Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Ministry of Science and Technology: AR - 01012 Descriptive Geometry - I
Ministry of Science and Technology: AR - 01012 Descriptive Geometry - I
Ministry of Science and Technology: AR - 01012 Descriptive Geometry - I
DEPARTMENT OF
TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
AR 01012
DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY -I
Architecture
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
Chapter I
Chapter II
Geometric construction
2.1 Purpose
2.2 Definitions and terms
2.3 Method of construction for some basic geometric construction
2.3.1 Project (1) GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION
2.3.1.1 Bisecting a line
2.3.1.2 Bisecting an acute angle
2.3.1.3 Constructing a line parallel with a given line
2.3.1.4 Constructing a perpendicular to a line from a
point not on a line
2.3.1.5 Dividing a straight line into equal parts
2.3.1.6 Locating tangent points
2.3.1.7 Constructing an angle from a given angle
2.3.1.8 Constructing a circle throught three given
points
2.3.1.9 Constructing an ogee curve
2.3.2 Project (2) REGULAR POLYGON
2.3.2.1 Hexagon with 30/60 Triangle
2.3.2.2 Constructing of regular Hexagon with
distance across corners given
2.3.2.3 Constructing a regular Hexagon with length
of side given
2.3.2.4 Constructing a regular hexagon inscribe in a
circle of distance across corners given
2.3.2.5 Constructing a regular Pentagon with inscribe
in a circle of given radius
2.3.2.6 Subdivision into 5 parts
2.3.2.7 To draw a circle of radius r tangent to two
other circles
(a) Tangent externally
(b) Tangent internally
2.3.3
MULTI-VIEW DRAWINGS
3.1 Purpose
3.2 Basic principle
3.3 Third angle projection
3.3.1 Selected and placement of views
3.4 Dimension
3.4.1Purpose of dimension
3.4.2 Type of dimensioning systems
3.4.3 Basic dimensioning concepts
3.4.4 Dimension line
3.4.5 Extension line
3.5 Projects
6
INRRODUCTION
GEOMETRY AND GRAPHIC FOR ARCHITECTS AND
BUILDING ENGINEERS PREFACE
Geometry and Graphic training that is suitable for the student of Art and engineering. For
the Architect, the geometric construction of surfaces and graphic presentation are of great
importance in designing and presenting the building.
This book illustrates the application of geometry and graphic to the building design. The
standard/ examples of geometric construction of planes and surfaces, multi-view drawing,
development, descriptive geometry and pictorial drawings are collected for architectural students.
7
CHAPTER I
TOOLS AND EQUIPMENTS
1.1 General introduction
Definition- Geometric construction and Graphic presentation is the language. By which we can
express any information of our design.
Limits of Accuracy- in geometry a point is defined, as having position, but not magnitude, and a
line has no breadth. A point, pricked in the paper with the point of a needle, need not be more than
1/200 of an inch in diameter. A line drawn with a lead pencil need not be more than 1/200 of an n
inch wide, and with a good 'straight-line'.
1.2 Lists of Equipments
The following drawing instruments and supplies are typical of those used by architects and
engineers and drafters.
1. Drawing board (imperial size, 30"x22")
2. T-square or parallel ruler
3. Set-square/ 45 deg. Triangle (8" to 10")
4. Set-square/ 30-60 deg. Triangle (10" to 12")
5. Scales (Architectural)
6. Eraser
7. Tape, 1/2" roll
8. Erasing shield
9. Sanding pad
10. Leads (6H,4H ,2H,H,F, HB)
11. Compass (6" to 8")
12. Divider
13. Irregular curve
14. Drafting brush
15. Protractor
1.2.1Drawing board
Drawing boards vary greatly in size from small ones which can be conveniently carried
around, say 12 by 15, to large vertical boards 6 or 7 feet high by 10 or 12 feet long. Regardless of
size, the surface should be free from cracks and it should be a plane. Soft white pine or bass wood is
a most suitable material since this will take thumb tacks or other fasteners. At least on edge should
be straight as a base for the T-square.
8
1.2.2 T-square
The common T-square consists of two parts, the blade and the head, which should be rigidly
fastened together. A variety of kinds and sizes may be obtained from the trade. Different lengths
may be obtained, ranging from 18 to 72.
The straightness of the blade may be tested by drawing a straight line between two points
and them turning the blade over and drawing a line between the same two points, using the same
edge as before as shown in fig (1). If the blade is true, the two lines will coincide.
1.2.3The Compass
The compass is used to draw circles and arcs. Compasses can be used for both ink and lead
work and are available in various sizes and styles to meet different drawing requirements.
The Bow Compass
The center wheel adjustment bow compass is the compass most commonly used in drafting
laboratories. Adjustment by means of the center wheel allows the drafter to set the particular arc or
radius to be drawn and ensures that the setting will not move out of adjustment until a readjustment
is required. This type of compass and its use are demonstrated in Fig (3).
9
The Beam Compass
A tool not used very frequently is the beam compass. The purpose of the beam compass is to
draw large circles and crcs that cannot be drawn with a bow compass. This compass includes a bar
and two movable point assemblies to secure lead, points, or a pen and must be positioned using both
hands, as shown in Fig (4).
10
Fig. (9) shows the proper method for drawing angled lines using a triangle.
1.2.6 Pencils
Special pencils are used for drawing. They are of uniform size, hexagonal in shape, with
varying size of lead as shown in Fig. Eighteen degrees of hardness are supplied by the
manufacturer, ranging from 7B, the softest and blacket in the order shown in the figure, to 9H
which is the hardest and produces a thin gray line.
For general layout work in drawing, the 4H and 5H pencils are most useful, and harder
varieties are used in graphic statics and other graphical computation methods where fine lines and
extreme accuracy are required. For making a finished pencil drawing the H and 2H are more
desirable since they give a sharp black line. For sketching and art work, the softer grades are used.
The draftsman should learn to choose the quality of pencil appropriate to the work he has in hand.
11
Fig (10)
1.2.7 The Template
Templates are widely used by drafting laboratory personel. A template is a thin (usually 1/32
to 1/16 inch thick) plastic aid for producing technical drawings. It is a time-saving device that
allows rapid and accurate drawing of shapes and forms which are difficult to produce by other
methods or tools. Many types of templates are available for drawing circles, ellipses, electronic
symbols, logic symbols, architectural symbols, svtew threads, hardware, and specialty building
trade items.
When using a flat template (without nibs or standoffs to keep it away from the drawing), one
shouel be careful to life the template after drawing each symbol or character. In order to keep the
drawing surface clean, co not slide the template along the drawing surface. When inking, wait for
the ink to dry before lifting or moving the template. Fig. (11) illustrates how to use a template.
12
13
1.2.11The following suggestions, if observed, will help to keep the drawing clean:
a. In moving the T-square, bear down on the head so that the blade is raised slightly from the
paper.
b. The hands are always somewhat oily-keep them off the paper.
c. Use a hard pencil for layout work.
d. Pick up the triangles rather than slide them.
e. When finishing a drawing with a soft pencil, cover all views, except the one you are
working on, with a clean sheet of paper.
f. Blow graphite particles, which flake off the soft pencil, from the sheet.
g. Use the brush or soft cloth to brush erasing crumbs off the sheet rather than the flat of the
hand.
h. Use a hard smooth-surfaced paper if this is suitable for the type of drawing being made.
i. Use of a finely ground cleansing material on the drawing during work will keep both the
drawing and instruments clean. Several varieties of this material may be purchased.
Although some draftmen use the ruling pen for lettering, this is not a good practice. The
regular pen holder with pen points similar to those used in writing should be used.
1.3 SCALE
Most measurements on architectural drawings are made with the architects scale. Scales are
made of wood, plastic, or wood laminated with plastic. Sharp edges and distinct, machine-divided
markings on the scale are necessary for accurate measurements. Scales are usually flat or triangular
in shape and are available in 6, 12 and 18 lengths, with the triangular-shape 12length being the
most popular. The triangle scale has an advantage over the flat scale in that it has six surfaces.
Architect's scale is inch-foot scale.
Listed below are the 11scales found on the triangular architects scale?
Full scale, Full Size = 1:1
11/2= 1-0
= 1, Half Scale, Half Size
= 1, Quarter Scale, One-fourth Scale
1/8= 1-0, One-Eight Scale
3/4= 1-0
3/8= 1-0
3/32= 1-0
3/16= 1-0
14
3= 1-0
Two different scales are combined on each face except the full-size scale, which is fully
divided into sixteenths. The combined scales are compatible; one is twice as large as the other and
their zero points and extra-subdivided units are on opposite ends of the scale. The extra unit near the
end of the scale is subdivided into twelfths of a foot or inches, as well as fractions of inches on the
larger scales.
Accuracy in using the scale when preparing drawings is extremely important. To measure
correctly with the scale, select the proper scaling edge and place it on the drawing with the edge
parallel and slightly below the line to be measured. First, count from zero the full number of feet in
the dimension, and using a sharp pencil make a dash with a non-print pencil at right angles to the
scale; then count the inches (if the dimension has both feet and inches) from the same zero in the
opposite direction on the scale and mark the other limit of the dimension.
15
CHAPTER II
GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION
2.1 Purpose
The geometric construction forms the basis for all technical drawings. The purpose of the
geometric construction is to accurately developed plane geometric shapes ranging from squares,
triangles, and three-dimensional cylinders to complex irregular curves and ellipses. These
constructions are normally produced without the aid of a scale, but rather with simple drafting tools.
Engineers, designers, and drafters regularly perform the task of producing geometric
constructions in their work, applying the principles of plane geometry. The process involved in the
production of geometric constructions requires a basic understanding of plane geometry. Geometric
construction skills can be acquired and demand precision and the correct use of drafting
instruments. In developing geometric constructions it is important that drafting tools be in good
repair. 4H to 6H leads are normally used for constructions that produce very lightweight lines.
These lines need not necessarily be erased when the construction is completed. A small error or
inaccuracy in the solving of a geometric problem could result in a serious error in the final
construction.
Line A mark drawn with a pencil or pen, in any direction. A straight line is the shortest
distance between two points. Lines may be drawn thin or thick depending on the application,
as shown in Fig. (a).
Angle The space that is formed thin two lines originating at a common point. There are three
types of angles: the acute angle, whose space occupies less than 90 degrees; the right
angle, whose space occupies exactly 90 degrees; and the obtuse angle, whose space
occupies more than 90 degrees. Illustrations of each are shown in Fig(c).
Circle A closed plane curve in which all points are at an equal distance from the center. A
circle contains 360 degrees. An arc is a segment of a circle. Each is illustrated in Fig (d).
Triangle A closed plane figure having three sides and three interior angles. A triangles
three angles always total 180 degrees, as depicted in Figure 5.1(e). Commonly used traingles
are shown in Fig(f).
16
Polygon A closed plane figure having three or more straight sides. A regular polygon is a
figure whose sides are all equal in length. Common polygons include the triangle, the
square, the pentagon, the hexagon, the septagon, the octagon, the nonagon, and the decagon.
Fig(g) represents the eight commonly used regular polygons.
Quadrilateral A polygon with four sides. FOur types whose opposite sides are parallel,
which identifies each as a parallelogram, are depicted in Fig(h).
Ellipse A closed symmetrical curve theat resembles a flattened circle. It is formed by a point
moving so that at any position the sum of the distances from two fixed points (foci) is a
constant (equal to the major diameter). The terms minor diameter, major diameter, minor
radius, and major radius are used when producing an ellipse. Very often ellipses are
required to represent circles, wholes, and round areas on oblique, isometric, and inclined
surfaces. It is the drafters responsibility to see that the ellipse is constructed correctly.Fig (i
) shows a typical ellipse.
Perpendicular The meeting of a given line or surface at exactly right angles (90 degrees)
with another line or surface. Fig(j) illustrates two lines meeting at 90 degrees.
Tangent A line or curve that touches (without crossing) at a single point of a circle or an
arc. Examples are represented in Fig.(k).
There are a number of basic geometric constructions with which the drafter should
be familiar. The beginning drafter should follow the basic sequence in each illustration that follows
the learn how to develop the various geometric forms. In each of the examples there is given
information that is basic to the solution.
17
18
2.3 METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION FOR SOME BASIC GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION
2.3.1 PROJECT (1) GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION
2.3.1.1 Bisecting A Line
Given: Line AB
Step 1: Using points A and B as center points for radii, set radius
on compass greater than one-half of AB. Strike radius AC and radius BD.
Step 2: Draw a straight line through points C and D. Line CD bisects
EAB and is called the perpendicular bisector because
it forms an exact 90 degree angle with line AB.
19
Fig. (17) Procedure for constructing a line parallel with a given line
2.3.1.4 Constructinga Perpendicular To A Line From A Point Not On The Line
Given: Line AB and random point P in FIgure 5.6.
Step 1: Using point P as the center, strike a convenient radius r to intersect line AB at points C and
D.
20
Step 2: Strike two equal arcs significantly greater than r, from points C and D so that they intersect
each other at point E.
Step 3: Draw a straight line from point E through point P and extend it until it touches line AB. This
line is perpendicular to line AB, which means that it forms a 90-degree angle with line AB.
Fig. (18) Procedure for constructing a perpendicular to a line from a point not on the line.
2.3.1.5 Dividing A Straight Line Into Equal Parts
Given: Straight line AB in Fig (19), to be divided into five equal parts.
Step 1: Draw line BC perpendicular to AB.
Step 2: Place a 0 at point A. Place a scale at the 0 point and pivot the scale until the five-inch point
on the scale crosses line BC. Place short vertical dashes at the one-, two-,three-, and four-inch
marks on the scale on the five-inch-long line. Identify these inch marks as 1,2,3, and 4, and place a
5 at point C.
Step 3: Project lines downward from the points marked 1,2,3, and 4 to cross line AB, making certain
they are parallel to BC. The original line AB has now been divided into five equal parts. This
method can be used to divide a line of any length into the desired number of equal parts.
Fig. (19) Procedure for dividing straight line into equal parts
21
2.3.1.6 Locating Tangent Points
The method for determining tangent points is essentially the same for the right angle, the acute
angle, and the obtuse angle. The procedure outlined below, and illustrated in FIgure 5.12, is for
constructing an arc tangent to a right angle.
Given: Tow lines AB and BC, which are at right angles to each other, and radius r (see Figure 5.12).
Step 1: Extend the compass to the length of the given radius, r. Strike this radius twice from line AB
and twice from line BC, as shown.
Step 2: Draw a straight line across the tangent (high) points of the arcs from line AB. Do the same
with the arcs from line BC.
Step 3: The point of intersection O of the two lines drawn across the tangent points of the arcs is the
center for the radius that will be tangent to the right angle formed by lines AB and BC.
22
23
24
To Connect Two Straight Parallel Lines by a Reverse Curve at Fixed on the Lines
By Equal Arcs. (fig a)
Bisect AB, and then erect a perpendicular bisector of each half until they intersect
the perpendiculars to the original lines drawn at A and B. These intersections C and D are the
centers of the two arcs.
By Unequal Arcs, ( fig.b)
Step 1- Connect A and B on the two lines by a straight line.
Step 2- With the center D on the perpendicular from A, draw the first are of known or chosen radius
until it crosses the line AN at C.
Step 3-Extend DC until it crosses the perpendicular from B at E. This locates the center for the
second arc.
25
26
Fig. (26) Procedure for constructing a regular hexagon, given the distance across flats.
27
2.3.2.4 Hexagon With The Distance Across Corners Given
Step 1- Draw a circle with the distance across the corners as a diameter,
Step 2- The ends of the diameter as centers, draw two arcs as shown,
thus locating six points including the ends of the diameter.
Step 3- Connect the six points on the circle to form the hexagon.
28
2.3.2.6 Subdivision Into 5 Parts
29
Tanget Internally
Fig. (31-b)
In this case the radius of the tangent circle must be greater than that of either circle. Draw
two arcs respectively concentric with the given circles with radii equal to r-R and r-R1. The
intersection of these arcs is the required center. A practical application is shown in Fig.
30
31
Given : The basic forms of regular circle A, whose radius is r, and isometric circle B, both with
horizontal and vertical center lines whose points are identified as 1,2,3 and 4 .
32
Step 1: Draw a horizontal center line. Construct a vertical isometric center line at a 60- degree angle
with a triangle or a drafting machine. Using the given radius from the regular circle, strike radius r
on the construction, making certain that the radius intercets the center lines at points 1,2,3,and 4.
Step 2: Construct the basic isometric form. Draw four lines at 90 degrees, one from each tangent
point, as shown . Note that these four lines intersect at two places. Identify these intersection at C
and D.
Step 3: Strike minor radii from points C and D and major radii from point E and F, using light
weight lines. Each of the four radii equals one-fourth of the isometric circle.
33
In the first method (a), the centres of the arcs are at the corners of three squares, arranged as
shown (see the enlarged view to the left). A circle, centre O, is first drawn, for the eye of the volute.
The spiral is then built of the arcs, with centres 1,2,3,... as is sufficuently clear from the figure. If s1,
s2, s3 stand for the sides of the squares, the various pitches are evidently those figured in the
diagram. A more artistic curve, consisting of involutes of circles, would result if the squares were
replaced by circles, touching one another at O.
34
2.3.4.2 Hyperbola
35
36
CHAPTER III
MULTI-VIEW DRAWING
3.1PURPOSE
The purpose of the multi-view drawing is to represent the various faces of an object in two
or more views on planes at right angles to each other by extending perpendicular projection lines
from the object to these planes. The multi-view drawing allows the observer to view an object from
more than one orientation.
Top view or plan- the object appears when viewed from above
Front view or front elevation- the object appears when viewed from front
Side view or side elevation- the object appears when viewed from side.
In orthographic (third angle ) projection , The multiview drawing, the plane is always
between the object and the observer, with the object and the observer, with the object
changing position to accommodate the observer. In descriptive geometry, the observer
changes position, not the object.
2.
For the various views required, projection planes are always rotated into the plane of the
drawing through a 90-degree angle. Rotation of the object takes place about lines which may
be seen as hinged between adjacent projection planes. These lines which fold or rotate are
called reference lines, as shown in Figure 13.1. Reference lines are to be used as temporary
construction lines and should not appear on the finished drawing.
3.
For separate observation of each view, reference lines represent edge views of other
projection planes.
4.
The lines of sight from the object to each projection plane are parallel with each other and
perpendicular to the projection plane.
5.
Perpendicular distances from the projection plane to the object are equal distances in all
views perpendicular to that plane.
Notation A systematic means of identifying points and views on a drawing. For example,
the learner may wish to use the following guidelines in the solution of graphical problems.
37
-
Use upper-case letters for all views. (Example: F=front view; T=top view; L=left
side view; R=right side view; A=auxiliary view(s); B thru Z=all other views)
Plane Normally refers to a surface, such as a flat plane surface. It is the place, anywhere on
a surface, where two points is surface, which is not curved or warped.
Edge view A view of a plane where in all lines of the plane appear to coincide in a single
line.
Line of sight An imaginary straight line from the eye of the observer to a point on the object
being observed.
Point view A view of a line wherein the line of sight is parallel with the line, resulting in a
single point.
Normal view A view of a plane wherein the line of sight is perpendicular to the plane.
38
3.3 THIRD-ANGLE PROJECTION
The predominant method for producing multi-view drawings is called third angle projection.
In third angle orthographic projection, different views of an object (front, top, and side) are
systematically arranged on a drawing medium to convey necessary information to the reader.
Features are projected from one view to another.
Fig. (42) (a) unfolding box (b) six view third angle projection
In the above figure (41), the object to be drawn placed inside the box so that its axes are
parallel to the axes of the box. The projections on the sides of the box are the views one sees by
looking straight at the object through each side. If each view is drawn as seen on the side of the box
and the box is unfolded and laid flat as shown at the next figure (42-a, b), the result is a six-view
orthographic projection, better known as a multi-view drawing. Any of the six-views could be
regarded as the principal view, and the box could be folded out from one view as easily as from
another. When the box is unfolded from the front view of the object, it is called third-angle
projection.
39
3.3.1 The Selected And Placement Of Views
The important view placement principles include:
1. The front and plan (top) views must always be aligned vertically, with the top view above the
front view.
2. The front view and the side view(s) must always be aligned horizontally. The right side view
must be drawn to the right of the front view, and the left side view must be drawn to the left of
the front view.
3. The depth of the top view must always be the same as the depth of the side view(s).
4. The length of the top view must always be the same as the length of the front view.
5. The height of the side view(s) must always be the same as the height of the front view.
6. The bottom view must always be shown below and vertically aligned with the front view.
Fig. (43) Acceptable relationships between the depths of the top view and the side view(s)
3.4 DIMENSION
3.4.1The purpose of dimensions
Dimensions on a drawing provide the producer of the object with the necessary information
regarding the exact size and location of each feature of the part. A dimension is a numerical value
expressed in appropriate units of measure. It is identified on a drawing, along with lines, symbols,
and text, to define the geometrical characteristics of an object. Dimensions are used to complete the
description of an object or a part. The ultimate user of the drawing must always be kept in mind
when dimensions are being added to a drawing.
40
3.4.2 Fundamental Rules of Dimensioning
For dimensions to define geometrical characteristics clearly and concisely, the drafter should follow
a few basic rules in order to produce quality technical drawings. These rules will become obvious as
one reads throughout this section. The rule include:
-
Show enough dimensions so that the intended sizes and shapes can be determined without
making calculations or assuming distances.
State each dimension clearly, so that it can be interpreted in only one way.
Dimension and extension lines shall not cross each other unless absolutely necessary.
41