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(INVERTER)
General concept
Basic principles/concepts
Single-phase inverter
Square wave
Notching
PWM
Harmonics
Modulation
Three-phase inverter
DC to AC Converter
(Inverter)
DEFINITION: Converts DC to AC power
by switching the DC input voltage (or
current) in a pre-determined sequence so as
to generate AC voltage (or current) output.
TYPICAL APPLICATIONS:
UPS, Industrial drives, Traction, HVDC
Iac
Vac
VDC
Types of inverter
Voltage Source Inverter (VSI)
Current Source Inverter (CSI)
"DC LINK"
Iac
+
VDC
Load Voltage
L
+
VDC
IDC
ILOAD
Load Current
CHOPPER
(Variable DC output)
+
Vin
-
+
Vo
-
INVERTER
(Switch are turned ON/OFF
with square-wave patterns)
Vdc1
T2
+
Vo
(fixed)
IDC
IO
+
Vin
RL
Io
CHOPPER
CSI
Iac
-Iac
t
Current waveform
Io
Vdc
Vo
Vo
i, v
io
t
(4)
(1)
(2)
(3)
4-quadrant operation
Negative power flow
indicates that the
power is fed back
from load to source.
io
(2)
RECTIFIER
(1)
INVERTER
vo
(3)
INVERTER
(4)
RECTIFIER
4-QUADRANT
OPERATION
T1
LOAD
T2
ANTI-PARELELL
DIODES
T1
D1
D3
+ VO -
VDC
IO
T4
T2
D2
S1
D4
S3
EQUAVALENT
CIRCUIT
S4
S2
10
S1
VDC
VDC
S3
+ vO
t1
S4
t2
S2
S1
VDC
S3
t2
+ vO
S4
t3
S2
-VDC
11
-Vdc
FUNDAMENTAL
V1
4VDC
V1
3
3RD HARMONIC
5RD HARMONIC
V1
5
12
Filtering (1)
Output of the inverter is chopped AC
voltage with zero DC component.In some
applications such as UPS, high purity sine
wave output is required.
An LC section low-pass filter is normally
fitted at the inverter output to reduce the
high frequency harmonics.
In some applications such as AC motor
drive, filtering is not required.
(LOW PASS) FILTER
L
+
vO 1
+
C
vO 2
vO 1
LOAD
vO 2
13
14
Vdc
Fundamental Component
Vdc
Vdc
15
Pulse-width modulation
(PWM)
A better square wave notching is shown
below - this is known as PWM technique.
Both amplitude and frequency can be
controlled independently. Very flexible.
pwm waveform
desired
sinusoid
16
17
THD =
(Vn, RMS )
n=2
V1, RMS
(VRMS )2 (V1,RMS )2
n =2
V1, RMS
18
Fourier Series
Study of harmonics requires understanding
of wave shapes. Fourier Series is a tool to
analyse wave shapes.
Fourier Series
1 2
ao = f (v)d
0
1 2
an = f (v) cos(n )d
0
1 2
bn = f (v) sin (n )d
0
Inverse Fourier
1
f (v) = ao + (an cos n + bn sin n )
2
n =1
where = t
Power Electronics and
Drives: Dr. Zainal Salam,
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
19
=t
-Vdc
1
ao = Vdc d + Vdc d = 0
0
Vdc
an =
cos(n )d cos(n )d = 0
0
Vdc
bn =
sin (n )d sin (n )d
0
20
Vdc
2
cos(n ) 0 + cos(n )
n
V
= dc [(cos 0 cos n ) + (cos 2n cos n )]
n
V
= dc [(1 cos n ) + (1 cos n )]
n
2V
= dc [(1 cos n )]
n
bn =
21
3rd (0.33)
5th (0.2)
7th (0.14)
9th (0.11)
11th (0.09)
1
11
22
-Vdc
Note that an = 0.
Due to half - wave symmetry,
1
2Vdc
bn = 2 Vdc sin (n )d =
cos n
n
2V
= dc [cos(n ) cos n( )]
n
Expanding,
cos n( ) = cos(n n )
= cos n cos n + sin n sin n
= cos n cos n
23
Harmonics control
2Vdc
[cos(n ) cos n cos n ]
n
2V
= dc cos(n )[1 cos n ]
n
bn =
If n is even, bn = 0,
If n is odd, bn =
4Vdc
cos(n )
n
24
Vdc
S1
VC1
-
V +
o
G
+
VC2
-
RL
S2
Vdc
2
S1 OFF
S2 ON
25
S1
S1
signal
(gate)
Ishort
G
Vdc
RL
S2
signal
(gate)
S2
td
td
"Dead time' = td
26
LEG R
VRG
Vdc
2
LEG R'
+
Vdc
2
S1
Vdc
S3
+ Vo -
R'
VR 'G
Vdc
2
Vdc
2
+
Vdc
2
Vdc
2
Vo
Vdc
S4
S2
Vo = VRG VR 'G
G is " virtual groumd"
Vdc
27
Three-phase inverter
Each leg (Red, Yellow, Blue) is delayed by
120 degrees.
A three-phase inverter with star connected
load is shown below
+Vdc
+
Vdc/2
G
S1
S3
+
Vdc/2
S5
iR
iY
S4
B
iB
S6
ia
ZR
S2
ib
ZY
ZB
28
Square-wave inverter
waveforms
VDC/2
VAD
t
-VDC/2
VB0
VC0
t
(a) Three phase pole switching waveforms
VDC
600
120 0
VAB
t
-VDC
(b) Line voltage waveform
2VDC/3
VDC/3
VAPH
t
-VDC/3
-2VDC/3
(c) Phase voltage waveform (six-step)
Interval
Positive device(s) on
Negative devise(s) on
1
3
2,4
2
3,5
4
3
5
4,6
4
1,5
6
5
1
2,6
6
1,3
2
29
Three-phase inverter
waveform relationship
VRG, VYG, VBG are known as pole
switching waveform or inverter phase
voltage.
VRY, VRB, VYB are known as line to line
voltage or simply line voltage.
For a three-phase star-connected load, the
load phase voltage with respect to the N
(star-point) potential is known as VRN ,VYN,
VBN. It is also popularly termed as sixstep waveform
30
+1
M1
Carrier waveform
Vdc
2
0
t 0 t1 t2
t3 t4 t5
Vdc
2
31
PWM types
Natural (sinusoidal) sampling (as shown
on previous slide)
Problems with analogue circuitry, e.g. Drift,
sensitivity etc.
Regular sampling
simplified version of natural sampling that
results in simple digital implementation
Optimised PWM
PWM waveform are constructed based on
certain performance criteria, e.g. THD.
32
Natural/Regular sampling
MODULATION INDEX = M I :
Amplitude of the modulating waveform
MI =
Amplitude of the carrier waveform
M I is related to the fundamental (sine wave)
output voltage magnitude. If M Iis high, then
the sine wave output is high and vice versa.
If 0 < M I < 1, the linear relationship holds :
V1 = M I Vin
where V1 , Vin are fundamental of the output
voltage and input (DC) voltage, respectively.
MODULATION RATIO = M R (= p )
MR =
33
M1 sin mt
sample
point
3T
4
T
4
5T
4
Vdc
2
asymmetric
sampling
t0
t1
t2
t3
t
symmetric
sampling
V
dc
2
Generating of PWM waveform regular sampling
34
35
modulating
waveform
carrier
waveform
36
kth
pulse
1k
2k
modulating
waveform
carrier
waveform
kth
pulse
1k
2k
37
Characterisation of PWM
pulses for bipolar switching
+ VS
2
1k
V
S
2
2k
38
Determination of switching
angles for kth PWM pulse (1)
AS2
AS1
Vmsin( )
+ Vdc
2
Ap1
Ap2
V
dc
2
39
2 o
2
Vdc 1k o
Vs
=
= 1k
2 o
2
where 1k
1k o
=
o
Similarly,
2k o
Vdc
V2 k = 2 k
; where 2 k =
2
o
The volt - second supplied by the sinusoid,
As1 =
k 2 o
40
Ap1 = 1k
Ap 2 = 21k
2 o ;
2 o
2
2
To derive the modulation strategy,
Ap1 = As1; Ap 2 = As 2
Hence, for the leading edge
V
1k dc 2 o = 2 oVm sin( k o )
2
Vm
1k =
sin( k o )
(Vdc 2)
Power Electronics and
Drives: Dr. Zainal Salam,
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
41
42
43
Example
carrier
waveform
2V
1.5V
2
modulating
waveform
t1
t2
t3 t4 t5 t6
t13
t15
t17
t7 t8 t9 t10 t11 t12
t14
t16 t18 2
44
2 k 1k Vdc
=
sin nd
2 2
k o
+
2 k 2 k Vdc
+
sin nd
2
k 1k
+ 2
2 k o Vdc
+
sin nd
+ 2
2k
45
Harmonics of PWM
Yeilding,
2Vdc
[cos n( k 1k ) cos n( k 21k )
bnk =
n
+ 2 cos n k cos n 2 o ]
This equation cannot be simplified
productively.The Fourier coefficent for the
PWM waveform isthe sum of bnk for the p
pulses over one period, i.e. :
bn =
bnk
k =1
46
PWM Spectra
M = 0.2
Amplitude
M = 0.4
1.0
M = 0.6
0.8
0.6
M = 0.8
0.4
Depth of
Modulation
0.2
M = 1.0
0
p
2p
3p
4p
Fundamental
NORMALISED HARMONIC AMPLITUDES FOR
SINUSOIDAL PULSE-WITDH MODULATION
47
48
Three-phase harmonics:
Effect of odd triplens
For three-phase inverters, there is
significant advantage if p is chosen to be:
odd and multiple of three (triplens) (e.g.
3,9,15,21, 27..)
the waveform and harmonics and shown on the
next two slides. Notice the difference?
49
Spectra observations
Note the absence of harmonics no. 21, 63
in the inverter line voltage. This is due to p
which is multiple of three.
In overall, the spectra of the line voltage is
more clean. This implies that the THD is
less and the line voltage is more sinusoidal.
It is important to recall that it is the line
voltage that is of the most interest.
Also can be noted from the spectra that the
phase voltage amplitude is 0.8
(normalised). This is because the
modulation index is 0.8. The line voltage
amplitude is square root three of phase
voltage due to the three-phase relationship.
Power Electronics and
Drives: Dr. Zainal Salam,
FKE, UTM Skudai, JB
50
Vdc
2
VRG
Vdc
2
Vdc
2
VYG
Vdc
2
Vdc
VRY
Vdc
p = 8, M = 0.6
Vdc
2
V RG
Vdc
2
Vdc
2
VYG
Vdc
2
Vdc
VRY
Vdc
p = 9, M = 0.6
ILLUSTRATION OF BENEFITS OF USING A FREQUENCY RATIO
THAT IS A MULTIPLE OF THREE IN A THREE PHASE INVERTER
51
Harmonics: effect of
triplens
Amplitude
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
B
0.4
19
37
23
41
43
47
59
61
65
67
83
79
85
89
0.2
0
21
19
63
23
37
39
41
43
45
47 57
59
61
65
81
79
67
69 77
83
85
87
89
91 Harmonic Order
Fundamental
COMPARISON OF INVERTER PHASE VOLTAGE (A) & INVERTER LINE VOLTAGE
(B) HARMONIC (P=21, M=0.8)
52
53