3

2001 -

 2001 -

 2001 -

 2001 -

C
O
O

Si

CI

I
,
AI

Fe

Cu

Zn

Na

Mg

Ca

Hg

Pb

Pt

Au

Ag

Ar
MO

CI2

O3

N2

O2

P4

He
4

 2001 -

.
(SI) (m3). M
( dm3) (L)
(cm3) (mL).
1L=1000mL=1000cm3
1cm3=1mL
1m3=1000L
1L=1dm3
. ( L) 1 Kg 4C.

.
( P)
1Pa=1N/m2 ( SI)
Pa Pascal
1 atm=76 cmHg=760mmHg=760Torr
1atm=101325Pa

C , K (SI)
C , K
=T(K)= (C) +273
. =20C =20+273=293
=-273 C T= -273+273T=O K ( )
(m)

= Angstrom
5

 2001 -
1 =100pm 1pm= 10-12m

1 =10-8cm=10-10m

.
.

.
SI (g).
(g) (mg).
1Kg=103 g =1000g
1g=103mg=1000mg
1tn =1000Kg tn
= n = moles
n=m m= MB=

(
)
, (IUPAC) p
d.
p= m
V
m ( Kg)
V (m3)
.
SI Kg/ m3
g/mL , g/cm3 g/L
.

 2001 -
(2) 4 C (1atm)
1g/mL.
, ,
.
.

( , )
.
-.
4 C .

.

.

(m)

(V)

pd
()

SI.

V
-Liter

P
-atm

(g)millimeter of
mercury

Celsius degree

q
-calorie

L
-atm
-mmHg(torr)

cal
7

 2001 -

H SI

SI

1L=1dm3=10-3m3

1m3=103L=1000L

1atm=760mmHg=1,013 105Pa

1Pa=9,869 10-6 atm

1mmHg=1,315 10-3 atm=1,333Pa

1Pa=7,5 10-3mmHg

T(K)=273+ C
1cal=4,184j joule

C= T(K)-273
1J=O,239cal

1. 2,5 g g

1Kg=103g 1g=1Kg/103 1g = 10-3Kg

. 2,5g.
g. 1g=10-3Kg.
2,5g=2,510-3Kg=0,0025kg

2.E 500g. mg,g

. mg.
. 1mg =10-3g 1g=1mg / 10-3 1g=103mg 1.
.
500g.
500g 1 500 103mg=5 105mg

 2001 -
. g
. 1g=10-6g 2 1g=1g /10-6 1g=106 g
3

500g.
500g 3 500106 g=5 108 g
3. 400L. . mL .
m3

. 1L=1000mL 1
400L. 2
2 1 400L =400 1000mL =4 105 mL
. 1m3=1000L 1L=1m3/10001L=10-3m3 1'
400L 2'
2' 1' 400L=400 10-3m3 =4 102 10-3m3=
4 10-1 m3

1. 3Kg 20 C
0,24 g/cm3;
.
m ( ) = 3Kg
p ()= 0,24 g/ cm3
p= m/V V

.
p= m / V p V = m V = m / p = 3g
0,24g/ cm3
1
1 Kg 103 g
3 Kg
;
1Kg x= 3Kg103 g x=3 103 g
3 Kg= 3 103 g
2
9

 2001 -

1 2 V = m / p = 3g
0,24g/ cm3
= 3 103 g
0,24 g/cm3

3 103 cm3 = 12500cm3=12,5L 1L=1000 cm3

0,24

2. 2 1g/mL .
Kg/m3 k g/L.
. g/m3.
1Kg = 103g 1g=1Kg/103 = 10-3 Kg 1

1L=1000mL
1m3=1000 1000mL =106mL 1mL =m3/106=10-6 m3 2
1m3=1000L
1g/mL 3
3 2 1 1g / mL =10-3 Kg = 103Kg / m3
10-6 m3
. 1g/mL
1L=1000mL 1mL = 1L / 1000 =10-3 L 1
1g/mL 1 1g/mL=1g / 10-3L =103g / L
3. 5cm 984g.
g/cm3
V=3
=3cm ( ) V=3=(5cm)3=53cm3
125cm3.
H p=m / V
m ( g)
V (cm3)

10

 2001 -
p= 984g = 7,87 g / cm3
125cm3

;
, .

.
,
,
.

.
,
, .
( )
,
.
.
, .

.
,
(O2, N2, O3, P4, S8),
(H2O, CH4, H2S).
, ,
, , .
N2, H2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2. : 3 ()
P4, As4, Sb4. : S8.

11

 2001 -
( )
( ).

(Na+, Ca2+, Cl-1, S-2),
.
,
NaCl
. Na+
. . Cl

( ) ,
.
.

. . 0C
.
( .)

. . O
.

.
( .)

.
2 . ( )
. . 100C
( ).
( .) ( )
12

 2001 -

100C ..
( ) 1 tm.
10 tm 120 C.

.


. . O
. .
.
.

. . K
.
A

.

.
.

.
(
, p) ( , n ).

( e ).
To
.
13

 2001 -

.

.
= +

.
( )
().
(
.)
, .

.
.

.


.

1. N = 23 =11.
.
.
=+
=- =23-11=12
12 .

14

 2001 -

( )
, ( )
.
2. AI 3+ =13 = 27. ,
.
.
=+
=13 13.
+3
13-3=10
=- =27-13=14
3. S2- =16 =32. ,
.

.
=+
=16 16.
-2
16+2=18
=- =32-16=16

4. 51 ,
.

.

.

.

15

 2001 -
;
. (.. )
, , (
)
.
, .
. ,
, .
,
.
,
.
,
,
. ,
. ,
.
;

(). .

.
.

.
.
;
: .
,
. , ,
( ),
. ,
( ),

16

 2001 -
.

.
.
.

.
, .
.
,
.
;
, .
.
,
.
,
, .
,
.
( )
.
,
,
,
( )
.
;

.
:
.

.
:
:
.

17

 2001 -
;

.

.
;
.
.
.
.
.
.

.

. 2
.
.

. (2), (3)
.
. .
. . (n)
(Cu).
. , .
.
.
.

18

 2001 -
.
.
.
.
.
. .

.

.

. ( )
. .
. ( )
. .
( HNO3 ).
(2)
( HNO3)
. .

.
.

.
. (Cu), (C2H5OH)
.


().
19

 2001 -


.. H2SO4, H2S
(M.T).
.
. 2 2
mH /mO =1 / 8
.
.
.

..
.

. .
2
.

. (% w/w)
H g
100g . % w/w
. %w/w


. 1% w/w .
100 g 1g .
CI 12 % w/w
100 g 12 g CI

20

 2001 -
1 %w/w 100 g 1g
.
:

m () = m () + m ( )
( ) 100g 100g
1g= 99 g
13,88 %w /w
100 g 13,88g
( , ..)
. ( % w/v)
H 100 g
100mL . % w/v .
. NaCI 2% w/v
100 mL 2 g NaCI.
1 % w/v 100mL 1 g .
. 1g 100mL
( )
. (% v/v vol )
% % v /v mL
100 mL .
.
. 8% v /v 100 mL 8
mL .
20 % v /v 20 cm3
100 cm3 20 mL 100 mL .
%v/v vol .
() , mL (

21

 2001 -
, C2H5OH) 100 mL
( ) .
. 11% v/v 11 vol, 11 , 100 mL
( ) 11 mL ()
.

.
, ,
.
. ppm ( parts per million)
(106)
.
.
. 1ppm ( v) (3)
1000000 mL 1 mL (3).
. ppb ( parts per billion)
( 109)
.
ppm.

.
. 15 %w/w (NaCI) 10% w/w
(KCI) 100g 15 g NaCI 10 g CI.

.
m () = m () + m ( )

22

 2001 -

. .
(
H2O.
.
= +

V( ) = V ( ) + V()
m ( )= m ( ) + m ()
=
m = m
K
.

.
,
,
( ), .
.
=

V( ) = V ( ) V()
m ( )= m ( ) m ()
=
m = m

23

 2001 -

.




.

m = m + m

.

m = m

V
:
V =V + V
A
,
.

V =V


.

24

 2001 -

m = m 1 + m 2 +..
1

H 1.
.

m = m 1 + m 2 +

,
.

V = V 1 + V 2 +

.

m = m 1 + m 2 +

V = V 1 + V 2 +

25

 2001 -

. . NaCI
.
. .
. NaCI

.

.
. .
.
,
.
. .
.
CO2
.
.

.
% w /w : g 100 g .
26

 2001 -
% w / v: g 100 mL .
. 2 % w /w
% w/v 100 g 2 100 mL (d H2O= 1g/mL
)

.

,
.
,
,
.

, .
.
. NaCI 15 C 35,5 % w/ w. % w/
w.

35,5 % w/ w 100 g 35,5 g

NaCI 100 + 35,5 =
135,5 g
T 135,5 g 35,5 g NaCI
100 g ;
X= 26,2 g CI. 26,2 % w/ w
A
1. ;
Bohr
Rutherford. Bohr
.

. .
27

 2001 -

() (
).

K, L, M, N, ......Q.

.

K<L<M<N<O<P<Q

n. n=1, Ln=2, Mn=3, N n=4 ..
2. (
)
e-
:
1.
(K, L, M, N,) 2n2 ( n= ).
2. 8
( 8 e)
.
3. e- 18 e
8e.
.
18 8.


,
L, ..

28

 2001 -
n
(
)
1
2
3
4

( 2n2)

L
M
N

2 12
2 22
2 32
2 42

=
=
=
=

2
8
18
32

TOY bohr

7 ,L,M,N,O,P,Q
.

. E2
1 .

1) N

=2e , L=8e ,M=8e, N= 1e

19 K

K=2e, L=8e, M=18e, N=7e

35 Br

K=2e, L=8e, M=18e, N=18e, O= 8e

54 Xe

K=2e, L=8e, M=18e, N=18e, O=4e

50 Sn

=2e, L=8e, =18e, =32e, =18e, P= 8e

86 Rn
2) .

. ( )
.
.
. . 7-3
3 . 7+3 = 10e

. 19+ 1e 19-1=18e.
M .
29

 2001 -
16 S
11

-2

Na+

53 I

20 Ca

+2

12Mg

+2

16+2=18e
11-1=10e
53+1=54e
20-2=18e
12-2=10e

K=2e, L=8e, M=8e

K=2e, L=8e
K=2e, L=8e, M=18e, N=18e, O=8e
K=2e, L=8e, M=8e
K=2e, L=8e

3) 40
4 ;

p
n=p+4 =+ =p+n 40=p+n 40=p+p+4 40=2p+4
2p=36 p=18
18 . .
=2 ,L=8, M=8
4) +2 K=2, L=8, M=8 . p= n
.

2e+8e+8e=18e .
+2 2
18+2=20 .
Z=20 . , =
20 . A=Z+N=20+20=40
5) 23
.

p
n=p+1
A=Z+N =p+n . =23 23=p+n 23=p+p+1 2p= 22
p=11
11
11e
=2, =8, =1
6) 40.
- n / p=1,1- .
30

 2001 -
n/p=1,1 n=1,1 p
p
n=1,1p
A=Z+N = p+n . 40. 40= p+n
40= p+1,1p 40=2,1p p=19
19 .
.
K=2, L=8, M=8, N=1


.

.


.



. ,
.
( Li,Na,K,Rb,Cs,Fr ) ,
(e,Mg,Ca,Sr,Ba,Ra) , (,,Ga,In,TI) ,
VIIA (F,CI,Br,I,At) VIIIA (
He,Ne,Ar,Kr,Xe,Rn) .
=58 =71
=57

.
= 90 =103
=89 .
31

 2001 -

7 .

,,,IVA,VA,VIA,VIIA,VIIIA

.

( )
.

,
.


.


.

1) Ca 20. 20
.
.
=2e, L=8e, M=8e, N=2e. H (
) =2e.
( 2
) 4 ( 4 .)
2) 17 36

. .
=2e, L=8e, M=7e
17
K=2e, L=8e, M=18e, N=8e
36
32

 2001 -
17 VIIA o (7e )
3 ( 3 ). 36 VIIIA (8e
) 4 (4 ).
3) 3 .

)
) 1
) 7
.
)
2e ( ). 3
3 . .
=2, L=8, M=2. 12 e . =
12 =12.
) 1 2 e.
( 2e)
2e
) To 7 2
.
.
K=2e, L=8e, M=18e, N=32e, O=18e, P=8e, Q=2e
e = 2 + 8 + 18 + 32 + 18 + 8 + 2=88e
p= e =88
4) 3 3 .
VIIA 7e
. 4
4 2
3 4 .
K=2e, L=8e ,M=18e, N=7e
o 2 + 8 + 18 + 7 =35e.
= p=35=Z

33

 2001 -
8e.
3 3
. .
K=2e, L=8e, M=8e . 2+ 8 + 8=18e
18 p=18 =18
.


.

(,,) . ,
1 2 3
( )
.
()
.

.
.


. VA,VIA
VIIA .
: 5, 6 7

, .
()

.

34

 2001 -
( ) 7 6 5
, 1e 7e
6e 5e ,
e
.

.
( )

.
(
) (
e ).
() (Cs)
() .

. 9F 9FTo e
.
9F
K=2e , L=7e
9F-
K=2e, L=8e
O F-
) e ( 10e 9e 9F)
e
.
) ( ).



35

 2001 -

.


.
(CI)
.
.
. 1e
+1 CI 1e
-1.

(
1,2,3 )
( 5,6,7
4)

T .


.
. CaCI2

.

,
.
.

.

. CaCI2
. 2
. .

36

 2001 -

e. T

.

.

4,5,6 7e ( 1e )
4,3,2,1 .

.
( )
.

.

. CI, HNO3
T . SO2
NH3
. CH3-CH2-CH3

--


. ,
.

37

 2001 -

K, Na, Ag

+1

-1

Ba, Ca, Mg, Zn

+2

+1 (-1)

Al

+3

-2 (-1, +2)

Cu, Hg

+1, +2

Cl, Br, I

-1 (+1, +3, +5, +7)

Fe, Ni

+2, +3

-2 (+4, +6)

Pb, Sn

+2, +4

N, P

-3 (+3, +5)

Mn

+2, +4, +7

C, Si

-4, +4

Cr

+3, +6

+1 (
() -1 . , LiH)
To o . -2 (
--- -1 . 22
F . +2 .x OF2)
To ( F) . -1
( , ..) . +1
( Mg,Ca......) . +2
. . 20 , 2
.
. .
. .
. . n ( nO4)
E 1 (+1)+ 1 +4 (-2)=0 1+ - 8=0 =+7

38

 2001 -

.
. . P PO4-3
1 + 4(-2) = -3 -8 = -3 X =+5

NO3NO2BrO3BrO2BrOIO4IO3IO2IOMnO4MnO4-2
CNOHNH4+
CIO4CIO3CIO2CIOCO32SO42SO32SiO3-2
CrO4-2
Cr2O72PO43PO33AsO43HSO4HCO3HPO42H2PO4HS-

B








( )
( )
( )


















39

 2001 -

;

.
,
.

Arrhenius 1887,
.
.
(1) (- -) ,
( ) ( )
NaCl(s) Na+ + Cl
(2) , .
, .
KBr(s) K+ + Br ( )
HCN

H2O

H3O+ + CN ( )

(3) .
(4)
,
.

40

 2001 -

;
(Arrhenius)
,
(+)
x Ax .
Ax.
() Ax F1,Cl1,Br1, I1, CN1,
S2. . HCI, HF
() Ax .. 3 , 2CO3
H+
() ( )
, HCl, HNO3
() ( )
, H2S, H2SO4
() ( )
, H3PO3, H3PO4.
.
H+ ,S-2 2S
+, CI- HCI
H+ , F- HF

- ( CN) +
+, NO3- HNO3 N
H+, SO4-2 H2SO4
+, PO4-3 H3PO4

41

 2001 -

- +
;
Arrhenius, ,
, (H).
: M(OH)x. OH
, M(OH)x :
() ( , )
KOH, NaOH.
() ( , )
Ca(OH)2, Ba(OH)2.
() T ( , )
Al(OH)3.

+ , - KOH
Ca+2, OH- Ca(OH)2
g+, OH- AgOH

( NH4) OH +
( );

.

( =100%) , .
( <100%),
, .

42

 2001 -

HCl ( ), H2SO4 (), HNO3
(), HClO4, HBr, HI .
HA(aq) H+ (aq) + A1(aq)
:
HCl + H2O H3O+ + C Cl .


(aq) + (aq) + (aq)

NaOH Na+ + OH + + OHCa(OH)2 Ca2+ + 2OH

, ()
(). HCN
, .
:
HF
HCN
HClO
HCOOH
CH3COOH

F + H2O

H3O+ + F -

43

 2001 -
HF

(3)
.

3 + 2

4+ + -

: 2x, +x
-2 (
: F2 (O+2, F-1).
:
) , .. -2, .. CaO, PbO, SO2, ...
) , .. -1, .. 22 (
), Na2O2 ( ), ...
: ,
: Fe2O4 (
FeO - , Fe2O3
, 1:1 ).

( ), ( ) .

44

 2001 -
O

.
, - 2-
, ..
2SO4 H2O SO3
2HNO3 H2O N2O5
2H3PO4 3H2O P2O5
-


. ,
- 2- .
2 2 2
Ca(OH)2 -H2O CaO

H2SO3 (-H2O) = SO2

H2CO3 (-H2O) = CO2

H4SnO4 (-2H2O) = SnO2

H4PbO4 (-2H2O) = PbO2

2HCIO3 (-H2O) = CI2O5

H2CrO4 (-H2O) = CrO3

2HNO2 (-H2O) = N2O3

2HMnO4 (-H2O) = Mn2O7

, .. Al2O3
Al(OH)3 H3AlO3.

45

 2001 -

H3AlO3
H2ZnO2

Al2O3
ZnO

H2SnO2

SnO

Sn(OH)2

H2PbO2

PbO

Pb(OH)2

Al(OH)3
Zn(OH)2

, ,
.
,
. (NaCl),
.
, .. , ,
. (Na2CO3),
.. , (NaClO),
, (CaCO3),
, (gBr), ,
.

T (
, .. 4+) (
.. CO32-).
, : Ax
, x .
, , ,
. .

46

 2001 -
:
. ( ).

. ..,
NaCl:
FeS: ()
FeCl3: ()
KCN:
NH4I:
. ( ).

. ..,
Ca3(PO4)2:
ZnCO3:
KHSO4:
a(ClO)2:
Al(NO3)3:

2SO4 ( ), CaSO4 ( ), CuSO4 (
(II) ) , 2SO4 ( )
(SO4-2) (
, , )

(H2SO4) + +

KCI ( ), BaCI2 ( ), AgCI
( )

47

 2001 -
()
(, , ).

( CI) + +

NaNO3 ( ), Ca(NO3)2 ( ), NO3(
)
(NO3 -) (
, , )

( HNO3) + +

;

.
.

.


.

.

48

 2001 -

.
Fe + CuSO4 FeSO4 + Cu
Fe o 0
+2, Cu +2 0.
(Cu+2, CuSO4)
.
(Fe, ) ,
Cu+2, .

:

-




.
+
K :
)

2Mg + O2 2MgO
C + O2 CO2
) .
( )
( ) . :

49

 2001 -
+ 2
+ 2
:
CO2 + 2 H2CO3

CO2 ( )

K2O + 2 2KOH

K2O ( )

)
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)
Fe(s) + S(g) FeS(s)
)
H2(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g)
3H2(g) + N2(g) 2NH3(g)
,
.

( )

F2>O3>,C2 >Br2>O2>I2>S>Se>P.
( )

Cl2 + 2KI 2KCl +I2 I2 + KCl

-

.
. :
AB A + B
:
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g) ( )
2g2O(s) 4Ag(s) + O2(g) ( )
50

 2001 -

-
()
2gO(s) 2Mg(s) + O2(g)
()
()
Ca(OH)2 CaO(s) + H2O
2SO4 SO3(g) + H2O
()
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
2KClO3(s) 2KCl(s) + 3O2(g)


.
: + +
+ +
,
. :
Li, K, Ba, Ca, Na, Mg, Al, Mn, Zn, Cr, Fe, Ni, Sn, Pb, H, Cu, Hg, g, Pd, Pt, Au.
( )


2Na + CuSO4 Na2SO4 + Cu

Cr + MgSO4

51

 2001 -
Mg Cr
.

()
(1)+ (1) (2)+(2)
:
Fe + CuSO4 Cu + FeSO4
Zn + 2AgNO3 Zn(NO3)2 + 2Ag
()
+ +
Li, K, Ba, Ca, Na, Mg, Al,
Mn, Zn, Cr, Fe, Ni, Sn, Pb
.
:
Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2
Fe + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2
() . Li, K, Ba,Ca, Na,
(2)
+ +
Na + H2O NaOH + 1/2H2
Ba + 2H2O Ba(OH)2 + H2
Mg Pb
(H2):
Mg + H2O MgO +H2
() Cu, Hg, Ag, Pt, Au .
52

 2001 -

(Al, Zn, Pb, Sn) (NaOH, KOH)

H2
Zn + 2NaOH (Na2ZnO2 ) + H2

E

.
+

+ ( 2)

.
.
.
.
.
H+
-.
CI ( aq) H+ (aq)+ + CI- (aq)
NOH ( aq) Na+(aq)+ OH- ( aq)

H+ OH- .
H+ (aq) + OH- ( aq) 2( l)
H+ -
( ).
A H+
- .
+ CI- .
53

 2001 -

(aq) +

CI- (aq) NCI (s)

H .
()
() .
H+ (aq) + CI-(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH- (aq) H2O(l) + CI (aq) + Na+(aq)
+ CI-
-
1. + +
,

.
. CO2 + 2KOH K2CO3 + H2O
N2O5 + 2 NaOH 2NaNO3 + H2O
P2O5 + 3 Ca(OH)2 Ca3( PO4) 2 + 3 H2O
2. O + +

,
.
. H2SO4 + CaO CaSO4 + H2O
2 H3PO4 + 3 K2 2 K3PO4 + 3 H2O
2 HCI + BaO + BaCI2 + H2O
3. +
. P2O5+ 3 MgO Mg3(PO4) 2
CO2 + MgO MgCO3
54

 2001 -

4. (NH4+)
. HNO3 + NH3 NH4NO3
H2SO4 +2 NH3 (NH4)2SO4

,
:
: + + + +

:
() o
: +, +, 4+, 3, Cl3, CO3
()
: HCl, HBr, HI, H2S, NH3, CO2, SO2 ,HF ,CN
H2S, CO2 ,
.
HF (..) 19C CN .. 26C.
()

:

...

(S2-)

+, a+,NH4+

(-)

AgX,PbX2,CuX

+, a+,NH4+
Mg2+,Ca2+,Ba2+

CaSO4, PbSO4, aSO4

55

 2001 -

, aOH
Ca(OH)2, Ba(OH)2

2SiO3

!!!
2CO3, H2SO3, NH4OH .

:
2CO3
CO2 + H2O
H2SO3
SO2 + H2O
NH4OH
NH3 + H2O

( 1) + (1) (2) + (2)
H2SO4 + CaF2 CaSO4 + 2 HF
HCI + AgNO3 HNO3 + AgCI
2H3PO4 + 3CaS Ca3(PO4)2 + 3 H2S

Na2CO3 + 2 HCI 2 NaCI + H2CO3

H2O+ CO2
Na2SO3 + H2SO4Na2SO4 + H2SO3

H2O + SO2

To H2O CO2
H2O SO2 .

56

 2001 -

(1) + (1)(2)+ (2)

Ca(OH)2 + Na2CO32NaOH+CaCO3
2KOH + PbSO4 Pb(OH)2 + K2SO4

NH4CI + NaOH NaCI + NH4OH

NH3 + H2

(1) + (2) (3) + (4)

KCI + AgNO3 KNO3 + AgCI
K2S + Pb(NO3)2 2 KNO3 + PbS
(NH4)2SO4 + CaS CaSO4 + (NH4)2S
BaCI2 + CaSO4 CaCI2 + BaSO4


CI2 + KBr
Ca + O2
C + O2
MgO + H2O
Na + Br2
H2 + N2
Ba + S
N2O5 + H2O
H2 + F2
Ba + H2
H3PO4
KOH
NaCIO3
Mg + HCI
Zn(OH)2 + HNO3
Mg + H2O
K + Zn(NO3)2
57

 2001 -
+ 2CO3
P2O5 + Ba(OH)2
NH3 + H3PO4
N2O5 + CaO
Na2O + HNO3
HBr + AgNO3
HI + Na2CO3
Ca(OH)2 + K2CO3
KBr + AgNO3
Ca(OH)2 + HCI
Ca + H2O
K2O + SO3
NaOH + H2SO4
H2 + I2
F2 + KCI
BaCI2 + K2SO4
CaO + HNO3
4
B
(.)
1/12
12C.


1/12 12C.
Avogadro (NA) 12 C 12 g
. NA= 6,023 1023 .

( )
.
mole ( mol) NA= 6,023 1023 ( ,
, )
1 mol H2 NA 2 r H2 g
1 mol r H g
58

 2001 -
1 mol - - r
O r H g
g 1 mol (grat) .
g.
. 1 grat = 16g O2
g 1 mol ( mole) .
g.
. 1 mole H2 = 2g H2
H g 1 mol ( gion)
. .
. 1gion OH- = r H + Ar O= 1+ 16=17 g
M (Vm) ( )
mol , 6,023 1023
.
1 mol NH3 3 r g
22,4 L 22400 mL ( STP)
E . M.B r
. r
.
r
. r = ( . r) ( )
. 3
. r N =14 . Ar H =1
Mr = Ar N + 3 Ar H = 14 + 3 1 = 17
Mo
. 2
. Mr = ( ) ( )
. r H =1
59

 2001 -
. Mr H2 = 2 Ar H= 21=2
STP C ( 273 ) 1
atm ( 760mmHg) o 22,4 L 22400
mL
Avogadro.
. .

1 NH3 1 3 .
1 mol 3 1 3
1 mol 3 1 mol 3 mol
1 mol 3 1 ( r N) g 3 ( r H) g .

14g
3g
ME

,
x mol, y mol , mol .

. .
, mole
.
( x,y,w)
.
.
. mole
.

mole.
60

 2001 -

. d ()= m ()
V ()
d
m
V

% . (w/). 100 g g
% .(v/v). 100 mL mL

% . (w/v). 100 mL g
.
, mol, Vm
n=m
Mr
n mole
m g
r
m mole
n m g .
m = n Mr
mole n
m g mole n Mr.

n mol , V L
STP .
n=V(L) n = V(mL)
22,4
22400
( )
n = V
Vm
Vm
.
61

 2001 -

. Boyle: (V)
(P) , mol (n)
() .
. Charles: (V)
(), mol (n)
(P) .
. Gay Lussac: (P)
(), mol (n) (V)
.


P , V T,
. :
P V = .

mol
STP P =1 atm, V=22,4 L/mol =0 C
T= O+ 273 = 273 K
P V = 1 atm 22,4 L/ mol = 0.082 L atm = R

273 K
K mol

R. .
mol n moles
:
P V = n R P V = nRT (1) .
T

62

 2001 -
P
atm , V L, n moles ,
R
L atm
K mol
elvin.


.
:
1 tm =76 cm Hg =760 mmHg = 760 Torr
1 L = 1000 mL = 1000cm3 1 m3 = 1000L
T ( K) = + 273 K = C +273
. = 20 C = 20 + 273 = 293
= -273 C = -273 + 273 = 0
P = 38 cmHg
P= 38/76 = 0.5 atm
P= 190 mmHg P = 190/760 = 0,25 atm
V= 200 mL
V= 200/1000=0,2 L
moles
n =m/Mr . A
( 2)
n :
P V= m R T
Mr
M
.
P V =m R T P = m R T d=m/V , d g/L
Mr
V Mr
P=d R T
Mr

(3)

63

 2001 -

.

(Molarity)
Molarity mol
1 L .
C= n
V
c =
n = o mol
V= L.
Mo mol L -1 M
. NaOH 1,5 . 1 L
( 1000mL) 1,5 mole NaOH.
. NaCI 2 M 1 L 2 moles CI.
MO m ( molality)
moles
(1000g ).
. HCI 3m. 1000 g 2 mol HCI.
.

=

mol
mol

.
()

64

 2001 -
( ) .
.
V / = V / + VH20
m / = m / + m H20
=
m = m
n =n
M1VI=M2V2
: (M V)= (M V)
C1VI=C2V2
C1 V1
C2 V2 .

.
n = n mole
= MV CV
: Y
.


. .
( ) .
.
V / = V / - VH20
m / = m / - m H20
=
: (MV)= (M V)
M1VI=M2V2
C1VI=C2V2 V2 = VI H2O

. .
m / = m / + m
= +
.
C1V1 + n =C2V2
65

 2001 -

)
)

)
:
VI + V2 =V
(1) + ( 2) = ( ) :
1 + 2 =

M1V1 + M2V2 = M V C1V1 + C2V2 = C V
:
.
VI + V2 =V .
)
.
H
.
.
.
V = VI + V2 m = m1 + m 2
1 =
M1V1=M V
.
V = VI + V2 m = m1 + m 2
2 =
M2V2=M V

66

 2001 -

.



.
: Z
.
) Y

.
) T
.

1. 5,4 g ( . = 27)
2. .( .=1)
3. 1000 ( . =32)
4. 52 g Zn.( A.B=65)
5. 30115 Cu ( A.B =63,5)
6. 9,0345 1024 ; mol ;
(A.B=14)
7. 17 g H2S ) moles )
STP ) ) ; ( r
S=32, ArH=1)
8. NH3 33,6 L
( H2S) STP; ( r S=32, ArH=1, Ar N=14)
9. 0,4 A Fe2(SO4)3 ;
; ( Ar Fe =56, Ar S= 32, ArO=16)
10. 9,0345 1024
; (r C=40, Ar O=16 , Ar P=31)
11. SO2 STP 29,4 g
H2SO4; ( r S =32, Ar O = 16, Ar H=1)
12. mol AI2(CO3)3 4,6 g
KCIO3.( A =27, C=12,0=16,K=39,CI=35,5)
67

 2001 -
13. 20C
2 atm;
14.N 240 cm3 STP 0,3 g.
15. N 3 moles 3;
16 20 L CO2 P=390mmHg -91C.
CO2 STP;
17. 25C
1520 mmHg;
18. . 3,17 g/L
-20 C 2,35 atm;
19. 2g/L
20C

1. . S . 2S, N2S, H2SO4, SO3, SO4-2,

SO3-2
2. N . C .CH4, CO, CO2 ,H2CO3
3. ) .
CI-

OH-

SO42-

NO3-

PO43-

Na+
Ca2+
Fe2+
Fe3+
AI 3+

) N
4.

(II)

68

 2001 -

5. . CI
NaCI, HCI, NaCIO, HCIO2, KCIO3, Mg(CIO4)2, Ca(CI2)2
6.
.
7. :
HClO4, HIO3, H2CO3, HMnO4, HCN, H3PO4, HBr, CaF2, Al2(SO4)3, CaCO3,
K2Cr2O7, Ca(ClO3)2, SO3, K2O, H2O2, N2O5, Na2O , CO2.
8.

.
9. pH = 3.
;
;

1.
.

.
28,7 g .
.
2. 0,4 M
3,4 g 5,4 g
.
69

 2001 -

3.
22g 250 mL 1,8M.
.
4. 4,48 L (STP)
1 0,2L.
) molarity 1
) 1 0,4L 2
4M. 3
4 1L. molarity
4.
5. 0,4
L HCIO 0,3 0,6L
0,2M
6. 0,3L HNO2 47% w/v 0,2L
KOH 56%w/v.
mol/L
.
7. 19,5 g Zn HCI. 2
2
3. 200 mL
Br. .
) HBr
) .
: =14, C=12, H=1, O=16 , Na=23, CI=35,5 ,
Br=80, K=39, S=32, Zn= 65, Ca=40, Ag=108

1. 0,128nm.
. m . angstrom
2. 2,6 10-23 g.
. Kg . mg.
70

 2001 -

3. Ag 47 65 .
;
4. Z=18 =40 ;
5. 18 , =17
=35 ;
6. -1, 10 A=19.
;
7. =37.
9 ;
8. .
1) 60 g/ mL Kg / L
2) 300 mg Kg
9.
.
1. 1L
) 1
) 1 / 1000 m3
) 1000
) 1 / 10 m3
2. V m
V1. H p .
) p=m/V
) p=m V
) p= m / V + V1
)p=m/V-V1
3.T
)
)
)
) .

71

 2001 -
10. 35 (=) 37 ( =).
(
=35) .

1. .
, , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
, , ,
, , , , ,
, , , , ,
, , , ,
, ,
, , , ,
, , ,
, , , , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
, , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
, , , ,
,
,
, () .
.
2.
. ;
4 .

72

 2001 -
3.
.
, , , , ,
, , .

A
1.1 (, , , )
:
1. NaCIO 2. H2SO4
3. CaO
4. NaHSO4 5. HCl
6. NH3
7.H3PO4
1.2 (, , , )
:
1. MgO
2. Fe(OH)3 3. HClO3 4. Al(OH)3 5. 3(PO3)2 6. CuSO3 7. g32
1.3

) :
) :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------) :
) :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------) :
) :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------) :
) :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------) :
) :

1.4 :
) HBrO3 :
) HF :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------) NH4I :
) Na3PO4 :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------) 2S3 :
) NH3 :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------) SO3 :
) CaO :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------) Ag2S :
) Ba(HSO4)2 :
73

 2001 -
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.5 (, , , )
:
1.g(OH)2 2. H2S 3. CaCO3
4. H2SO3 5. HClO
6. N2O5
7. AlPO4
1.6 (, , , )
:
1. OH
2. FePO4 3. HClO 4. Al2O3 5. BaH2 6. K2SO3 7. Fe2(CrO4)3
1.7 :
) :
) :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------) (II):
) :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------) o (II) :
) :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------) :
) :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------) :
) :
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.8

) HClO2 :
) H2S :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------) FeBr3 :
) BaSO4 :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------) NH4NO3 :
) 3 :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------) KF :
) Cu2O :
-------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------) KCN :
) Ca(HCO3)2 :
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.9 (, , , )
:
1.Mg(OH)2 2. HCN 3. g2O
4. H2CrO4 5. HNO3
6. AlPO4
74

 2001 -
1.10 (, , , )
:
1. H2Cr2O7 2. Fe(CN)3 3. HClO4 4. Al2(SO4)3
5. BaH2 6. K2SO3 7. FeO

1.11 :
) :
) :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------) :
) :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------) :
) :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------) :
) :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------) :
) :
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------1.12 :
) HClO3 :
) NO :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------) CuSO4 :
) AlCl3 :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------) SO2 :
) NH4NO3 :
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------) P2O5 :
) NaI :
----------------------------------------------------------------

ANTI
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

..+ .. CO2
Zn + O2 ...........
Na+ CI2...............
N2+H2 ..............
S +O2
H2 + ............... HBr
K+CI2
Na + ............ Na2O
75

 2001 -
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

K2CO3..........+..............
KCIO3..................+.............
nO...............+................
Zn + Br2..........+................
Ag2O + H2O
P2O5+ H2O
Zn(OH)2
H2SO4
NaOH
HNO3
N2O3+H2O
Fe + S
ANTI

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

Zn + CuSO4
Ag+ HCIO
Na+H2O
Ba + H2O
I2 + NaBr
Ca + AgNO3
AI + FeBr2
Ca + HBr
K + H3PO4
Zn + H3PO3
CI2+ NaI
Mg + H2O
S + KBr
Br2 + NaF
Ba + HI
Ag + H2SO4
Br2 + Na2S
CI2 + AI2S3
CI2 + AII3
Na + CuSO4

1.
2.
3.

KOH+ H2SO4
NaOH + H3PO3
Ca(OH)2 + HCIO2
76

 2001 -
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.

KOH+ HBr
AI(OH)3 + HIO3
NaOH + H2S
NH3+ HF
AgOH + HNO3
NH3+ H3PO4
Zn(OH)2 + HI
Fe(OH)2 + HCIO4
Ca(OH)2 + H2CO3
NaOH + SO3
Ca(OH)2 +CO2
AgOH + P2O5
NaOH + N2O5
KOH+N2O3
AI(OH)3 + SO3
Na2O + HBr
ZnO + HNO3
Fe2O3 + HCI
MgO+ H3PO4
CaO + CO2
BaO + N2O5
Fe2O3 + CO2
NH3+ HCI

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
77

 2001 -

E
1. :
NO3-

ClO2-

SO42-

PO43-

S 2-

OH-

Cl-

O2-

Na+
Ca2+
Cu2+
Al3+

Al2(SO4)3

Fe3+
NH4+
H+

.
, .
.
( , , , )

78

 2001 -
2.
1. 2 +2

2. + Cl2

3. Ca + O2

4. Fe + Cl 2

5. Ba + S

6. CaO + CO2

7. Fe2O3 + H2O

8. BaO + H2O

9. Na2O + H2O

10. CaO + H2SO4

11. BaO + HNO3

12. KClO3

13. HgO

14. Na + HCl

15. CaO + HNO3

16. Na2O + HCl

17. BaO + H2SO4

18. K2O + H3PO4

19. NaOH + HCl

20. KOH + H2SO4

21. Ca(OH)2 + CO2

22. Ba(OH)2 + N2O5

23. KOH + H3PO4

24. NaOH + H2SO4

25. Na + H2SO4

79

 2001 -
26. Ba + H3PO4

27. Cl2 + NaI

28. Zn + Fe(NO3)2

29. K + CaCO3

3. :
1.

2.

3.
()
4.
()
5. ()
6.
7. +
8. +
9. +
10. +
11. +
12. +
13. +
14. +
15. +

16. +

17. +

18. +

19. +

20. +

21. +

22. () +

23. +

24. +

25. +

26. +

27. + ()

28. +

80

 2001 -

4.

:
1.

___ H2 + ___ Cl2 ___ ..

_______________________

2.

___ Na2O + ..  ___ NaOH

_______________________

3.

___ Ca + ___............. ____ CaO

_______________________

4.

___ Ba + ___ .............  ___ Ba(OH)2 + ___ ..

_______________________

5.

___ H2 + ___ S  ____

_______________________

6.

___ N2O5+ ___ ..  ____ HNO3

_______________________

7.

___ . + ___ FeS  ___ K2S + ___

_______________________

8.

___ KClO3  ___ KCl + ___ ..

_______________________

9.

___ H2SO3  ___ SO2 + ___

_______________________

10.

___ N2 + ___ H2  ___ ........

_______________________

11.

___ SO3 + ___ H2O  ___...............

_______________________

12.

___ Ba + ___ Fe2(SO4)3  ___ Fe + ___

_______________________

13.

___ H2 + ___ I2  ___ .

_______________________

14.

___ S + ___ ..  ___ SO3

_______________________

15.

____ Cl2

_______________________

16.

___ C + ___ O2  ____ .

17.

___ CaCO3  ___CaO + ____..

_______________________

18.

___ NH4OH  ___ H2O + ____

_______________________

19.

___ HgO  ___+ ____..

_______________________

20.

___ Mg + ____.. ____ MgO

_______________________

+ ___NaBr  ___ .+ ____ Br2

_______________________

81

 2001 -
5. .
, , , .
.
, , .
.
, , .
6. .
, , , , ,
, .
2
1. :
37Rb, 82Pb, 10Ne, 11Na, 54Xe, 16S
2. ,
+2, 3-
36r.
3.
. Ca Ca+2 . 16S 17CI
4. 12Mg, 7N, 35Br,
.

17CI, 14Si.

5. 20 16
. ;
.
6. .
. 11, 8 . 12g 7N
N .
7. =56
.
8. 19,20Ca,3Li, 36Kr, 6C.
.
82

 2001 -
9. ;

;
10. , , ;
11. Ca+2 18 . Ca
12. . 562+ 53- .
13.
.
2, CO2. . 53, 6C, 8O
14. Ca+2 NH4+ . OH-,NO3-, CO3-2
PO4-3
15. .
NO, NO2 , HNO3, Ca(NO3)2 ,NH3
16. Cr .
CrO4 2- , Cr2O7 2 4
1. 2,5 mol ;
2. 0,4 mol ;
3. mol 90 g ;
4. STP . 0,3mol
.

. 4 mol

5. STP . 5 g
.

. 17 g

6. 10 g ;
7. 33,6 L 2 STP;
83

 2001 -

8. 3 mol 2 mol

. g ;
. STP;
9. A .
56L. 16g
.
10. g 31,5 g ;
11. g 11,65 g ;
12. 49 g ;
13. mol 0.5 ;
14. 80 g 112L.
.
15. 51 g ;
16. 5 mol ;
17. H2S
3,4 g ;
18. H2 7,6g.
.
.
19. % w/w
.
CO, CO2, CaCO3
20.
4,48 L STP;

84

 2001 -
Ar S= 32, ArO=16 ArH=1, Ar N=14
Ar Fe=56

Ar Ca=40 Ar C=12 Ar =137 Ar P=31

1. 270 60 g
300mL. . .
%w/w %w/v .
2. 400mL 50mL (). .
; . % w/v
; p () = o,8g /mL
3. 4 : 1
1,15g /mL. . .
500g . . %w/w
%w/v .
4. 400g
20%w/w.
5. 10%w/w 5% w/w
.
400g .
6.
. . 500 mL 10%w/v
. 300 g 5%w/w.
7. 20 % v/v 2 80 % v/v 2. . O2
250 . . m3 600L 02;
8. 1,2g/mL
0,8g/mL. 0,9 g/mL

9. 20% w/w
1,2g/mL. .
5 g . . %w/v .
85

 2001 -

10. 10 % w/w
1,1g/mL. . 50 g ; .
%w/v ;
11. g
10%w/w;

500g

12. 400g
20g .
13. 750mL 10. .
.
0,8g/mL.
14. 540 g 60g .
1,2g/mL .
%w/w .
. % w/v
.
15. 60g
10v/v , 1,2g/mL
1,1g/mL;
16. 8% w/v 1,2g/mL.
%w/w .

1. () 15 % w/w
2Kg.
. g .
. % w/w
3 Kg .
2. ( )
10%w/w.
86

 2001 -
200g
4%w/w.
. 300g
20%w/w.
3. 400 20 %w/w
150 g 1,1 g/mL.
N %w/v .
4. 12% w/v 1,1
g/mL.
% w/w ;
500mL
20%w/w;
5. 300 g 10w/w 200g
2,5% w/w. %w/w
.
6. 180 g 20g
1 .
%w/w ;
1 400g
4% w/w. % w/w
.
7. 20%
w/v (1) 8 %w/v (2)
12% w/v ;
8. 600mL (1) 200mL
(2) 20% w/w 1,2g/mL.
12%w/v % w/v
1.
9. 400mL 15w/v 200mL
6%w/v. %w/v

.
87

 2001 -
10.
400mL 0,24 mol .
200mL 5,85 g NaCI.
11. N
.
2% w/v.
8%w/w 1,07g/mL.
12.
. 400mL 0,5
. 600g 3 1,2g/mL.
13. O 4L
0,5.
N :
. STP
. %w/v .
14. 5
400mL 1.
250 mL
0,2 0,5.
15. 400mL 2,45% w/v 100mL
. .
16. 12,6%w/v.
;
mL 125mL
0,4.;
17. mL 400mL
0,5 0,8;
18. 0,3
200mL. .
. 400mL
88

 2001 -
. 50mL
. 4g
.

1

.
1. HCl
2. NH4ClO3
3. Na2O
4. CO2
5. Ca(HSO4)2
6. NH3
7. Fe(OH)3
8. H3PO4
9. Al2O3
10.K2CO3
2
.
1.
2. (I)
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
89

 2001 -

3
.
1. Fe + HCl


2. Na + H2O




3. AgNO3 + NaCl
4. CaCO3 + H2SO4

5. Al(OH)3 + H2CO3

6. K + H2O


7. Mg + H2O


8. 3PO4 + KOH
9. CO2 + H2O
10. NH3 + H2S

4
. 26 g n CI. .
. mol HCI ;
. g ;
. L 2 (STP) ; r Zn= 65 ,H=1, CI=35,5
B. 360 g 80g o 1,1g/mL.
.
. % w/v ;
. %w/w ;
5
48 gr NaOH 200 ml.
240 gr :
)
) % .. (w/v)
) % .. (w/w) .
6
400ml 0,5% w/v 100 ml 0,6 %w/v.
% w/v .
7
60 ml 10% w/v :
i. % w/w 1,2 g/mL
ii. % w/v

90

 2001 -

iii. % w/v

iv. % w/v 1,5gr (V=)

v. % w/v 50ml
50 % w/v
8
5,6 g KOH 200ml Cl.
HCl; (rKOH=56)
9
gr HCl 7,3% w/w 11,2 g Fe; L
( STP) ; (rFe= 56 , =1, CI=35,5)
10
67,2 L NH3 (stp). :
()
()
()
Ar(N) =14 Ar(H) =1
11
M CO2 2S 11,2g 6,72L .
:
() moles
() %w/w ( C=12, S=32, O=16, H=1)
12
. ml 2SO4 2
500ml 2SO4 1,2.
. 5L H2SO4 0,2 2L H2SO4 0,9 M.

13
41,1g Ba 2. () 2 ,
36g HCl
3 M d=1,8 g/ml. : ) () )
(Ba=137,N=14)
14
9,8g H2SO4. 7,84g KOH.
. ( K=39, O=16, H=1, S=32)

91

 2001 -

.
.
. .
(CO) ,
(CO2) ( H2CO3) (. CaCO3,
Na2CO3) .
,
( SC)2.

18000000. A
.
.
.
VIA
Z=6. : K(2) L(4)
4 . 4

C .
.

. C . 4 4 C
.

.


C.
.

. C-H,C-X ( X: F, CI, Br, I), C-O, CN
C-C C

.
. 1 C
.

92

 2001 -
. .
| |
.C:C. CC
. .
| |
H H
| |
H-C- C- H
| |
H H
. C 2
2
.
.
|
|
.C::C. C=C
H H
| |
HC=C H
. C 3 3

. C : : : C . - C C - H-CC-H
,

. .
|
|
C H , CX ( X: CI,Br, I, F)
|
|
.
C= ,
|

C =
|

93

 2001 -

C

) A C :
C
( ) CH3-CH3
C ( 2
) (3 )
.. CH2=CH-CH3, HCCH
)
. .
()
.


CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3
CH2=CH-CH3
CH3-O-CH3

CH3-CH-CH2-CH3
|
CH3
CH3
|
CH3-C-CH3
|
CH3

2-

:

94

 2001 -

.


CH2 CH2

CH2 CH2
CH2
/
\
CH2 CH2

( N, O, S) .
.

/
\
CH2 CH2

( )
C .
.
CH2 CH2

CH2 CH2


.

95

 2001 -

.
.
CH2 CH2

CH2 CH2
CH2
/
\
CH2 CH2

()

96

 2001 -

OMA

|
--C-OH
|

|
|
--COC

|
|
( T

C )

|
C=O
|

--CH=O
|
|
--CCC
| || |
O

--COOH -C OH
||
O

(-)

( )

(-)

( C=O

C)

(-)

( )

|
|
--COC --COOC-||
|
|
O

(- )

97

 2001 -

- ( X: F,CI,Br , I )
-- ---CN --CN

-- NH2 --NH
|
H
--NH2
--NH---N
|

( )

-----

.




( ) .
(
)
( )
(CH2) .

CH3CH3 CH3CH2CH3

C 2+2 H.
98

 2001 -

C2+2 H C 2+1
R H H R
R
.

CH4 H CH3
()
()

C2H6 CH3 CH3

( )

(:

C , , S)

H CH3 CH2
( )

()
CH3CH2CH3 H CH3CH2CH2 ()
CH3CH2CH3 H CH3CH
(
|
)
CH3
()
CH3CH2CH2 CH3 H CH3CH2CH2 CH2
( )
()
CH3CH2CH2 CH3 H CH3CH2CH
|
CH3
( )

99

 2001 -
CH3CHCH3 H CH3CHCH2
|
|
CH3
CH3
()
()
CH3
|
CH3CHCH3 H CH3C
|
|
CH3
CH3
()

( )

1.

.
CvH2v+2

=1

=2

v1 RH R C2+1 ( )

CvH2v+2 CH4

CvH2v+2

H
|
HCH
|
H

()

H H
| |
C2H6 CH3CH3 CCH
| |
H H
()

2. .
CvH2v v2

100

 2001 -

=2 CvH2v C2H4 CH2 =CH2

| |
C = C ()
| |

3.
CvH2v-2 v2
=2 CvH2v-2 C2H2 HCCH H CCH ()

4. 2

CvH2v-2
v3
=3

CvH2v-2 C3H4 CH2=C=CH2 ( )

5.K
CvH2v+1OH v1 CvH2v+2O ROH R = ( CvH2v+1 )
=1
=1

CH3-OH
CH3-CH2-OH

6.K
CvH2v+1OC2+1
v1
1

CkH2k+2O k2

R-O-R ( ) R-O-R`( )

=2 C2H6O CH3-O-CH3

101

 2001 -
7. K
CvH2vO v1

Ck H2k+1-C-H k O RCHO
||
O
=1 CH2O HCHO -C=O
|
H

8. K
CvH2v+1CC2+1
||
O
v1
1

CkH2kO k3

R-C-R ( )
||

R-C-R`( )
||

=3 C3H6O

CH3-C-CH3 ()
||

O

.
9. K
CvH2v+1-C-OH v O Ck H2k O2 k1
||
O
=

R-C-OH R-COOH
||
O

H-C-OH HCOOH
||
O

102

 2001 -
=1

CH3-C-OH CH3COOH
||
O

10.

CvH2v+1-C-O-C2+1
||

v
1

CkH2kO2 k2 R-C-O-R RCOOR`

||
O

=2 C2H4O2 HCOOCH3 H-C-O-CH3

||
O
11. A
CvH2v+1X v 1

R-X = ( F, CI, Br, I)

=1 CH3-CI

( I.U.P.A.C)
(
) ( ).
.


.
()
.
.

103

 2001 -
. C
.

1
C
-

. (
).

- 1
- 2 - 1

- 2 - .
.
-
. -
. -
. -
- ( - )

1. CH3-CH2-CH3
--
( 3 C -)
2. CH3-OH

--
( 1 C - )

3. CH3-CH2-CH=O

--
( 3 C )

4. CH3-C-CH3
||
O

--
( 3 C- )

104

 2001 -

5. CH3-COOH

-- (-- )
( 2 C- )

6. CH3-CH2-CH2-COOH -- (-- )
( 4 C )
7. CH3-C-CH2-CH3
||
O

--
( 4 C -)

8. CH2=CH-CH3
--
( 3 C 1 )
--
9. CHC-CH3
( 3 C 1 - )

.
.. CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3

.
C
( ).



. ,

.


.

105

 2001 -

3 4
5 6
CH3-CH-CH2-CH2-CH3
|
2 CH2
|
1 CH3
3--

CH3
1 2| 3
4
CH3-C-CH2-CH3
|
CH3

2,2 -

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH-CH3
|
CH3
2-

CH3
C2H5
1
2| 3
4 5| 6
7
CH3-C-CH2-CH-C-CH2-CH3
|
| |
CH3 C2H5 CH3
4,5--2,2,5--
106

 2001 -

C , ,
C
.
. 3,5--4--2,5,7--
.
8 C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C

.
1

7 8

C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C

C2H5 C3H7 CH3
1

3|

4|

5|

C C C - C - C - C - C -C
|
|
|
CH3

C2H5

CH3

C2H5

C3H7

3|

4|

CH3
5|

C3 C C - C - C - C2 - C - C3
|
|
|
CH3

C2H5

CH3

107

 2001 -

.
4

CH3-CH-CH2-CH3

CH2=CH- CH - CH2
|
|
CH2

|
2CH
||
1 CH2

OH

|
CH3

H
.
6

CH3-CH2-CH2-CH-CH3
|
2CH2
|
1 CH3
H C .

.

.

C
.
,
.
1

CH2=CH-CH=CH-CH3

1,3-

108

 2001 -
CH3
3| 4
5
6
CH3-C-CH2-CH-CH3
|
|
2 CH
CH3
||
1CH2
4

3,3,5--1-

CH2 = C C = CH2
| |

2,3--1,3-

CH2 CH2

| |
CH3 CH3
1

CH3-C=CH-CH3
|
CH3

2- -2-

CH2= CH C CH

1--3-

.
C
C
.
.
.

109

 2001 -


,

.
.
> >

CH3-CH-CH2-C=CH2
|
|
OH
CH2
|
CH3

CH3-CH-CH-CH=CH2
| |
CH3 CH2
|
CH3

CH3
6
5
4
3
|2 1
CH3-CH2-CH-CH2-C-CH3
|
|
CH3
CH3
T
.( > >
)
. C
,
C
.

2 1

CH3-CH-CH=C-CH2-OH
|
|
CH3
CH3

2,4--2--1-

CH2=CH-CH2-COOH

3-

110

 2001 -

( -CH=O) , (-COOH) ( -CN)

,
( ) .
1
.
.
( )
.
1

CH3-CH-CH-CH2-CH3
| |
CH3 OH
5

3 2

CH2=CH-CH-C=CH2
| |
OH CH3

2--3-

2--1,4--3-

CH3-CH2-C-CH-CH3
|| |
O CH3

2--3-

.,
.
CH3-C-CH3
||
O

( 2-)

CH3
|
CH3-C-CCH ( 3,3--1-)
|
CH3

111

 2001 -

CH3
|
CH3-C-CH2-OH - ( 2,2--1-)
|
CH3

.

.
.( , , ).
OH OH
7
6
5 4| 3|
2
1
CH3 CH = C - C- CH - C= CH2
| |
|
CH3
C2H5 CH3
5--2,4--1,5--3,4-
.

,
.

-COOH > -COOR > -CN > -CH=O > -C=O > -OH >-NH2>
> -X ( ) > -2
|

> > > >

> > > > >
.
-CN
-CH=O
-C=O
|

- - (-)
- -

112

 2001 -

-OH
-NH2
- CI,Br,I
--2
-COOH

-, -, -,
-

CH3 CH3

|5 |4 3
2
1
CH3 - CH2 - C C CH - CH2 - COOH
|
| |
7

C2H5 CH3 OH

5--4,4,5--3-

3 2

CH2-CH2-CH=CH-CH2-C-CH2-COOH
|
||
OH
O
3--8-- 5-
CH3
5
4
|3 2
1
CH3 - CH - C - CH - CH = O
|
|
|
CI CH3 CH3
2,3,3--4--

CH3-CH-COOH
|
OH

2-

113

 2001 -

( )
-CH3-O-CH2-CH3

CH3-O-CH3

CH3-CH-O-CH-CH3
|
|
CH3 CH3

CH3CH2-O-CH-CH3
|
CH3

. C
( -O-R ) .

CH3-O-CH-CH3
|
3 CH3

2-

114

 2001 -
2

CH3-CH2-O-CH-CH3
3|
CH3
CH3-CH2-O-CH3

2-

(1)

CH3-O-CH3

.
RCOOH + ROH

RCOO R + H2O

H .
:

(-)
CH3COOCH3

( )
HCOOCHCH3
|
CH3

()
COOCH3
|
COOCH3
( )
CH3CH2COOCH2-CH-CH3
|
CH3

115

 2001 -

ONOMATO
( -R )
CH3CH2CN
CH3CH2CH2CN

( )
( )
O

.
CH3CH2-NH2

()

CH3-NH-CH3

()

CH3-N-CH2-CH3
|
CH3

()

ONOMATO
()


(CI,Br,I,F).
( ).
,
.
CH3-CH-CH3 2--
|
Br
CH3-CH2-CI

CH2-CH2
| |
CI CI

1,2-

116

 2001 -
CH2=CH-CH-CH3
|
CI

3--1-

1. .
CH3CH2CH3
CH3COCH3
CH3CH2CH2CH3
CH3CH=CH2
CH3-CH-CH2-CH3
CH3-CH=CH-CH2-CH3
|
CH2=CH-CH2-CH=CH2
CH3
CH2CI-CH2-CH2CH2Br
CH3CH2OH
HCC-CH2-CH2-CH3
CH3-CH2-CH=O
CH3-CH2-CH2-COOH
HC-CH2-CH2-CH3
CH3-CH2-CH-CH3
||
|
O
OH
CH3CH2CH2CCH3
CH3CH2CC-CH3
HCCCH2COOH
||
CH2=CH-CH2-CCH
O
CH2=CH-CH-CH3
CH2=CHCH2-C-CH3
||
|
O
OH
CH3-CH-CH2-CH2-CH-CH3
CH2=CH-CH=O
|
|
CH3
CH3
CH3
|
CH3-C-CH2-CH2
CH3-CH-CH-CH3
|
|
|
|
C2H5 CH3
CH3
C2H5

1. ;
CH3-C-H
||
O

CH3-C-CH3
||
O

CH3-CCH

CH2=CH2

117

 2001 -
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH-CH3
|
CH3
CH3-C N

CH3-C-OH
||
O
CH3-CH2-CH3

CH3-CH2-OH

H-C-O-CH2-CH3
||
O

2. N
.




3.
C3H8, C5H10, C3H4, C4H8O2, C2H6O, C4H8O, CH2O2
4.N .
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
CH3-CH2-CH=CH-CH3
CH3-CH2-CCH
CH3-C-CH2CH2CH2CH3
||
O
CH3-CH2-CH-CH2-CH3
|
OH
CH2-CH-CH2-CH-CH3
|
|
|
CH3 CH3
CH3
(CH3)2C=CH-CH3
CH3-CH2-CH-C=CH2
| |
CH3 CH3
118

 2001 -
CH3-C-CH2-CH3
|
C2H5
CH2=CH-CH-COOH
|
CH3
5. N o
C4H6 .

119

 2001 -

120

 2001 -

121