Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Course Packet 2nd Semester
Course Packet 2nd Semester
UNIT 1
A. WRITING
The Narrative Essay
Read the following essay. Find the topic sentence in each paragraph, underline the linking
words and consider the role of each paragraph.
P1
The big Town Hall clock was striking midnight when Frank began to cross the bridge.
The night air was cold and damp. A low mist hung over the river and the street-lamps gave little
light.
P2
Frank was anxious to get home and his footsteps rang loudly on the pavement. When he
reached the middle of the bridge he thought he could hear someone approaching behind him. He
looked back but could see no one. However, the sound continued and Frank began walking more
quickly. Then he slowed down again, ashamed of himself for acting so foolishly. There was
nothing to fear in a town as quiet as this.
P3
The short, quick steps grew louder until they seemed very near. Frank found it impossible
not to turn round. As he did so, he caught sight of a figure coming towards him.
P4
After reaching the other side of the bridge, Frank stopped and pretended to look down at
the water. From the corner of his eye he could now make out the form of a man dressed in a large
overcoat. A hat was pulled over his eyes and very little of his face could be seen.
P5
As the man came near, Frank turned towards him and said something about the weather
in an effort to be friendly. The man did not answer but asked gruffly where Oakfield House was.
Frank pointed to a big house in the distance and the stranger continued his way.
P6
The inquiry made Frank suspicious because he knew that the inhabitants of Oakfield
House were very wealthy. Almost without realizing what he was doing, he began following the
stranger quietly. The man was soon outside the house and Frank saw him look up at the
windows. A light was still on and the man waited until it went out. When about half an hour had
passed, Frank saw him climb noiselessly over the wall and heard him drop on to the ground at
the other side.
P7
Now Franks worst suspicions were confirmed. He walked quickly and silently across the
establishing the order: first, second, third, then, next, meanwhile, before, after,
finally, eventually, later
cause and effect relationship: as a result, consequently, hence, therefore, thus,
accordingly
examples: such as, for example, for instance
contrast, contradiction: however, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand,
yet, otherwise
comparison: similarly, likewise
location: above, below, here, there, inside, outside, nearby, beyond, between,
over, under
sequence of events
Firstly,
First of all,
To begin with,
Initially
Beforehand,
Previously,
Earlier,
At the same time,
Simultaneously,
Secondly, Thirdly etc
Next,
Then,
Subsequently,
Later,
Eventually,
Lastly,
Finally,
In the last stage,
At the seaside - unbalanced paragraphs in a composition - 1 paragraph (25 lines) how you played
with sand, 1 paragraph (10 lines) an entire succession of events constituting in fact the climax of
the story. Never attempt to write an essay in a single paragraph.
Especially expository paragraphs often develop a topic sentence that expresses the main idea.
It is mainly placed at the beginning of the paragraph, but it can be placed in the middle, or even
at the end (tension, suspense for the reader).
The function of the other sentences is to support or develop the main idea with specific details
(examples, incidents, reasons).
Use the chronological order of the events.
Use Past Tense and Past Perfect as the storys main narrative tenses.
B. GRAMMAR
The Modal Verbs
Introduction:
Modal verbs express the speakers attitude towards what he says; the action expressed can be
lack certain verbal forms- in this case they are substituted by verbal paraphrases: be able to,
if you want to use tag questions with the modals, then use the modal verb expressed in the
sentence
e.g. He talked a lot, didnt he?
You can sing well, cant you?
You have to come early, dont you?
CAN/COULD
Mainly express ABILITY, POSSIBILITY, PERMISSION
I ABILITY
1. can + inf = to be able to (natural ability)present reference
e.g. Can you run 1500 metres in 5 minutes?
= Are you able to run 1500 metres in 5 minutes?
2. can + inf (learned ability) present reference
e.g. Can you drive a car?
3. could+ inf (natural or learned ability) past reference
e.g. Jim could/couldnt run very fast when he was a boy.
II (IM)POSSIBILITY
1. can/could + infpresent reference
e.g. Lightening a match in a gas station can cause an explosion.
It can be very cold in winter.
If she catches the 8.30 bus, she can/could get here in time.
Can this be true?
Could this be true? (less credible than can)
You cant bathe here because the river is polluted.
The situation couldnt be worse. (with comparative adjectives)
2. could + inf past reference
e.g. We couldnt bathe there because the river was polluted.
3. cant/couldnt + inf (negative deduction)present reference
e.g. You cant be hungry. Youve just had dinner.
A: I think Lucy is typing the letter now.
B: Lucy cant be typing the letter. She can type.
4. cant/couldnt have + 3rd form of the vb. (negative deduction or past possibility) past reference
e.g. He couldnt have heard the news on the radio because he was sleeping then.
David could have won the race if he tried.
5.can as possibility cannot be used in a future sense; it will be possible, will be ablefuture reference
e.g. When the new tunnel is ready, well be able to get to town more easily.
6. could as possibility may be used in a future sensefuture reference
e.g. You could bathe here next summer, as the water will be warm.
7. couldnt (possibly) + inf (unwillingness)present/future reference
e.g. I couldnt possibly leave without helping you!
III PERMISSION
1. can + inf (to ask for permission; informal)present reference
e.g. Can I borrow your car?
2. can/cannot + inf (to express/refuse permission) present reference
e.g. Yes, you can borrow my car.
3. could + inf (to ask for permission; more polite) present reference
e.g. Could I borrow your umbrella, Miss Johnson?
4. cant/couldnt + inf (to ask for permission; insistence) present reference
e.g. Mum, cant/couldnt I stay out till midnight, please?
5.could + inf. (permission; after past tense verbs)past reference
e.g. I told him he could borrow my car.
MAY/MIGHT
Mainly express POSSIBILITY, PERMISSION
I POSSIBILITY
1. may/might +inf present/future reference
e.g. They may/might come today/tomorrow.
A: Where is Bill?
B: He may be at home. He is usually at home at this hour.
C: He might be at home. Im not sure. (less sure)
might - less probable
2. may/might have + 3rd form of the vb.past reference
They might not have noticed what was going on.
3. might + inf (indirect speech; i.e. when the introductory verb is in the past)
II PERMISSION
1. may + inf (to grant/refuse permission by the speaker) present/future reference
e.g. They may go.
2. may + inf (to indicate the idea of having permission) present/future reference
e.g. I/we may go.
3. may + inf (to request permission) present/future reference
e.g. May I smoke in here?
4. might + inf (to express permission) present/future reference(with conditional implication)
e.g. Might I take your car for an hour?
obs to be allowed to, to be permitted to replace can, could, may, might when they express
PERMISSION.
e.g. I will be allowed to drive a car when Im 18.
politeness
Might
May
Could
Can
III Other cases
1. might + inf (strong requests) present reference
e.g. You might tell me what is going on.
2. might have+ 3rd form of the vb. (reproach) past reference
e.g. You might have told me what happened.
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CAN/COULD VS MAY/MIGHT
1. notice the difference in negative sentences
e.g. He may not be at home. (= it is possible that he is not at home)
He cant be at home. (= it is not possible for him to be at home)
2. can theoretical possibility vs. may factual possibility
e.g. The road can be blocked. (it is possible to block the road)
The road may be blocked. (=it is possible that the road is blocked)
MUST/HAVE TO
Mainly
express
OBLIGATION,
POSITIVE
DEDUCTION,
STRONG
PROHIBITION/LACK OF OBLIGATION
1. must + inf (obligation imposed by the speaker) present/future reference
e.g. You must be back before it gets dark.
You mustnt be noisy outside a hospital. (total obligation)
2. self-imposed obligation (with the 1st person pronouns) present/future reference
NECESSITY,
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MUST VS MAY
1. must may be used as a counterpart of may (permission)
e.g. You may borrow my car.
You may not/ mustnt borrow my car.
NEED
A. FULL VERB:
e.g. I need help./Do you need any help?/I dont need any help.
e.g. I need(ed) to go to the dentist.
B. MODAL VERB
As a modal, need occurs only in interrogative and negative sentences
e.g. Need you leave so soon?
e.g. You neednt leave so soon.
Mainly expresses NECESSITY, ABSENCE OF NECESSITY
I NECESSITY
1. need + infpresent/future reference
e.g. When need you go to the dentist?
2. neednt have + 3rd form of the vb.(absence of necessity, but the action was performed)past
reference
e.g. I bought the book. Then they told me it wasnt necessary for me to buy it.
= I neednt have bought the book.
3. didnt need to + inf (absence of necessity, the action was not performed)past reference
e.g. I wanted to buy the book, thinking I have to do it. But I didnt buy it. Then they told me it wasnt
necessary for me to buy it.
= I didnt need to buy the book.
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II SUPPOSITION
1. should + inf present/future reference
e.g. Mary should be in Paris. At least I think so.
2. should have + 3rd formpast reference
e.g. Mary should have been In Paris at 10 oclock. (But her plane was delayed.)
SHOULD VS MUST
1. should + inf(supposition about the present/future) vs. must + inf (logical deduction about the
present/future)
e.g. Mary should be in Paris. At least I think so.
Marys plane lands in Paris at 10 oclock. It is 10.30, so Mary must be in Paris now.
2. should have + 3rd form(supposition about the past) vs. must have + 3rd form of the vb. (logical
deduction about the past)
e.g. Mary should have been In Paris at 10 oclock. (But her plane was delayed.)
Mary must have been in Paris at 10 oclock. (Her plane was to land at 10 and I dont know of any
delay)
THATSHOULD
1. after suggest, propose, insist, recommend, advise (instead of an ing construction)
e.g. I suggested going there. = I suggested that we should go there.
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WILL
1. to express intention, willingness, determination (1st person subject)
e.g. I will write tomorrow.
Well celebrate this very night.
2. to express an impersonal type of command
e.g. You will stay here till you are relieved.
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WOULD
1. instead of will after a past tense verb
e.g. He said that he would never do anything like that.
2. in polite requests
e.g. Would you give me a hand?
3. would + inf (may express certainty - with a suppressed conditional sentence) present/future
reference
e.g. Nobody would agree with that idea (if we asked them)
4. would have + 3rd form of the vb.(events in the past which did not happen; sometimes with a
suppressed conditional sentence) past reference
e.g. I would have accepted the job, but I didnt want to move house.
Nobody would have tried to do it (if we had asked them).
5. would have + 3rd form of the vb (assumptions about the past = past supposition)
e.g. Someone called after you left but didnt leave a message.
That would have been Cathy.
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C. VOCABULARY
Football
1. The Pitch. Fill in the blanks with the field markings of a football pitch.
corner kick
quarter circle
restraining arc
goal line
touch line
The rectangular pitch is divided in half by a line drawn between the mid-points of the two longer
sides. This is the 1_____. Exactly halfway across it is the 2_____. Kick-offs, at the start of each
half and after a goal is scored, are taken from this spot. When a team kicks-off, players from the
opposing team must remain at a distance of at least 10 yards (9.15 m) from this spot until the
kick is taken. A circle drawn around the centre spot, known as the 3_____, marks this distance.
At either end of the pitch are the 4_____. These are formed by two upright posts placed
equidistant from the corner flagposts, 24 feet (7.32 m) apart and 8 feet (2.44 m) in height, joined
at the top by a crossbar. Nets are usually placed behind these objects , though they are not
required by the Laws of the Game. Two boxes are marked out on the pitch in front of each goal.
The smaller box, called the 5_____ or colloquially the "goal area", is laid out to surround the
goal at an equal distance of 6 yards (5.5 m). Goal kicks and any free kick by the defending team
may be taken from anywhere in this area. An indirect free kick awarded to the attacking team for
an incident occurring within the this area must be taken from the point on this line parallel to the
goal line nearest where an incident occurred. The outer box is known as the 6_____ (or
colloquially the 18 yard box), and is set 18 yards (16.5 m) to each side of the goal, and 18 yards
in front of it. A small semicircle (called the 7_____ or the D) is also drawn at the outside edge of
the penalty area, 10 yards (9.15 m) from the penalty mark. This is an exclusion zone for all
players other than the one taking the kick in the event of a penalty being awarded.
The 8_____ (or penalty mark) is immediately in the middle of and 12 yards (11 m) in front of the
goal.
The area of play is defined by the two sets of boundary lines. The longer boundary lines are
called 9_____ while the shorter ones are known as 10_____.
In each corner of the pitch a small quarter circle with a 1 yard (1 m) radius is drawn where corner
kicks are taken from. This is called the 11_____.
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2. Field markings. Using the information from the previous exercise complete the following
table with the names and the functions of the field markings of a football pitch.
Field marking
Function
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
3. Starts and restarts. From the initial kick-off of a period until the end of that period, the
ball is "in play" at all times until the end of the playing period, except when the ball leaves
the field of play or play is stopped by the referee. Match the words in the first column of
the table with their definitions on the second column to discover the methods by which the
game is restarted in such situations.
1. goal kick
a. When the ball has wholly crossed the touch line it is awarded to the
opposing team to that which last touched the ball. To restart the game in
this manner, a player outside the touch line throws the ball to a teammate
who is in play. The player must always use two hands and bring the ball
from behind the head while standing in the spot where the ball left the
field of play.
2. indirect free kick b. Awarded to the attacking team when the ball has wholly crossed the
goal line without a goal having been scored and having last been touched
by a defender.
3. kick-off
c. Such a kick is awarded for pennal fouls, such as pulling an opponent
to the ground by grabbing the jersey. The ball may be kicked directly into
the goal from the spot of the foul.
4. dropped-ball
d. This method is used to begin each period of play or to restart the game
after a goal having been scored.
5. penalty kick
e. This restart method is used when the referee has stopped the play for a
reason which cannot be considered an infraction: a serious injury to a
player, interference by an external party, or a ball becoming defective.
6. direct free kick
f. It is awarded to fouled team following "penal" foul having occurred in
their opponent's penalty area.
7. throw-in
g. This designates the kick up the field from one of the corners of the goal
area awarded to the defending team after the attacking team has kicked the
ball past the goal line without a goal being scored.
8. corner kick
h. Such a kick is awarded to the fouled team for non-pennal fouls, such
as obstructing an opponent while pursuing the ball. The ball must touch
one other person (a teammate, opponent, or goalie) before a goal can be
scored.
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4. The following words name positions of football players on the field. Choose the
appropriate definitions for each of them:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
goalkeeper
midfield
sweeper
center back (a.k.a. central defender)
striker
winger
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
5. Equipment. Lable the picture with the following items of football equipment:
jersey, shorts, socks (stockings), shin guards, football boots (shoes with cleats)
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6. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate word or phrase. Write them down in the table
below the text. Each word can be used only ONCE.
of, are, with, pass, players, attacker, is composed of, the, hands, is
Football 1_____a game played by two teams on a rectangular field, in which 2_____ attempt to
knock a round ball through the opponents goal, using any part of the body except the 3_____.
Generally, players use their feet and heads as they kick, dribble, and 4_____ the ball toward the
goal. One player on each team guards 5_____ goal. This player, the goalkeeper, is the only
player allowed to touch the ball 6_____ the hands while it is in play.
In a regulation football game, each team 7_____ 11 players. There 8_____ four main positions:
goalkeeper, defender, midfielder, and 9_____. One player from each team plays the position
10_____ goalkeeper, but the distribution of other players among the other positions can vary.
7. How much do you know about football? Decide whether the following sentences are true
or false.
1. The referee calls fouls on players who commit one of ten major infractions: intentionally
kicking, tripping, or jumping at an opponent; violently charging, striking, holding, pushing, or
spitting at an opponent; tackling an opponent without the ball or touching the ball with the hands.
2. A player cannot be ruled offside when receiving the ball from a throw-in or if the player is in
his or her own half of the field.
3. Coaches determine offsides infractions and signal them by waving their flags and pointing to
the spot where the infraction occurred.
4. The referee is assisted by three linesmen.
5. A standard adult football match consists of two periods (known as halves) of 45 minutes each.
6. There is usually a 20-minute break between halves, known as half time.
7. The extra-time and the shootouts come before the fulltime.
8. Players may be replaced by substitutes during the course of the game.
9. A player who is shown the yellow card once in one game is ejected.
10. If a single foul is violent enough, the referee may immediately show the player a red card,
which means automatic ejection.
11. A replaced player may not reenter the game.
12. An attacking player is offsides if, when receiving a forward pass from a teammate, there are
not at least two opponents (usually one defender and the goalkeeper) behind the receiverthat
is, between the attacking player and the opponents' goal line.
13. The referee is allowed to add time on if there are frequent and lengthy interruptions.
14. A football team consists of one goalkeeper and twelve outfield players.
15. A goalkeeper can handle the ball when back-passed.
16. A goalkeeper is allowed to use any part of his/her body when saving a ball.
17. A two-leg stage involves the two teams playing against each other twice.
18.In man-to-man marking each centre back has the job of covering a particular opposition
player.
19. In zonal defence each centre back covers a specific area of the pitch.
20. Formation in football describes how the players in a team are positioned on the pitch.
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UNIT 2
A. WRITING
The Descriptive Essay
Read the following essay. Consider the role of each paragraph.
A Walk on Sunday Morning
P1
Though I usually go on excursions to the country during the weekend, I had decided to
spend the whole of Sunday in the city for a change and to visit the central square and public
gardens. It was so early when I left home that the streets were deserted. Without the usual
crowds and traffic, everything was strangely quiet.
P2
When, at last, I arrived at the square I was surprised to find so many people there. Some
were feeding pigeons and others were sitting peacefully at the foot of a tall statue. I went and sat
with them so as to get a better view. What amused me most was a little boy who was trying to
make pigeons fly up to his shoulder. He was holding some bird-seed in his hand and whenever a
pigeon landed on his arm, he laughed so much that he frightened the bird away.
P3
Some time later I made my way to the public gardens. Here there was an entirely
different atmosphere. The sun was now bright and warm and the air was filled with gay laughter.
P4
The pond interested me more than anything else for many people had come to sail model
boats. There were little yachts with bright red sails, motor boats and wonderful sailing ships.
They moved gracefully across the water carried by the wind while their owners waited for them
to reach the other side.
P5
After resting for a time under a tree, I went and joined a number of people who had
gathered round a man with a big model of a famous sailing ship called The Cutty Shark. It was
perfectly made and I gazed at it with admiration as its owner placed it in the water where it sailed
majestically among the ducks and swans.
P6
At midday, I left the gardens and slowly began walking home. I was not at all sorry that I
had not gone to the country for the weekend. There had been much more to see in the city on a
Sunday morning than I could have ever imagined.
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Structure
Introduction
Paragraph 1
Setting the scene, introducing persons, places, objects to the reader.
Development
Paragraphs 2, 3, 4, 5
Each paragraph describes a particular characteristic/aspect of the person, object, place.
Conclusion
Paragraph 6
Impressions, feelings, opinions.
The goal of descriptive writing is to create a clear picture or impression of a person, place or
object.
Selecting details:
- do not include every detail about the person, place, or object you are describing.
- decide whether or not to use a detail on the basis of whether it will contribute to its purpose in
writing the description.
- sometimes the selection is based on the wish of the writer to convey a strong, single impression
to the reader (description of a person)
- sometimes the writer chooses only the details that help to support a general statement he/she
makes (topic sentence)
Use adjectives. Dont forget the proper order:
P1 a. opinion, b. size, c. age, d. shape e. temperature
P2 Colours
P3 Material
P4 Purpose
P5 Noun
Using sensory details:
Descriptive writing creates a strong impression through the use of sensory details which appeal
to the readers senses of sight, sound, smell, taste, touch. The choice of words has to evoke a
strong sensory response in the readers imagination.
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Locating details:
When you describe a scene, you often want your reader to know where the details are located.
You also want to show their relationship to one another (over, next to, beneath, on the right, in
the distance, near, far, above, below, here, there, inside, outside, nearby, beyond, between, over,
under).
Using tenses:
1. Describing people:
- Present tenses for someone you see every day
- Past tenses can be used to describe someone related to the past
- Present tenses or conditional tenses for the description of ideal persons
2. Describing places or buildings
- Present tenses when you describe smth for a tourist brochure, or when you envisage the
description of the general characteristics of an object, or when you pretend to be at the exact
location you are describing
- Past tenses can be used to describe smth you saw in the past
- Conditional tenses for the description of an ideal city/house
Find the central idea of what you want to describe. e.g. A market: people buying, things sold
No event will keep the reader in suspense as in the case of the narrative essay. The question
What happens next? does not apply.
Language for rendering, describing facts, states. e.g. description of a man, town, landscape
he looks , He has dark eyes, She wears , Her face
When rendering, describing facts and emotional impressions
- provide an account of your feelings, opinions
- try to get the reader involved
When you describe things you may have to provide information on the position, weight,
structure, colour, composition, size, shape and function of the object described.
Structure
X
is nailed/screwed/fixed/fastened
linked/welded/tied/connected
attached
consists of
contains
includes
to Y by
Z
Y and
Z
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23
X is
diamond-shaped/kidney-shaped/Ushaped
star-shaped/bell-shaped/dome-shaped
mushroom-shaped/Xshaped/crescent-shaped
egg-shaped/pear-shaped/Y-shaped
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square/circle/rectangle
X is a shaped like triangle/semi-circle
a
hexagon/octagon
Function
thermometer
function
measure
purpose
the
is temperature
The aim
of
to hold
objective the tripod
the
camera
The thermometer is used
for
tripod
measuring the
temperature
holding
the
camera
Properties
X is light/tough/soft/elastic/malleable/flexible/
soluble/a good conductor of electricity/heat/
corrosion resistant/combustible/transparent/
smooth/heavy/brittle/plastic/ductile/rigid/
insoluble/a bad conductor of electricity/not
corrosion resistant/non-combustible/opaque
rough
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B. GRAMMAR
Direct and Indirect Speech
I. DIRECT SPEECH
1. We use direct speech whenever we speak. We use the term direct speech to describe the way
we represent the spoken word in writing.
2. Quotation marks (or inverted commas) go round what is actually spoken. They may be
single (), or double () and are placed high above the base-line at the beginning and the
end of each quotation.
e.g. Is that you Jane? Bob asked.
3. When the quotation comes after the reporting verb it is preceded by comma and the quotation
begins with a capital letter.
e.g. John said, Its good to see you.
4. When the subject + reporting verb comes after what is said, the quotation has a comma before
the second quotation mark.
e.g. Its good to see you, John said.
5. If the quotation ends with an exclamation mark or a question mark, a comma is not used.
e.g. Where can I get a taxi? John asked.
6. Subject + verb can come in the middle of a quotation sentence.
e.g. Where, in the wretched town, John asked, can I get a taxi?
7. If there is a quote within a quote, we use a second set of quotation marks. If double quotation
marks have been used on the outside, single ones are used on the inside and vice versa.
e.g. Ann said, Just as I was leaving, a voice shouted, Stop!.
e.g. What do you mean, Are you all right?? Ann asked.
8. Noun + reporting may be in subject + verb order or may be inverted (vb. + subject)
e.g. This is a serious offence, the judge said/said the judge.
9. If the subject is a long one, then inversion is usual.
e.g. Wheres this train going? asked the lady sitting beside me.
10. With a pronoun subject, inversion is rare in modern English.
e.g. This is a serious offence, he said.
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Indirect Speech
Present Tense
Past Tense
Past Tense
Past Perfect
Present Perfect
Past Perfect
Past Perfect
Past Perfect
Future Tense
Future-in-the-Past
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(would + inf)
e.g. Ill help you, John said.
John said (that) he would help me.
I have moved to another flat, Mary told me.
Mary told me (that) she had moved to another flat.
Exceptions !!!
The backshift does not occur in the following situations:
1. When reporting habits.
e.g. George said, I go to the seaside every summer.
e.g. George said that he goes to the seaside every summer.
2. When reporting scientific facts.
e.g. The teacher said, Water boils at 100 Celsius.
The teacher said that water boils at 100 Celsius.
3. When reporting a past statement which is still true at the moment of speech.
e.g. Last night George told me I dont have enough money to buy a car.
Last night George told me that he doesnt have enough money to buy a car.
MODAL VERBS
-cancould
-willwould
-maymight
e.g. I can/may/will see you later, he said.
He said he could/might/would see me later.
-shall (future reference) would
-shall (offers, suggestions, requests for advice) should
-should (desirability)should
-would, could, might, ought to, neednt have No change
- must must/had to
must (future reference) must/would have to
must (deduction) must
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Indirect Speech
today
that day
yesterday
yesterday
tomorrow
the
day
tomorrow
next week
last week
a year ago
this
that
these
those
here
there
now
then
OTHER CASES:
1. Yes and No
He said No. He refused. He denied it. He answered in the negative.
He said Yes. He agreed/accepted/answered in the affirmative.
2. When reporting interrogative sentences, besides ask we ca also use: wonder, want to know,
inquire.
e.g. Helen asked (me)/wondered/wanted to know why Tom was angry.
3. Exclamatory sentences:
- What (a) !, How! That Clauses
e.g. How very kind of him to help! mother said.
Mother exclaimed that it was very kind of him to help.
- Oh!, Ah!, Ugh! He exclaimed with surprise/disgust. He gave an exclamation of
surprise/disgust.
29
- verbs such as exclaim, complain, shout, remark, observe, say admiringly, say scornfully can be
use to report exclamatory sentences depending on the meaning.
e.g. What a delicious cake ! the guest said. The guest said admiringly that the cake was
delicious.
e.g. How tired I am! the old woman said. The old woman complained that she was tired.
- She said, Thank you. She thanked me.
- He said Damn it! He swore.
- They said, Good morning! They greeted me/wished me a good morning.
- She said, A happy new year! She wished me a happy new year.
- He said Well done! He congratulated me.
- She said Liar! She called me a liar.
4. Imperative sentences
- imperative infinitive
He said Sit down, Peter! He told Peter to sit down.
- Verbs such as tell, order, command (orders), ask, request, beg, urge (requests), warn, advise,
recommend (advice) can be used when reporting imperative sentences.
e.g. Officer to soldiers: Clean the barracks! The officer ordered the soldiers to clean the
barracks.
e.g. Teacher to Tom: You should go to the doctor. The teacher advised Tom to go to the
doctor.
- Lets + infinitive suggest + Gerund
e.g. Nick said, Lets watch TV. / What about watching TV?
Nick suggested watching TV/that they should watch TV/That they watch TV.
- be to can also be used.
e.g. He says, Do the next exercise! He says that we are to do the next exercise.
30
C. VOCABULARY
Gymnastics
1. Read the following text and fill in the blanks in the diagram.
Gymnastics is a sport involving the performance of sequences of movements requiring physical
strength, flexibility, balance, endurance, grace, and kinesthetic awareness, such as handsprings,
handstands, split leaps, aerials and cartwheels. It developed from beauty practices and fitness
used by the ancient Greeks, including skills for mounting and dismounting a horse, and circus
performance skills. There are three major forms of competitive gymnastics: artistic gymnastics,
rhythmic gymnastics, and trampoline.
Artistic Gymnastics is usually divided into Men's and Women's Gymnastics, each group
doing different events; Men compete on Floor Exercise, Pommel Horse, Still Rings, Vault,
Parallel Bars, and High Bar, while women compete on Vault, Uneven Bars, Beam, and Floor
Exercise. Though routines performed on each event may be short, they are physically exhausting
and push the gymnast's strength, flexibility, endurance and awareness to the limit.
The discipline of rhythmic gymnastics is competed only by women (although there is a
new version of this discipline for men being pioneered in Japan, see Men's rhythmic
gymnastics), and involves the performance of five separate routines with the use of five
apparatus ball, ribbon, hoop, clubs, rope on a floor area, with a much greater emphasis on
the aesthetic rather than the acrobatic. Rhythmic routines are scored out of a possible 20 points,
and the music used by the gymnast can contain vocals, but may not contain words.
Trampolining consists of four events, individual, synchronized, double mini and
tumbling. Only individual trampoline is included in the Olympics. Individual routines in
trampolining involve a build-up phase during which the gymnast jumps repeatedly to achieve
height, followed by a sequence of ten leaps without pauses during which the gymnast performs a
sequence of aerial tumbling skills. Routines are marked out of a maximum score of 10 points.
Additional points (with no maximum at the highest levels of competition) can be earned
depending on the difficulty of the moves. Synchronized trampoline is similar except that both
competitors must perform the routine together and marks are awarded for synchronicity as well
as the form of the moves. Double mini trampoline involves a smaller trampoline with a run-up,
two moves are performed and the scores marked in a similar manner to individual trampoline. In
power tumbling, athletes perform an explosive series of flips and twists down a sprung tumbling
track. Scoring is similar to trampoling.
31
competitive
gymnastics
artistic
rhythmic
men
double
mini
rope
build
up
phase
ten
leaps
32
2.
A. Fill in the blanks of the following diagram with the qualities of a gymnast you can find
in the text.
gymnast
2. floor
3. uneven bars
4. vault
33
4. Match the beginnings of the definitions marked 1-6, with the right endings marked a-f to
find the description of the events in mens artistic gymnastics: floor exercise, pommel
horse, still rings, parallel bars, high bar (horizontal bar), vault.
1. The floor event occurs on a carpeted 12 m
12 m square, usually consisting of hard foam
over a layer of plywood, which is supported by
springs or foam blocks. This provides a firm
surface that will respond with force when
compressed, allowing gymnasts to achieve
extra height and a softer lading than on usual
surfaces.
2. The ultimate balancing act, gymnasts must
perform continuous circular movements around
the horse while allowing only their hands to
actually touch it.
34
35
UNIT 3
A. WRITING
The For and Against Essay
1. Read the following essay. Find the topic sentence in each paragraph, underline the
linking words and consider the role of each paragraph.
P1
enhance sporting performance. The supporters of technology claim that it has been beneficial to
sport in many respects, while opponents accuse it of influencing sport in an adverse way.
P2
One of the main arguments for the use of technology in sport is that it has improved the
training methods. Athletes have access to more equipment that allows them to watch themselves
on video, test their fitness in a laboratory and adjust their diet in order to get peak performance.
Moreover, problems of climate can be solved using technology. Training apparatus can be used
to provide constant training for the athlete, regardless of inclement weather.
P3
What is more, safety equipment has undergone vast improvement owing to technology.
The rather precarious position of the jockey has been improved by equipment such as hard hats
and body padding. Motorsport has been made safer with fire resistant suits, helmets and body
reinforcement in cars.
P4
On the other hand, with increased knowledge of the body, certain drugs can be used to
affect performance in both humans and animals. Horses and greyhounds can be given drugs in
order that their performance is affected to cause them to either win or lose a race. Some snooker
and darts players have been accused of taking beta-blockers, which slow the heart rate in order
that the athlete is more relaxed and therefore less likely to miss a shot.
P5
In addition to this, technology has been held responsible of taking the excitement out of
sporting competition. For example, the improvements to the McLaren cars on the 1998 Formula
1 Grand Prix circuit at the beginning of the season were far superior to the other teams, with the
result that McLaren won consistently. Many followers of Formula 1 became disenchanted,
knowing that one particular team would probably win every race.
36
P6
It can be concluded that while technology can alter athletic performance and disappoint
sports fans, it can also make sports safer and training more efficient. Some sports rely more on
technological advances than others, but throughout the latter part of the 20th century, there have
been few sports that have not been influenced in some way by technology. All in all,
technologys impact on sport and society should not be underestimated.
A for and against essay is a formal piece of writing in which a topic is considered from
opposing points of view. You should present both sides in a fair way by discussing them
objectively and in equal detail.
Structure
Introduction
Paragraph 1
Clearly state the topic without giving your opinion.
Main body
Paragraphs 2 and 3
Arguments for and justifications, examples, and/or reasons.
Paragraphs 4 and 5
Arguments against and justifications, examples, and/or reasons.
Conclusion
Paragraph 6
Balanced considerations/your opinion directly or indirectly
Before you start writing your essay you should make a list of the points for and against.
Each paragraph should start with a topic sentence which summarises the topic of the
paragraph.
Do not use informal style (short forms, colloquial language) or strong language to express your
opinion (I know , I strongly believe that ).
Express your opinion in a non-emotional way (It seems that , I therefore feel that )
Useful expressions and linking words/phrases
to list points:
Firstly, First of all, In the first place, To begin/start with, Secondly, Thirdly,
Finally
37
to list advantages:
One/Another/A further/An additional (major) advantage of is
The main/greatest/first advantage of is
to list disadvantages:
One/Another/A further/An additional (major) advantage/drawback of is
The main/greatest/first/most serious advantage of is
Another negative aspect of
to introduce points/arguments for or against:
One (very convincing) point/argument in favour of /against
A further common criticism of
It could be argued that
It is
often
claimed/suggested
widely
argued/maintained
generally felt/believed/held
that
claim/suggest/argue/feel that
maintain/believe/point out/agree/hold that
some/many
advocate (+ing/noun)/support the view that
most people/experts oppose the view that
scientists/skeptics
are
in favour of/against
critics
of the opinion that/convinced that
opposed to
to add more points to the same topic:
in addition (to this), furthermore, moreover, besides, apart from, what is more, as
well as, not to mention (the fact) that , also, not only but also/as well, both
and/there is another side to the issue/question/argument of
to make contrasting points:
on the other hand, however
still, yet, but, nonetheless,
nevertheless, even so,
38
argument
is
although. though, even though, while, whilst, whereas, despite/in spite of (the fact
that), regardless of the fact that
Opponents of argue/believe/claim that
The fact that contradicts the belief/idea that
While it is true to say that , in fact
While/Although , it cannot be denied that
to introduce examples:
for example, for instance, such as, like, in particular, particularly, especially
This is (clearly) illustrated/shown by the fact that by the fact that
One/A clear/striking/typical example of (this)
The fact that shows/illustrated that
to emphasize a point:
clearly, obviously, it is obvious, naturally, of course, needless to say, indeed
to express reality:
in fact, the fact (of the matter) is, actually, in practice, it is a fact that, in effect
to make general statements:
as a (general) rule, generally, in general, on the whole, by and large, in most cases
to make partially correct statements:
to a certain extent/degree, in a way/sense, this is partly true (but), to a limited
extent, there is some truth in (this), in some cases, up to a point
to explain/clarify a point:
in other words, that is to say, this/which means that
to express cause:
owing to, due to (the fact that), on account of, on the grounds that, given that,
because, since
to express effects:
therefore, thus, as a result/consequence, consequently, so, for this reason, if
were to happen, the effect/result would be .
to express intention:
to, so as to, in order to, so that, with the intention of (+ ing)
39
it is
clear/apparent
plain/obvious
evident
above
from the
foregoing
evidence
points
arguments
40
B. GRAMMAR
The Passive Voice
I. Introduction
1. In the active voice, the subject is the person or thing doing the action.
e.g. John cooked the food last night.
2. In the passive voice, the action is done to the subject.
e.g. The food was cooked by John last night.
3. The passive transformation
Active Voice
Passive Voice
Subject
Subject (John)
Continuous Aspect
a form of to be + past participle a form of to be +being + past participle (3rd form of the
(3rd form of the verb)
verb)
Conjugation Patterns
Tense/Mood
Active Voice
Passive voice
Present
Present
Perfect
shop.
Past Simple
Simple
Present
Continuous
taught
them
yesterday.
Past
Continuous
Past Perfect
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Future Tense
She will call me in the I shall be called (by her) in the morning.
morning.
Future
I shall have seen them by the They will have been seen before the end of
Perfect
Future-in-
the-Past
bell.
Imperative
Do it at once!
Infinitive
the week.
noise.
Present
Conditional
explained.
Past
conditional
thought it necessary.
necessary.
OBSERVATIONS
1. Only present tense and past tense continuous are common in the passive voice.
e.g. He is being interviewed now.
e.g. He was being interviewed at 10 oclock.
However, modals with progressive aspect sometimes occur.
e.g. I know Mark was going to have an interview sometimes this afternoon. He may be being
interviewed as we speak.
2. The adverbial particle or the obligatory preposition are placed immediately after the verb in
the passive voice.
Active Voice
Passive Voice
No one can put up with her any more. (adv. She cant be put up with any more.
particle + preposition)
We have done away with the old rules. (adv. The old rules have been done away with.
particle + preposition)
42
43
3. By + agent is often used with the passive of verbs like build, compose, damage, design,
destroy, discover, invent, make, wreck, write.
e.g. The action of penicillin was discovered by Sir Alexander Fleming.
e.g. The electric light was invented by Thomas Edison.
e.g. The Eiffel Tower was designed and built by Gustave Eiffel.
V. By + agent is omitted in the following situations:
1. When the subject of the sentence in the active voice is expressed by a vague word: you, they,
one, everybody, everyone, somebody, someone, all, a person.
e.g. A. V. People speak English all over the world.
P. V. English is spoken all over the world.
2. When the agent can be inferred from the context.
e.g. The thief was arrested. (one can easily infer that it was the police that arrested the thief)
e.g. The bridge was built last year. (one can easily infer that it was the workers who built the
bridge)
3. When the doer of the action is unknown or the speaker does not wish to mention him/her/it.
e.g. A doctor has been sent for.
e.g. This subject will be treated fully in the next chapter.
VI. The passive with verbs of saying and believing.
1. It + passive + that -clause with verbs like agree, allege, arrange, assume, believe, consider,
decide, declare, discover, expect, fear, feel, find, hope, imagine, know, observe, presume, prove,
report, say, show, suggest, suppose, think, understand.
e.g. People say that John is thief. It is said that John is a thief.
2. Subject (other than it) + passive + to- infinitive with verbs like acknowledge, allege, believe,
consider, declare, know, recognize, report, say, suppose, think, understand.
e.g. They know that Mary is a spy. Mary is known to be a spy.
3. There + passive + to be + complement with verbs like acknowledge, allege, believe, consider,
fear, feel, know, presume, report, say, suppose, think, understand.
e.g. They say that there is plenty of oil in our country. There is said to be plenty of oil in our
country.
44
VII. Miscellaneous
1. Verbs such as bring, give, offer, tell can have two passive forms.
e.g. A. V. Tom gave me a pen.
a) I was given a pen by Tom.
b) A pen was given to me by Tom.
!!! Because we are often more interested in people or animals, variant a) is more common than b)
2. Active verbs with passive meaning.
e.g. This surface cleans (can be cleaned) easily.
e.g. These clothes wash well. The wine is selling quickly. Whats showing at the cinema this
weekend? Her novel is reprinting already.
3. Verbs such as be born, be married, obliged are used more frequently in the passive than in the
active.
4. Passive constructions are common after verbs followed by the -ing form, such as like, enjoy.
dislike, remember and after verbs followed by a to- infinitive.
e.g. Most people dont like being criticized.
e.g. He hates to be criticized.
VIII. Get + past participle
Get is often used instead of be before certain past participles (arrested, caught, confused,
delayed, divorced, dressed, drowned, drunk, elected, engaged, hit, killed, lost, married, stuck ) in
colloquial English. Be can sometimes be replaced by become.
We use get in the following situations:
1. When we do something to ourselves.
e.g. I got dressed as quickly as I could.
2. When we manage to arrange something in our favour.
e.g. I see old Morton has got himself promoted at last.
3. When something (often unfavourable) happens beyond our control.
e.g. We got delayed because of the holiday traffic.
4. When we express commands or insults.
e.g. Get dressed! Get washed! Get lost!
45
C. VOCABULARY
Track-and-field
1. Use the following words to label the representation of the track-and-field arena below.
water jump, shot put area, pole vault area, infield, track, hurdles, long and triple jump pit,
discus and hammer area, high jump area, javelin area
46
47
20. Jane had been out of training for three months so she had a hard time keeping _____ with the
other runners.
a. rhythm, b. speed, c. velocity, d. pace
3. Match the names of the track-and-field events with their definitions.
1. long-distance running
a. Contest in which athletes must throw a very heavy round ball as
far as possible.
2. hurdle race
b. A long-distance race of 26 miles and 385 yards (42.195 km)
3. steeplechase
c. An event in which athletes must throw a heavy thick-centered
disc.
4. middle-distance running d. An event in which a long light spear is thrown by the athletes as
far as possible.
5. relay race
e. An event in which competitors throw an object called hammer
as far as possible.
6. cross-country race
f. The goal in this event is to race as fast as possible while still
maintaining a walking gait. During the race the heel of the forward
foot must maintain touch with the track until the toe of the trailing
foot leaves the ground.
7. hammer throwing
g. Race in which athletes must run across fields or countryside.
8. discus throwing
h. Event in which competitors attempt to vault over a high bar
with the aid of a long flexible pole.
9. shot put
i. Race between teams of runners in which each team member in
turn must cover part of the total distance while carrying a baton.
10. javelin throwing
j. Event in which competitors jump as far as possible along the
ground in one leap.
11. marathon race
k. Races ranging from 600 meters to 3,000 meters. The most
popular distances are the 800-meter, 1,500-meter, and 3,000-meter
runs.
12. race walking
l. Event in which athletes must run at full speed over a short
distance.
13. high jump
m. Race in which athletes must jump over a series of four hurdles
and water jumps.
14. long jump
n. Event in which athletes must jump as far as possible by
performing a hop, a step and a jump from a running start.
15. pole vault
o. A race in which athletes must jump over a series of upright
frames.
16. sprint
p. Event in which competitors jump as high as possible over a bar
of adjustable height.
17. triple jump
r. Race in which competitors have to cover distances longer 3,000
meters. The most common are ones of 5,000 to 10,000 meters, and
the marathon.
48
UNIT 4
A. WRITING
The Opinion Essay
Read the following essay. Find the topic sentence in each paragraph, underline the linking
words and consider the role of each paragraph.
Although the position of women in society today has improved, there is still a great deal of
sexual discrimination. Do you agree?
P1
Throughout this century, the role of women within society has changed, and the majority
of people feel that this change is for the better. More women work than ever before, and it is
accepted in Western culture that many women now have careers. Nonetheless, in my opinion
there is still a great deal of sexual discrimination against women within society, and the belief
that sexual equality has been achieved is not altogether accurate.
P2
To begin with, many women find it very difficult to return to work after having children.
The main reason for this is that there are rarely any provisions made for childcare in the
workplace and, in these cases, women are forced to find someone to look after the children while
they are at work. Obviously, this can prove to be a time-consuming and expensive process, yet it
must be done if mothers are to be able to resume their careers.
P3
Secondly, the traditional views of the position of women within society are so deeply
ingrained that they have not really changed. For instance, not only is the view that women should
stay at home and look after their family still widely held, but it is reinforced through images seen
on television programmes and advertisements. An example of this is that few men are ever seen
doing housework on television, since this is traditionally thought of as a womans job.
P4
Thirdly, since families often need two incomes in order to enjoy a good standard of
living, a woman finds herself doing two jobs: one at home and one at the office. So, it could be
said that a womans position has, in fact, deteriorated rather than improved, with the result that
women carry the burdens of equality but get none of the benefits.
49
P5
In contrast, there are some people who claim that the problem of sexual discrimination no
longer exists. They point out that women do, after all, have legal rights intended to protect them
from discrimination. In addition, a few women are now beginning to reach top positions as
judges, business leaders and politicians, while a number of previously all-male professions are
opening their ranks to women. Nonetheless, these examples are not the norm and discrimination
is still very much with us.
P6
Taking these points into consideration, I would say that the position of women has
improved only slightly. While rules and laws have changed, it is the deep-rooted opinions of
people within society which are taking a longer time to evolve. Needless to say, until these
attitudes have changed, sexual discrimination will remain a problem which we all need to face
and fight against.
An opinion essay is a formal piece of writing. It requires your opinion on a topic, which must
be stated clearly, giving various viewpoints on the topic supported by reasons and/or examples.
You should also include the opposing viewpoint in another paragraph.
Structure
Introduction
Paragraph 1
State the topic and your opinion clearly
Main body
Paragraph 2
Viewpoint 1+reason/example
Paragraph 3
Viewpoint 2+reason/example
Paragraph 4
Viewpoint 3+reason/example
Paragraph 5
Opposing viewpoint+reason/example
Conclusion
Paragraph 6
Summarise/restate your opinion.
50
Decide whether you agree or disagree with the subject of the topic, then make a list of your
viewpoints and reasons.
Write well-developed paragraphs, joining the sentences with appropriate linking words and
phrases. Do not forget to start each paragraph with a topic sentence which summarises what the
paragraph is about.
Linking words and phrases should also be used to join one paragraph with the other.
Useful expressions and linking words/phrases
to give opinions:
To my mind/To my way of thinking
It is my (firm) belief/opinion/view/conviction that
I (firmly) believe that
I am (not) convinced that
I (do not) agree that/with
It strikes me that
My opinion is that
I (definitely) fell/think that
I am inclined to believe that
It seems/appears to me
As far as I am concerned,
51
B. GRAMMAR
Conditional Sentences
1. If=when
If+present tense
will+infinitive
If we run,
If+past tense
would+infinitive
If I were you,
If+past perfect
would+have+3rd form
If+past perfect
would+infinitive
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Unless we hurry, we shall miss the buss. = If we dont hurry, we shall miss the buss.
7. Provided=only if
You can go out to play provided (that) you finish your homework first.
If you should see Ann, could you ask her to call me? (But I do not expect you to see her.)
11. Supposing/Suppose=if
I hope the weather improves. Otherwise, well have to cancel the picnic.
53
Hypothetical Constructions
1. Wish
- wish + to infinitive = immediate desire
e. g. I wish to apply for a visa. (I shall apply)
I wish you to speak to the manager. (You will speak to the manager.)
Verbs that can be used in the same way: like, love, ask, beg, expect, want, intend, need, prefer
e. g. I like to keep everything tidy. (refers to my actions)
I like you to keep everything tidy. (refers to my actions)
- wish + Past Tense = wishes referring to the present
e. g. I regret they dont agree to my proposal.
I wish they agreed to my proposal.
- wish + Past Perfect = wishes referring to the past (unrealized situations in the past)
e. g. I wish you had let me know yesterday.
- wish + would + infinitive functions like a polite request.
e. g. I wish you would be quiet.
I wish you wouldnt make so much noise.
!!! We use could not would after I and we
e. g. I wish I could be you.
I wish we could be together.
2. If only
- If only + Past Tense = wishes referring to the present
e. g. I dont live in the country.
If only I lived in the country.
- If only + Past Perfect = wishes referring to the past (unrealized situations in the past)
e. g. If only I had been here yesterday.
- the position of only after if
only can be separated from if and can be placed:
after be e. g. If he were only here now!
before the past participle e. g. If I had only known!
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Subjunctive = Non-fact
Simultaneous
Simultaneous
He looks as if he is ill. (He really is He looks as if he were ill. (He is not necessarily ill.)
ill.)
Anterior
55
C. VOCABULARY
Tennis
1. Read the following text and fill in the diagram.
The players (or teams) stand on opposite sides of the net. One player is designated the server,
and the opposing player, or in doubles one of the opposing players, is the receiver. Service
alternates between the two halves of the court.
For each point, the server stands behind his/her baseline, between the center mark and the
sideline. The receiver may stand anywhere on his/her side of the net, usually behind the
diagonally opposite service box. When the receiver is ready, the server will serve.
In a legal service, the ball travels over the net (without touching it) and into the
diagonally opposite service court. If the ball hits the net but lands in the service court, this is a let
service, which is void. If the first service is otherwise faulty in any way, the serving player has a
second attempt at service. If the second service is also faulty, this is a double fault and the
receiver wins the point.
A legal service starts a rally, in which the players alternate hitting the ball across the net.
A legal return consists of the player or team hitting the ball exactly once before it has bounced
twice or hit any fixtures. It then travels back over the net and bounces in the court on the
opposite side. The first player or team to fail to make a legal return loses the point.
A tennis match usually comprises one to five sets. A set consists of a number of games,
which in turn consist of points.
Matches consist of an odd number of multiple sets, the match winner being the player
that wins more than half of the sets. The match ends as soon as this winning condition is met.
Some matches may consist of five sets (the winner being the first to win three sets), while most
matches are three sets (the winner being the first to win two sets).
A set consists of a sequence of games played with service alternating between games,
ending when the count of games won meets certain criteria. Typically, when a player wins a set
when he wins at least six games and at least two games more than their opponent.
A game consists of a sequence of points played with the same player serving, and is won
by the first player to have won at least four points and at least two points more than their
opponent. The running score of each game is described in a manner particular to tennis: scores of
zero to three points are described as "love" (or "zero"), "fifteen", "thirty", and "forty"
respectively.
56
1.
2.
court
service
3.
Serve
4.
love
forty
fifteen
thirty
57
tennis ball
size
diameter
6.35-6.6 cm
colour
weight
56-59,4 g
yellow
composition
white
rubber
wool
artificial
fibres
A 1_____ is hollow and composed of inflated 2_____ covered with a fabric made of 3_____ and
4_____. 5_____ and 6 _____ balls are used in tournament competition and are the most common
colours, although balls of other colours are manufactured. A standard tennis ball measures
between 7_____ in diameter and weighs between 8 _____.
4. Read the following text and fill in the diagrams.
There is no uniform design of tennis rackets, and their sizes and shapes vary. The general
classifications, determined by the size of the racket head, are standard, midsize, oversize, and
super oversize. In tournament play, the maximum length of a racket is 29 in (73.7 cm). The
maximum width is 12.5 in (31.8 cm). The head of the racket may not exceed a length of 15.5 in
(39.4 cm) and a width of 11.5 in (29.2 cm), and it is usually strung with resilient gut or nylon or
other synthetic materials. There are no restrictions on weight. Rackets were originally made of
wood, but now virtually all rackets are made of materials such as aluminum, graphite, and carbon
fiber, which are stronger and lighter than wood. The racket handle is generally covered with a
rubber or leather grip.
58
tennis racket
structure
size
composition
racket
head
general
size
specific
size
59
string
comp.
racket handle
grip composition
5. Fill in the blanks with the following words in order to find out the names of the lines and
areas of a tennis court: doubles side line, singles side line, service courts, baseline, net.
Some of them are must be used twice
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Tennis court
60
UNIT 5
A. WRITING
The Curriculum Vitae and The Letter of Application
The Curriculum Vitae
A curriculum vitae (known as C.V. for short) is a short account, laid out in a clear form, of the
details of your life. It includes the following things:
your name and precise address and telephone number
your date of birth
a precise record of schools attended
a precise record of colleges/faculties attended
examination qualifications
personal achievements (e.g. in sport or music etc.)
employment positions held (including part-time work)
interests and activities
future education plans
references (names and addresses of responsible people who will write a reference for you if
approached)
CURRICULUM VITAE
Andrew Foster
105 Cheriton Road
Dorchester
Dorset DY4 4HQ
Telephone: Dorchester (0305) 69542
Date of Birth: January 15th, 1948
Nationality: British
Languages: Conversational French
Computer literacy: WordPerfect, Lotus 1-2-3
Education
1953-1960 Maynard Boys Junior School, Waltham Forest, London
1960-1967 Romford Royal Liberty School, Romford, Essex
1968-1971 Hull University, Yorkshire
1974-1976 Darlington Hall, Devon
1977-1978 College of St Mark and St John, Plymouth
61
Qualifications
GCE 0 level examinations (June 1965): English Language (3); English Literature (4);
Mathematics (5); Combined Science (6); History (1); Geography (1)
GCE A level examinations (June 1967): History (B); Economics (E); Geography (B)
2nd Class Honours Degree in Psychology (B. Sc.) from Hull University (1971)
Diploma in Music (Darlington Hall, 1976)
Post-Graduate Certificate of Education in Primary Teaching (1978)
Other Achievements
Captain of School Swimming Team (1966-67); School Basketball Team; School Debating Team;
School Debating Vice-Captain (1967); University Basketball Team; President of University Arts
Society (1970); President of Student Union, Darlington Hall, (1975-1976)
Employment
1964-1967
1966-1969
9/67 to 4/68
9/71 to 10/72
10/72 to 7/74
10/76 to 6/77
9/78 to 7/81
4/83
62
EUROPEAN
CURRICULUM VITAE
FORMAT
PERSONAL INFORMATION
Name
Address
Telephone
Fax
E-mail
Nationality
Date of birth
WORK EXPERIENCE
Dates (from to)
Name and address of employer
Type of business or sector
Occupation or position held
Main activities and responsibilities
[ Add separate entries for each relevant post occupied, starting with the most recent. ]
[ Add separate entries for each relevant course you have completed, starting with the most
recent. ]
63
PERSONAL SKILLS
AND COMPETENCES
Acquired in the course of life and career
but not necessarily covered by formal
certificates and diplomas.
MOTHER TONGUE
OTHER LANGUAGES
Reading skills
Writing skills
Verbal skills
[ Specify language ]
[ Indicate level: excellent, good, basic. ]
[ Indicate level: excellent, good, basic. ]
[ Indicate level: excellent, good, basic. ]
SOCIAL SKILLS
AND COMPETENCES
Living and working with other people, in
multicultural environments, in positions
where communication is important and
situations where teamwork is essential
(for example culture and sports), etc.
ORGANISATIONAL SKILLS
AND COMPETENCES
Coordination and administration of
people, projects and budgets; at work, in
voluntary work (for example culture and
sports) and at home, etc.
TECHNICAL SKILLS
AND COMPETENCES
With computers, specific kinds of
equipment, machinery, etc.
ARTISTIC SKILLS
AND COMPETENCES
Music, writing, design, etc.
OTHER SKILLS
AND COMPETENCES
Competences not mentioned above.
DRIVING LICENCE(S)
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
ANNEXES
[ Include here any other information that may be relevant, for example contact persons,
references, etc. ]
[ List any attached annexes. ]
64
65
Model
14, Newton Road
Densfield
Worcestershire
WO4 6YH
Tel: (01256) 456789
18th May 1992
Ms A Winter,
Personnel Manager,
LIB Publishing
45 Book Street
London W1B 4BK
Dear Ms Winter,
I am writing to apply for the position of Editorial Assistant that you advertised in The Guardian
on 8th May 1996, as I believe it offers the career challenge which I am seeking.
As you will see from my enclosed Curriculum Vitae, I graduated from the University of Sussex
last year and since then I have had a successful year working in a scientific environment with a
local chemical services firm.
I would like to highlight the following skills which I believe would add value to your
organisation:
Organisational skills - developed in my current job with Desford Chemical Services.
Accounting skills - developed in my role as University Entertainments Officer where I prepared
annual reports and accounts and was responsible for a budget of 15,000 per annum.
Interpersonal skills - developed through working in a team environment in my current role and
through a number of holiday vacation positions.
I have a keen interest in scientific publishing and would appreciate the opportunity of an
interview to discuss why I believe I am a good match for your requirements.
Id be grateful if you could tell me what the wages and hours are before you invite me for an
interview.
I look forward to hearing from you.
Yours sincerely,
Angela Nadia Smith
66
2. Apply for the following summer job advertised in the Wales Advertiser. Give personal
details, ask about wages, hours and length of season.
Can you swim ? Earn some money this season on one of the loveliest beaches in Wales as a life
guard. Apply in writing to: The Town Clerk, Town Hall, Bangor, Wales
3. Read the following advertisement
Work experience! Come and work in the U.K. for six months or a year, at our expense!
The British Government are just beginning a scheme whereby exchanges may be arranged
between you and someone in Britain doing the same job. Youll work in Britain while someone
works in your job.
Apply to: JOB SWAP
Department for Economic Trade and Development
London WC2 5TR
Great Britain.
Write a letter of application to the local British Council for the scheme. Explain why an
exchange would be interesting/useful to you. Say something about your English ability. Ask
for more details, or about anything youre not clear about.
67
B. GRAMMAR
Inversion
Use
1. After adverbials (adverbs, adverbial phrase) at the beginning of a clause.
Never have I heard such a thing.
I have never heard such an excuse.
2. Time expressions: never, rarely, seldom.
These are most commonly used with PRESENT PERFECT, PAST PERFECT, MODALS
Rarely/Seldom/Never had I seen such a behaviour.
3. Time expressions: hardly, barely, scarcely, no sooner.
These refer to an event that quickly follows another. They are used with PAST PERFECT,
although no sooner can be followed by PAST SIMPLE.
Hardly/Barely/Scarcely had I entered the room when the phone rang.
No sooner had I entered the room than the phone rang.
4. After only.
Only later did I realize Mary was right.
Only after learning the theory was I able to solve the exercise correctly.
Only after I posted the letter, did I remember that I had forgotten to put on a stamp.
Only if you tell me what is wrong can I help you.
Only when you tell me what is wrong can I help you.
5. Phrases containing no/not (under no circumstances, on no account, at no time, in no way,
on no condition, not until, not onlybut also)
On no condition are you to open this box.
Not until I got home did I notice that I had the wrong umbrella.
Not only did he fail to report the accident, but also later he denied that he had been driving the
car.
6. Little
Little did she care about her job.
7. Three types of IF-sentences can be inverted when IF is not used.
A. If they were to escape the police, the police would catch them again. (Type 2)
Were they to escape, the police would catch them again.
68
- So do I.
- Neither/ nor do I.
69
5. The police didnt at all suspect that the judge was murdered.
Little _____________________________________
6. If you do happen to see Helen, could you ask her to call me.
Should ____________________________________
7. The bus driver cannot be blamed for the accident in any way.
In ________________________________________
8. The snowfall was so heavy that all the trains had to be cancelled.
So ________________________________________
9. There was so much uncertainty that the financial markets remained closed.
Such ______________________________________
10. You wont be allowed in until your identity has been checked.
Only ______________________________________
11. Just after the play started there was a power failure.
Hardly _____________________________________
12. The Prime Minister has hardly ever made a speech as inept as this.
Rarely _____________________________________
13. We had only just arrived home when the police called.
Scarcely ___________________________________
14. Press photographers are banned from taking photographs backstage.
On no _____________________________________
70
C. VOCABULARY
Swimming
1. Read the following text and solve the tasks below.
Swimming is the act of moving through the water by using the arms, legs, and body in motions
called strokes. The most common strokes are the crawl, backstroke, breaststroke, butterfly, and
sidestroke. Swimming is an integral part of almost all water-based activities. It is also a competitive sport
itself.
Some scientists believe that human beings are born with an instinctive ability to use their arms and
legs to stay afloat. That instinct, however, disappears within a few months after birth. Later in life many
children and adults learn to swim in order to be safe around the water, to have fun, and to participate in
competition.
In rivers and oceans, all swimmers should respect the power of nature. Powerful waves, tides, and
currents can easily overpower even the most experienced swimmers, sweeping them out beyond safety or
throwing them into coral or rocks. Caves pose additional dangers because swimmers can be trapped inside
them. Swimmers must follow the instructions of lifeguards and obey posted information about water
conditions, tides, and other dangers such as jellyfish or pollution. A good precaution for children is the
buddy system, in which each child is paired with another while in the water. This system ensures that no
person is swimming alone and that if an emergency does happen, the lifeguard can be notified
immediately.
Swim meets are organized competitions that pit individual swimmers or swimming teams against
each other. Most meets feature preliminary races, called heats, that occur before the finals. The top eight
swimmers from the preliminaries compete in the finals of each event. In the finals, the fastest swimmers
are assigned to the middle lanes. These lanes are considered most desirable because the swimmers in
them are most aware of the positions of their competitors. Swimmers in the middle lanes also encounter
the least wave action from the water as it travels from the swimmers and bounces off the sides of the pool.
During competition, swimmers must obey the starters commands. When the starter announces
Take your marks, all the swimmers must assume the starting position by crouching on the blocks. The
starters horn (or pistol) then sounds, indicating the start of the race, and the swimmers dive into the
water. In most meets, any swimmer who makes a false start by leaving the starting block before the horn
sounds is disqualified. In Olympic competition, two false starts are allowed for the competitors as a
whole. After these two, any competitor who makes a false start is disqualified.
Swimmers are also disqualified for swimming the wrong stroke or for swimming the stroke
incorrectly, as judged by officials. Turning incorrectly or failing to surface 15 m after the turn can also
lead to disqualification.
71
A. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) according to the text.
1. The strokes are pieces of equipment used by professional swimmers.
2. It is thought that humans are completely incapable of swimming at birth.
3. People learn to swim only for recreational reasons.
4. Swimming is both an individual and a team sport.
5. The heats and the finals take place at the same time.
B. Choose the correct answer according to the text.
1. In the text the word overpower means
A. to take advantage of,
C. to help somebody to become stronger.
B. to be stronger than,
B. three,
C. two.
2. Each of the following pictures illustrates a swimming stroke. Write their names in the
box bellow the pictures.
1
72
73
4. The natural sequence of moments in the following strokes has been mixed up. Look at
the pictures and read the fragments carefully to re-establish the appropriate order.
a. The swimmer continues the rotation of his
Crawl
body, and his face and chest are now
submerged. His right arm continues its stroke
through the water, providing power and
movement. His left arm is back in the water and
helps streamline the body as the swimmer glides
forward. His legs continue the flutterkick.
b. The swimmer now tips his body on its left
side and takes a breath. His right arm has
finished its stroke through the water and comes
above the surface. His left arm moves under the
surface to begin its stroke. The flutterkick
continues.
c. The swimmer is rotating his body down into
the water, and his right arm is beginning to pull
under his body. The swimmer has swung his left
arm through the air out in front of his body and
is about to dip it into the water again. His legs
continue to move in a flutterkick.
d. The swimmer has tipped his body on its right
side and it taking a breath. His right arm is
stretched out ahead of his body, ready to start
pulling down through the water. His left arm has
just finished a stroke, and the swimmer has
pulled it out of the water and is about to swing it
through the air ahead of his body again. The
swimmer is moving his feet in a flutterkick.
a. The swimmer has tipped her body slightly on
the right side. Her right arm is outstretched and is
beginning to pull from above her head down
through the water. Her left arm is just coming out
of the water. The swimmer is moving her feet in a
flutterkick.
b. The swimmer rotates her body onto its left side.
Her left arm begins its stroke down through the
water while her right arm comes out of the water
and the swimmer begins to pull it through the air
ahead of her body. The flutterkick continues.
c. The swimmer is rotating her body so that her
back has dropped into the water. Her right arm
pulls down through the water as her left arm
swings up through the air ahead of her body. Her
legs continue to move in a flutterkick.
d. The swimmer starts to rotate her body onto its
left side as her left arm dips into the water ahead
of her body. Her right arm has finished its stroke
through the water and is about to come above the
surface again. Her legs continue the flutterkick.
Backstroke
74
Breaststroke
Butterfly
75
Sidestroke
76
SPEAKING
Introducing oneself
Name
My name is John Smith.
Age
I am twenty (years old).
Place and time of birth
I was born in Braov in 1980.
Family
I have a brother/son whose name is Michael and a sister/daughter whose name is Cathy.
Education
I am a final-year student at the Faculty of Physical Education and Sport at the moment. The reason for choosing
to attend the courses of this particular faculty is my passion for everything related to physical development and
health. The topic of my diploma paper is Techniques of teaching swimming to beginners.
Occupation
I also work as a shop assistant in a supermarket in order to support myself but I dont intend to do this for the
rest of my life.
Hobbies
In my spare time I like/love/enjoy swimming, playing football, reading and clubbing with my friends. My
favourite football team is Manchester United. I watch their games whenever I have the time. The last book I read
was a novel called The Wheel of Time by Robert Jordan. I dont like/dislike/hate waking up early in the
morning and travelling by plane.
Plans for the future
After graduation I would like to continue my studies and obtain a Master of Arts Degree in physical education.
Meanwhile, I would like to change my job and start working as a personal coach. My plans for the future also
include getting married and starting a family.
78
Means of transport
79
MEANS OF TRANSPORT
TRAVELLING
by bus
by train
by car
to
travel
by
plane
by boat
TO TRAVEL
1. to go on a journey or visit different places, especially places that are far away from where you live or work:
I wish I didnt have to travel so much.
Matt spends much of his time travelling abroad.
He is very well-travelled (=he has travelled a lot).
travel to: Joe recently had to travel to Australia on business.
travel in: We were travelling in Spain when Claire broke her leg.
travel light (=not take many things with you when you travel): My advice is to travel light.
travel the world/country etc: Bens dream is to travel the world.
2. to go from one place to another, especially in a vehicle:
Did you have to travel far to get here?
Most people are prepared to travel reasonable distances to work.
We travelled 300 miles on Saturday.
travel by car/bus/train/boat/plane: I usually travel by bus.
travel on foot/horseback: The refugees had travelled on foot across the mountains for days.
3. to move at a particular speed:
The car was travelling at about 50 miles per hour.
TO RIDE
1. to sit on an animal, especially a horse, and control its movements as it moves along:
A group of children were riding donkeys on the beach.
2. to sit on a bicycle, motorcycle, and control it as it moves along:
The little kids were riding their tricycles around the playground.
ride on: He rides to school on his bicycle.
TO DRIVE
to control a vehicle so that it moves somewhere:
Usually, my sister drives and I read the map.
TO SAIL
to travel somewhere by boat or ship:
He sailed to Greece aboard the SS Monterey.
TO FLY
to travel by plane:
fly from/to: I flew from London to Amsterdam to meet the other members of the group.
80
Rhetorical functions
Asking for opinions
What do you think about ...?
What are you views on ...?
What do you feel about ...?
What's your opinion of ...?
What are your feelings about ...?
Have you got any comments on ...?
Could I have your reaction to ...?
Do you have any particular views on ?
Giving opinions
To my mind/To my way of thinking
It is my (firm) belief/opinion/view/conviction that
I (firmly) believe that
I am (not) convinced that
I (do not) agree that/with
It strikes me that
My opinion is that
I (definitely) fell/think that
I am inclined to believe that
It seems/appears to me
As far as I am concerned,
I'm sure that....
As I see it, ....
I really do think that....
I think ....
I consider ....
I tend to think that ....
Listing advantages
One/Another/A further/An additional (major) advantage of is
The main/greatest/first advantage of is
Listing disadvantages
One/Another/A further/An additional (major) disadvantage/drawback of is
The main/greatest/first/most serious advantage of is
Another negative aspect of is
Introducing points/arguments for or against
One (very convincing) point/argument in favour of /against
A further common criticism of
81
82
horse
wolf
chicken
cow
lion
tiger
domestic
cat
wild
dog
fox
A pet is an animal or bird that you keep in your home and look after
snake
Types of animals
rabbit
birds
turtle
cat
pets
dog
animals
can be
fish
mammals
snake
reptiles
Mans attitude towards animals
loves
fears
domesticates
raises
hunts
harms
man
admires
man
disrespects
protects
exploits
endangers
breeds
natural
habitat
food
help
animals
need
shelter
territory
clean
water
83
Rhetorical functions
84
Growing up/Generations
up/Generations
85
GROWING UP
AGE
86
I
N
F
A
N
C
Y
C
H
I
L
D
H
O
O
D
T
E
E
N
A
G
E
Y
O
U
T
H
Y
O
U
T
H
A
D
U
L
T
H
O
O
D
O
L
D
A
G
E
87
Rhetorical functions
Agreeing
Disagreeing
88
Having a meal
5
89
HAVING A MEAL
What would you like to have?
breakfast
lunch
a meal
at a
restaurant
out
to have
sth to eat
to eat
dinner
supper
a snack
in
at home
a picnic
How do you eat?
well
a healthy
diet
properly
crash
vegetarian
to eat
diet
like a
horse
healthily
varied
like a bird
balanced
sensibly
lowcalorie
frozen
salmon
tinned
healthy
soups
food
convenience
comfort
homemade
meat
seafood
poultry (e.g. chicken, turkey)
eggs
cakes
French
fries
fast
dairy products
milk
cream
cheese
butter
ice cream
yogurt
poultry
I like
eating
bacon
roast
beef
fruits
apple
orange
pear
plum
apricot
peach
grapes
vegetables
peas
beans
onion
garlic
carrot
radish
potato
90
cereal
wheat
maize
oat (ovz)
rye
barley (orz)
sausage
drinks
tea
coffee
milk
juice
wine
brandy
beer
Rhetorical functions
MAKING COMPARISONS
comparative
superlative
adjectives with one syllable
adj + -er (+ than)
the + adj + -est
e.g. cheap
The hamburger is cheaper than the The hot dog is the cheapest.
cheeseburger.
omit final e: e.g. safer
omit final e: e.g. the safest
ending in silent e: safe
change y to i: drier
change y to i: the driest
double the final consonant: the
ending in a consonant + y: dry
biggest
ending in a single vowel + a single double the final consonant: bigger
consonant: big
adjectives with two or more
more + adj
the most + adj
syllables
expensive
The hamburger is more expensive
The cheeseburger is the most
than the hot dog.
expensive.
irregular adjectives
good
better
the best
bad
worse
the worst
far
further/farther
furthest/farthest
old
older/elder
oldest/eldest
little
less
least
many/much
more
most
THAN
Mary is better than Monica.
Mary is a better player than Monica.
JUST AS AS - things compared are equal
Mary is just as good as Cathy.
NOT AS AS - things are compared negatively
Cathy is not as good as Mary.
MORE, LESS
This game is more interesting than the last one.
I think this game is less interesting than the last one.
COMPARING
X is like Y
X and Y are similar
X is similar to Y
X is the same as Y
X resembles Y
with respect to W.
as regards W.
as far as W is concerned.
regarding W.
in that W is the same.
in terms of W.
Both X and Y cost W.
X is as expensive as W.
X costs the same as Y.
X is the same price as
Y.
91
Similarly, it has a W.
Likewise, it has a W.
X has a Y. Correspondingly, it has a W.
It has a W, too.
It also has a W.
CONTRASTING
X differs from Y
X is unlike Y
X and Y differ
X is different from Y
X contrasts with Y
with respect to W.
as regards W.
as far as W is concerned.
regarding W.
in terms of W.
92
Sports
93
SPORTS
What sports do you do?
tennis
basketball
football
I do
boxing
skateboarding
a cap
spikes
athletics
a mask
I wear
a gum
shield
snowboarding
gymnastics
trunks
gloves
skis
shorts
baseball
water
polo
team
sports
motocross
handball
rugby
archery
boxing
parachuting
bungee
jumping
rock
climbing
swimming
weightlifting
What are the benefits that people can derive from practising
health
surfing
extreme
sports
skydiving
athletics
individual
sports
golf
volleyball
hockey
gymnastics
agility
strength
benefits
snowboarding
socializing
flexibility
skateboarding
fitness
94
stamina
Rhetorical functions
Describing places/landscapes
Read the following texts paying attention to the words written in bold.
1. Oxford is an exceptionally old university town, on the river Thames, about 60 miles from London.
Unlike modern university towns, where you usually find the university on the edge of the town, or on its
own campus, Oxfords centre is the university; and all around the crossroads at the very heart of Oxford,
Carfax, there are grey stone Colleges and other university buildings. In the centre you can also find
interesting old pubs and paved passages. There are a lot of churches, and one or two really large and
interesting buildings, such as the Ashmolean Museum, the round library, the Bodleian and the Radcliffe
Camera, with its domed roof. Like all English towns, there are parks, and one The Parks, is the leafy home
of university cricket in the summer months. As you leave the centre and go towards the outskirts of
Oxford you can see industrial estates and car factory in one direction; and in another, attractive (and
expensive) suburbs. There is, in fact, quite a lot of industry in Oxford.
2. My hotel room looks out across a main road which runs beside the river. To the left, about half a mile
down the road there is a splendid-looking castle situated majestically on a small hill. The road bends right
past this and crosses the river over a stone bridge, entering a small village, whose church dominates the
skyline. This village is set on a small hill, and beyond there are rolling hills right to the horizon,
intersected by one or two valleys.
Useful language:
Location:
down by the river/railway-station
on the River Thames
near the bus station
in the centre
on the outskirts
in the suburbs
in the countryside
below me
very near
a few metres away
in the distance
on the horizon
on the skyline
on the left
to my right
It is situated
The village lies in a valley.
The village is set on a small hill.
Existence: There is/are
There has/have always/never been
The statue stands there
You can find/discover/see a farm.
Special features:
one of the of the most interesting places
is
the is famous/popular for its history
95
Tourist attractions
attractions
6
96
TOURIST ATTRACTIONS
What do you like visiting?
churches
waterfalls
aquariums
churches
waterfalls
castles
old
buildings
I like
visiting
cathedrals
museums
aquariums
historical
places
museums
swimming
rock
climbing
go to the
theatre
You can
sailing
Tourists
can enjoy
pony
trekking
go
clubbing
surfing
canoeing
go
camping
a lodge
caravans
go
sightseeing
go
trekking
I would
like to
a hotel
We offer
you
cabins
sunbathe
historical
places
watch
films
go to
concerts
old
buildings
There
are
cathedrals
play
billiards
castles
go
cruising
a pension
a
campsite
97
Rhetorical functions
Describing people
1 Faces and bodies
Loose, wavy brown hair hangs down to her waist at the back. She has a fringe over her forehead that almost
hides her pale blue eyes. The nose not her best feature is long but not ugly. She has a regular set of white
teeth and she is full-lipped.
Her round face looks rather sallow in complexion; she isnt very tall or slim, and she walks with slightly
rounded shoulders. When I knew her she must have been in her early thirties, and she even had one or two telltale wrinkles round the mouth.
2 Clothes
I first met him at a small party and he was dressed in a rather ill-fitting suit with patches on the elbows;
underneath there was an opened-necked striped shirt. After that I dont think I ever saw him in a suit again. He
mostly wore casual clothes faded jeans, T-shirts, and open sandals.
He has a long coat on.
Hes wearing an elegant
suit.
Shes dressed in a long
dress.
3 Facial and bodily expressions
People often think of him as looking irritable but that must be because of his somewhat pink complexion and
his bloodshot eyes. He flaps his hands quite a bit and rarely looks relaxed or calm.
However, his face changes dramatically when he smiles, perhaps it is more of a boyish grin than a smile and
it alters ones view of him immediately.
He is frowning / scowling.
He often has a grin on his face.
He is / looks / seems / feels happy / angry
/ puzzled / surprised / frightened / sad /
tired / in love / embarrassed / bored /
disappointed / guilty / worried / anxious /
hurt / excited / frustrated / annoyed / guilty.
He looks as if hes going to burst into
laughter.
Jack smiled as though he was enjoying a
joke.
4 Character and habits
She has the irritating habit of biting her nails but apart from that she is always positive and welcoming, once
you know her well. If you dont, you might think her a bit stand-offish, but she isnt really. Actually, she isnt all
that bright and often appears intensely puzzled by life.
She is always
She has the habit of
98
5
99
by car
car
by bus
by taxi
I go to
work
on foot
by tube
by train
bus
taxi
I take the
by tram
tram
tube
by
trolley
train
trolley
one hour
jam
noise
lights
45
minutes
long
It takes
(me)
20
minutes
traffic
island
cone
warden
half an
hour
rush-hour
What can we do to solve the problems caused by the intense traffic in large cities?
ride bikes instead
of driving cars
use cars
propelled by
electricity
use public
transport instead
of personal cars
We can
build more
underground
passages
build more
suspension
passages
100
congestion
Rhetorical functions
101
Pollution
6
POLLUTION
102
Word family
People can
to
pollute
combat
tackle
control
pollution
pollution
reduce
pollutant
cut
polluter
prevent
monitor
exhaust
effluent
acid
rain
carbon
dioxide
pollutants
noise
sanctuary
CFC
recycling
sulphur
dioxide
deforestation
toxic
waste
g. house
effect
pollution
global
warming
smog
biohazard
climate
change
damage
environment
preserve
destroy
pollute
Word family
environment
environmental
environmentally
environmentally
friendly
Rhetorical functions
103
environmentally
sensitive area
environmentalist
Evaluating
104
Holidays
5
105
HOLIDAYS
package
special
interest
adventure
comfort
backpacking
holiday
sightseeing
retreat
camping
break
relaxation
time-out
rest
cruising
breather
sunbathing
camp
respite
hotel
campsite
village
motel
home
pension
holiday
season
accommodation
cabin
resort
inn
hostel
lodge
holiday
activities
walking
sightseeing
sunbathing
walking
106
trekking
hiking
rock climbing
Rhetorical functions
Furthermore, ....
An additional point is ....
Another point is ....
A further point is ....
A similar point is ....
In addition, ....
Moreover, ....
Similarly, ....
Apart from ..., ....
Not only , but ....
We can add ....
I could add that ....
Further, ....
As well as...,....
Besides, ....
..., as well.
..., too.
..., also.
107
Celebrations
108
CELEBRATIONS
Christmas
christening
pyjama
Easter
party
costume
fancy
dress
New Years
Eve
wedding
office
cocktail
theme
celebrations
bachelor
birthday
slumber
bride
Birthday
bridegroom
witness
Happy
Anniversary
dress
Christmas
best
man
wedding
bridesmaid
vows
honeymoon
Easter
box
egg
stocking
cake
Eve
hen
night
Shrove
Tuesday
card
Christmas
bunny
Easter
Easter
Sunday
Lent
carol
dinner
Day
Holy
Week
tree
109
Good
Friday
Technology
4
110
TECHNOLOGY
Improvements in
medicine
entertainment
Destructive aspects
commu
nication
technology
space exploration
manufacturing
pollution
pesticides
technology
travelling
privacy
invasion
data processing
perilous
harmful
damaging
healthy
effects
doping
unemployment
atomic
bomb
positive
technology
nano
bleeding
edge
good
negative
computer
cuttingedge
software
military
high
Word family
technology
technocracy
technocrat
technological
technologically
111
technologist
technophobia
technophobe