HistoryOfCitiesAndCityPlanning

ByCliffEllis
Introduction
Thebuildingofcitieshasalongandcomplexhistory.Althoughcityplanningasanorganized
professionhasexistedforlessthanacentury,allcitiesdisplayvariousdegreesofforethoughtand
consciousdesignintheirlayoutandfunctioning.
Earlyhumansledanomadicexistence,relyingonhuntingandgatheringforsustenance.Between
8,000and10,000yearsago,systematiccultivationofplantsandthedomesticationofanimalsallowed
formorepermanentsettlements.DuringthefourthmillenniumB.C.,therequirementsforthe"urban
revolution"werefinallymet:theproductionofasurplusofstorablefood,asystemofwriting,amore
complexsocialorganization,andtechnologicaladvancessuchastheplough,potter'swheel,loom,and
metallurgy.
Citiesexistformanyreasons,andthediversityofurbanformscanbetracedtothecomplexfunctions
thatcitiesperform.Citiesserveascentersofstorage,trade,andmanufacture.Theagriculturalsurplus
fromthesurroundingcountrysideisprocessedanddistributedincities.Citiesalsogrewuparound
marketplaces,wheregoodsfromdistantplacescouldbeexchangedforlocalproducts.Throughout
history,citieshavebeenfoundedattheintersectionsoftransportationroutes,oratpointswheregoods
mustshiftfromonemodeoftransportationtoanother,asatriverandoceanports.
Religiouselementshavebeencrucialthroughouturbanhistory.Ancientpeopleshadsacredplaces,
oftenassociatedwithcemeteriesorshrines,aroundwhichcitiesgrew.Ancientcitiesusuallyhadlarge
templeprecinctswithmonumentalreligiousbuildings.Manymedievalcitieswerebuiltnear
monasteriesandcathedrals.
Citiesoftenprovideprotectioninaprecariousworld.Duringattacks,theruralpopulacecouldflee
behindcitywalls,wheredefenceforcesassembledtorepeltheenemy.Thewallservedthispurpose
formillennia,untiltheinventionofheavyartilleryrenderedwallsuselessinwarfare.Withtheadvent
ofmodernaerialwarfare,citieshavebecomeprimetargetsfordestructionratherthansafehavens.
Citiesserveascentersofgovernment.Inparticular,theemergenceofthegreatnationstatesofEurope
between1400and1800ledtothecreationofnewcapitalcitiesortheinvestingofexistingcitieswith
expandedgovernmentalfunctions.
Washington,D.C.,forexample,displaysthemonumentalbuildings,radialstreetpattern,andlarge
publicspacestypicalofcapitalcities.
Cities,withtheirconcentrationoftalent,mixtureofpeoples,andeconomicsurplus,haveprovideda
fertilegroundfortheevolutionofhumanculture:thearts,scientificresearch,andtechnical
innovation.Theyserveascentersofcommunication,wherenewideasandinformationarespreadto
thesurroundingterritoryandtoforeignlands.

ConstraintsonCityForm
Citiesarephysicalartifactsinsertedintoapreexistingnaturalworld,andnaturalconstraintsmustbe
respectedifasettlementistosurviveandprosper.Citiesmustconformtothelandscapeinwhichthey

arelocated,althoughtechnologieshavegraduallybeendevelopedtoreorganizethelandtosuithuman
purposes.Moderatelyslopinglandprovidesthebesturbansite,butspectaculareffectshavebeen
achievedonhillysitessuchasSanFrancisco,RiodeJaneiro,andAthens.
Climateinfluencescityform.Forexample,streetshavebeenalignedtotakeadvantageofcooling
breezes,andarcadesdesignedtoshieldpedestriansfromsunandrain.Thearchitectureofindividual
buildingsoftenreflectsadaptationstotemperature,rainfall,snow,windandotherclimatic
characteristics.
Citiesmusthaveahealthywatersupply,andlocationsalongriversandstreams,ornearunderground
watercourses,havealwaysbeenfavored.Manylargemoderncitieshaveoutgrowntheirlocalwater
suppliesandrelyupondistantwatersourcesdivertedbyelaboratesystemsofpipesandcanals.
Citylocationandinternalstructurehavebeenprofoundlyinfluencedbynaturaltransportationroutes.
Citieshaveoftenbeensitednearnaturalharbors,onnavigablerivers,oralonglandroutesdetermined
byregionaltopography.
Finally,citieshavehadtosurviveperiodicnaturaldisasterssuchasearthquakes,hurricanes,tornados,
andfloods.TheSanFranciscoearthquakeof1906demonstratedhownaturalforcescanundodecades
ofhumanlaborinaveryshorttime.

ElementsofUrbanStructure
Cityplannersmustweaveacomplex,everchangingarrayofelementsintoaworkingwhole:thatis
theperennialchallengeofcityplanning.Thephysicalelementsofthecitycanbedividedintothree
categories:networks,buildings,andopenspaces.Manyalternativearrangementsofthesecomponents
havebeentriedthroughouthistory,butnoidealcityformhaseverbeenagreedupon.Livelydebates
aboutthebestwaytoarrangeurbananatomiescontinuetorage,andshownosignsofabating.

Networks
Everymoderncitycontainsanamazingarrayofpathwaystocarryflowsofpeople,goods,water,
energy,andinformation.Transportationnetworksarethelargestandmostvisibleofthese.Ancient
citiesreliedonstreets,mostofthemquitenarrowbymodernstandards,tocarryfoottrafficandcarts.
Themoderncitycontainsacomplexhierarchyoftransportationchannels,rangingfromtenlane
freewaystosidewalks.IntheUnitedStates,thebulkoftripsarecarriedbytheprivateautomobile,
withmasstransitadistantsecond.Americancitiesdisplaythelowdensitysprawlcharacteristicof
autocenteredurbandevelopment.Incontrast,manyEuropeancitieshavethehighdensitiesnecessary
tosupportrailtransit.
Moderncitiesrelyoncomplexnetworksofutilities.Whencitiesweresmall,obtainingpurewaterand
disposingofwasteswasnotamajorproblem,butcitieswithlargepopulationsandhighdensities
requireexpensivepublicinfrastructure.Duringthenineteenthcentury,rapidurbangrowthand
industrializationcausedovercrowding,pollution,anddiseaseinurbanareas.Aftertheconnection
betweenimpurewateranddiseasewasestablished,AmericanandEuropeancitiesbegantoinstall
adequatesewerandwatersystems.Sincethelatenineteenthcentury,citieshavealsobeenlacedwith
wiresandconduitscarryingelectricity,gas,andcommunicationssignals.

Buildings
Buildingsarethemostvisibleelementsofthecity,thefeaturesthatgiveeachcityitsunique
character.Residentialstructuresoccupyalmosthalfofallurbanland,withthebuildingtypesranging
fromscatteredsinglefamilyhomestodensehighriseapartments.Commercialbuildingsareclustered

downtownandatvarioussubcenters,withskyscraperspackedintothecentralbusinessdistrictand
lowrisestructuresprevailingelsewhere,althoughtallbuildingsarebecomingmorecommoninthe
suburbs.Industrialbuildingscomeinmanyformsrangingfromlargefactorycomplexesinindustrial
districtstosmallworkshops.
Cityplannersengageinaconstantsearchfortheproperarrangementofthesedifferenttypesofland
use,payingparticularattentiontothecompatibilityofdifferentactivities,populationdensities,traffic
generation,economicefficiency,socialrelationships,andtheheightandbulkofbuildings.

OpenSpaces
Openspaceissometimestreatedasaleftover,butitcontributesgreatlytothequalityofurbanlife.
"Hard"spacessuchasplazas,malls,andcourtyardsprovidesettingsforpublicactivitiesofallkinds.
"Soft"spacessuchasparks,gardens,lawns,andnaturepreservesprovideessentialrelieffromharsh
urbanconditionsandserveasspaceforrecreationalactivities.These"amenities"increasingly
influencewhichcitieswillbeperceivedasdesirableplacestolive.

EvolutionofUrbanForm
Thefirsttrueurbansettlementsappearedaround3,000B.C.inancientMesopotamia,Egypt,andthe
IndusValley.Ancientcitiesdisplayedboth"organic"and"planned"typesofurbanform.These
societieshadelaboratereligious,political,andmilitaryhierarchies.Precinctsdevotedtotheactivities
oftheelitewereoftenhighlyplannedandregularinform.Incontrast,residentialareasoftengrewby
aslowprocessofaccretion,producingcomplex,irregularpatternsthatweterm"organic."Twotypical
featuresoftheancientcityarethewallandthecitadel:thewallfordefenseinregionsperiodically
sweptbyconqueringarmies,andthecitadelalarge,elevatedprecinctwithinthecitydevotedto
religiousandstatefunctions.
Greekcitiesdidnotfollowasinglepattern.Citiesgrowingslowlyfromoldvillagesoftenhadan
irregular,organicform,adaptinggraduallytotheaccidentsoftopographyandhistory.Colonialcities,
however,wereplannedpriortosettlementusingthegridsystem.Thegridiseasytolayout,easyto
comprehend,anddividesurbanlandintouniformrectangularlotssuitablefordevelopment.
TheRomansengagedinextensivecitybuildingactivitiesastheyconsolidatedtheirempire.Rome
itselfdisplayedtheinformalcomplexitycreatedbycenturiesoforganicgrowth,althoughparticular
templeandpublicdistrictswerehighlyplanned.Incontrast,theRomanmilitaryandcolonialtowns
werelaidoutinavariationofthegrid.ManyEuropeancities,likeLondonandParis,sprangfrom
theseRomanorigins.
Weusuallyassociatemedievalcitieswithnarrowwindingstreetsconvergingonamarketsquarewith
acathedralandcityhall.Manycitiesofthisperioddisplaythispattern,theproductofthousandsof
incrementaladditionstotheurbanfabric.However,newtownsseededthroughoutundeveloped
regionsofEuropewerebaseduponthefamiliargrid.Ineithercase,largeencirclingwallswerebuilt
fordefenseagainstmaraudingarmiesnewwallsenclosingmorelandwerebuiltasthecityexpanded
andoutgrewitsformercontainer.
DuringtheRenaissance,architectsbegantosystematicallystudytheshapingofurbanspace,as
thoughthecityitselfwereapieceofarchitecturethatcouldbegivenanaestheticallypleasingand
functionalorder.ManyofthegreatpublicspacesofRomeandotherItaliancitiesdatefromthisera.
Partsofoldcitieswererebuilttocreateelegantsquares,longstreetvistas,andsymmetricalbuilding
arrangements.Respondingtoadvancesinfirearmsduringthefifteenthcentury,newcitywallswere
designedwithlargeearthworkstodeflectartillery,andstarshapedpointstoprovidedefenderswith
sweepinglinesoffire.SpanishcolonialcitiesintheNewWorldwerebuiltaccordingtorulescodified

intheLawsoftheIndiesof1573,specifyinganorderlygridofstreetswithacentralplaza,defensive
wall,anduniformbuildingstyle.
Weassociatethebaroquecitywiththeemergenceofgreatnationstatesbetween1600and1750.
Ambitiousmonarchsconstructednewpalaces,courts,andbureaucraticoffices.Thegrandscalewas
soughtinurbanpublicspaces:longavenues,radialstreetnetworks,monumentalsquares,geometric
parksandgardens.VersaillesisaclearexpressionofthiscitybuildingmodelWashington,D.C.isan
examplefromtheUnitedStates.BaroqueprinciplesofurbandesignwereusedbyBaronHaussmann
inhiscelebratedrestructuringofParisbetween1853and1870.Haussmanncarvedbroadnew
thoroughfaresthroughthetangledwebofoldParisianstreets,linkingmajorsubcentersofthecity
withoneanotherinapatternwhichhasservedasamodelformanyothermodernizationplans.
Towardthelatterhalfoftheeighteenthcentury,particularlyinAmerica,thecityasasettingfor
commerceassumedprimacy.Thebuildingsofthebourgeoisieexpandalongwiththeirowners'
prosperity:banks,officebuildings,warehouses,hotels,andsmallfactories.Newtownsfounded
duringthisperiodwereconceivedascommercialenterprises,andtheneutralgridwasthemost
effectivemeanstodividelandupintoparcelsforsale.Thecitybecameacheckerboardonwhich
playersspeculatedonshiftinglandvalues.Nolongerwouldreligious,political,andcultural
imperativesshapeurbandevelopmentrather,themarketwouldbeallowedtodeterminethepatternof
urbangrowth.NewYork,Philadelphia,andBostonaround1920exemplifythecommercialcityof
thisera,withtheirbustling,mixedusewaterfrontdistricts.

TransitiontotheIndustrialCity
CitieshavechangedmoresincetheIndustrialRevolutionthaninallthepreviouscenturiesoftheir
existence.NewYorkhadapopulationofabout313,000in1840buthadreached4,767,000in1910.
Chicagoexplodedfrom4.000to2,185,000duringthesameperiod.Millionsofruraldwellersno
longerneededonfarmsflockedtothecities,wherenewfactorieschurnedoutproductsforthenew
marketsmadeaccessiblebyrailroadsandsteamships.IntheUnitedStates,millionsofimmigrants
fromEuropeswelledtheurbanpopulations.Increasingly,urbaneconomieswerebeingwovenmore
rightlyintothenationalandinternationaleconomies.
Technologicalinnovationspouredforth,manywithprofoundimpactsonurbanform.Railroadtracks
weredrivenintotheheartofthecity.Internalrailtransportationsystemsgreatlyexpandedtheradius
ofurbansettlement:horsecarsbeginninginthe1830s,cablecarsinthe1870s,andelectrictrolleysin
the1880s.Inthe1880s,thefirstcentralpowerplantsbeganprovidingelectricalpowertourbanareas.
Therapidcommunicationprovidedbythetelegraphandthetelephoneallowedformerlyconcentrated
urbanactivitiestodisperseacrossawiderfield.
Theindustrialcitystillfocusedonthecitycenter,whichcontainedboththecentralbusinessdistrict,
definedbylargeofficebuildings,andsubstantialnumbersoffactoryandwarehousestructures.Both
trolleysandrailroadsystemsconvergedonthecenterofthecity,whichboastedthepremier
entertainmentandshoppingestablishments.Theworkingclasslivedincrowdeddistrictsclosetothe
citycenter,neartheirplaceofemployment.
EarlyAmericanfactorieswerelocatedoutsideofmajorcitiesalongriverswhichprovidedwater
powerformachinery.Aftersteampowerbecamewidelyavailableinthe1930s,factoriescouldbe
locatedwithinthecityinproximitytoportfacilities,raillines,andtheurbanlaborforce.Large
manufacturingzonesemergedwithinthemajornortheasternandmidwesterncitiessuchasPittsburgh,
Detroit,andCleveland.Butbythelatenineteenthcentury,factorydecentralizationhadalreadybegun,
asmanufacturerssoughtlargerparcelsoflandawayfromthecongestionofthecity.Gary,Indiana,for
example,wasfoundedin1906onthesouthernshoreofLakeMichiganbytheUnitedStatesSteel
Company.

Theincreasingcrowding,pollution,anddiseaseinthecentralcityproducedagrowingdesireto
escapetoahealthierenvironmentinthesuburbs.Theupperclasseshadalwaysbeenabletoretreatto
homesinthecountryside.Beginninginthe1830s,commuterrailroadsenabledtheuppermiddleclass
tocommuteintothecitycenter.Horsecarlineswerebuiltinmanycitiesbetweenthe1830sand
1880s,allowingthemiddleclasstomoveoutfromthecentralcitiesintomorespacioussuburbs.
Finally,duringthe1890selectrictrolleysandelevatedrapidtransitlinesproliferated,providingcheap
urbantransportationforthemajorityofthepopulation.
Thecentralbusinessdistrictofthecityunderwentaradicaltransformationwiththedevelopmentof
theskyscraperbetween1870and1900.Thesetallbuildingswerenottechnicallyfeasibleuntilthe
inventionoftheelevatorandsteelframeconstructionmethods.Skyscrapersreflectthedynamicsof
therealestatemarketthetallbuildingextractsthemaximumeconomicvaluefromalimitedparcelof
land.Theseofficebuildingshousedthegrowingnumbersofwhitecollaremployeesinbanking,
finance,management,andbusinessservices,allmanifestationsoftheshiftfromaneconomyofsmall
firmstooneoflargecorporations.

TheFormoftheModernCityintheAgeoftheAutomobile
Thecityoftodaymaybedividedintotwoparts:
Aninnerzone,coextensivewiththeboundariesoftheoldindustrialcity.
Suburbanareas,datingfromthe1920s,whichhavebeendesignedfortheautomobilefromthe
beginning.
ThecentralbusinessdistrictsofAmericancitieshavebecomecentersofinformationprocessing,
finance,andadministrationratherthanmanufacturing.Whitecollaremployeesintheseeconomic
sectorscommuteinfromthesuburbsonanetworkofurbanfreewaysbuiltduringthe1950sand
1960sthis"hubandwheel"freewaypatterncanbeobservedonmanycitymaps.Newbridgeshave
spannedriversandbays,asinNewYorkandSanFrancisco,linkingtogetherformerlyseparatecities
intovasturbanizedregions.
Wavesofdemolitionandrebuildinghaveproduced"Manhattanized"downtownsacrosstheland.
Duringthe1950sand1960s,urbanrenewalprogramsclearedawaylargeareasoftheoldcity,
releasingthelandfornewofficebuildings,conventioncenters,hotels,andsportscomplexes.Building
surgeshaveconvertedthedowntownsofAmericancitiesintoforestsoftallofficebuildings.More
recently,officefunctionsnotrequiringadowntownlocationhavebeenmovedtohugeofficeparksin
thesuburbs.
Surroundingthecentralbusinessarealiesalargebandofoldmixeduseandresidentialbuildings
whichhosetheurbanpoor.Highcrime,lowincome,deterioratingservices,inadequatehousing,and
intractablesocialproblemsplaguetheseneglectedareasofurbanAmerica.Themanufacturingjobs
formerlyavailabletoinnercityresidentsarenolongerthere,andresourceshavenotbeencommitted
toreplacethem.
Theseinnercityareashavebeenleftbehindbyamassivemigrationtothesuburbs,whichbeganin
thelatenineteenthcenturybutacceleratedinthe1920swiththespreadoftheautomobile.Freeway
buildingafterWorldWarIIopenedupevenlargerareasofsuburbanland,whichwerequicklyfilled
bypeoplefleeingcentralcitydecline.Today,morepeopleliveinsuburbsthanincitiesproper.
Manufacturershavealsomovedtheirproductionfacilitiestosuburbanlocationswhichhavefreeway
andrailaccessibility.
Indeed,wehavereachedanewstageofurbanizationbeyondthemetropolis.Mostmajorcitiesareno
longerfocusedexclusivelyonthetraditionaldowntown.Newsubcentershavearisenroundthe
periphery,andthesesubcenterssupplymostofthedailyneedsoftheiradjacentpopulations.Theold

metropolishasbecomeamulticenteredurbanregion.Inturn,manyoftheseurbanregionshave
expandedtothepointwheretheyhavecoalescedintovastbeltsofurbanizationwhatthegeographer
JeanGottmantermed"megalopolis."TheprimeexampleistheeasternseaboardoftheUnitedStates
fromBostontoWashington.TheplannerC.A.Doxiadishasspeculatedthatsimilarvastcorridorsof
urbanizationwillappearthroughouttheworldduringthenextcentury.Thusfar,Americanplanners
havenothadmuchsuccessinimposingarationalformonthisprocess.However,NewTownand
greenbeltprogramsinBritainandtheScandinaviancountrieshave,tosomeextent,prevented
formlesssprawlfromengulfingthecountryside.

TheEconomicsofUrbanAreas
Sincethe1950s,cityplannershaveincreasinglypaidattentiontotheeconomicsofurbanareas.When
manyAmericancitiesexperiencedfiscalcrisesduringthe1970s,urbanfinancialmanagement
assumedevengreaterimportance.Today,plannersroutinelyassesstheeconomicconsequencesofall
majorchangesintheformofthecity.
Severalbasicconceptsunderlieurbanandregionaleconomicanalysis.First,citiescannotgrowiftheir
residentssimplyprovideservicesforoneanother.Thecitymustcreateproductswhichcanbesoldto
anexternalpurchaser,bringinginmoneywhichcanbereinvestedinnewproductionfacilitiesandraw
materials.This"economicbase"ofproductionforexternalmarketsiscrucial.Withoutit,the
economicengineofthecitygrindstoahalt.
Oncetheeconomicbaseisestablished,anelaborateinternalmarketcanevolve.Thismarketincludes
theproductionofgoodsandservicesforbusinessesandresidentswithinthecity.Obviously,alarge
partofthecity'sphysicalplantisdevotedtofacilitiesforinternaltransactions:retailstoresofall
kinds,restaurants,localprofessionalservices,andsoon.
Moderncitiesareincreasinglyengagedincompetitionforeconomicresourcessuchasindustrial
plants,corporateheadquarters,hightechnologyfirms,andgovernmentfacilities.Citiestrytolure
investmentwithanarrayoffeatures:lowtaxrates,improvedtransportationandutilityinfrastructure,
cheapland,andskilledlaborforce.Amenitiessuchasclimate,proximitytorecreation,parks,elegant
architecture,andculturalactivitiesinfluencethelocationdecisionsofbusinessesandindividuals.
Manyoldercitieshavedifficultysurvivinginthisneweconomicgame.Abandonedbytraditional
industries,they'renowtryingtocreateaneweconomicbaseinvolvinggrowthsectorssuchashigh
technology.
Today,citiesnolongercompeteinmereregionalornationalmarkets:themarketisaninternational
one.MultinationalfirmscloseplantsinChicagoorDetroitandbuildreplacementsinAsiaorLatin
America.ForeignproductsdominatewholesectorsoftheAmericanconsumergoodsmarket.Huge
sumsofmoneyshiftaroundtheglobeininstantaneouselectronictransactions.Citiesmuststrugglefor
survivalinavolatileenvironmentinwhichtherulesarealwayschanging.Thismakescityplanning
evenmorechallengingthanbefore.

ModernCityPlanning
Moderncityplanningcanbedividedintotwodistinctbutrelatedtypesofplanning.visionarycity
planningproposesradicalchangesintheformofthecity,ofteninconjunctionwithsweepingchanges
inthesocialandeconomicorder.Institutionalizedcityplanningislodgedwithintheexisting
structuresofgovernment,andmodifiesurbangrowthprocessesinmoderate,pragmaticways.Itis
constrainedbytheprevailingalignmentofpoliticalandeconomicforceswithinthecity.

VisionaryorUtopianCityPlanning

Peoplehaveimaginedidealcitiesformillennia.Plato'sRepublicwasanidealcity,althoughlackingin
thespatialdetailoflaterschemes.Renaissancearchitectsdesignednumerousgeometriccities,and
eversincearchitectshavebeenthechiefsourceofimaginativeurbanproposals.Inthetwentieth
century,LeCorbusier,FrankLloydWright,PaoloSoleri,anddozensofotherarchitectshave
designedcitiesonpaper.Althoughfewhavebeenrealizedinpureform,theyhaveinfluencedthe
layoutofmanynewtownsandurbanredevelopmentprojects.
Inhis"ContemporaryCityforThreeMillionPeople"of1922and"RadiantCity"of1935,Le
Corbusieradvocatedahighdensityurbanalternative,withskyscraperofficebuildingsandmidrise
apartmentsplacedwithinparklikeopenspaces.Differentlanduseswerelocatedinseparatedistricts,
formingarigidgeometricpatternwithasophisticatedsystemofsuperhighwaysandrailtransit.
FrankLloydWrightenvisionedadecentralizedlowdensitycityinkeepingwithhisdistasteforlarge
citiesandbeliefinfrontierindividualism.TheBroadacreCityplanof1935isalargegridofarterials
spreadacrossthecountryside,withmostoftheinternalspacedevotedtosinglefamilyhomesonlarge
lots.Areasarealsocarefullysetasideforsmallfarms,lightindustry,orchards,recreationareas,and
otherurbanfacilities.Anetworkofsuperhighwaysknitstheregiontogether,sospatiallydispersed
facilitiesareactuallyverycloseintermsoftraveltime.Inmanyways,Wright'sBroadacreCity
resemblesAmericansuburbanandexurbandevelopmentsofthepostWWIIperiod.
Manyotherutopianplanscouldbecatalogued,butthepointisthatplannersandarchitectshave
generatedacomplexarrayofurbanpatternsfromwhichtodrawideasandinspiration.Mostcity
planners,however,donotworkonablankcanvastheycanonlymakeincrementalchangestoan
urbanscenealreadyshapedbyacomplicatedhistoricalprocess.

InstitutionalizedCityPlanning
Theformofthecityisdeterminedprimarilybythousandsofprivatedecisionstoconstructbuildings,
withinaframeworkofpublicinfrastructureandregulationsadministeredbythecity,state,andfederal
governments.Cityplanningactionscanhaveenormousimpactsonlandvalues.Fromthepointof
viewoflandeconomics,thecityisanenormousplayingfieldonwhichthousandsofcompetitors
struggletocapturevaluebyconstructingortradinglandandbuildings.Thegoalofcityplanningisto
interveneinthisgameinordertoprotectwidelysharedpublicvaluessuchashealth,safety,
environmentalquality,socialequality,andaesthetics.
TherootsofAmericancityplanninglieinanarrayofreformeffortsofthelatenineteenthcentury:the
Parksmovement,theCityBeautifulmovement,campaignsforhousingregulations,theProgressive
movementforgovernmentreform,andeffortstoimprovepublichealththroughtheprovisionof
sanitarysewersandcleanwatersupplies.TheFirstNationalConferenceonCityPlanningoccurredin
1909,thesameyearasDanielBurnham'sfamousPlanofChicago.Thatdatemaybeusedtomarkthe
inaugurationofthenewprofession.Theearlycityplannersactuallycamefromdiversebackgrounds
suchasarchitecture,landscapearchitecture,engineering,andlaw,buttheysharedacommondesireto
produceamoreorderlyurbanpattern.
Thezoningoflandbecame,andstillis,themostpotentinstrumentavailabletoAmericancity
plannersforcontrollingurbandevelopment.Zoningisbasicallythedividingofthecityintodiscrete
areaswithinwhichonlycertainlandusesandtypesofbuildingscanbeconstructed.Therationaleis
thatcertainactivitiesofbuildingtypesdon'tmixwellfactoriesandhomes,forexample.Illogical
mixturescreatenuisancesforthepartiesinvolvedandlowerlandvalues.Afterseveraldecadesof
gradualdevelopment,landusezoningreceivedlegalapprovalfromtheSupremeCourtin1926.
Zoningisn'tthesameasplanning:itisalegaltoolfortheimplementationofplans.Zoningshouldbe
closelyintegratedwithaMasterPlanorComprehensivePlanthatspellsoutalogicalpathforthe
city'sfutureinareassuchaslanduse,transportation,parksandrecreation,environmentalquality,and

publicworksconstruction.Intheearlydaysofzoningthiswasoftenneglected,butthislackof
coordinationbetweenzoningandplanningislesscommonnow.
Theotherimportantelementsofexistingcityplanningaresubdivisionregulationsandenvironmental
regulations.Subdivisionregulationsrequirethatlandbeingsubdividedfordevelopmentbeprovided
withadequatestreet,sewers,water,schools,utilities,andvariousdesignfeatures.Thegoalisto
preventshabby,deficientdevelopmentsthatproduceheadachesforboththeirresidentsandthecity.
Sincethelate1960s,environmentalregulationshaveexertedastrongerinfluenceonpatternsofurban
growthbyrestrictingdevelopmentinfloodplains,onunstableslopes,onearthquakefaults,ornear
sensitivenaturalareas.Businesseshavebeenforcedtoreducesmokeemissionsandthedisposalof
wasteshasbeenmorecloselymonitored.Overall,thepaceofenvironmentaldegradationhasbeen
slowed,butcertainlynotstopped,andadismayingbacklogofenvironmentalhazardsremainstobe
cleanedup.Cityplannershaveplentyofworktodoaswemoveintothetwentyfirstcentury.

Conclusion:GoodCityForm
Whatisthegoodcity?Weareunlikelytoarriveatanunequivocalanswerthediversityofhuman
needsandtastesfrustratesallattemptstoproviderecipesorinstructionmanualsforthebuildingof
cities.However,wecanidentifythecrucialdimensionsofcityperformance,andspecifythemany
waysinwhichcitiescanachievesuccessalongthesedimensions.
AmostusefulguideinthisenterpriseisKevinLynch'sATheoryofGoodCityForm(Cambridge,
MA,MITPress,1981).Lynchoffersfivebasicdimensionsofcityperformance:vitality,sense,fit,
access,andcontrol.Totheseheaddstwo"metacriteria,"efficiencyandjustice.
ForLynch,avitalcitysuccessfullyfulfilsthebiologicalneedsofitsinhabitants,andprovidesasafe
environmentfortheiractivities.Asensiblecityisorganizedsothatitsresidentscanperceiveand
understandthecity'sformandfunction.Acitywithgoodfitprovidesthebuildings,spaces,and
networksrequiredforitsresidentstopursuetheirprojectssuccessfully.Anaccessiblecityallows
peopleofallagesandbackgroundtogaintheactivities,resources,services,andinformationthatthey
need.Acitywithgoodcontrolisarrangedsothatitscitizenshaveasayinthemanagementofthe
spacesinwhichtheyworkandreside.
Finally,anefficientcityachievesthegoalslistedaboveattheleastcost,andbalancestheachievement
ofthegoalswithoneanother.Theycannotallbemaximizedatthesametime.Andajustcity
distributesbenefitsamongitscitizensaccordingtosomefairstandard.Clearly,thesetwometacriteria
raisedifficultissueswhichwillcontinuetosparkdebatesfortheforeseeablefuture.
Thesecriteriatellaspiringcitybuilderswheretoaim,whileacknowledgingthediversewaysof
achievinggoodcityform.Citiesareendlesslyfascinatingbecauseeachisunique,theproductof
decades,centuries,orevenmillenniaofhistoricalevolution.Aswewalkthroughcitystreets,wewalk
throughtime,encounteringthecitybuildinglegacyofpastgenerations.Paris,Venice,Rome,New
York,Chicago,SanFranciscoeachhasitsgloriesanditsfailures.Intheory,weshouldbeableto
learnthelessonsofhistoryandbuildcitiesthatourdescendantswilladmireandwishtopreserve.
Thatremainsaconstantchallengeforallthosewhoundertakethetaskofcityplanning.