ne Pv) Iv CONTENTS DRILLING PROBLEMS AND THEIR REMEDY Rig Mud Hydraulics Factors Affecting Bit Performance Straight and Directional Oilwell Drilling, and Deviation Control Oilwell Cementing REFERENCES 159 200ao a Cnaprer 1 DRILLING PROBLEMS AND THEIR REMEDY 1.1 Introduction Problems associated with the drilling of oil and gas wells are largely due (0 the disturbance of carth stresses around the borehole caused by the creation of the hole itself and by drilling mud/formation interaction, Earth stresses, together with formation (pore) pressure, attempt to re-establish previous equilibrium by forcing strata to move toward the borehole. ‘Thus, a hole is kept open (or stable) by maintaining a balance between carth stresses and pore pressure on one side and well-bore mud pressure and mud chemical composition on the other side. Any time this balance is disturbed, hole problems may be encountered. Hole problems can be classified under three types of drilling wells, namely: 1. Vertical well drilling. si 2. Deviaied or directional well drilling. = 3. Horizontal well drilling. 1.2 Special Problems during Vertical Well Drilling Drilling problems that may be encountered during drilling vertical cil and gas wells 1. Lost circulation of drilling fluid. 2. Controlling hole devistions.* ° > 3. Sticking and torquing pipe. 4. Blowouts of fluids or gases. “+ 5. Sloughing or caving shales. 6. Bridging : 7. Twist-off, 8. Going back to bottom. 9. Vertical well drilling 20. Pipe washout. 11. Strapping pipe to get accurate tally. 13 lost ulation Problems Lost circulation is defined as the partial or complete loss of drilling fluid during, drilling, circulating or running casing or loss of cement during cementing. Lost circulation ‘occurs when the hydrostatic pressure of mud exceeds the breaking strength of the formation, which creates cracks along which the fluid will flow. For lost circulation to occur, the size of the pore openings of the induced fractures must be larger than the size of the mud particles. In practice, the size of openings that can cause lost circulation is in the range 0.1 - 1.0 mm. However, circulation may be lost if 1. The (otal pressure exerted on a formation exceeds the formation pressure. 2, The openings in the formation are about three times as large as the biggest particles present in the mud in substantial quantity. > Accordingly, the formations where lost circulation may occur can be subdivided ‘ito three: _oategoris: B2 Chapter i 1. Coarse permeable, unconsolidated formations. 2. Vugular and cavernous formations. 3. Fractured, faulted, jointed and fissure formations. L Formations with natural fractures. ih Formations with induced fractures. Coarsely permeable formations, such as sands, gravels, conglomerates vary considerably in permeability. Their ability to take drilling fluids depends upon the ratio between the size of pore openings and the size of the solid particles present in the mud. Also, vugs and caverns are usually found in limestone and circulation losses in cavernous formations are usually predictable, Formations may have some natural fractures. However, thede ‘can't always take drilling fluid. If fractures are not opened wide enough, they will not start taking mud. Even if formations do not have fractures, the latter can be created in the course of drilling ‘operations if pressure applied to a formation is high enough to break it. 1.3.1 Prevention Measures It is more economical to prevent circulation losses than to restore circulation after it was lest. As it bas been stated previously, two conditions are necessary to get circulation Tost: 1, Formation with openings large enough to take the mud solids. 2. Pressure overbalance. vst Since formation properties cannot be controlled, preventive measurés should be directed to avoid any unnecessary pressure overbalance that may initiate circulation losses and ‘cause sometimes formation fracturing. Also, hydrostatic pressure is usually mitintained at « level. sufficient to slightly overbalance reservoir pressure, However, pressure applied to formation may increase in this process of drilling operations. Reasons for pressure increase and preventive measures to be taken are given in Table (1.1), 1.3.2 » Methods of Restoring Cireutation ms If despite the preventive measures taken circulation is lost, some simple methods may be tried to restore circulation before other more radical methods are used. These methods are as fellows: 1. Waiting period: is one of the best methods, which can be recommended in all instanc ‘The well should be left quiet for 6 - 8 hours. This allows the hole to heal itself. Solids present in the mud probably enter the thief zone, filtration cake is deposited and mud gellation takes place. All these factors contribute to restore the circulation, The bit should be pulled to 2 point before the well is left quiet. 2. Reduetion of mud density: by diluting with water or by adding oil that decreases pressure of the mud column and may be sufficient to restore circulation, 3. Deliberate mud getlation: by treatment with lime, cement, gypsum or even salt may help to restore circulation in case itis lost in shallow coarse permeable sands or gravels. 4. Reduetion of pump pressure by decreasing the rate of circulation or chemical treatment to cut down mud yield point may restore circulation dije to the corresponding decrease of pressure losses in the annular space. ‘Dr MS. Farahat i