced below the
bean s i z e which provides maximum tubing pressure.
Thus, considering the bean-performance intersections with the tubing-pressure curve for 1,600 cu ft
per bbl at B In Fig. 12, a ''/,,-in. bean provides
Fig. 10-Diagram

of Flowing-well Performance

points, 1 and 2. Intersection 1 provides a stable

flowing condition because, if a tendency develops
to increase the flow rate, the bean imposes more
pressure resistance than the well can sustain; and
if a tendency develops to reduce the flow rate, the
well develops a higher tubing pressure than the
bean requires. In each of these c a s e s a temporary
displacement of the flowing rate generates a press
sure differential which returns the well to ~ t equilibriumproducing condit~on. Intersection 2 i s an
unstable equilibrium point because any temporary
displacement brings into action a pressure d i f f e r
ential which increases the displacement, and causes
the well either to flow faster or to die, depending
upon the direction of the initial displacenlent. T h i s
limited explanation assumes a constant gas-liquid

100

200

300

400

PRODUCTION IN B I D

Fig. 12-Effect

of Gas-liquid Ratio on E q u i l i b r i m
Production Rates

FLOWING AND G A S L I F T WELL PERFORMANCE

16
~

yzlJ

12

N ~ Z
Ggz a
z<*
I( +
5 u
0

rates. h e e d l e s s to say, the most popular procedure

in handllng wells with allotnlents too small to support flow with the existing tubing s i z e i s to install
nlechanical lift. Nhether or not this IS the best procedure depends upon the well's future capabilities
a s judged from data summarized in the form indicated in Fig. 2.

16

Ln

100

200

PRODUCTION IN 0 I D

300

I00

200

300

PRODUCTION IN 0 I D

FLOWING LIFE

Fig. 13-Relationship Between Production and

Bean Sizes

maximum tubing- pressure; and for smaller beans,

large difl'erential pressures are available to prevent
sustained increases of production rate, but the differential available to prevent decreases of production rate becomes s n ~ a l l e ra s the bean s l z e i s reduced. For a 6/,-in. bean, the tubing and bean perforniance curves nearly coincide and reductions in
rate of flow cannot be prevented. If thls s i z e of bean
were applied to the well represented, the well would
"head up and die." Flow rates, below the practical
minimum for one tublng- s i z e , can only be maintained by use of smaller tubing, or by flow~ngthe well
intermittently for short periods a t relatively high
-

If future IPH's estimated froni a graph such a s

Fig. 2 are plotted for successive s t a g e s of oil withdrawal a s shown in Fig. 14, and curves such a s
those shown at B in Fig. 6 are superimposed, an
estiniate can be made of flowing life. A procedure
for this purpose was developed by h. J. hoodward.*
In Fig. 14, prepared by hlr. hoodward, the IPR's
(shown a s straight lines on the left side of the figure) and the gas-liquid ratio against cumulative
withdrawals (shown a t A in the figure) provide the
essential well data. A number of curves for the Intake pressures necessary to sustaln lift with 200
psi tubing pressure for a s e r i e s of gas-liquid ratios
*Shell 011 Company

2 875" TUBING AT 8000'

200

PS I

135

TUBING PRESSURE

Fig. 14-Prediction of Flowing L i f e

136

W. E. GILBERT

Headrng Cycle:
1. Because of the bypassing of gas Into the annulus, the llquid level IS slowly belng lowered, annulus o i l
IS belng displaced Into the tub~ng.
2. The w e l l 1s st111 producing at a low rate and the tublng column IS heavy because gas 1s beingdlverted
into annulus and o i l from the annulus is belng dlverted Into the tubing.
3. The welght of the tubing column IS belng reduced because no further gas can be stored In the annulus.
T h ~ sfurther reduces the Intake pressure, and
4. Allows gas from the annulus t o "blow around." For a short tlme the well 1s gas-lifted w ~ t hannulus
gas a t a hlgh rate, and thls reduces the Intake pressure t o ~ t slowest value. The w e l l gas is NOT
belng used t o best advantage.
5. The extra annulus gas has been dissipated and fluid, because of the low Intake pressure, IS flowlng
at a high rate Into both the tublng and the annulus. The tubing column IS becomlng heavler and the outflow rate IS d i m i n ~ s h i n ~ .
6. F l u l d IS st111 flowlng Into the well at a faster rate than ~t will flow out of the w e l l w i t h the exlsting Intake pressure.
7. The rate of outflow IS again In balance wlth the rate of inflow, and bypassing of gas into the annulus
starts repetltlon of the cycle.
Observatrons.
T h l s IS not an efficient type of flow because i t produces a large proportion of the o i l wlth a deficient
supply of gas and a small proportion of the o i l w ~ t han excess supply of gas.
The usual practice of beanlng a well back t o a low rate of flow t o avoid t h ~ stype of surging is not effic ~ e n t ,and In many Instances results in avoidable reduction of Income.
T h l s type of flow IS c h a r a c G r ~ s t ~ofc the latter part of the flowlng l ~ f eof wells i n most areas, but i s also
characterlst~cof many relatively new low g a s - l ~ q u ~ratlo
d
wells.

Heading actlon of t h l s klnd can be mlnirnlzed by use of tubing-casing packers, but where packers are
not already ~nstalled,use of casing-actuated intermitters may be preferable.
Fig. 15-Unsteady Natural Flow

Headrng Cycle:
1. A t the start of the flowlng perlod, the tublng IS opened by the r i s l n g caslng pressure whlch actuates
the motor valve. The column of gas whlch has collected I n the upper part of the tubing i s produced, and
the consequent r e d u c t ~ o nof pressure ensures flow of the fluld mixture In the tubing below t h l s gas column.
2. The tubing pressure trends downward whlle fluld IS being displaced out of the annulus, and then
3. Rlses as annulus gas starts t o break around the foot of the tubing.
4. When the caslng pressure reaches the predetermined mlnlmum, the motor valve closes the tubing outlet,
but flow Into the we1 l continues w l t h very l l t t l e decrease I n rate, both gas and l ~ q u l dflow lng Into the
annulus. Tublng pressures contlnue t o r i s e . The caslng pressure, whlch IS d ~ r e c t l yrelated t o the
amount of gas stored I n the annulus, a l s o Increases I n response t o gas and llquld enterlng the well.
When the casing pressure reaches the predetermined maxlmum, r e p e t ~ t i o n of the c y c l e IS started by
opening of the motor valve.
Observatrons:
B y regularizing flow, caslng-actuated lntermitters can be used t o Increase the rate of flow and extend
the flowlng I l f e of w e l l s when they reach the heading stage.
lntermltters are not t o be recommended for w e l l s whlch will produce more on the pump, but they are
recommendable:
a. T o Increase the rate of flow of w e l l s whlch have been beaned back t o avold heading.
b. T o regularize and increase t h e flow of new low-ratlo w e l l s u n t l l Increase of gas r a t l o s may permlt
steady flow a t deslred rates.
lntermltters have been used t o flow w e l l s whlch would not flow wrthout an ~ntermltter, wells w ~ t hwater
cuts exceeding 50 percent and w e l l s at rates exceeding 500 bbl per day. lntermitters have been misapplied, and mostly by inexpert selection of bean slze and casing-pressure ranges. The bean should preferably be as large as necessary t o ensure a continuous drop of casing pressure during the on-perlod (1 t o end
of 3) and n o larger. T h e casing-pressure range must be large enough t o ensure a flow of gas around the
foot of the tublng, s l g n a l ~ z e dby a steady buildup In tublng pressure. A longer range IS unnecessary and
often undes lrable.

Fig. 16-Intermitter Control of Natural F l o w

W. E. GILBERT

138

were superimposed over the IPR lines and the well's

flowing progress was interpolated using the gasliquid ratio data given. Rhen the well's progress
curve becomes tangent to the IPR, flow must cease.
By constructing sinlilar graphs for other tubing s i z e s ,
it was concluded that this well would flow 120,000
bbl in 415 days with use of 3.5-in. tubing; 135,000
bbl i n 505 days with 2.875-in. tubing; and 265,000
bbl in 1,370 days with 2.375-111. tubing. Any serious
errors in tubingsize selection can be avoided by
applications of this procedure.
In connection with Howing life, it may be menhoned that observed rates of decline during natural
flow are usually unreliable a s indices of the decline
of well inflow capacities. Consequently, misapplications can result from assuming that flowing decline i s representative of the decline to be expected
on mechanical Ilft. T h e reason for this l i e s in the
fact that flowing i s a high-rate lifting method and
requires greater lifting pressures as rates are reduced. Examples can easily be drawn from practice.
Iiowever, in the hypothetical case of Fig. 14, it will
be seen that the well starts out flowing about 57 p e r
cent (625~100/1,100) of its initial maximum-rate
capacity, and at the end of i t s flowing life, it i s
only producing about 14 percent (75 x 100/540) of
i t s residual maximum-rate capacity.

UNSTEADY FLOW
A working knowledge of unsteady flow i s a necessary tool in maintaining desired production rates
and in avoiding unnecessary stoppages, particularly
in the latter s t a g e s of flowing life.
There are two principal sources of unsteady flow:
1, segregation of free g a s from liquid in the rising
fluid column, and 2, segregation of free g a s from
liquid at the tubing intake.
Fornlatlon heading, which is evident in L a P a z
F'ield, Venezuela, n ~ a ybe excluded from usual consideration inasmuch a s it cannot occur unless the
well i s tapping a fissured or cavernous reservoir.
Heading of the first type i s observable even in
settled pumping wells operating wlth low-liquid
volumetric-pump efficiencies and i s a relatively unimportant phenomenon. It causes relatively small,
and often irregular, pressure changes of short cyclical duration and has little effect on the continuity of production except in very weak flowing wells.
It may accentuate unsteadiness of the second type.
Also, its presence makes tubing pressures inferior
to casing pressures both a s indices of operation,
and a s means of flow control.

Heading of the second type (sometimes called

annulus headingw) occurs when I, bubbles of free
g a s at the intake are b ~ genough to escape entrainment ~ i t hthe liquid entering the intake, and 2, the
gas-liquid ratio i s materially s n ~ a l l e rthan the gaslift optimum for the average producing rate of the
well. Fig. 15 provides diagrams illustrating heading
of this type, and Eig. 16 illustrates the control
function of an intermitter in this connection.
T h i s type of intermitting does produce oil from
the well head by "jerks," but it regularizes inflow,
and with suitable adjustment, it reduces the range
of velocities through the liner screen a s compared
with unregulated heading. A normally closed motor
valve is preferable for operating a well at a low p e r
centage of i t s full flowing capacity and a normally
operopen valve should be used for n~axin~um-rate
ation.
Casingtubing packers obviate annulus heading
i f installed at the intake, but do not serve the function of an intermitter in regularizing production a t
rates below the minimum stable-flow rate; and i f not
installed when the well is completed, the danger of
damaging the well by killing it with mud or water
to install a packer may make alternative use of an
intermitter more attractive. Incidentally, the only
functlon of a packer in this case IS to gulde bubbles
into the tubing, which fact may suggest new forms
which are equally eflective and still permlt ready
means of circulating- to kill the well, if necessary,
without moving the tubing.
66

CASING AND TUBING PRESSURES

hhen g a s bubbles are large enough to escape entrainment with liquid entering the tubing, the annulus fills with gas and the casing pressure becomes
a sensitive indicator of flowing performance. An empirical formula for estimating intake pressures from
casing pressures i s given in Fig. 17. Bubble s i z e s a t
the intake, of course, cannot be measured directly.
However, an engineer armed with simultaneous measurements of casing and intake pressures can easily
determine whether or not the casingpressures of the
wells in llis area are useful in estimating intake pressures. Gas g a d i e n t s are most likely to exist when
gas-liquid ratios are on the high side and productivit i e s are small. Two-phase g a d i e n t s are helpful in
this connection, but are often l e s s accurate than
casing-pressure data because they depend upon gasliquid ratios which are l e s s reliable than pressure
measurements.

FLOWING AND GAS-LIFT WELL P E R F O R M A N C E

139

and there is much to be said In favor of accurate

reporting and control of bean sizes.
Range-indicating pressure gages are beginning to
be usefully applied, the thought being that flowing
wells do not require gaging or other individual attention except when a change occurs i n the normal
range of variation of thelr tubing and casing pressures. Hange readings are often conclusive a s ind i c e s for operating control, and spot readings are
not conclusive.

IN P S l A
DEPTH I N THOUSANDS

= TUBING

1 20

-U

110

RESTARTING NATURAL FLOW

1.oo
0

DEPTH I N THOUSANDS O F FEET

Fig. 17-Approximate Gas-gradient Relationship

Between Casing Pressure a t the Well Head and
Intake Pressure at Lower End of the Tubing

In many fields the IFH of a well may be estimated

from knowledge of i t s static pressure plus a representative casing pressure and the corresponding
liquid-production rate, a s indicated in Fig. 18. For
heading wells, the average casing pressure may be
used. h s t i m a t e s of this type are in error on the conservative side ~f the annulus contains liquid (~.e.,
the true IPR will be larger than the estimated IPH).
Thus, if casing pressures and static pressures have
been carefully measured and recorded, they can often
be used to outline IPH trends in terms of withdrawals.
Generally, tubing and casing pressures merit attention both from engineers and operating personnel,
GIVEN AVG CSG PR = 1709 P S I AT 250 BID
STATIC PR = M O O D31
GLR = 0 7 M C F I B
TUBING. 2 375 INCH SET AT 8000 FT
WELL DEPTH ezw n
ESTIMATE THE I P R
PROCEDURE
1 FROM FIG 17
Pq = 1 226 Pe
= 1 226 (1709
P* = 2115 PSlA

2 CONNECT INTAKE PR = 2100 PS l G

TO STATIC PR MAKING I P R ESTIMATE

VI
0.

+ 15)

2000

TUBING INTAKE)
200

600

800

PRODUCTION-RATE

400

IN B ID

Fig. 18-Method of Estimating IPR's from the Static

Pressure and a Casing Pressure

Flowing wells are not improved by periods of

shutdown; and when they die, they are candidates
for immediate attention. Even though flowing i s no
longer the optlmum method, it i s sometimes desirable
to restart a well a s a protective measure until finallift equipment i s ready for operation.
Strong high-pressure high-productivity wells restart when the flow valve is opened; and a t the other
end of the s c a l e , there are weak wells which can
only be restarted by a procedure tailored to the requirements of the individual well and applied without unnecessary l o s s of time.
In connection with restarting, the following facts
are often significant:
1. The gas-llquid ratio typical of the well may
require two or three days of operation for full development after restarting because, under shutdown conditions, liquid produced into the well bore
frequently invades the more active gas-producing
layers and temporarily reduces effective g a s p e r
meabilities.
2. For wells without tubing-casing packers, i t is
usually necessary to fill the annulus with gas at
the desired intake pressure before stable flow can
be re-established.
3. If the well d i e s a s a result of heading action,
delay may diminish the possibility of successful
restarting. Also, in critical c a s e s , use of smaller
tubing or u s e of a casing pressure-actuated i n t e r
mitter may be necessary if i t is desired to prolong
the well's flowing life.
Swabbing i s definitely inferior to use of a g a s
compressor for difficult restarting jobs because, with
swabbing, the well ordinarily restarts with a considerable column of liquid still remaining in the annulus; and by the time the production crew h a s
moved to another location, bypassing of g a s p a s t
the intake loads the tubing with a heavy mixture
from the annulus and the well dies. Incidentally, a s
a well declines, reduction of the bean s i z e i s necessary to maintain stable flow. However, changes

W. E. GILBERT

140

must be made in small increments at weak wells because for each increase I n Intake pressure an easil y computed extra quantity of g a s must be stored in
the annulus before the well's full gas-l~quidratio
can be effectlve In the tubing- for lifting- at the lower
rate. Ignorance of this fact and lack of a readily
available starting compressor result in premature
relinquishment of natural flow In many cases.

GAS-LIFT APPLlCATIONS
It i s still true that no one method.of lift will provide optimunl results in all wells, and due process
of rating- wells and methods will always be d e s i r
able to niainta~nthe profit margins e s s e n t ~ a in
l meeting demands for oil.

p$I

TOTAL G L R

PERFORMANCE
FROM 5000 FT
WlTH 50 PSI
TUBING PRESSURE

RATE WITH
2 875'

(ii)

\I

PRODUCTION IN B ID

200

100

600

400

loo0

PRODUCTION IN B ID

Fig. 20-Use of Log-log Paper for Extrapolations of

the Intake Pressures and Gas-liquid Ratios of
Maximum-rate Gas L i f t

pressure, it i s only necessary to plot the intake

pressure for each of a s e r i e s of rates. In each c a s e ,
start on the optimum gradient (the one gradient in
each g a p h marked with an arrow in Fig. 23-28, 3033J at the given tubing pressure, measure down from
this point the depth of the well, and read the Intake
pressure. A s shown in E'lg. 19, the resulting curve,
A, outlines the highest-rate g a s lift possible w ~ t h
the given tubing s i z e , tubing pressure, and depth;
and the intersect~onof this curve w ~ t hthe IPH gives
the h ~ g h e s trate and lowest intake pressure attainable under the given c o n d i t ~ o n sin the particular
well. By plotting the gas-liquid ratio for each gradient, an estimate, B, of the required total gas-liquid
ratlo i s obtained from which the well's gas-liqu~d

Fig. 19-Illustration of the Procedure Used for

Maximum-rate Gas-lift Estimates

Gas 11ft i s primarily a h~gh-ratemethod and can

be a final-lift method in wells tapping strong waterd r ~ v e reservoirs, as illustrated by experience in
some Louisiana fields. It can have useful applications when allotted rates are n~ateriallysmaller than
inflow capacities. Use of g a s a s a means of liquid
11ft 1s always attended by. impos~tion
of some back
pressure against the formation, even when packers
are used, and even when standing valves and concentric or eccentric induction tubes are used. but i t
must also be observed that formation back pressures
are often unavoidable with the other forms of lift
and especially when g a s accompanies the oil produced. For this reason g a s lift can be expected to
find applications where the bore of the well is s o
small a s to prevent effective gas-anchor a c ~ i o n .It
i s also applicable when depth limits the relative
capacities of other methods.
T o estimate the maximum-rate gas-lift possibilit i e s of a well with a given IPR at a given tubing

GLR IN M C F l B

PRESSURE H PS I
Ya

em

7-

1-

g
g"
Z

lm

STIUNCSOF sun I N W ~

Fig. 21-Diagram Illustrating Some Flow and Gas-lift

Alternatives
(Gas-lift t u b ~ n gpressure =

100 psi)

ratio i s subtracted to obtain the net gas-liquid ratio

needed. Use of a higher or lower total gas-l~quld
ratlo will increase the intake pressure and reduce the
liquld-production rate. Both maxlmum-rate curves,
such a s A in Fig. 19, and optimum gas-l~quidratlo
curves such a s the one shown in the figure, may be
considered to be straight llnes on log-log paper
when extrapolations are necessary, as shown in
E'lg. 20. T h i s observation does not hold for other
g r a d ~ e n t sand their ratios; and, of course, any extrapolation of enlpirical data must be made advisedly.
Flg. 21 illustrates some of the many gas-lift and
flow alternatives adaptable to a given well, and i s
introduced a s an illustration of the type of graph~cal
' analysis which may be used. Such a well with a full
string of 2.875-in. tubing would be nearlng the end
of i t s flowing life, a s indicated by the smaller of
the two tubing-pressure curves in graph C. It would
flow strongly with use of a full string of 1.66-in.
tubing using a compressor for starting.Its maximumrate gas-lift performance with a full string of each
of three s i z e s i s also shown in g a p h C and correspending gas requirements are shown in graph U. The
input casing pressure for gas 11ft from 5,000 ft would
be between the intake pressure and the static gasgradient pressure shown. The well's maximum-rate
gas-lift perfornlance with a 1,000-, 2,000-, 3,000-,
or 4,000-ft string of 1.66-in. tubing inside 2.875-in.
tubing i s 'shown in graph B. Graph A shows 2.875in. gradients for 0.4 Mcf per bbl.

Solution of well problems uslng combination strlngs

can be made by adding gradients, using the same
ratio for natural Bow or gas lift through the different
s i z e s , and using- the same pressure at the depth at
which a juncture between s i z e s takes place.
Any adequate discussion of flow valves would be
beyond the intended scope of this paper. Flow valves
have contributed greatly to the practical utility of
gas lift. They are indispensable for starting against
the high well pressures and for automatic restarting.
Intermitter types with standing valves have been
used for maintaining h ~ g h e rrates of flow than those
p o s s ~ b l ewith straight gas lift In particular wells.
The predictability of gas lift with flow valves i s not
solely the responsibility of the valve manufacturer,
but depends q e a t l y upon the deference the operator
has pald to determining well data of the type indicated in Fig. 2. However, a s better gradient data
become available, improvements may be made in
valve
spacing, and both installation costs and the
proportion of total horsepower needed for startlng
can be reduced. Incidentally, ~t seems likely that,
with use of improved gradient data, a demand will
develop for accurate determination of pressure l o s s e s
through flow valves of the different types; and the
exemplary data provided by one manufacturer for
flow of gas through surface beans do not necessarily
apply without modification to other types of orifices
used in a tubing string.
In order to compare g a s lift with other methods of
lift In particular c a s e s , the oil-country engineer

T a k ~ n gk = 7.25 for wet gas, t h ~ sformula may be

written:

The gas horsepower required by the gas-11ft user is:

wherern. M = Mcf per day at 14.7 PSI. It 1s here suggested that thls 1s the horsepower upon which quotatlons should be based w ~ t hthe glven 7, pressure
ratio; 2, Input gas temperature; and 3, Input pressure, and may be from 20 to 40 percent less than
manufacturer's brake-horsepower ratings depending
upon the dev~ationfrom Boyle's law, the auxiliaries
used, and the overall plant effic~encyatta~ned.

Fig. 22-Chart Suggested for Estimating Gas-horsepower Requirements for Gas Lifting

W. E. GILBERT

142

stands in need of a ready means oi estimating horsepower requirements. P o s s ~ b al ~formula of the type
given In Fig. 22 can be adapted to this purpose.
Although n~anufacturersmay regard this suggestion
a s an over-simplification, they also may be Inclined
to agree that some simplificat~onwould serve to promote conlpressor s a l e s for gas lift In competition
~ i t hother lifting means. 1he temperature of power
gas, because of ~ t low
s
specific heat, i s usually
controlled by well temperatures at points of application, and usually the gas-rate requ~rementi s estimated at standard conditions.
-

CONCLUSION

1he material presented here is ofleredas an i n t e r

in) report on a phase of production operations deserving uider attention than i t has been accorded in
the past. It i s desired to thank the Shell Oil Company for making the presentation possible, and particularly since this outline was con~pletedduring
the w r ~ t e r ' sstay in their California area.

REFERENCES
'Versluys, J. klathematlcal Development of the Theory
of Flowing b e l l s , Trans Am. Znst. Mtntng Met Engrs.
(Petroleum Developnlent and Technology) 192 (1930).
kloore, T . V. and Wllde, H. D: Experimental Measurements of Shppage In Flow through Vertical P l p e s , Trans
Anr. Znst Mrntng Met Engrs. (Petroleum Development
and Technology) 296 (193 1).
Kemler, Emory, and Poole, G. A. A Prellmlnary Investlgatlon of Flowlng PJells,Dnllrng and Productton Practrce, 140 (1936).
May, C. J and Laird, A. The Efficiency of Flowlng
h e l l s , J . Znst. P e t Tech., 20, 214 (1934).
k a y , C. J Efficiency of F'lowlng 'Aells, Trans Am Znst
Mrnrng Met Engrs (Petroleun~Developnlent and Technology) 114, 99 (1935).
Poettmann, Fred H. and Carpenter, Paul G. The blultiphase Flow of Gas, 011, and Uater through Vertlcal Flow
S t r ~ n g swlth Appllcatlon t o the Deslgn of Gas-lift Installatlons,Drtllrng and Productton Practrce, 257 (1952).
Shaw, S. F Gas-lrft Prrncrples and Practrces, Gulf
Publishing Company, Houston, T e x a s , 1939.
'Babson, E. C T h e Range of Appllcatlon of Gas-llft
Methods, Drtllrnk and Productron Practrce, 266 (1939).
Sullivan, R. J. Gas-011 Ratlo Control In Flowing R'ells,
Drrlltnh and Productron Practtce, 103 (1937).

'

DISCUSSION

'A. C. Sheldon ( 1 he Ohio Oil Company,

L o s Ange.
.
a very useful
les)(written): 1 he author has
tool for the solution of problems relative to flow of
011, gas, and water in a tubing string. In s o doing,
he has assembled many pertinent facts, a s well a s
helpful graphs. l ' h e s e should prove especially helpful to the engineer who i s confronted with the problem of design for a tubing string in a flowing orgaslift well.

he oil industry IS accustomed to thinking of conservation in terms of barrels of liquids or material

recovered, yet often fails to realize that the conservation of energy i s equally important. 1he conservation of energy leads to a conservation of petroleum
and increased recovery. 1herefore, the conservation
of nature's energy in producing oil becomes as important a s any other phase of conservation or economies.
I h e author briefly mentions the use of the "inflow performance relationship," or IPH, which corresponds to the well-knonn "productivity index"
or PI. In actual practice, the mass rate of inflow of
each phase i s usually replaced by the PI. Th'1s 1s
a good approximat~onwhere the water cut is not
large ( l e s s than 25 percent) or the gas-oil ratio i s
not excessive. What constitutes an excessive ratio
for calculations in which P I i s substituted depends
upon temperature, pressure, and fluid characteristics. Certainly, P I i s meaningless for calculations
involving retrograde condensate wells which make
significant volumes of water.
Cne question which occurred to nle is: Ahat effect
has viscosity on the relationships developed7 It i s
realized the Ten S e c t ~ o nField crude has low viscosity, in the range of 0.5 to 5 centlpolses within
the flow string, depending upon temperature and
composition. I should like to ask the author ~f he
has any data showing the effect of viscosity on the
charts prepared. \hat effect does viscosity have on
the equation for the bean s i ~ e - p r e s s u r e ;elation?
hould the rapid change of slope in the viscositypressure curve at lower pressures explain the sensitivity of flow volume to changes in bean s i z e at
these pressures? Perhaps the onussion of a viscosity function in the bean sue-pressure equation
would explain the author's point that the equation
cannot be used at pressures l e s s than 70 percent
greater than l ~ n epressures. It w ~ l lbe r e c o g n i ~ e d
that this i s the pressure range where bean s i ~ ies
most critical-a slight error often results in killing
the well.
l'he author s t a t e s ". . rates of decline during
natural flow are usually unreliable a s indices of the
decline of well inflow capacities." l h i s difTiculty
nlay be overcome by observing the decline in potential or productive capacity with time.
Students of this
will agree with the author
that t h ~ si s "a phase of production operations deserving wider attention than it has been accorded In
the past." l h l s paper represents; a pra~seworthy
cqntribution to the industry.

Rlr. Gilbert: T h e I P R and the P I a r e not equivalents. I h e IPR, a s u s e d in t h i s paper,

i s t h e re. .
lationship between intake pressure and liquid Inflow
rate. T h e P I i s the first differential of t h e I P R in
the s p e c i a l c a s e when t h e latter is a straight line,
or i s s o nearly straight t h a t i t s curvature may b e
ignored.
Very roughly, depth-pressure gradients some 15
percent heavier than t h o s e In t h e paper were found
n e c e s s a r y for gas-011 r a t i o s up t o 1 Mcf per bbl in
one field; but in t h i s c a s e the oil v i s c o s i t y i s a t
l e a s t 1 0 0 times greater than that of T e n Section
crude. I t i s believed that v i s c o s i t y e f f e c t s on flow
through b e a n s will prove very minor b e c a u s e of t h e
e x i s t e n c e of i n t e n s e turbulence. T h e r e i s a wellknown formula, available in a n y standard summary
of flow of g a s e s through nozzles, which may b e
shown a s follows:

k being t h e a d i a b a t i c constant, and p l / p o , the minimum ratlo for which flow through n o z a l e s i s unaffecte d by po, t h e downstream pressure. If k e q u a l s 1.25,
the critical ratio i s about 1.8, compared with 1.7
u s e d in the report. T h u s , s u g g e s t e d u s e of upstream
p r e s s u r e s exceeding the downstream p r e s s u r e s by
a t l e a s t 7 0 percent i s b a s e d upon observation of
field d a t a and rough consideration ot critical r a t i o s
(values of k for oil-laden g a s were not determined).
T h e d e c l i n e of t h e production r a t e of a flowing
well is greater than the decline of t h e well's inflow
capacity, and t h e disparity i n c r e a s e s as flow continues. A s Mr. Sheldon points out, i t i s preferable
t o follow t h e well's inflow capacity, which may b e
plotted in terms of time, or, better s t i l l , in terms of
oil withdrawals, as indicated by c u r v e s 1 a n d 2 of
Fig. 2.

T. H. A c r e s (Sunray Oil Corp., L o s Angeles)

(written): l h i s paper is a n e x c e l l e n t a n a l y s i s and
presentation of t h e f a c t o r s affecting t h e behavior of
flowing and gas-lift wells. I t i s t h e first treatment
I have s e e n that r e c o g n i z e s n o distinction between
g a s lift and natural flow; and, b y s o doing, i t ena b l e s one t o better understand why natural Bow
c e a s e s and how, by g a s lifting, t h e energy n e c e s s a r y for the well t o flow is augmented. T h e g a p h i c a l methods and gradient d a t a presented provide
means of predicting when the flowing life will end

a n d a l s o provide means of calculating p r e s s u r e s

and volumes of g a s n e c e s s a r y for optimum gas-lift
operation.
T h e author points out that t h e gradient curves
should b e u s e d with care. T h e s e a r e apparently t h e
r e s u l t of t h e correlation of d a t a from many t e s t s In
flowing and gas-lift w e l l s modified and extended with
information of other authors. k h e t h e r they a r e completely reliable or not, they certainly provide a p i d e
as t o t h e magnitude of p r e s s u r e s and volumes of
g a s required t o lift oil. T h e y further provide a convenient pattern t o a n operator or engineer for accumulating and presenting the r e s u l t s of h i s own
well t e s t s .
I have s e v e r a l q u e s t i o n s t h a t I should like t o a s k
Mr. Gilbert.

1. In F i g . 2-Individual Well Inflow Performance

Trend, w a s t h e productivity index omitted intentionally?
-

2. It i s s t a t e d that flowing w e l l s a r e not improved

by periods of shutdown. Where restarting is not a
problem and the well i s clean, d o you believe some
damage may r e s u l t ?

3. In t h i s study, the location of t h e tublng intake

with r e s p e c t t o the perforations must have had t o
b e considered many times. Was there a n y general
conclusion indicated as to t h e optimum tubing location, i.e., a t the bottom of the perforations, top
of the perforations, or a t some point above?
I h e author i s t o b e commended for a n excellent
paper. I belleve h e h a s had niuch of t h i s d a t a for
some time, and I am g l a d h i s company provided the
time for him t o a s s e m b l e it.
M. Gilbert: Answering Mr. Acres' questions:

1. Yes, t h e P I w a s intentionally omitted from

Fig. 2 in recognition of the f a c t t h a t IPR's frequently a r e curved. However, some engineers may
prefer t o plot t h e PI i n s t e a d of t h e maximum inflow
r a t e (curve 2) if t h e well's I P R may b e taken t o b e
a straight line.
2. Yes, there a r e some p o s s i b i l i t i e s that damage
may result in shutting down e v e n a c l e a n well
which may b e r e s t a r t e d e a s i l y . T h e dangers for
short periods of shutdown a r e u s u a l l y negligible.
However, incipient c a s i n g l e a k s may become active under shutdown conditions ( l e a k s , incidentally, which were s e a l e d off when t h e c a s i n g w a s
t e s t e d with mud in t h e well). Also, under shutdown
conditions interflow will occur i n long perforated

144

W. E. GILBERT

lengths, with some degradation of ~ o t e n t i a lrecovery. T h e s e a r e f a c t o r s b e s t judged under l o c a l

conditions.

3. In general, whenever tubing-flow gradients a r e

lighter than g a d i e n t s in the liner and c a s i n g for
the same r a t e s , i t is preferable t o s e t t h e tubing
a s low a s i s c o n s i s t e n t with safety, b e c a u s e the
w e l l will flow longer and a t higher r a t e s than would
b e t h e obtainable with a shallower setting. However, in clean w e l l s with undersaturated crude
there IS no s p e c i a l point in s e t t l n g t h e tubing below the depth where a l l the g a s remains in solution over the full range of desired operating rates.
I t is d e s i r e d t o thank Mr. Sheldon and Mr. A c r e s
for their comments.

E.N. Kemler (University of Minnesota, Minneapolis)

(written):* Flowing-well performance h a s not been
given t h e attention which i t s importance d e s e r v e s .
1 h i s 1s indicated In part by the very meager bibliography included in connection with hlr. Gilbert's paper. Development of better understanding of reservoir performance, together with more r e c e n t b a s i c
investigations on multiphase flow should make i t
p o s s l b l e t o arrive a t a more rational approach t o
t h e s t u d y of flowing wells. T h e low c o s t of production by flowing, together with the a d v a n t a g e s of
postponing artificial lift a s long a s p o s s i b l e t o permit more a c c u r a t e evaluation of requirements and
capacity of pumping equipment a s well as postponement of the accompanying investment, would a l l
contribute to making s t u d ~ e swhich would prolong
flowing life most desirable. Mr. Gilbert's paper i s
a n outstanding contribution to t h l s field and should
l e a d to further s t u d i e s relating t o a rational approach t o the study of flowing wells. Tubing and
choke ~ n s t a l l a t i o n sIn flowing w e l l s a r e deserving
n respect to design a s
of t h e s a m e c o n s ~ d e r a t ~ owith
that given t o design of sucker-rod strings. It should
b e expected t h a t u s e of tapered tubing s t r i n g s , for
example, would give better flow conditions than a
uniform string.
T h i s paper r e p r e s e n t s a n outstanding contribution
t o the literature of flowing-well performance. It
*Prepared following presentation of the paper.

should contribute to further development in t h i s

long-neglected area.
Mr. Gilbert: I wlsh t o thank Dr. Kemler for h ~ s
kind comments. If natural flow is in a s e n s e t h e
"orphan child" among lifting methods, there may
b e some significance in t h e f a c t that flowing ret
consequentq u i r e s very little s p e c i a l e q u ~ p m e n and
l y h a s lacked t h e extra stimulus of englneering attention accorded by t h e supply industry t o other
methods of lift.
Diminishment of well I P R ' s , and change of g a s liquid r a t i o s in terms of withdrawal, a r e f a c t o r s
tending to limit the practical utility of tapered
strings. However, Insertion of a length of smaller
l
tubing i n s i d e 3.5- or 2.875-in. tublng w ~ l frequentl y s e r v e to extend natural-flow production of a n
allotted rate.
T h e methods of Poettmann and Carpenter a r e
proving valuable in developing lmproved depth-press u r e d a t a in readily u s a b l e form, although some difficulty h a s been experienced with e x t e n s i o n s into
the pressure range below s a y 500-400 psi. Also,
the a n a l y s i s of two-phase flow through b e a n s (chokes)
given in the paper d o u b t l e s s c a n be improved.
In the i n t e r e s t s of t h e oil Industry, it i s t o b e
hoped that reference material concerning the dynami c s and economics of natural flow will b e considera b l y augmented over t h e next decade.

E.C. Babson (Union Oil Co. of C a l ~ f o r n i a , C a l g a r y ,

Alberta, Canada)(written):* A s one who b a s had a
l i t t l e experience wlth the empirical approach t o gas11ft problems, I am impressed by t h e lnvestigatlon
which i s summarized in hlr. Gilbert's paper. T h ~ s
paper c a r r i e s t h e e m p ~ r i c a la n a l y s i s of g a s l i f t performance far beyond any prevlous work, and I believe
i t may well prove t o b e t h e definitive work on the
s u b j e c t . It 1s probable that further refinements and
e x t e n s i o n s of correlations c a n b e made, but t h e paper c o v e r s almost completely t h e p r ~ n c l p l e sinvolve d In applying t h e s e d a t a t o p r a c t i c a l production
problems
h%. Gilbert: I value highly both Mr. 13abson's
opinion of the paper and the part h ~ earlier
s
work
played in making it possible.

FLOWING AND G A S L I F T WELL PERFORMANCE

Fig. 23-Approximate Depth-pressure Gradients for 2.875-in. Tubing

145

W. E. GILBERT
GRADIENT PRESSURE IN PSI

Fig. 24-Approximate Depth-pressure Gradients for 2.875-in. Tubing

FLOWING AND G A S L I ~ T ' WELL P E R F O R M A N C E

GRADIENT PRESSURE I N P S I

Fig. 25-Approximate Depth-Pressure Gradients for 2.875-in. Tubing

W. E. GILBERT

Fig. 26-Approximate Depth-pressure Gradients for 2.875-in. Tubing

FLOWING AND G A S L I F T WELL P E R F O R M A N C E

GRADIENT PRESSURE IN PSI

Fig. 27-Approximate Depth-pressure Gradients for 2.875-in. Tubing

FLOWING AND GASLIFT

WELL PERFORMANCE

USE O F BEAN-PERFORMANCE CHART

A g a p h i c a l means of e s t ~ m a t i n g the bean performance is given in F i g . 29. F o u r v a r i a b l e s are
considered, a n d when three of t h e s e v a r i a b l e s are
known, the fourth may b e estimated. In construction, P a r t I of the chart r e p r e s e n t s the performance
b e a n and P a r t I1 i s simply a means of
of a ''/,-in.
correcting r e s u l t s for other bean s i ~ e s .In solving
for a n y one of t h e four variables, enter P a r t I if both
the barrels per d a y and t h e g a s l i q u i d ratlo a r e
known; or enter P a r t I1 of t h e chart if t h e tubing
pressure and bean s i z e a r e known. I ' h e further procedure in solving for e a c h variable may b e b e s t explalned by examples.

1. E s t i m a t e Gas-liquid R a t i o or t h e G a s R a t e
Suppose we have a well equipped with a '%,-in.
bean operating with a tubing p r e s s u r e of 7 2 0 p s i
a t 200 bL1 per day. No differential recording meter
h a s been i n s t a l l e d a n d a n e s t i m a t e of the g a s production i s desired.
Solutzon. F i r s t find in P a r t I1 of the chart, the intersection of the line for the 15 bean a t 7 2 0 psi;
g o vertically t o the s l a n t i n g 10-bean line and then
horizontally t o t h e v e r t i c a l 200 bbl per day line
in P a r t I. At t h i s point the gas-liquid ratlo i s about
1.8 Mcf per bbl, from which t h e total g a s i s 360
Mcf per d a y (200 x 1.8).

2. E s t i m a t e Production R a t e
After a bean change, a new well which showed
a ratio of 1,400 c u f t per bbl on t h e prevlous gage,
i s flowing through a 4 0 bean with 7 5 0 p s i tubing
pressure. What i s the probable production r a t e ?

Solutzon: Enter P a r t I1 a t t h e intersection of the

40-bean and 750-psi l i n e s and g o vertically to t h e
1 0 line; then g o horitontally to 1.4 hlcf per bblthe estimated production rate being found t o b e
1,530 bbl per day.

3. E s t i m a t e Tubing P r e s s u r e
E s t a b l i s h t h e performance of a 13 bean for 0.8
hlcf per bbl.
Solutzon: Slnce the formula i n d i c a t e s that there i s
a straight-line relationship between tubing press u r e and barrels per day, only one point need be
established. T h u s , going h o r i ~ o n t a l l y from the
intersection in P a r t I of the 0.8 ratio and, s a y ,
200 bbl per day, t o the 10-bean line in P a r t I1 and
thence vertically to the 13-bean line, the pressure
1s found t o b e 605 p s l and for any production rate
with the 1 3 bean and 0.8 ratlo, the tubing pressure
i n p s i is equal t o the barrels per d a y multiplied
by 605/200 or 3.03.
4. E s t i m a t e B e a n S i z e
A well h a s been operating for a n extended period
a t 200 bbl per d a y and 4.0 Mcf per bbl ratio. It is
desired to reduce the rate t o 1 0 0 bbl per d a y and
the tubing outlet performance curve Indicates t h a t
t h e tubing pressure a t t h i s rate will be 1,800 psi.
What s i z e bean should be u s e d ?

Sohtzon: Enter P a r t I and g o horizontally from

t h e intersection of the 1 0 0 bbl per d a y and 4.0
r a t i o l i n e s t o the 10-bean line in P a r t I1 and thence
vertically t o the horizontal 1,800-psi line. An '4,in. bean should b e used.

152

W. E. GILBERT
PRODUCTION IN BID

Fig. 29-Bean-performance Chart

g-

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DEPTH SCALE IN THOUSANDS

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