1

CHAPTER 1

BACKGROUND STUDY

1.1 Introduction
Currently, engineering world nowadays has many advanced technologies that lead
construction industries to a better future. The purpose of developing these
technologies is to discover a good solution in managing the process of preferable
construction due to time saving, economical budget, and quality of the construction.
In the other hands, along with these advance technologies, engineers must be able to
think creatively on how to driven the technologies when it comes to finding the best
solutions regarding any problems towards construction or reconstruction. Although,
some advance technologies can not function beyond the expectations this is due to
the damaging of sub-surface when to relocate underground utilities.
Damages to sub-surface utility facilities during construction processes can incur
significant financial and non-financial losses. It is dangerous and expensive to
determine the buried utilities during construction and therefore it is best identify and
solve conflicts prior to construction (Jamil, 2012). Thus, to overcome such problem,
equipment namely Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) has been created to avoid
damaging of the sub-surface when detected work of buried object underground.
Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) is a non-destructive geophysical method that
produces a continuous cross-sectional profile or record of subsurface features
without drilling, probing, or digging (Aswini, 2012).
GPR can be used in a variety of media, including rock, soil, ice, fresh water,
pavements and structure. It can detect objects, changes in material and voids, and
cracks. It also can be used for evaluating the location and depth of buried objects and
to investigate the presence and continuity of natural subsurface conditions and
features (Indhumati, 2013). Besides, GPR is a high frequency electromagnetic

technique that has been developed to investigate the shallow subsurface using the
contrast of dielectric properties. The method operates on the simple principle that
electromagnetic waves that emitted from a transmitter antenna are reflected from
buried objects and detected at another antenna which is acting as receiver. It is
sensitive to changes in all three electromagnetic characteristics of a medium, electric
permittivity, electric conductivity, and magnetic permeability (Al-dami, 2012).
The purpose of this study is to calibrate the relationship of weather effect to the
GPR result. Along with improvement in engineering sciences, natural occurrences
such as rainfall and heat can affect the technological expertise. An appreciation of
the dielectric properties of water enables electromagnetic wave propagation to be
assessed in a range of earth materials (Gunton. et al., 1988). These techniques are a
part of the geophysical method that can be conducted using appropriate equipment to
gained data, such as depth of beneath materials from the ground sub-surface.

1.2 Problem Statement

Redevelopment of cities such as to construct a new high-rise building and newly

road construction usually involved the relocate of underground utilities, which is
dealt with features mainly invisible to the naked eyes. Underground utility mapping
refers to the detection, positioning and identification of buried pipes and cables
beneath the ground. Improper technique for mapping the underground utility will
conduct to the damage of water pipes and electricity cables due to the excavation
works carried out during installation of new utility facilities or during upgrading or
widening of roads. The damage is due to the unknown location and depth of the
underground utilities. Meanwhile, proper planning, installation of new utilities and
excavation of existing utilities are required in order to get accurate information
regarding the existing underground utilities. Lack of knowledge on this may result in
fatality and catastrophic damages of existing underground utilities and disruption to
utility services. Industries may suffer greatly, in terms of financial lost.
While the determination of position can be obtained with conventional or modern
survey equipment, the detection and identification of underground utilities require

special tools and techniques. Therefore, advanced geophysical tools such as Ground
Penetrating Radar (GPR) are largely used to detect underground facilities.
Electromagnetic detection techniques are unable to detect non-metallic buried
services including plastic, water and gas-pipes and clay drainage pipes. Besides,
GPR has the advantage of detecting virtually anything below the surface. It also
gives an indication of the location and depth of buried utilities, but does not identify
them. Thus, the depth of buried object detected is not always accurate depending on
the conditions of the site and the GPR data will be influenced by the water content of
the soil which is effected of the weather condition. So, the study of assessment of the
weather effect on GPR result will be conducted to overcome such problem.

1.3 Aim and Objectives

The aim of this project is to assess the weathering effect on the Ground Penetrating
Radar (GPR) result. In order to achieve these aims, the objective of the study is
formulated as follows:
In order to achieve these aims, the objectives of the study are formulated as
follows:

i.

To study the weathering effect on the Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)

result.

ii.

To understand the quality of Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) result based

on weather condition.

1.4 Scope of Study

This research will focus on the assessment of weather effect on Ground Penetrating
Radar (GPR) data which depends on the calibration of the weather condition in order
to investigate the depth of the buried metal plate. This system should be applied to
the material and soil, thus to evaluate the electromagnetic wave that produced by the

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR). This research will be conducted at the Research
Centre of Soft Soil (RECESS), UTHM which involve the process of excavating of
the soil in a certain depth and cultivation of the buried metal plate.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Overview

Geophysical techniques are not new to the Geotechnical, forensic or archeological

worlds, in fact, methods such as Ground penetrating Radar (GPR) have been used in
the exploration of a number of shallow sites since the late seventies. Electromagnetic
waves are an integral part of daily life, bringing heat and light from the Sun, as well
as allowing communications across great distances (Wilson, 1993). In their classical
representation, electromagnetic waves are considered to have amplitudes that vary in
a sinusoidal relationship as a function of time, frequencies that represent the number
of sinusoidal cycles occurring each second, and wavelengths that are a function of
frequency and velocity.
Electromagnetic signal velocities and wavelengths vary depending on the
material through which they propagate, such as soils. Therefore, there is significant
complexity in the study of soil electromagnetic properties. Besides, the frequencies
are not significantly greater than a billion cycles per second (1GHz), it may limit the
consideration of electromagnetic waves to radio waves and microwaves. (Thomas,
2010). Electromagnetic waves may occur naturally or it may be artificially
introduced into the material to be studied. Figure 2.1 shows the range of frequencies
and wavelengths that can be described by the Electromagnetic Spectrum.

Figure 2.1. The Electromagnetic Spectrum (Thomas, 2010).

2.2 Fundamental of Electromagnetic Parameters

The propagation of electromagnetic waves is governed by four basic parameters
which is frequency, conductivity, permittivity, and magnetic permeability (Thomas,
2010).
2.2.1

Frequency
Frequency (f) is a measurement of the variation in amplitude occurring in an
electromagnetic signal as a function of time. This variation can be considered
sinusoidal for single-frequency signals or a convolution of a number of sinewaves where an electrical pulse is used.

2.2.2

Conductivity ()
Conductivity is a measurement of the degree to which a soil allows the passage
of electrical charge through it. In most soils the conductivity is ionic and so
dependent on the prevalence and mobility of ions in the pore water.

2.2.3

Permittivity ()
Permittivity is a measurement of the signal energy that can be stored in a
material, through separation of charges such as ions, protons and electrons in a
material. Permittivity is divided between a real part representing the storage of
energy () and an imaginary part representing loss mechanisms that degrade
energy storage (). The permeability of a material is generally expressed in
terms of its ratio to the permittivity of a vacuum and then known as the relative
permittivity or dielectric constant (I).

2.2.4

Magnetic Permeability ()
Magnetic permeability is a measure of signal energy stored in a material due to
the lining up of atomic and sub-atomic particle spin directions. As with
permittivity, magnetic permeability can be divided into real () and imaginary
() aspects, although in practice most soils are considered to have simple
magnetic properties and so loss mechanisms are often ignored. It is also
commonly referred to as a relative property based on its ratio to the magnetic
permeability of a vacuum (I).

2.3 Basic Principle of GPR

A GPR System includes a radio transmitter and receiver that connected to a pair
of antennas coupled to the ground. The transmitted signal penetrates a short
distance into the ground and some of it reflects off any object with different
electrical properties than the host dirt. The depth of penetration depends on the
properties of host material such as soil and frequency of operation (Aswini,
2012).
While, the extent of the reflection depends on the difference in the
refractive indices of the host material and the suspected object (Casas, 2000). To
construct an image that the operator can interpret, the radar will plot the echo
from the object on the display of a computer. When enough of these signals are
plotted side-by side, the operator can see a pattern that can be interpreted as an

object. Figure 2.3 below shows a sketch of the basic components of a GPR
system and principle of it operation.

Figure 2.3. Sketch of the basic components of GPR system and

principle of operation (Casas, 2000).

2.4 Electromagnetic Wave Principle

Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) uses high-frequency that usually polarized radio
waves and transmits into the ground. When the wave hits a buried object or a
boundary with different dielectric constant the receiving antenna records variations
in the reflected return signal. The principle involved is similar to reflection
seismology except that electromagnetic energy is used instead of acoustic energy and
reflection appears at boundaries with different dielectric constant instead of acoustic
impedances (Victor Pinto, 2000).

2.5 Reflection and Diffraction

When operating a GPR system in the conventional reflection mode, a reflection

profile is obtained most of the returned signals in such a profile are reflections from
subsurface discontinuous, although other types of waves may also be present. Wave
types such as a direct airwave which is a critically refracted airwave and a direct
ground wave generally appear as well. Other than that, in a reflection profile, the
principal reflection is generally more or less immediately identifiable as can as be
seen.
In certain common conditions during GPR Investigations, in addition to
reflection, the Electromagnetic Wave undergoes diffraction from small objects.
Diffractions that can be identified as hyperbolas in the time section occur in two
cases which is when the dominant wavelength (LC) in the radar pulse is larger than
the dimensions of the diffraction source and when the waves are diffracted from
sharp edges (Bason, 2000).

2.6 Hyperbola Matching

The most accurate way of determining the velocity of the material being scanned is
to use the hyperbola-fitting method because it extracts the velocity using data
collected in the area. This method may not work in all situations because it depends
on having a good quality hyperbola (or inverted U) in the data. A hyperbola is the
characteristic of Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) that response from a small point
target like a pipe, rock or even a tree root. This phenomenon occurs because radar
energy does not radiate as a pencil-thin beam but more like a 3D cone (Sven, 2010)..
Reflections can appear on the record even though the object is not directly
below the radar system. Thus, the radar system will see the buried object before and
after going over top of it and forms a hyperbolic reflection. Besides, if the hyperbola
has long tails on it, the shape of the hyperbola can be match and the velocity of the
material in the area can be determine. Figure 2.5 below shows the hyperbolas pattern
that form from detected buried material.

10

Figure 2.5. Hyperbola pattern form from detected buried material (Sven,
2010)

2.7 Dielectric Properties of Earth Materials

A materials dielectric properties are primarily determined by mineralogy and water
content. GPR propagates well in unsaturated or minimally saturated sand and
gravels, which have a relatively low dielectric permittivity (RDP) value. Therefore,
the dielectric contrast between the water table and the unsaturated overburden should
be sufficient to produce a reflection on the radargram using the GPR methodology.
In the absence of water, physical changes in densities or a relatively large shaped
inclusion the soil can cause weak radar reflection (Daniels et al., 1988). The success
of the GPR methodology also depends on the amount of electromagnetic wave (EM)
signal attenuation experienced at any given site. Table 2.7 below shows the physical
properties of the basic constituent and composites of soils.

11

Table 2.7. Representative physical properties of the basic constituent and

composites of soils.

Material

Porosity

Water

Dielectric

Electrical

Velocity

Attenution

Skin

(%)

Saturation

Constant

Conductivity

(m/ns)

(Np/m)

Depth

(%)

(mS/m)

(m)

Air

0.300

Water

81

0.033

0.021

47.7

3.7 4.0

Ice
Dry

30

0.1

0.150

0.009

106

30

100

17.2

2.1

0.072

0.97

1.0

25

10

0.060

0.38

2.6

Sand
Wet
Sand
Dry

30

10

0.150

0.94

1.1

30

100

17.7

31.3

0.071

1.40

0.7

16

100

0.075

4.71

0.2

16

20

0.075

0.94

1.1

Clay
Wet
Clay
Average 30

Soil

2.8 Preceding Study

In this part, Table 2.8 below shows the previous research about the detection of
buried object and soil moisture content by using electromagnetic technique.

12

Table 2.8. Previous Research of Electromagnetic Technique.

Author
Aswini N

Title

Technique

Detection of Buried

Application of frequency domain

Detonatory objects Using

GPR focusing technique based on

GPR

Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR).

M.P.

Buried Object

Proposes techniques for buried

Priyadarshini

Discrimination in a

object discrimination for the images

and Dr. G.

Ground Penetrating

generated by using GPR frequency-

Indumathi

Radar Radargram

domain spectral features

I.A. Lunt, S.S

Soil Moisture Content

GPR reflection travel time data

Hubbard, and

Estimation using Ground

were used to estimate changes in

Y. Rubin

Penetrating Radar

soil water content undergo a range

reflection Data

of soil saturation conditions

throughout the growing seasons at a
the study area.

J.A. Huisman,

Measuring Soil Water

Soil water content determined from

S.S. Hubbard,

Content with Ground

transmitted from ground wave

J.D. redman and

Penetrating Radar

velocity between boreholes, and soil

A.P. Annan

water content determined from the

surface reflection coefficient.

Nigel J.

The application of finite-

The analysis of GPR data in

Cassidy, Tim

Difference time-domain

complex or lossy materials by using

M. Milington

modeling for the

Finite Difference Time-omain

assessment of GPR in

(FDTD) approach.

magnetically lossy
materials.

13

2.8.1

Detection of Buried Detonatory objects Using GPR (Aswini N, 2012)

This research proposed the use of Stepped Frequency Continois Wave (SFCW)
GPR in the detection of land mines beneath the earths surface. Besides, for the
detection, Kirchoff Migration (KM) algorithm is used. The hyperbolic
defocusing of an object in Bscan image can be corrected for in the data
processing, which is called migration or SAR processing. Based on the research
study, the aim of migration technique is to focus target reflection in the recorded
data back into their true position and physical shape. In the other hand, in Bscan
GPR imaging the antenna will be moving in one direction and at each point of
the reflected data is collected to generate 2D space frequency matrix. This
frequency domain GPR has been applied to focusing the technique based on
SAR to mitigate the undesired hyperbolic effects in the Bscan GPR image.

2.8.2

Buried Object Discrimination in a Ground Penetrating Radar Radargram

(M.P. Priyadarshini and Dr.G. Indumathi, 2013)

This research work is about the propose techniques for buried object
discrimination for the images generated by using GPR frequency-domain
spectral features. Based on the research work, there are two stages of proposed
techniques that have been implemented to carry out this study which are Preprocessing Stage and followed by Discrimination. Stage one is about to eliminate
the ground bounce and background clutter to get an enhanced image.
Enhancement is followed by Landmine or clutter Discrimination using Energy
Density Spectrum (EDS).
According to the journal, the Discrimination stage is about the GPR
signal from a landmine is dependent on the mines size, shape, and composition
which is as its burial depth and orientation. In addition, electrical characteristics
of the soil also play an important role on the signature of landmines and clutter.

14

2.8.3

Soil Moisture Content Estimation using Ground Penetrating Radar

reflection Data (I.A. Lunt, S.S Hubbard, and Y. Rubin, 2004)

Based on this research, the GPR reflection travel time data were used to estimate
changes in soil water content under a range of soil saturation conditions
throughout the growing season at that research area. During three data
acquisition campaigns over an 180 m area, the data were collected by using
100MHz surface GPR antennas. Furthermore, the GPR reflections were
associated with thin, low permeability clay layer which is located at 0.8-1.3 m
below the ground surface that was identified from borehole information across
the study areas.
In addition, this study has focused on assessing the utility and accuracy of
surface GPR reflection travel time for volumetric water content (VWC)
estimation under natural conditions and throughout the growing seasons.
According to the research data result, it show that the common-offset GPR
reflection method can be used to estimate the average of VWC of the soil. This
method has an accuracy that is comparable with existing conventional method
such as neutron and capacitance probe.
2.8.4

Measuring Soil Water Content with Ground Penetrating Radar (J.A.

Huisman, S.S. Hubbard, J.D. redman and A.P. Annan, 2003)

This research is about the determination of soil water content that get from four
techniques which is reflected wave velocity, ground wave velocity, transmitted
wave velocity between boreholes, and surface reflection coefficient. From these
techniques, GPR is the one of the possible tools that can measure the soil water
content in different type of wave velocity. The GPR technique is similar to the
principle of seismic and sonar. There are two classes of methods to estimates the
soil water content from reflected wave travel time data can be distinguished
where the first class is single antenna separation for soil water content estimation
and the second class is method of required multiple measurement with different
antenna separations. Then, for ground wave velocity technique, the ground wave

15

is the part of the radiated energy that travels between the transmitter and receiver
through the top of the soil. For borehole GPR application, the transmitting and
receiving antenna are lowered into a pair of vertical access tubes. The arrival
time of the direct wave between the boreholes and the known borehole
separation is used to calculate the velocity and soil permittivity. The last
technique to measure water content in this research is by surface reflection where
GPR antennas are operated at the some distance above the ground by mounting
them on a vehicle or a low-flying air platform. Although there are different
techniques used, the soil water content can still obtained.
2.8.5

The application of finite-difference Time-Domain Modeling For the

Assessment Of GPR In Magnetically Lossy Materials (Nigel J. Cassidy, Tim
M. Milington)
Based on this research, the GPR wave propagation in complex can be determined
by using the Finite - Difference, Time-Domain (FDTD) technique. FDTD is
essentially modeling of GPR numerical simulation of electromagnetic wave
propagation in both time and space. Besides, FDTD methods consider the
subsurface materials as non-magnetic and do not include the propagation and
loss effects associated with magnetic materials such as igneous rocks, iron-irish
sands and smelting wastes. The technique used is to utilize the reflection and
transmission response of a material to a series of propagating the transverse
electromagnetic wave (TEM) over the range of individual frequencies. Other
than that, this research also proven that the lossy magnetically materials and
inclusion of a complex magnetic permeability into the FDTD scheme result in
smeared interface problem and increased computational demand and equationlevel coding changes. Thus, a modeling of 45oMHz GPR survey over rusting
fuel gas pipe has provided to illustrate the application of the modeling approach
to the advanced interpretation of near-surface GPR in magnetic lossy
environments.

16

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction
In this research, there are few things that need to be considered and well planning in
order to achieve a good methodology. This study is required to have one site research
where the survey of the GPR result can be conducted. Thus, it will be conducted at the
Research of Soft Soil Centre (RECESS) UTHM. RECESS is established to conduct
research and development (R&D) in engineering of soft soil technologies. Located in
UTHM, Parit Raja Johor it becomes a reference in both national and international levels
for soft soil information.
RECESS UTHM is located at Batu Pahat approximately 20 km from town and near
Air Hitam. The topography of the test area is relatively flat with the height above mean
sea level of 3.5 meter to 1.8 meter and the soil condition in that area are soft soil. The
water table readings are 0.5 meter-0.65 meter from ground surface. The site possesses a
good drainage system considering it was previously planted with oil palms (Rashidi,
2014). Other than that, planning of methodology on how to conduct this study has been
developed. Therefore, to perform the result of the study, the GPR equipment used is
provided by Geology Laboratory.
3.2 Research Flow Chart
Flow chart of the research study is developed as shown in the Diagram 3.2 below. It
consists of several works include the Site Preparation, Laboratory Test, Field Test,
Data Analysis and Obtain Result.

17

Start

Site Preparation

Used existing test site

Metal plate cultivation

Laboratory Test

Permittivity Test

Field Test

GPR Survey

Data Analysis
and
Obtained Result

Finish

Diagram 3.1. Research Flow Chart

18

3.3 Site Preparation

Based on the flowchart above, this study required a site area to carry out the survey.
The research site area has been selected where it will be conducted at RECESS,
UTHM which is using the existing test site that fill with sand soil. Site preparation
for this research study will be include the cultivation of metal plate at the existing
test site.

3.3.1

Existing Test Site

The RECESS existing test site is located in front of the centre research. Thus, the
dimension of the existing test site is 2m x 2m x 2m as shown in the Figure 3.3.1.
Besides, the existing test site is filled with sand soil which is it has been used
before as a research field. Based on this study, sand is the one of soils type that
suitable for GPR Survey because of its physical properties.

2m

2m
2m
Figure 3.3.1. Dimension of the Existing Test Site

19

3.3.1.1 Sand Soils Characteristics

Sand soils are often dry, nutrient deficient and fast-draining. They have little
ability to transport water from deeper layers through capillary transport (James,
1995). In term of this research, good penetration is achieved in dry sandy soils
where the depth of penetration could be higher in centimeters and the effective
increase in complex dielectric constant with same moisture content in sandy
soils. .

3.3.2

Metal Plate Cultivation

Metal plate with dimension of 50cm x 30cm will be cultivated in the existing test
site with the depth of 1.5m from the surface of sand soil fill. Figure 3.3.2 shows
the proposed depth of the metal plate cultivation.

1.5m

30cm
50cm

Figure 3.3.2. Proposed Depth of Metal Plate Cultivated

20

3.4 Laboratory Test

Before the survey is carried out, the laboratory test will be carried out. In order to
determine the permittivity of the soil, the Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) is the
measurement to determine the permittivity of various materials especially soils (Will
& Gerding, 2009). This test will be conducted at the Electromagnetic Community
Center (EMC), UTHM.
The purpose of this laboratory test is to investigate the dielectric constant of the
soil by monitoring the travel of an electromagnetic pulse which is launched along the
waveguide formed by a pair of parallel rods embedded in the soil. Thus, the pulse
will reflected at the end of the waveguide and the velocity propagation is
proportionally inverse to the square root of the dielectric constant.
3.5 Field Test
The field test covered a total of approximately 6m3 on test site located at the
RECESS, UTHM. In order to obtain data, the survey considered the water content of
the sand and surrounding temperature which is depending on the weather condition.
Thus, the survey will be conducted during several times which are dry and wet
weather condition. By doing this survey of different weather condition and
surrounding temperature, the various results will be gained. In finding the best result
of GPR survey, suitable equipment will be used.

3.5.1

GPR Survey

In this research, the GPR Survey consists of few components of GPR system which
is that emits an electromagnetic wave into ground and receives the response as
shown in Figure 3.5.1. If there is a change in electrical properties in the ground, a
part of the electromagnetic wave is reflected back to the receiver. The system scans
the ground to collect the data at various locations. Then GPR profile can be
constructed by plotting the amplitude of the received signal as a function of time and
position, representing a vertical slice of the subsurface. The time axis can be

21

converted to depth by assuming a velocity of the electromagnetic wave in the

subsurface soil.

Figure 3.5.1. Component of GPR system

3.5.1.1 Equipments used
For this study, the equipments used is Smart Cart system. The Smart Cart
system is manufactured by Sensor and Software LTD. The system is consists of
several components which are the cart structure, a Noggin, an odometer wheel, a
Digital Video Logger (DVL), and a battery as shown in the Figure 3.5.1.1. In
addition, since the Smart Cart system that provided by Geology Laboratory only
configured for Noggin 250 so, it is completely self-contained unit that has
shielded dipole antennas with a fixed 250 MHz central frequency and bandwidth
equal to the centre frequency. Besides, it is an integrated GPR data acquisition
platform where it can be carrying out a GPR survey in less than a minute. This
equipment can show the hyperbola matching and target of unknown depth that
reflected from the detected metal plate.

22

Figure 3.5.1.1. Smart Cart system and its components

3.5.1.2 Procedure of GPR Survey

Below are the work procedures of GPR Survey:

1. The Smart Cart system is established and connected to a power supply,

usually a 12 volt battery or by using Alternating Current (AC) source.
2. A preliminary test is performed before the actual study to ensure that the
system is properly functioning.
3. Information related test site including the location of the GPR survey,
changes in surface conditions, and resources-related reflections from the
ground like a metal object near the test site should be recorded to assist the
analysis of data collected.
4. Recording time range (nanosecond) and signal rate derived the determined
sampling based on the depth of the target and frequency antenna.

23

5. The velocity of sub-surface is set. For object location measurement, the exact
velocity is not really important except for the determination of the depth.
6. The object or metal plate will be cultivated under the existing test site which
fills with sand soil at 1.5 meter from the sub-surface.
7. The Smart Cart system is ready to be used by simply pushing the cart along
the survey line.
8. The data of successful result that recorded by the Smart Cart system is
analyze in the laboratory by using WinPXFER software.
9. Obtain result are recorded.

3.6 Data Analysis

As an experimental work, the data analysis is done simply by pushing the Smart Cart
system along the survey line. This is usually done with the odometer used as the
triggering device. For this research, as the Smart Cart system moves, the odometer
triggers the system to collect a data trace at fixed distance intervals. For Noggin 250,
the normal station interval is 5 centimeters. Velocities are measured by fitting
hyperbolic curves to point diffractions. In addition, the Smart system can normally
collect data at a very fast walking pace. Then, the data will be collected by the
Noggin 250 system that can be used to scan into many different materials including
soil, rock, concrete, snow, ice and wood. (Takahashi. et al., 2007). The scanned
material will appear in the Digital Video Logger (DVL) as graphic images which
have a removable compact flash drive for data storage. Data collected then will
analyze by using WinPXFER software. It is use to transfer data from the DVL to the
external computer to allow the view of the data and runs on the PC in a Window
environment.

3.6.1

Obtained Result

After the data has been analyzed, result of material being scanned is obtained. The
quality of the obtained result for this study may be different slightly because of the
different of water content during wet and dry weather condition. This is due to the

24

radio wave emitted by a Noggin system will travel at different velocities depending
on the material being scanned (T. Shanmugapriyan, 2013). Besides, the data of depth
of metal plate that cultivated will be detected, but may be not in accurate depth.
Therefore, the data analysis of GPR result is depending on the water content of the
sand.

25

CHAPTER 4

EXPECTED RESULT

As an anticipated consequence, it can be found that the weather condition and

surrounding temperature can affect the quality of GPR result. The real depth of buried
metal plate cultivated will not be detected accurately which is has influenced by the
water content of sand. A conclusion and recommendations will be prepared based on the
obtained and analyzed data.

26

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

The study of electromagnetic wave technique has been carried out and discussed in order
to determine the calibration of weather condition on GPR result. Therefore, to achieve
the purpose of this work, several objectives should be received. First, to study the
weathering effect on the GPR result and the second is to understand the quality of GPR
result based on weather condition. Hence, for this study, the first objective was
accomplished. The other aim will be demonstrated and achieved in the next research
where the experimental work shall be carried out at the real test site.

27

REFERENCES

1. Aswini N (2012). Detection of Buried Detonatory Objects Using GPR.

Electronics and Communication Engineering, 5(5), pp.597-602.
2. M.P. Priyadarshini and Dr.G. Indumathi (2013). Buried Object Discrimination in
a Ground Penetrating Radar Radargram. Advance in Image Processing, 3(1), pp.
08-12.
3.

A. Casas, et al., (2000). Fundamental of ground penetrating radar in

environmental and engineering application. Geophysical, 43(6), pp. 1091-1103.

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