4.

OPERATING SYSTEM (OS)

For the proper functioning of a computer it is necessary that the Hardware and its
corresponding Software work together with each other. Without Software a computer is a useless
scrap of metal, with software a computer can perform a vide variety of operations such as storing
information, processing data and retrieving information, spell checking, playing games and many
other valuable activities. Computer Software is divided into two types.
1) System Software 2) Application Software
1) System Software: This manages the operations of the computer.
e.g. Windows, DOS, Unix etc.
2) Application Software: This solves the problems for the user.
e.g. Word-processing, Excel etc.
What is Operating System?
An Operating System is a computer program, which acts as an intermediary between the
user of the computer& the computer Hardware. The main aim of the operating system is to
provide a proper environment in which the user can use the computer in an efficient manner.
There cannot be any computer without an operating system to help in its functioning. A
computer system can be roughly divided into four components, the Hardware, the operating
System, the application programs and the users.
User1

User2 ..User N

Application Program
Compiler, Assembler, Editor, Database Systems

Operating System

Computer Hardware

MAIN FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEMS.

1)
Loads and Executes programs and Utilities.
2)
Schedules and controls input and output operations and jobs.
3)
Allocates peripherals to programs after checking their availability.
4)
Controls storage space for their allocation and de-allocation.
5)
Supervises the overall operation of the computer.
DIFFERENT VIEWS OF THE OPERATING SYSTEM
1)
The Operating System as an extended machine.
The Operating System hides the internal details of the hardware from the programmer and
presents him with a virtual system or view, which concentrates on data as named files. The
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operating system also hides the user from a number of unpleasant tasks concerning interrupts,
timers, memory management and other important functions at the lower level.
2)
The Operating system as a resource manager.
Todays computer is made up of a number of components such as processors, co-processors,
memories, various drives, network interfaces, printers, modems and so on. The aim of the
operating system is to provide an orderly controlled allocation of the various resources among
the various programs competing for them.
3)
The Operating System as a Guardian and Accountant.
The Operating System is a Guardian, to perform a number of specialized tasks in a predefined
order. The present day systems may have to perform more specialized tasks, which are highly
complex. The Operating System is also responsible to provide proper access controls so that
users do no interfere with each others programs and also the operating system is restricted from
unauthorized access..

DOS (DISK OPERATING SYSTEM)

CP/M (Control Program for Microcomputers) developed in 1974 by Gary kildal of
Digital Research was the first most popular OS. Simultaneously a number of other companies
also started OSs. This created a problem of incompatibility. IBM at this time approached Bill
Gates the owner of a small company called Microsoft to develop an OS similar to CP/M. The
agreement was that IBM would use it as PC-DOS and Microsoft could sell it as MS-DOS.
MS-DOS created in 1980 became so popular that many companies started producing
hardware for this software. Disk Operating System is so called because much of its work
involves managing disks & disk files and also the fact that it physically reside on the disk.
Structure of MS-DOS
MS-DOS is structured in three ways.
i.
BIOS (Basic Input Output System)
ii.
Kernel
iii.
The Shell (Command.com)
i. BIOS: Contains a collection of low-level device drivers, which isolates MS-DOS from
details of the Hardware. The file IO.sys is present in all MS-DOS Systems, and is loaded
immediately after booting and contains a module, which is used to boot the system one,
which isolates kernel from hardware details.
ii. Kernel : The Kernel is present in another hidden file MS-DOS.SYS. Kernel contains the
machine independent part of the Operating System. It mainly handles process management,
memory management, file system and interpretation of all systems calls.
iii. The Shell (COMMAND.COM): Most people feel the shell as the operating system but in
reality it is not so, in fact it is actually not a part of the operating system and can be replaced
by the user program whenever the user programs need memory. It is a command interpreter.
How MS-DOS organizes Information?
MS-DOS organizes information through files, directories and drives.
File
: A file is collection of related information stored by DOS under a single
name. The file name consists of the root name (1 to 8 characters) also
referred to as Primary name, a period(.) and the extension (1 to 3
characters). The extension is optional.
Directories

: A group of files can be stored under a unit called as a directory. Storing

groups of files in different directories makes files easier to find.
Current Directory : The directory you are in is called the current directory.
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eg . C:\Computer>
: A directory within another directory is called a sub-directory.
: All directories are sub-directories, except for one, which is called the
root directory. The root directory is the starting point from which all
other directories braches out. The root directory does not have a name.
Instead, it is represented by a backslash (\).
eg. C :\>
Drives
: Drives are usually associated with a piece of hardware called a disk.
The most common types of disks are the hard disk, which is inside your
computer, and the floppy disk and compact disc, which you insert into
slot in your computer.
A drive is a grouping of all the directories on a disk. A drive is named
with a single letter. Generally A drive refers to as Floppy disk drive &
C drive refers to as Hard disk.
Command Prompt: C:\>_
This is called command prompt. The flashing underscore next to the
command prompt is called the cursor. The cursor shows when the
command you type will appear.
DOS COMMANDS
DOS commands can be classified into two types.
1) Internal commands
2) External commands
Internal Commands: DOS supports the user of about 25 commands. Some of these commands
are in built into a program called as COMMAND.COM. This program is automatically loaded
into the memory when the computer is started. These commands can be directly executed. Such
commands are called as internal commands.
Sub-Directory
Root Directory

External Commands: DOS supports the use of about 45 additional commands. These
commands are provided as separate programs. Each program represents a command. To execute
the command the name of the program has to be typed at the prompt along with its arguments.
Such commands are called as external commands.
INTERNAL COMMANDS
DIR
:
This command gives a listing of the files & directories on a disk.
C:\>dir
COPY CON : This command is used to create a new file. If an existing filename is given, then
the previous file is lost.
C:\>copy con filename
------------------------- ^z
Ctrl+Z (^Z) is used to save the file.
TYPE
:
This command is used to display the contents of a text file to your screen.
C:\> type filename
DEL
:
This command is used to delete a file or a group of files from the disk.
C:\>del filename
MD
:
Create or make a new directory
C:\>md tumkur
CD
:
Change or moves the user from the current directory.
C:\>cd tumkur
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COPY

RD

VER
REN

VOL

DATE
TIME
CLS

Copy from one file to another file. It does not remove the source file after
writing the new file.
C :\> copy file1 file2
:
Remove or delete a directory. You must empty the directory to be deleted
first or you will just get an error message.
C:\>rd tumkur
:
This command tells us the version of DOS which we are using.
C:\>ver
:
This command renames a file on the disk. The old & new names have to
be
specified.
C:\>ren file1 newname
:
This command tells you the volume label of your hard drive or floppy
disk. It
will also give you a serial number too.
C:\>vol
:
This command is used to display or change the system date.
C:\>date
:
This command lets you set your systems time.
C:\>time
:
Clear the screen. It also places your cursor at the top left-hand corner of
your screen also called the home position.
C:\>cls

EXTERNAL COMMANDS
ATTRIB
:
This command either Displays or Changes file attributes.
C:\>attrib +r filename
The options used in the syntax include.
+
sets an attribute
clear an attribute
R
Read-only file attribute
H
Hidden file attribute
CHKDSK
:This command analyzes disk or diskette and displays a disk and memory status
report.
C:\>chkdsk[dirve name:] [/f] [/v]
FORMAT : This command Prepares a diskette or drive for use by DOS. The successful
execution
of the command deletes all the previous data and prepares the disk as if it
is a new
disk for use.
C:\> format [drive name :]
DISKCOPY: This command makes an exact copy of a diskette, including hidden system files if
they are present
C:\> diskcopy A B
XCOPY
:
This command is designed to copy the contents of entire directories, along
with all of their sub-directories, and all of the files contained in those subdirectories.
C:\> xcopy directory1 directory2

5. Program Development Cycle

Problem solving by a computer is not a simple job, but it is a creative process which
largely defines the systematization and mechanization. This is an intricate process which requires
much thought, careful study and planning, logical precision, and persistence. Problem solving is
also a challenging, exciting and satisfying experience.
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Problem solving by the computer involves the following steps.

1. Problem definition
2. Analysis
3. Design (Algorithm and Flowcharts)
4. Coding
5. Debugging
6. Testing
7. Documentation
1. Problem Definition
This is the first step in computer problem solving. The problem solver should understand the
problem thoroughly in terms of the requirements. That is, what is the input and output operations
to be performed. The programmer should extract from the problem statement, a set of welldefined and precise tasks that can be carried out. If the problem is not properly interpreted then
we can not obtain the desired results.
2. Analysis
The given problem must be analyzed before it is solved. This determines the data items,
their types and relationship. We should specify the operations (Arithmetic and logical) to be
performed on them and checking the suitability in terms of memory and execution time.
3. Design the Program This stage often uses one of two ways to describe the solution:
1. Algorithm
2. Flow Chart
Algorithm: This is a problem solving technique. It can be defined as a step by step
procedure to solve a particular problem. It consists of English like statements. Each statement
must be precise and well-defined to perform a specific operation. When these statements are
carried out for a given set of conditions, they would produce the required results.
Algorithm is named after the famous ninth century Arabic author and mathematician, Abu
Jafar Mohammed Ibn Musa AI Khowarizmi. The last two terms of the name took different
pronunciations over the period such as Alkhowarism, Algorism and finally it became Algorithm.
Characteristics of algorithm
Each and every algorithm is characterized by the following five important characteristics.
Input: It may accept zero or more inputs.
Output: It should produce at least one output (result).
Definiteness: Each instruction must be clear, well-defined and precise. There should not
be any ambiguity.
Finiteness: It should be a sequence of finite instructions. That is, it should end after a
fixed time. It should not enter an infinite loop.
Effectiveness: This means that operations must be simple and are carried out in a finite
time at one or more levels of complexity. It should be effective whenever traced
manually for the results. Computer programming languages are required to check the
definiteness and effectiveness of each instruction of the algorithm
Example 1. Algorithm to compute the Sum of two numbers.
Algorithm
:
Sum of two numbers.
Step 1
:
Read A, B
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Step 2

[Compute the Sum] Sum = A + B

Step 3

Print Sum

Step 4

Stop

[Print the Contents of the Sum ]

[End of the Algorithm]

Example 2. Algorithm to compute the area of circle

Algorithm
:
Area of Circle
Step 1
:
Read Radius
Step 2

[Compute the area ]

Area = 1 3.142 * Radius * Radius

Step 3

Print Area

Step 4

Stop

Flowcharts
A Flowcharts is a pictorial or graphical representation of solution to any problem.
Flowcharts are constructed by using special geometrical symbols. Each symbol represents an
activity. The activity could be either input or output of data, computation or processing of data,
taking a decision or terminating the solution and so on. The symbols used in a flowchart are
joined by arrows.
Advantages of Flowcharts.
1. Flowcharts provide an excellent means of communication, which is very easy to
understand.
2. It has tot a definite procedure, which shows all the major parts of a program.
3. It is easy to convert it into a program.
4. It is independent of programming language.
5. It is easy to debug as every step has got its own logical sequence.

Predefined Process

Example 1. Design a flowchart and an algorithm to find the area of a circle

START

INPUT
Radius
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Area

3.142 * Radius * Radius

OUTPUT
Area

STOP
Example 2: Design a flowchart to find the sum of two numbers.
START

INPUT A,B

Sum

A+B

OUTPUT
Sum

STOP
4. Code the program.
Translate the logic from the flow chart/Algorithm into a programming language. In this
stage the programmer uses an editor and creates a text file with comments describing the
algorithm and other useful information about the program, and program statements in a
particular programming language. The syntax of the programming language is used to
construct commands properly. If Algorithm was developed above, these make very good
comments and can help the programmer write the program(s).
5. Debugging
If any bugs are detected, return to the coding phase to eliminate them or correct errors
from program.
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6. Test the program.

Check whether the program gives desired results. Run a number of test cases through
the program to demonstrate that it works.
7. Document the program.
This is the time for a formal document called the user manual to be produced. Most of
the program code should already contain adequate comments for documentation in the
coding phase. The comments in the code help write the user manual documentation.
1. INTRODUCTION
Today computers have gained access to every aspect of our life. It is very hard to imagine
a world without computers. Now a days, the computers have come up in such a big way that their
presence is felt every sphere of life such as education, business, research, medicine, banking,
communication etc.
What is a computer?
A computer is an automatic electronic device, that process data & generates meaningful
information with high speed & accuracy.
Computers are treated as data processing machines. They take data as input, process data
and produces information as out-put. Hence a computer is treated as universal information
manipulator.
Characteristics of computers: - Every computer performs 4 basic functions; they are i/p, storage,
processing and o/p data. Following are the characteristics of a digital computer.
1) Automatic: - Computers are automatic in operation i.e. they work without human
intervention. Computers are automatic machines because once started on a Job, they work
until the job is finished.
2) Speed: - As the computer is electronic, it works with a very high speed. The speed of
execution of operation by modern computer is several million operations per second.
3) Accuracy: - Computers are very accurate, degree of accuracy of computer depends on its
design, however every calculation is performed with the same accuracy.
4) Diligence: - A computer does not suffer from tiredness or lack of concentration. When a
computer performs a millions of operations, it performs the last calculation with the same
accuracy and perfection, as it will do the 1st one.
5) Versatility: -Computers are extremely versatile & are capable of performing almost any
task. Computers are used in education, training, preparing electric bill, Air & Railways
reservation, Banking, business, industries etc.,
6) Storage: - Computer has in built memory, where it can store large amount of data. Also
huge amount of data can be stored using secondary storage.
7) Reliability: - Todays computers are highly reliable & give consistent results without
errors.

Classification of computers:
Computers can be classified into various types based on
Principle of working
Size and capability
Classification based on Principle of working
Based on principle of working, computers are classified into 3 types:
1. Analog computers
2. Digital computers
3. Hybrid computers
Analog computers are used to process data that occurs in continuous flow such as
temperature pressure, voltage variation, force, acceleration etc.
Digital computers are used to process alphanumeric and graphic data. They work on the
principal of counting.
Hybrid computer are the combination of both analog and digital computers. They accept
either the analog or digital data for processing.
Digital computers are further classified into Special purpose and General-purpose
computers.
Special purpose computers are designed for specific applications like computers used for
air traffic control, process control in industry, robots, etc.
General-purpose computers are designed to solve wide variety of problems to meet the
needs of many different applications.
e.g.: - Payroll, sales analysis, games, etc.
Classification based on Size and capability
Based on size and capability, computers are classified into 4 types
1. Micro computers
2. Mini computers
3. Mainframe computers
4. Super computers
I. Microcomputers: These are also called personal computers (pcs) because one person uses
them at a time. Initially, pcs had very limited input-output capabilities & small storage
capacity. But modern computers have large input-output capabilities, huge amount of
memory &processing speed. In short these are called micros.
Depending on the size, speed and storage pcs are further classified into
1.Desktops 2. Portables
The pcs are called as Home computers or Desktops, which are used in many applications of
homes, schools, business organizations etc.
Portables are small size computers that can be carried around. Different types of portables
available; they are laptops, notebooks, palmtops and wearable computers.
1. Laptops: It works similar to desktops but smaller in size. They are expensive than
desktops. They weigh around 3 to 5 kgs. It may be either AC-powered, battery powered,
or both.
2. Notebooks: They are as powerful as desktops but have the size of a notebook. They
weigh 2 to 3 kgs. They are costlier compared to laptops.
3. Palmtops: Also called PDAs (personal Digital Assistant). They are small enough to be
held in ones palm. They are not as powerful as desktops. They are used for word
processing, spreadsheet calculations, playing games, faxing and paging.
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4. Wearable computers: the size is very small and can be worn on the body itself. It has
smaller processing power.
II. Minicomputers: Minicomputers are slightly bigger in size, memory & speed compared to
microcomputers. Minicomputers are multi-user systems i.e. more than user can use the
computer system at the same time. The CPU speed is 10-30 MIPS. The word length of
these computers is 16 to 32 bits. In short these are called minis.
e.g. IBM System/38,HP-3000, Digital Alpha etc.
III. Mainframe computers: Mainframe computers are larger than micros and minis and occupy
a room. A Mainframe computer is connected with several micros and minis. The CPU
speed is more than100 MIPS (Million instructions per second).The word length of these
computers is 32 to 64 bits and has a large storage capacity. In short these are called midis.
IV. Super computers: Super computers are designed for ultra high performance tasks such as
weather forecasting, defense research, space research etc. Super computers are large,
expensive and have high storage densities .Their high speed is due to the use of a number
of processors working in parallel. They are 64 bits or 96 bits computers and process more
than 10,000 MIPS.
e.g. PARAM 10,000, CRAY XMP, CAAY YMP series etc.
Applications of Computers: The idea behind the invention of Computer was to make a machine
that assists man in every day life. Computers are used for simple calculation to complex
applications such as, weather forecasting, weapons control etc.
In this section, we discuss the following
Science & Technology
Educational applications
Defense applications
Commercial applications
Applications of Computer Graphics
Telecommunication
Multimedia applications
Industrial application
1) Computers in Education: Computers are used in the field of education for many purposes
ranging from preparation of timetable to examination results. Educational software has major
influence at all levels from elementary schools to university. Connecting computers & students
together over Internet opens up more educational opportunities.
2) Computers in Business:
Today each and every company depends on computers for numerous clerical and
administrative functions. Computers are extensively used in daily transactions like pay roll,
personnel, office accounts, invoicing, record keeping, stock control, sales analysis, etc.
3) Computers in Communications: -Computers used in teleconferencing to communicate and
discuss on line projects and technologies. E-mail facility allows people to come together
globally. We can have a face-to-face conversation with a friend residing in other country. This is
possible by world wide web (www). Computers used as switching elements in telephone
exchange. Computers also used in satellite communication.
4) Computers in industry: Computers have a major impact on industries where products are
designed and manufactured. Computer aided manufacturing (CAM) is used to produce them.
a. Product design: Designing complicated products need a teamwork to produce computerized
design. Computer aided design (CAD) is used to develop the products. Computers are used to
design the cars, jet engines, ships, roads, buildings, machine components etc.
b. Factories: Computers are used for many purposes including inventory control, planning and
process control. Computers are used to measure & control variables like temperature, pressure etc.

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5) Computers in Science and technology: Computers are used in scientific and technological
activities like weather forecasting, weapon control, controlling a satellite, medical diagnoses,
remote surgery etc. Chemistry: A chemical process is explored on a computer; the reactions are
distinguished using colors. Suitable software is used to draw the structure of chemical compounds.
Space technology: Computers are used for designing, launching, & controlling a satellite.
Computers are used to constantly monitor and control the functioning of a satellite.
Medical diagnosis: Computers are used in hospitals for maintenance of drugs, surgical
equipments, hospital personnel, payroll, accounting, records of patients, diagnosis of diseases,
treatment and so on.
6) Defense applications: Computers are used in various activities of air force, navy and army.
Computer use starts from recruitment and training to war and retirement. Computers are used to
know the working conditions of weapons (in army), to detect the enemy ship (in navy) and for
training the pilots in air force
7. Computer graphics: Computer graphics is mainly used in animation. Animation makes
images more realistic and put them in motion. There are varieties of practical applications in
animation.
7)
Multimedia Applications: Multimedia Applications use a collection of multiple media
sources like text, graphics, images, sound, video & animation. Multimedia can be used for
entertainment, education, training, simulations, exhibitions etc.
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