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Basic Control Charts
Basic Control Charts
Attribute charts have several disadvantages not shared with variable charts. First
they can provide hints, and even strong evidence of possible nonconformance in
parts, but they seldom provide the detailed information needed for a complete
solution. For example they cannot provide information on patterns that occur
within the specification limits; it takes a variables chart to provide this detailed
exposure.
Variable charts indicate shifts and potential problems before the process
deteriorates to an out of control status and defects are produced.
Attribute charts seldom provide definitive information needed for good on going
process improvement programs. This is due in large part because of the lack of
in-control patterns from measurements of parts that fall between the specification
limits.
In general variable date can be converted to into attributes data (any
measurement outside specifications is defective), but it is much more difficult to
convert attributes data into variables data.
Attributes can be converted into variables by use of an interval scale (judge the
effectiveness or degree of quality, on a scale of 1 to 10, for instance); but this
practice is seldom necessary or useful.
Converting attributes may occasionally be done when using SPC for
nonmanufacturing or service processes. When used in this manor its
effectiveness is suspect because of the subjective judgement that must be
employed. Interval scale judgements require a great deal of training so that all
inspectors will be judging from the same base, ie., the same perspectives and
understandings. Definitions of each scale interval must be understood the same
way by all (what constitutes a 1, a 2, a 3, etc.).
General Guidelines for Chart Selection
Variables chart:
Installing a new process or product or changing an old process or product.
The process is obviously in trouble; it cannot produce to the tolerances on a
consistent basis.
Destructive or expensive testing is being used.
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and a moving range R are calculated from individual measurements (only one
measurement is made periodically instead of 4 or more successive ones). This
chart is used where successive units produced would be impractical (chemical
processes for example), or where variations in successive measurements are
so tiny they are unmeasurable (bottling plants, for instance). In practice a
subgroup of three is used.
5. Moving average using zero-base coding. This chart is identical to the zerobase chart explained above except that the moving averages are used in place
of X-bar,R. It is used for vary small run sizes or where measurements of
successive units are impractical. The subgroup size is the present
measurement plus the two previous ones.
6. Charts using converted attributes data. Both X-bar,R and moving averages
charts can be used for attributes data which have been converted to variable
data using a scale to estimate the degree of non-conformance. This chart is of
little value in manufacturing but has some success in controlling
nonmanufacturing processes.
7. Pre control. The tolerance band on this chart is divided into five zones: a
central zone target bounded by two cautionary zones, which in turn are
bounded by two reject zones. The chart center is the specification midpoint,
and the specification (tolerance) spread determines the location and extent of
the five zones (the center target, area is one-half the specifications spread and
the specification limits form the boundaries of the two cautionary zones). This
chart is frequently colored for ease of analysis, with the center portion (target
zone) colored green, the two cautionary areas colored yellow and the two reject
zones colored red. This is sometimes referred to as a stoplight chart. This
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chart can be used for short production runs or long runs where the technician
has a great deal of control. Although great for control this variables chart
cannot be used for process analysis and improvement.
8. Trend charts. Used for processes where wear is an integral part of the
process (such as tool wear). The center and limit lines slope up or down. In
the case of tool wear, the chart can be used for determining optimum tool
replacement policies.
9. Charts using individual values. Only one measurement is taken at a time
and each individual measurement is used and plotted as if it were a subgroup
average. This variables chart can be used in situations where most errors are
likely to be measurement errors or where only one measurement at a time can
be done.
10.
specifications are used as control limits, so that charting can begin at the start
of the process. Although this chart has the advantage of instantaneous startup, it also has two serious disadvantages. First if the process is not centered
on the specification midpoint the chart can be misleading i.e. it can show a
problem where none exists or not show one that does exist. Second, the limits
do not show process improvements. This chart can be useful at the beginning
of a product run but should be replaced with one of the more traditional X-bar,R
charts as soon as possible.
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Run charts. This is not a statistical chart like all the others. It is just a chart
with the sample means plotted to show trends. The central value and limits are
not calculated. This chart is used at the start of a process, product or
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Constant limit X-bar. Plots the number of average deviations from the
mean
complex formula for each plot). The limits are constants that are determined
solely by the sample size. Used for short production runs and for charting more
than one product on the same chart, as in zero based charts. This chart has
disadvantages that zero based charts do not, including complex calculations for
each plot and no way to show process improvements. Because of theses
disadvantages this chart is used very little.
13.
Charts for larger sample sizes. Used when sample size is greater than
30. Special procedures are used to determine the control limits. This chart has
such limited use that you are not likely to see this outside the automotive
industry.
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characteristics at the same time and on the same chart. The application of this
chart uses very complex and difficult calculations and has extremely limited
use, it is mentioned here only to provide an awareness of its existence.
Attribute Control Charts for Defectives
Following is a list of attributes control charts for defectives (defective units) along
with a brief description of the chart and its use.
These kinds of charts are called p charts, or some kind of p.
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The constant sample size p chart. The basic p chart. Also called the fraction
defective chart, this chart is used to control defective units, not defects per unit.
The p is the fraction defective or process average and is the plotted value. This is
the basic attributes chart that is used the most. It is used to control ongoing, longterm production and is usually difficult to use with short production runs, long
process times, or other special cases. Most special cases require one or more of
the special p chart adaptations listed next.
The 100 p chart. This is not an actual chart of its own, but is just the p chart
converted to percentages. The central value, control limits and each plotted value
(p) are multiplied by 100. This form of the p chart is the most used because
people tend to understand percentages better than decimal fractions.
The np chart. The actual number of defectives in the sample (a whole number) is
plotted, rather than a fraction or percentage. Its greatest value in use is to
facilitate operator understanding.
Variable sample size p chart. In this chart, the subgroup (sample) sizes are not
constant (not the same for every sample). Therefore the control limits do not form
a straight line as they do in constant sample charts. Each sample (subgroup) has
its own control limits. The variable p chart is good for short production runs and
long process times where only counted data are available.
The average p chart. This chart is identical to the variable p chart, except that an
average sample size is used to determine the control limits, so the limits will form
a straight line. Theoretically this chart can only be used when the sample sizes
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are within 10% of each other, although this limit is often exceeded in actual
practice with limited detriment to accuracy.
The weighted p chart; using a constant sample size. The counts of each type of
defective are adjusted by weights, so that more important types of defectives are
given special consideration. Especially useful for nonmanufacturing applications
needing process control.
The weighted average p chart; using a variable sample size. Identical to the
weighted p chart, except that an average sample size is used in the computations.
Again this chart is useful in nonmanufacturing applications.
The constant limit p chart. Plots the number of standard deviations from the
mean, instead of actual counts. The limits are always constant at +3 and -3.
The sample sizes must be constant. Two big disadvantages here; complex
calculations are required and chart limits do not show process improvements.
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The variable sample size u chart. As in all variable sample size charts, the
sample sizes in this chart are not constant. Therefore the control limits do not
form a straight line as they do in constant sample size charts. This chart can be
used for short production runs and long process times where measurements are
not possible, nor desirable.
The average sample size u chart. The same as the variable u chart (sample
sizes are not constant), except that an average sample size is used to determine
the control limits so that the limits will form a straight line. Theoretically the
sample sizes must be within 10% of each other, but accurate results are achieved
successfully in practice with greater diversity.
The weighted u chart; using a constant sample size. The counts of each
defect are adjusted by weights, so that more important defect types are given
more attention. It is used with constant sample sizes only; and it is especially
useful for nonmanufacturing applications.
The weighted u chart; using a variable sample size. This chart is identical to
the weighted u chart, except that an average sample size is used in computations.
It is used for variables subgroup sizes only and it is especially useful for
nonmanufacturing applications.
The constant limit u chart. Plots the number of standard deviations from the
mean, instead of the actual counts. The limits are always a constant +3 and -3.
The sample subgroup sizes must be constant. Two big disadvantages with this
chart are the complex calculations required for each plot and chart limits that do
not show process improvements. In other charts the limits become closer and
closer as the process improves.
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The basic c chart. The c chart is a special case u chart where the subgroup size
is always one unit. Also called the defect per unit chart (there can be no average
size sample when the sample size is always one), it is used for very large and
critical products. The c is the defects per unit and is the plotted value.
The weighted c chart. The counts of each type of defect are adjusted by
weights, so that more important types of defects are given special attention. It is
especially useful for non-manufacturing applications.
The constant limit c chart. This chart plots the number of standard deviations
from the mean, instead of the actual counts. The limits are always constant at
+3 and -3. Its one big advantage is that it can be used for short production
runs. However it does require complex calculations for each plot and chart limits
that do not show process improvements.
Step 4: Choose the Rational Proper Sample Size.
Actually there are two sample sizes involved in control charts: the total sample
size needed to start up the chart, and the subgroup size. The total start-up
sample size normally used is 25 subgroups. Thus if the subgroup size is 4, the
total start-up sample size is 100. In order to be statistically viable the start-up
sample size should consist of 100 or more measurements or observations.
Some special charts do use less, which is one reason they should be used with
a degree of caution.
The subgroup size is the amount measured at one time, and should be
measured consecutively as produced. Subgroups are also statistical samples
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Percentage
1. 60-300
10%
2. 301-1000
5%
3. 1001-5000
2%
4. Over 5000
1%
Normally lot size is considered to be one days production; however this can be
expanded to as much as a week under special circumstances. The main
reason for limiting lot size to one days production is to facilitate process
analysis and assignable cause identification. People tend to forget the details
of what happened after more than one day.
For a daily production run of 200 (using the rule of thumb) 20 units should be
inspected each day. If the subgroup size is 4, there should be a minimum of 5
samples of 4 measured and recorded per day. The subgroups should be taken
at random or as random as possible. Remember, however that the subgroup
sample (in this case 4) should be measured consecutively as produced, not
randomly. The reason for this is that the sampling time is often critical to
correction and/or improvement in procedures.
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Data Categorization:
1. Continuous, this type of data is the measurable data used in most charts.
2. Ranked, (list from high to low). Each ranking is assigned a value that is then
used in the variables charts as if it were an actual measurement. This is one
method of converting attributes data into variables data.
3. Interval, (judgement or weighting on a scale of 1 to 5 etc. how good or bad is it.
This is the most used method of converting attributes data into variables data.
4. Discrete. In quality control all discrete data are countable; count the number of
defects or defectives. This is the only type of data that can be used in
attributes charts.
Step 6: Determine the Trial Control Limits and the Chart Midpoint.
Control limits are values that are plus or minus three sigmas (s) from the
central value, or midpoint. Therefore if the midpoints and limits have been
properly determined and the process is properly operating, 99.73% of all
subgroup averages will fall between these control limits. Any one average has
only a .027% chance of being outside these limits.
All statistical quality control charts have a midpoint or centerline which
corresponds to the process average (the ) and an upper and lower control
limit which corresponds to the three standard deviations from this midpoint or
centerline.
Step 7: Determine the Revised Control Limits and Chart Midpoint.
Trial control limits are calculated first for the entire sample, after which the outof-control subgroup means (those that are either above the upper limit or below
the lower limit) are discarded and the limits recalculated. Before any values
can be discarded, they must first be proved to be out of control (have
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assignable causes). If not they should not be discarded for revised limit
calculation.
Please note that only 27 subgroup means out of 10,000 can be outside of the
control limits. If several subgroup means are outside the limits and no
assignable causes can, at first, be found, it is far more likely that the search for
assignable causes had been flawed. Under these conditions, the search
should probably be expanded and continued.
For example the probability that two outside values in a row would occur by
chance alone is .0027 X .0027 = .0000072 or about 7 in 1,000,000. The
chance they would occur on the same side of the chart is .00135 X .00135 = .
0000018 or about 2 out of 1,000,000. The chance that five outside values are
outside the limits by chance alone is 7.2 in one trillion. It is for these reasons
this reason that many analysts automatically assume an out of control condition
when more than two high or low points are present, even though no assignable
cause can at first be found.
Step 8: Construct the Revised Control Chart.
Control charts are just graphs of the subgroup means (averages) with the
central value shown as a solid line and each limit shown as a dotted line.
All control charts are constructed from the basic normal curve model.
Control charts for variables use the normal curve model direct, while
attributes charts use the normal curve approximation to the binomial.
Control charts are normally only constructed for revised limits only.
Step 9: Continue to Use the Charts.
Once the revised control chart is constructed, all subgroup means (even out-ofcontrol values) are entered on the chart, and the chart is displayed
conspicuously at the job site. Samples of the same size (subgroup size) are
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