Datalog Drilling Fluid Hydraulics v2-1

DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS
Version 2.1
January 2001
Dave Hawker
Corporate Mission
To be a worldwide leader in providing drilling and geological monitoring solutions to the oil and gas
industry, by utilizing innovative technologies and delivering exceptional customer service.
DATALOG DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS MANUAL, Version 2.1, issued January 2001
CONTENTS
1 FUNCTIONS OF THE DRILLING FLUID ...................................................................................................... 3
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
LUBRICATION AND COOLING OF THE BIT AND DRILLSTRING ............................................................................ 3

REMOVAL OF DRILLED CUTTINGS FROM THE ANNULUS AND BIT ..................................................................... 4
CONTROL OF SUBSURFACE FORMATION PRESSURES ........................................................................................ 5
BOTTOM HOLE CLEANING................................................................................................................................. 6
TRANSMIT HYDRAULIC HORSEPOWER TO THE BIT ........................................................................................... 6
SUPPORT THE WEIGHT OF THE DRILLSTRING.................................................................................................... 6
FORMATION STABILITY .................................................................................................................................... 6
FORMATION EVALUATION ................................................................................................................................ 7
2 TYPES OF DRILLING MUD............................................................................................................................. 8

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
WATER BASED MUDS ...................................................................................................................................... 8

OIL BASED MUDS .......................................................................................................................................... 10
SYNTHETIC MUDS .......................................................................................................................................... 11
COMMON MUD ADDITIVES ............................................................................................................................ 12
3 RHEOLOGY DEFINITIONS ........................................................................................................................... 14

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
SHEAR RATE AND SHEAR STRESS .................................................................................................................. 14

FLUID VISCOSITY ........................................................................................................................................... 15
PLASTIC VISCOSITY AND YIELD POINT ........................................................................................................... 16
GEL STRENGTH .............................................................................................................................................. 16
4 FLUID BEHAVIORAL MODELS................................................................................................................... 17

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
NEWTONIAN FLUIDS....................................................................................................................................... 17
BINGHAM PLASTIC MODEL ............................................................................................................................ 18
POWER LAW MODEL...................................................................................................................................... 19
THE MODIFIED POWER LAW .......................................................................................................................... 21
RHEOGRAM SUMMARY OF THE DRILLING FLUID MODELS .............................................................................. 22
MODEL EFFECTS ON VISCOUS FLOW .............................................................................................................. 23
5 LAMINAR, TURBULENT AND TRANSITIONAL FLOW PATTERNS ................................................... 24

5.1 LAMINAR FLOW ............................................................................................................................................. 24
5.2 TURBULENT FLOW ......................................................................................................................................... 24
5.3 TRANSITIONAL FLOW ..................................................................................................................................... 25
5.4 DETERMINATION OF FLOW TYPE.................................................................................................................... 25
5.4.1 Derivation of Effective Viscosity ............................................................................................................ 26
5.4.2 Determination of the Reynolds Number ................................................................................................. 27
5.4.3 Determination of Average Annular Velocity.......................................................................................... 27
5.4.4 Use of the Reynolds Number in determining Flow Type........................................................................ 28
5.4.5 Determination of Critical Velocity......................................................................................................... 28
6 DETERMINATION OF SYSTEM PRESSURE LOSSES ............................................................................. 30
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
FANNING FRICTION FACTOR........................................................................................................................... 30

DRILLSTRING PRESSURE LOSSES .................................................................................................................... 32
ANNULAR PRESSURE LOSSES ......................................................................................................................... 33
BIT PRESSURE LOSS ....................................................................................................................................... 34
SURFACE PRESSURE LOSSES .......................................................................................................................... 35
7 OTHER HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS..................................................................................................... 36

7.1 CUTTINGS SLIP VELOCITY .............................................................................................................................. 36
7.2 PARTICLE REYNOLDS NUMBER ...................................................................................................................... 37
7.3 NOZZLE VELOCITY......................................................................................................................................... 38

8 HYDRAULICS OPTIMIZATION ................................................................................................................... 40
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
BIT HYDRAULIC HORSEPOWER ...................................................................................................................... 40

HYDRAULIC IMPACT FORCE ........................................................................................................................... 40
HYDRAULIC OPTIMIZATION ............................................................................................................................ 41
USE OF THE QLOG HYDRAULICS PROGRAMS ................................................................................................. 42
9 EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY................................................................................................... 45

10 SWAB AND SURGE PRESSURES................................................................................................................ 48
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
SURGE PRESSURES ....................................................................................................................................... 48

SWAB PRESSURES ........................................................................................................................................ 49
CALCULATION OF SURGE AND SWAB PRESSURES......................................................................................... 50
USE OF THE QLOG SWAB AND SURGE PROGRAM ....................................................................................... 51
APPENDIX - ANSWERS TO TRAINING EXERCISES.................................................................................. 53
1 FUNCTIONS OF THE DRILLING FLUID

The importance of the drilling mud in the drilling of a well cannot be over emphasized. It has a critical
bearing on all aspects of the operation. Not only does it act as a transporting medium for cuttings and gas,
enabling us to see at surface what is happening downhole, but the properties of the mud will determine
how effective the drilling is; how well the hole and formations are protected, and how well subsurface
pressure are controlled.
The principle roles of the mud are:
Lubrication and cooling of the drill bit and the drillstring

Removal of drilled cuttings from the annulus
Bottom hole cleaning
Control of subsurface formation pressures
Transmit hydraulic horsepower to the bit
Help support the weight of the drillstring
Aid formation stability
Aid in formation evaluation
Protect formation productivity
1.1 Lubrication and Cooling of the Bit and Drillstring

The drilling action and rotation of the drillstring produces a lot of heat, at the bit and throughout the
drillstring, due to friction. The drilling fluid helps, not only to keep the bit/string cool through
lubrication, but also to absorb the heat that is generated and release it, to a degree, as it returns to surface
and cools.
The mud has to cool the bit and lubricate the teeth to allow for effective drilling and to minimize damage
and wear.
The mud lubricates the drillstring by reducing friction between the string and the borehole wall - this is
often achieved by using additives such as bentonite, polymers, graphite or oil. Optimum lubrication is
provided by oil emulsion mud systems, coupled with various emulsifying agents.
High drilling torque can be a serious problem in directional drilling, especially in areas of hard, abrasive
formations and lubricity is a very important function of the mud. Extra steps may be taken, such as the
addition of glycol or even tiny beads, to gain maximum lubrication.
Lubrication is important to maximize drilling efficiency and directional control, and to keep drilling
torque and the risk of pipe fatigue and twist-off to a minimum.
1.2 Removal of Drilled Cuttings from the Annulus and Bit

This is a very important role of the mud. Cuttings need to be removed from the annulus for a number of
reasons:
to prevent loading of the annulus

to keep annular pressure to a minimum
to allow for free movement and rotation of the drillstring
so that the cuttings reach the surface in such a condition that they can be evaluated by a
geologist to accurately interpret the downhole geology
This principle is not only determined by the physical properties of the mud but by the type of flow
pattern present in the annulus. The cuttings need to be removed effectively, but damage and erosion to
the cuttings has to be avoided.
The removal of cuttings is primarily dependent on the annular velocity, the fluid density, the yield point
and gel strength of the mud. Other factors also come into play, such as hole inclination, pipe rotation, and
of course, the size, density and even shape, of the drilled cuttings.
The typical density of drilled cuttings is obviously greater than the mud density. It is therefore normal
for a degree of cuttings slip, where, especially when the mud is motionless, cuttings will sink, or slip
through the mud. This can have the effect that the time that cuttings arrive at surface does not correlate
with the correct drilled depth and with lagged parameters such as gas. This phenomenon is especially
important during periods of no circulation such as a trip, when cuttings will sink and build up at the
bottom of the hole (hole fill). Mud properties, such as viscosity and gel strength, have to be such so as to
minimize this. The drilling fluid is then termed thixotropic, in that it possesses gelling properties.
When circulating, thixotropic fluids are liquid, allowing them to transport the drilled cuttings to surface.
When there is no circulation, the drilling fluid will gel, or thicken, in order to suspend the cuttings and
prevent them from falling and settling around the bit at the bottom of the hole.
The degree of cuttings slip will also be affected by the annular velocities: If annular velocities are reduced for any reason (eg pump volume, large hole section, downhole
conditions), mud properties would have to be changed to compensate for an increased degree of slip.
If the cuttings content does build up in the annulus, higher annular velocities or changes to yield may be
the solution. A common practice, especially in shallow, large hole diameter sections, is to sweep the hole
with a high viscosity pill of mud. This has the advantage of maintaining good hole cleaning without
having to change the properties of the active mud system.
1.3 Control of Subsurface Formation Pressures

Minimum mudweight is optimum for faster drilling rates and to minimize the risk of damaging
formations and losing circulation. However, in conventional drilling the mud also has to have a sufficient
density that will exert enough downhole pressure to protect the well against subsurface formation
pressures.
The pressure exerted at the bottom of the hole, due to the weight of the static vertical column of mud, is
known as the Mud Hydrostatic Pressure.
If the mud hydrostatic pressure is equal to the formation pressure, the well is said to be at balance.
If the mud hydrostatic pressure is less than the formation pressure, the well is said to be underbalanced
and therefore subject to the influx, or flow, of formation fluid into the annulus (kick).
If the mud hydrostatic pressure is greater than the formation pressure, the well is said to be overbalanced
and therefore protected against influxes of formation fluid into the wellbore. If the overbalance is too
great, however, there is the possibility of a number of different problems.
Fluids will naturally tend to flow in directions of decreasing pressure. In an overbalanced well, it is
therefore normal for the drilling fluid to flow into, or invade, permeable formation. Such invasion, or
even the flushing of formations prior to drilling, may prevent effective formation evaluation or ultimately
lead to permanent damage to the formation (ie blocking of pore spaces and pore throats, restricting
permeability).
Too great an overbalance may also lead to the fracturing of weaker or unconsolidated formations. This
will lead to drilling problems associated with the formation falling, or sloughing, into the annulus, but
more importantly, may lead to the drilling fluid flowing freely into the formation. Such lost circulation
can lead to the mud level dropping in the annulus and therefore a reduction in the mud hydrostatic
pressure. This can result in other permeable formations becoming underbalanced. The well is then
subject to the most dangerous situation possible, known as a blowout, where formation fluids are flowing
freely into one part of the well and circulation is being lost to another part of the well.
PHYD = x TVD x 0.052
where
= mud density (ppg)

PHYD = psi
TVD = feet
where
= SG
PHYD = psi
TVD = feet
where
= kg/m3
PHYD = Kpa
TVD = m
1.4 Bottom hole cleaning

This is a very important role of the mud, but one that is very difficult to achieve in practice. The jetting
action of the mud exiting the bit nozzles has to provide sufficient velocity and cross flow across the rock
face to effectively remove cuttings from around the bit as rock is newly penetrated. This would prevent
cuttings from building up around the bit and teeth (bit balling), prevent excessive grinding of the cuttings
and clear them on their way up the annulus, and maximize the drilling efficiency.
Many variables play a part in the efficiency of bottom hole cleaning, including bit weight and rotation
speed, bit type, flow rate, jet velocity, differential pressure, nozzle size, location and distance from rock
face, solids volume etc.
1.5 Transmit Hydraulic Horsepower to the Bit

Effectively, the drilling fluid transmits the HHP, delivered by the rig pumps, to the drill bit. The
circulation rate of the drilling fluid should be such that optimum power can be used to clean the face of
the hole ahead of the bit and allow for optimum drilling efficiency. The amount of HHP expended at the
bit determines the degree to which hydraulics are optimized, whether for bottom hole cleaning or for
laminar flow in the annulus.
1.6 Support the Weight of the Drillstring

The blocks, suspended from the derrick, must support the increasing weight of the drillstring as greater
depths are reached. Through displacement, the drillstring is buoyed up by the drilling fluid. This
effectively reduces the total weight that the surface equipment must support.
1.7 Formation Stability

Wellbore stability is obviously paramount for a successful operation. A clean and stable hole will allow
for:
Optimum drill rates

Uninhibited string rotation
Minimal risk of stuck pipe
Minimal loading of the annulus, allowing good hole cleaning and lower circulating pressures
Ability to run wireline tools and casing strings to the bottom of the hole
The drilling fluid must therefore be able to:
prevent erosion or collapse of the wellbore;

prevent formation pressures causing formation caving
prevent swelling and sloughing of shales (oil based mud preferred, water based muds would have
to be treated with Ca/K/Asphalt compounds);
prevent the dissolving of salt sections (use salt saturated or oil based mud to prevent taking the
salt into solution.
1.8 Formation Evaluation

This really, is the reason for drilling wells, to encounter and evaluate potential reservoir zones. However,
wells are often drilled with attention completely focussed on drill rates and costs, and often, programs are
implemented that have a detrimental effect on formation evaluation. One of the principle problems has
been the use of hydrocarbon based additives in the drilling fluids which complicate and interfere with
cuttings analysis.
Cuttings Analysis
Naturally, it is important to obtain the best possible cuttings for geological analysis. The mud viscosity
determines how effectively the cuttings are held by the mud and lifted from the hole. The type of flow
will determine the degree of erosion and structural alteration of the cuttings, thus smooth laminar flow is
preferred to chaotic turbulent flow. Oil base muds typically produce excellent quality of cuttings,
especially within argillaceous lithologies where water base systems can react with the clay minerals.
Wireline Logs and Production Tests
With a normally overbalanced wellbore, water base fluids will naturally invade permeable formations.
This displaces formation fluids away from the wellbore, leaving a mixture of formation fluid and mud
filtrate. This type of water invasion can affect the accuracy of wireline log analysis, especially resistivity
measurement of the formation fluid, and sidewall cores, making hydrocarbon identification and reservoir
evaluation very difficult. To minimize fluid invasion, a filter cake is allowed to build up on the wall of
the borehole. This occurs when invasion is taking place and mud solids (either added to the drilling fluid,
or present from drilled formation particles) are left behind on the borehole wall. When sufficiently thick,
an impermeable layer prevents further invasion.
Should mud invasion be too severe, not only may wireline analysis be lost, but the formation may
become permanently damaged. In other words, pore throats and permeability may be blocked by the mud
filtrate, which would prevent gaining flow results from tests such as RFT or DSTs.
Normal build up of filter cake is normally sufficient to avoid excessive invasion, but this may be less
effective in deviated/horizontal wells where movement of the drillstring along the underside of the
wellbore can remove any cake that has been deposited.
Oil base mud removes the risk of invasion in most situations, since it is immiscible with water and
therefore unable to mix with formation fluids.
Drilling with underbalanced drilling fluids also removes the risk of mud invasion, since the formation
pressure exceeds that of the wellbore, preventing any fluid movement in that direction.
2 TYPES OF DRILLING MUD
This manual provides a brief summary of conventional drilling fluids used in balanced drilling
applications. Broadly, they can be grouped into the following categories: Water Based including gel and polymer muds
Oil Based, including Invert Emulsions
Synthetic or Mineral oils
(World Oil, June 2000, is the main source of this classification)
2.1 Water Based Muds

Non-Dispersed
Using clear or native water, these systems include spud muds, natural muds and other lightly treated
systems. They are typically used for shallow wells or top hole sections. No thinners or dispersants are
added to disperse drilled solids and clay particles. Rather, the water is allowed to react with formations
containing shales/clays so that the mud will build up solids content and density naturally.
Dispersed
These mud systems are typically used at greater depths where higher densities are required or
problematic hole conditions require specialized treatment. The mud system will be dispersed with
specific additives to provide specific properties to the mud system.
Lignosulphates/lignites/tannins These are effective deflocculants and filtrate reducers, providing high
density muds with a tolerance to high temperatures and solids
contamination.
Potassium bearing chemicals
Provide greater shale inhibition
Calcium Muds
Calcium (or magnesium) addition to freshwater drilling muds reduces, or inhibits, the swelling and
hydration of clays and shales. High levels of dissolved calcium are used to minimize sloughing shale and
hole enlargement.
Calcium treated muds are also good for drilling gypsum/anhydrite lithologies because they resist
contamination. However, at higher temperatures, they are susceptible to gelling and solidifying.
Polymer Muds
Typically, long chain polymers (e.g. acrylamide, cellulose) are used in mud systems to provide a number
of advantages:
KCl/NaCl muds
Encapsulate drill solids to prevent dispersion

Coat shales for inhibition and prevention of sloughing
Increase viscosity
Reduce fluid loss (filtration)
Inhibited salts such as these provide greater shale stability.
Low Solids
These include systems where solids are strictly controlled, typically with total solids volume between 6
and 10% and clay volume less than 3%.
They typically use polymer additives as a viscosifier and are non-dispersed.
This type of system is used to significantly improve penetration rates.
Saltwater
Saturated Salt
Chloride concentration around 190,000 mg/l.

Used to drill salt formations to prevent dissolving.
Saltwater
Chloride concentration between 10,000 and 190,000 mg/l.
Muds are prepared from either fresh or brine water and salts added to the desired level of concentration.
KCl would typically used when shale inhibition is required. Additives such as starch would also be added
to increase viscosity and improve hole cleaning.
2.2 Oil Based Muds

Oil Based Muds
These systems are used when high levels of fluid stability and inhibition are required. They have many
advantages, such as:
Inhibition to reduce problems caused by swelling or sloughing shales.

Provides good lubricity and reduces torque and drag and risk of sticking.
Stable at high temperatures.
Preserves natural permeability, not damaging hydrocarbon zones through invasion.
Due to these characteristics, typically these mud systems provide faster drilling rates. This helps to offset
the higher cost of oil based systems, but a number of disadvantages remain:
Environmental concerns
Flammability
Solids removal due to high PV (need good equipment as with polymer muds.
Problems for interpretation of log information
Cost
Oil based muds contain only oil in the liquid phase, and although they may pick up formation water, no
additional water or brine is added.
To provide viscosity to oil based muds, gelling agents or emulsifiers have to be added.
Alkalinity can be improved by adding lime, organic materials or soaps.
Invert Emulsion Muds

These are water-in-oil emulsions; typically with base oil or diesel as the continuous phase, and up to 50%
brine in the emulsifier phase. Calcium chloride brine is a common emulsifier used in these systems.
Emulsion Muds
With these fluids, water provides the major continuous phase, with oil now constituting the dispersed
phase (normally 5 - 10%).
With water being the main phase, costs are reduced and environmental concerns are minimized. But
adding the oil provides the advantages associated with oil base systems, such as increased ROP, reduced
filter loss, improved lubrication, reduced drag and torque.
10
2.3 Synthetic Muds

One of the big disadvantages of oil based muds, despite all of the drilling and formation advantages
provided, is the hazard it represents to the environment and to those personnel that come into contact
with the mud.
For this reason, synthetic oils (and mineral oils) have gained in their use. They provide much of the
performance advantages of hydrocarbon oil systems but have none of the associated environmental
concerns.
Common systems are esters, ethers, and poly or isomerized alpha olefins. These are environmentally
friendly and biodegradable and can be discharged safely offshore.
11
2.4 Common Mud Additives
TYPE
PURPOSE
AGENTS
Alkalines
To control acidity and alkalinity
Lime, caustic soda, soda ash,

bicarbonate of soda
Corrosion Inhibition
Prevent corrosion
pH control
Neutralize hazardous, acid, gases such as
hydrogen sulphide
Prevent scale from forming in the drilling fluid
Amine- or phosphate-based
products are commonly used
Defoamers
Reduce foaming action, especially in brackish

or saltwater muds
Emulsifiers
To create a heterogeneous mixture of two

insoluble liquids
Oil based muds fatty acids,

amine-based chemicals
Water based muds
detergents, soaps, organic
acids
Filtrate or Water Loss
Additives to reduce water loss, the tendency of

the liquid phase to pass through the filter cake
into the formation.
Bentonite clay, lignite,

polyacrylate, pregelatinized
starch.
Flocculants
Increase viscosity
Improve hole cleaning
De-water or clarify low-solids fluids.
Particles in suspension will group into bunches
or flocs, causing solids to settle out.
Salt, hydrated lime, gypsum,

soda ash, bicarbonate of
soda, polymers
Lubricants
To reduce friction, thereby reducing torque

and drag
Oils, synthetic liquids,

graphite, glycol or
surfactants
Pipe-freeing agents
To reduce friction and increase lubricity at the

point where the pipe is stuck.
Detergents, soaps, oils,

surfactants
Shale inhibition
To reduce shale hydration when drilling water

sensitive shales, thereby preventing excessive
wellbore enlargement and heaving or caving of
the shale.
Soluble calcium or
potassium, inorganic salts,
organic compounds.
Surfactants
Surface active agents; reduce tension between

contacting surfaces such as water/oil,
water/solid, water/air etc.
Emulsifiers, de-emulsifiers,
wetting agents, flocculants
or de-flocculents, depending
on the surfaces involved.
12
Temperature stability
Increase rheological and filtration stability in

fluids exposed to high temperatures.
Acrylic or sulphenated
polymers, lignite,
lignosulphate, tannin
Thinners, Dispersants
These modify the relationship between

viscosity and solids volume, reducing gel
strength and increasing the pumpability of a
fluid.
Tannins, lignite and

lignosulphates,
polyphosphates
A thinner, more specifically, acts as a

deflocculent to reduce attraction of clay
particles which causes high viscosity and gel
strength.
Viscosifiers
Increase viscosity, providing better solid

suspension and hole cleaning.
Bentonite, CMC, attapulgite

clays and polymers
Weighting agents
To provide necessary density to control

formation pressures, provide hole stability and
to prevent u-tubing when pulling the drillpipe
Barite, lead compounds, iron

oxides, calcium carbonate
13
3 RHEOLOGY DEFINITIONS
The majority of hydraulic parameters are, first of all, dependent on what type of fluid the drilling mud is
and therefore which model is used for the calculations.
The categories are determined by the fluid behaviour when it is subjected to an applied force (shear
stress). Precisely, in terms of fluid behaviour, we are concerned with:
At what point of applied shear stress is movement initiated in the fluid?
Once movement has been initiated, what is the nature of the fluid movement (Shear Rate)?
3.1 Shear Rate and Shear Stress

In a simple flow, the Shear Rate is the change in fluid velocity divided by the width of the channel
through which the fluid is moving.
v2
Shear Rate () = v2 - v1
h
= sec-1
v1
At wellsite, the Shear Rate is determined by the rotational speed of the Fann Viscometer in which the
tests are conducted.
Thus, Shear Stress is recorded at rotational speeds of 600 (shear rate = 1022 sec-1), 300 (shear rate = 511
sec-1), 200, 100, 6 and 3 rpm.
Shear Stress is the force per unit area required to move a fluid at a given shear rate.
Area
Force
Shear Stress () = F/A
= lb. ft
in2
or
lb. ft or
100ft2
dynes
cm2
14
The shear stresses recorded for each of the shear rates at the different rotational speeds of the viscometer
can then be plotted to produce an overall behaviour profile across the rheological spectrum.
Shear
Stress,
Lb/100ft2
100
200
300
400
500
600
Shear Rate, RPM
3.2 Fluid Viscosity

Mathematically, viscosity is determined by dividing a fluids shear stress by the corresponding shear rate.
) = Shear Stress
Fluid Viscosity (
Shear Rate
= dynes/cm2
sec-1
1 poise
= 100 centipoise (cP)
1 lb. ft. sec

ft2
= 47886 cP
= poise
Viscosity controls the magnitude of shear stress which develops as one layer of fluid slides over another.
It is a measure of the friction between fluid layers, providing a scale for describing fluid thickness. It will
decrease with temperature.
In simple terms, it describes the thickness of the mud when it is in motion.
Funnel Viscosity
This is a direct measurement from the Funnel (as opposed to Fann) viscometer and is measured in
secs/qt. Generally, it is used at wellsite for immediate measurements, and is simply the length of time it
takes for one quart of fluid to pass through the funnel.
Funnel viscosity is not regarded as being applicable to the analysis of circulating performance.
One final determination is Apparent Viscosity, simply 600/2
15
3.3 Plastic Viscosity and Yield Point

For a Bingham Fluid (see next section), Plastic Viscosity (PV) is the amount of shear stress, in excess of
the yield stress, that will induce a unit rate of shear.
More simply, it is the relationship between shear stress and shear rate during fluid movement. It is the
slope of the straight line that passes through 600 and 300 (the stresses caused by rotational speeds of
600 and 300 rpm).
The Yield Point (YP), or yield stress, of a fluid is a measure of the attractive forces between mud
particles resulting from the presence of +ve and -ve charges on the particle surfaces.
It is a measure of the forces that cause mud to gel once it is motionless and it determines the carrying, or
holding, capacity of the mud. In other words, it is the strength of the fluid capable of supporting a certain
particle weight or size.
Normal unit of measurement is Imperial
lb
100ft2
or Metric: dynes / cm2
3.4 Gel Strength

Gel Strength is the ability of the mud to develop and retain a gel structure. It is analogous to shear
strength and defines the ability of the mud to hold solids in suspension.
More simply, it describes the thickness of a mud that has been motionless for a period of time (unlike
viscosity which describes the mud thickness when in motion).
It is a measure of the thickening property of a fluid and is a function of time. Measurements are therefore
conducted after periods of 10 seconds and 10 minutes.
Normal units of measurement
lb
100ft2
With the duration of a drilling operation, i.e. the age of a drilling fluid, viscosity and gel strengths will
both tend to increase as a result of the introduction of solids into the mud system. More fluid can be
added to compensate for this, or surface removal of mud solids can be achieved through passing the
drilling mud through centrifuges.
16
4 FLUID BEHAVIORAL MODELS
4.1 Newtonian Fluids

A Newtonian fluid will begin to move, or deform, the instant that a force, or shear stress, is applied.
Once this movement has been initiated, the degree of movement thereafter is proportional to the stress
applied.
i.e.
A linear relationship exists between Shear Stress () and Shear Rate ().
gradient =
For a Newtonian Fluid, therefore:
where = viscosity
Most drilling fluids and cement slurries, however, exhibit non-Newtonian behaviour where the laminar
flow relationship between shear stress and shear rate is non-linear.
These fluids also require a certain amount of shear stress to initiate flow and thereafter, require additional
stress to be applied as the shear rate increases.
The level of shear stress required to initiate fluid flow is known as the fluids Yield Point.
Two main models have been used as a standard in the oil industry: 1.
2.
The Bingham Plastic Model

The Power Law Model
In recent years, it is generally accepted that both models have merit but that the Power Law Model is
more applicable to the majority of fluids.
A third, widely used, model has been developed, being a combination of both previous models. This
model is known as the Modified Power Law (also known as the Yield Power Law or Herschel-Bulkley
Model).
17
4.2 Bingham Plastic Model

This model predicts that fluid movement will take place only after a minimum value of Shear Stress has
been applied. This minimum value is the Yield Point of the fluid.
Once movement has been initiated, the relationship between and is linear (ie Newtonian), with the
constant being called the Plastic Viscosity (PV).
PV is dependant on both temperature and pressure.
Dial
Reading
gradient = PV
600
300
YP
(rpm)
For Bingham Fluids
= YP + .PV
PV = 600 - 300
YP = 300 - PV = 0
The Bingham Plastic Model represents, fairly well, the behaviour exhibited by fluids such as bentonite
slurries, class G cements and low gravity oils. A typical Bingham fluid will have high viscosity but no gel
strength.
For more complex fluids, however, the Bingham model is subject to error. Whereas the Bingham model
simulates fluid behaviour in the high shear rate range (300 to 600 rpm), it is generally inaccurate in the
low shear range.
Shear stresses measured at high shear rates are usually poor indicators of fluid behaviour at low shear
rates, the area of interest for simulating annular flow behaviour.
Subject to this error, the calculated Yield Point will tend to result in calculated pressure losses and
equivalent circulating densities that are larger than those actually observed.
18
4.3 Power Law Model

The Power Law Model assumes that fluid movement will be initiated immediately that any shield stress
is applied.
The model then predicts that, once movement is initiated, fluids will exhibit a non-linear relationship
between and and introduces two index values in order to determine the relationship.
Dial
Reading
600
300
300
600
(rpm)
When the log of stress and strain is plotted: -
log
100
gradient = n
10
K
1
For Power Law Fluids
10
= K ()n
100
1000
log
where K = consistency index

n = flow behaviour index
Determination of n and K:-
n = 3.32 log 600

300
K = 1.067 300
(511)n
(lb/100ft2) OR
K = 5.11 300 (dynes/cm2)

(511)n
19
The Power Law rheological model better fits the behaviour of most fluids, especially polymer based
fluids, than the Bingham Plastic Model.
Fluids that follow this model have no shear stress when the shear rate is zero. The draw back here, is that
most fluids have a yield stress but this cannot be accounted for in this model.
Similar to the Bingham Plastic model, but to a lesser degree, the Power Law model accurately predicts
fluid behaviour at high shear rates but shows a degree of error at the lower shear rates.
The result of this is that annular pressure losses and ECDs are under-predicted by this models
calculations.
In many cases, however, the Power Law Model does closely approximate fluid properties even when
calculated from the high shear rate values.
Different values of n are possible, depending on which shear stress/rate pairings are used in the
calculation. Thus, this model can be applied by using data from a range of annular shear rates, providing
a better accuracy in predicting drilling fluid performance.
Calculation of n and K at other shear rates: -
With 200 and 100
With 6 and 3
n = 3.32 log 200/100
n = 3.32 log 6/3
K = 100 / (170.3)n
K = 3 / (5.11)n
In the extreme case, when n=1, the fluid will become a Newtonian fluid
ie = K
where K will be equal to viscosity .
When to use the low shear rate pairing (6 and 3 rpm)?
to more accurately describe the suspension and hole cleaning potential of a fluid
in large diameter holes
in horizontal drilling applications
20
4.4 The Modified Power Law

This model combines the theoretical and practical aspects of the Bingham Plastic and the Power Law
models.
In this model, the n and K values are similar to those derived by the Power Law model. The model
assumes that fluids will require a certain amount of applied stress before movement will take place and,
for these fluids having a yield stress, the calculated values of n and K will be different.
Shear
Stress
(yield point or yield stress)
Shear Rate
For Modified Power Law Fluids
= 0 + K ()n
where K = consistency index
n = flow behaviour index
The value 0 is the fluids yield point at zero shear rate and, in theory, is identical to the Bingham Plastic
yield point, though its calculated value is different.
When
n = 1,
0 = 0,
the model becomes the Bingham Plastic Model

the model becomes the Power Law model
The model works well for both water based and oil based drilling muds because both exhibit shear
thinning behaviour and have a shear stress at zero shear rate.
The problem with the model is that the determination of n, K and 0 is very complex.
21
4.5 Rheogram Summary of the Drilling Fluid Models

Shear
Stress
Bingham Plastic
Modified Power
Power Law
Newtonian
Shear Rate
NOTE, in order for the QLOG system to accurately calculate realtime hydraulics, the Shear Rate
values need to be updated regularly in the Equipment Table.
The data can be entered in any of the 3 standard shear rate pairings
i.e.
600 and 300

200 and 100
6 and 3
The industry normal is to use the 600/300 pairing but as was seen in this manual, there are applications
when the 6/3 pairing can be more meaningful.
Ideally, if there is a reason for using the 6/3 pairing, it should be discussed and confirmed with the
drilling and mud engineers.
22
4.6 Model Effects on Viscous Flow

Newtonian Fluids
Laminar flow through pipe or annulus is characterized by a parabolic velocity profile, with the velocity
approaching zero at the walls and being at a maximum in the centre of the flow.
Non Newtonian Fluids

For these fluids, the flow will not necessarily be parabolic. As the fluid becomes increasingly nonNewtonian, the velocity profile will become increasingly flatter towards the centre. This is known as
plugged flow.
Using the Power Law as a basis, when n is equal to one, the fluid is Newtonian and the velocity profile
will indeed be parabolic. As the value of n decreases, i.e. the fluid becomes increasingly nonNewtonian and the velocity profile will become increasingly flatter. In this flat part of the profile, the
shear rate will be close to zero (i.e. very little movement between adjacent laminae). Fluids that exhibit a
high viscosity in this near zero shear rate condition offer significant improvements in hole cleaning
efficiency.
Low Shear Zone
Areas of
High Shear
Effect of n on velocity profile
n=1
n=0.6
n=0.2
23
5 LAMINAR, TURBULENT and TRANSITIONAL FLOW PATTERNS

The type of flow pattern is largely determined by the fluid velocity, the annular diameters and the
characteristics of the mud.
In general, the lower the fluid velocity and the greater the annular diameter, the more likely the flow is to
be laminar.
A turbulent flow pattern is more likely when the fluid velocity is high and when there is a small annular
clearance i.e. around the drill collar section.
5.1 Laminar Flow

A smooth flow pattern will be exhibited with fluid layers travelling in straight lines parallel to the axis.
The velocity will increase towards the centre of the stream. Laminar flow will develop from low fluid
velocities.
There is only one directional component of fluid velocity and that is longitudinal. Shear resistance is
caused by the sliding action of fluid layers only.
5.2 Turbulent Flow

With turbulent flow, the flow pattern is random in both time and space, with chaotic and disordered
motion of the fluid particles. This results in two-directional velocity components, longitudinal and
transverse.
With multi-directional and chaotic movement, and increased frictional; forces, shear resistances are far
greater in turbulent flow than in laminar flow.
24
Turbulent flow will develop at higher fluid velocities with the final velocity profile tending to be
reasonably uniform despite the chaotic components.
For this reason, turbulent flow is actually more effective in cuttings removal, but the disadvantages
outweigh this advantage.
Disadvantages:
erosion of cuttings, thereby destroying interpretative properties

the possibility of hole erosion
increased pressure losses due to higher frictional forces from the fluid movement, faster
velocities and more contact with the wall
removal of mud filter cake
Another advantage of turbulent flow comes during cementing operations, since the random flow helps to
dislodge mud cake from the borehole walls. This will allow the cement to get a good contact on fresh
surfaces and provide a good bond.
5.3 Transitional Flow

In reality, there is not an instantaneous change from laminar to turbulent flow as fluid velocity increases.
There will obviously be a transitional period where the flow changes from one to the other. This
transitional flow will exhibit elements of both laminar and turbulent flow.
5.4 Determination of Flow Type

It is very important that we are able to determine what type of flow pattern is present, not only because of
the physical effects, but in order to calculate pressure losses in the string and the annulus, a very
important part of hydraulic analysis.
Fluid velocity and annular diameters are used to determine the type of flow, in conjunction with mud
density and mud viscosity.
These parameters are used to determine the Reynolds Number, a dimensionless number:
Re = DV
where D = diameter
V = fluid velocity
= density
e = effective viscosity
Notice that the effective viscosity is used in the determination of the Reynolds number, rather than the
viscosity derived by surface measurements.
25
5.4.1 Derivation of Effective Viscosity

Bingham Fluid
e = PV + 300(Dh Dp) YP
v
(imperial)
= PV + 2874 (Dh Dp) YP

48000 v
(metric)
v
= average annular velocity
Dh/Dp = hole and pipe (outside) diameters
Imperial units:
e = cP
v = ft/min
D = inches
YP = lb/100ft2
PV = cP
Metric: e = cP
v = m/sec
D = mm
YP = dynes/cm2
PV = cP
Power Law Fluid
e = [ (2.4 v)
[ (DhDp)
(2n + 1) ] n
(3n) ]
200K (DhDp)
v
= 1916K (DhDp) x [ (4000 v) x (2n + 1) ] n

4800v
[ (DhDp)
( n ) ]
= [ (200 v)
[ (DhDp)
Imperial:
e = cP
v = ft/min
D = inches
K = lb/100ft2
(2n + 1) ] n
(3n) ]
0.5K (DhDp)
v
Metric: e = cP
v = m/sec
D = mm
K = dynes/cm2
(imperial)
(metric)
(SI)
SI: e = mPa.s
v = m/min
D = mm
K = Poise
26
5.4.2 Determination of the Reynolds Number

Imperial
Re = 15.47 Dv
Metric
Re = 1000 DV
e
SI
Re = DV
e
60
For Reynolds number inside the pipe,

For Reynolds number in the annulus,
D = diameter
v = average velocity
= mud density
e = effective visc
= inches
= ft/min
= ppg
= cP
D = mm
v = m/sec
= kg/litre
e = cP
D = mm
v = m/min
= kg/m3
e = mPa.s
D = pipe internal diameter

D = hole diameter - pipe outside diameter
Note that for fluid velocity, an average velocity is used in the determination of the Reynolds Number and
Effective Viscosity. In reality, as we have seen, the velocity is least at the walls of the conduit,
increasing to a maximum at the centre of the channel. The average fluid velocity (annular velocity or pipe
velocity) is determined using the following formulae:
5.4.3 Determination of Average Annular Velocity
v (ft/min) = 24.5 Q
Dh2 Dp2
Q = flowrate (gpm)
Dh = hole diameter (in)
Dp = pipe outer diameter (in)
v (ft/min) = 1030 Q
Dh2 Dp2
Q = bbls/min
Diameters (in)
v (m/min) = 1273000 Q
Dh2 Dp2
Q = m3/min
Diameters (mm)
These formulae can obviously be used to calculate the velocity of the mud within the drillstring.
In this case, Dh2 would be replaced by Di2, the inside diameter of the pipe, and Dp would, in this case, be
equal to zero.
27
5.4.4 Use of the Reynolds Number in determining Flow Type
The value of the Reynolds number defines the transition between laminar and turbulent flow.
Bingham Plastic
The Critical Reynolds Number is 2100.
If Re < Rec, then the flow is said to be laminar
If Re > Rec, then the flow is said to be turbulent
Power Law
The Critical Reynolds Number is given by 3470 - 1370n
If Re < 3470 - 1370n, the flow is laminar
If Re > 4270 - 1370n, the flow is turbulent
If 3470 - 1370n < Re < 4270 - 1370n, the flow is transitional
5.4.5 Determination of Critical Velocity
The Critical Velocity is the fluid velocity (whether annular or pipe) at which the flow type becomes
turbulent.
In reality, at wellsite, the engineer is primarily concerned with the annular velocity since turbulent flow
here has the associated problems of hole erosion, damage to cuttings and removal of filter cake. When
analyzing annular velocity, the engineer will be looking for sufficient annular velocity to effectively lift
and remove the cuttings, but within a laminar flow regime so that minimal damage is done.
Many engineers will be happy with, even require, transitional or turbulent flow around the drill collar
section. Here, the annular clearance is smallest so it is most important to keep the section clear of
cuttings. For remaining annular sections, however, laminar flow will always be required to minimize
hole damage and to keep pressure losses low.
Bingham
))
String Vc = 2.48 x ( PV + (PV2 + 73.57.YP.Di2.
Di
Annular Vc =
3.04
(DhDp)
x ( PV + (PV2 + 40.05YP(DhDp)2 ))
28
Vc
Dh
Dp
Di
PV
YP
= critical velocity (m/min)

= hole diameter (mm)
= pipe outer diameter (mm)
= pipe inner diameter (mm)
= mud density (kg/litre)
= plastic viscosity
= yield point
Power Law
1
String Vc = 0.6 [ (3470 1370n)K ] 2n
[
1.27
]
Annular Vc = 0.6 [ (3470 1370n)K ]

[
2.05
]
n
[ 3n + 1 ] 2n
[ 1.25 Di n ]
n
2
n
[ 2n + 1
]
[0.64 (DhDp)n ]
n
2
The units are the same as above.

n and K are the Power Law coefficients.
Further equations to determine the Critical Annular Velocity: -
1
Imperial
Vc (ft/min) = [ 3.88 x 10 K]
[
]
2-n
n
[ ( 2.4 ) (2n + 1) ]
[ (Dh-Dp) ( 3n ) ]
2-n
= ppg
D = inches
K = lb / 100ft2
1
SI
Vc (m/min) = [ 9 x 10 K]
[
]
2-n
n
[ ( 200 ) (2n + 1) ] 2 - n
[ (Dh-Dp) ( 3n ) ]
= kg / m3
D = mm
K = Poise
29
6 DETERMINATION OF SYSTEM PRESSURE LOSSES

To understand pressure distribution throughout the well, it can be considered as a closed system, with
pressure losses occurring throughout the system :
as mud passes through the entire length of drillpipe

as mud passes through the bit
as mud flows back up through the annulus
as mud is pumped through surface lines eg standpipe, kelly hose, pumps
The total of all theses losses i.e. Total System Pressure Loss should be equal to the actual pressure
measured on the standpipe and is therefore equal to the pressure that the pumps are operating at.
This is a very important part of hydraulic evaluation. Obviously, the maximum pressure loss possible will
be determined by the rating of the pumps and other surface equipment. This maximum is normally far in
excess of the pressure loss that will be desired by the drilling engineer.
The logging engineers task is normally to take given parameters from the drilling engineer, then select,
for example, the correct nozzle sizes that will produce the desired system pressure loss.
Pressure loss is largely dependant on the flowrate, mud density and rheology, the length of each section
and the diameters of each pipe and annular section.
Whether the flow is laminar or turbulent is also an important influence on the pressure loss - turbulent
flow will produce larger pressure losses.
6.1 Fanning Friction Factor

Frictional forces result whenever a fluid is moving, with fluid layers interacting against each other and
against channel walls or other obstacles to flow. These forces have a large effect on the resultant pressure
losses in a given annular or pipe section.
The frictional forces present will be very different depending on whether the flow is laminar or turbulent:
with laminar flow, the fluid movement is in one direction only - parallel to the conduit walls, with
velocity increasing towards the centre. Frictional forces will therefore only be present due to fluid
layers moving longitudinally against each other.
with turbulent flow, fluid movement is much more complex and multi-directional, so that many more
frictional forces are present.
For this reason, a coefficient called the Fanning Friction Factor is determined for each type of flow and
whether we are dealing with pipe or annular pressure losses. The friction factor is determined from the
Reynolds Number which has already been calculated for pipe or annular sections based on annular
velocity, diameters, density and effective viscosity.
30
Laminar Flow
fann = 24 / Re
Re = Annular Reynolds No.
fpipe = 16 / Re
Re = Pipe Reynolds No.
fturb = a / Reb
Turbulent Flow
where Re = Reynolds number in the pipe or annulus

a =
log n + 3.93
50
b =
1.75 - log n
7
Transitional Flow
fann = [ Re - c ] x [ (
a
) - (24) ] + 24
[ 800 ] [ (4270 - 1370n)b ( c ) ]
c
where Re = Annular Reynolds No.
a =
(log n + 3.93) / 50
b =
(1.75 - log n) / 7
c =
3470 - 1370n
fpipe = [ Re - c ] x [ (
a
) - (16) ] + 16
c
[ 800 ] [ (4270 - 1370n)b ( c ) ]
where Re = Pipe Reynolds No.
a, b, and c are as above
When using the Power Law Model, the values of the Fanning Friction are substituted into equations in
order to calculate pressure losses in the annulus or in the pipe.
When calculating these pressure losses, each individual section has to be calculated separately, then
totaled to give an overall pipe or annular pressure loss.
31
6.2 Drillstring Pressure Losses

Initial pump pressure is lost, through friction, as the mud is pumped through the drillstring. Losses will
be greater in the lower drillstring sections where the inside diameter is smaller and mud velocity greater.
Bingham
For laminar flow,
Ploss (KPa) = LQ PV
612.95 Di4
For turbulent flow,
Ploss (KPa) = L 0.8 Q1.8 PV0.2

901.63 Di4.8
where
YP L
13.26Di
L = length of section (m)

Q = flowrate (litre/min)
= mud density (kg/litre)
PV = plastic viscosity
YP = yield point
Di = pipe inner diameter (inch)
Power Law
Here, there is just one equation to be considered, since whether the flow is laminar or turbulent has
already been accounted for by the Reynolds Number and the Fanning Friction Factor.
SI
Imperial
.L
Ploss (Kpa) = fp.v2.
1800 Di
.L
Ploss (psi) = fp.v2.
92870 Di
where fp = Friction Factor in the pipe

v = Average velocity in the pipe (m/min)
= Mud density (kg/m3)
Di = Pipe inner diameter (mm)
L = Length of section (m)
where v = ft/min
= ppg
Di = inches
L = ft
32
6.3 Annular Pressure Losses

Frictional pressure losses occur as the mud returns up the annulus, but these are typically the smallest
component of overall pressure loss in the system downhole. As with the drillstring losses, the pressure
loss will be greater towards the bottom of the hole, around the drill collar section, where annular
clearance (hole diameter minus outer pipe diameter) is least and annular velocity greatest.
Bingham
laminar flow,
Ploss =
L Q PV
+
3
408.63(Dh+Dp)(DhDp)
turbulent flow, Ploss =
L 0.8 Q1.8 PV0.2

706.96 (Dh+Dp)1.8(DhDp)3
YP L
13.26(DhDp)
The units are the same as those used in the drillstring pressure loss formula.
Dh = hole diameter (inch)
Dp = pipe outer diam (inch)
Power Law
SI
Ploss (Kpa) =
Imperial
fa.v2.
.L
1800 (Dh - Dp)
Ploss (psi) =
L = Length of section (m)

fa = Annular Friction Factor
v = Average annular velocity (m/min)
= Mud density (kg/m3)
Dh = Hole diameter (mm)
Dp = Pipe outside diameter (mm)
.L
fa.v2.
92870 (Dh - Dp)
where v = ft/min
= ppg
Dh = inches
Dp = inches
L = ft
33
6.4 Bit Pressure Loss

These are the system pressure losses that occur when the mud passes through the bit nozzles.
Due to the very fast velocities involved and the small area of the nozzles, this will be the largest singular
pressure loss throughout the entire system.
SI
Ploss (Kpa) =
. Q2. 277778
(D12 + D22 +D32 +....)2
where = mud density (kg/m3)

Q = flow rate (m3/min)
Dn = nozzle diameter (mm)
Imperial
Ploss (psi) =
. Q2. 156
(D1 + D22 +D32 +....)2
2
where = ppg
Q = gpm
Dn = 32nds inch
Unfortunately, these equations (and the QLOG software) will not produce accurate calculations for
diamond bit pressure losses.
Eastman Christensen suggest the following calculations: -
For Radial Flow,
Ploss (bar) = 7.3188 0.61 Q

TFA
For Feeder Collector, Ploss (bar) = 24.738 0.34 Q1.47

TFA1.76
where = mud density (kg/l)
Q = flowrate (l/min)
TFA = mm2
1 bar = 100KPa
34
6.5 Surface Pressure Losses

The calculation of pressure losses due to surface equipment is not as clear cut as previous calculated
losses and will be dependant on the type of equipment present on the rig.
i.e. type of pump, length of standpipe and surface lines, length of kelly etc
One method of calculation is based on the Bingham Plastic Model for turbulent flow pressure losses. The
main part of the equation, 0.8 Q1.8 PV0.2 is multiplied by a constant representing 4 rig types or
classifications.
Surface Ploss = E 0.8 Q1.8 PV0.2
where Ploss = psi

or
= ppg or
Q = gpm or
KPa
kg/litre
litre/min
E is the constant representing the 4 rig surface equipment types. The rig type should be attainable from
charts/tables kept on the rig. If not, the usual type and default is Type 4.
Classification
1
2
3
4
E
Imperial
Metric
2.5 x 104
9.6 x 105
5.3 x 105
4.2 x 105
8.8 x 106
3.3 x 106
1.8 x 106
1.4 x 106
In practice, this classification is generally not available at wellsite. For this reason, together with the fact
that the method is based on a Bingham fluid, Datalog uses a different technique based on mud density
and flowrate, together with a constant to represent different types of rig equipment.
Hence:
Surface Pressure Loss = 0.35 x Factor x Mud Density x Flowrate

(Kpa)
(kg/m3)
(m3/min)
Factor represents the value selected in the QLOG equipment table - the surface connection
factor. This value can range from 0.2 to 0.5, with 0.5 being the normal default value.
35
7 OTHER HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS

7.1 Cuttings Slip Velocity
Up to this point, the annular velocities that we have seen calculated only deal with the velocity of the
fluid.
Drilled cuttings are obviously going to be far heavier, typically, than the mud, so that there is always
going to be a degree of slip, with the cuttings falling through the mud.
How significant the degree of cuttings slip is going to be will be dependent on the relative densities,
viscosity and carrying potential of the mud, and particle size.
Net Cuttings Velocity = annular velocity cuttings slip velocity
SI units
p m)0.667
Vs = 0.42 Dp (
m0.333 e0.333
Dp
p
m
e
Vs
= particle diameter (mm)

= particle density (kg/m3)
= mud density (kg/m3)
= effective mud viscosity (mPa.s)
= slip velocity (m/min)
Imperial
p m)0.667
Vs = 175 Dp (
m0.333 e0.333
Dp
p
m
e
Vs
= inches
= ppg
= ppg
= cP
= ft/min
Cuttings slip velocity, when the flow type is turbulent, will be clearly different from when the flow is
laminar and constant forces are involved.
With turbulent flow, whether the slip velocity is constant or not is dependant on the Reynolds Number
determined for the cuttings.
Cuttings Slip Velocity in Turbulent Flow
SI units
p - m) ] 0.5
Vs (m/min) = 6.85 [ Dp (
[
1.5
]
Imperial
p - m) ] 0.5
Vs (ft/min) = 113.4 [ Dp (
[
1.5
]
Note that there are no velocity or viscosity inputs into this equation. It is, therefore, entirely dependent
on the Particle Reynolds number as to whether the slip velocity will be constant.
36
7.2 Particle Reynolds Number
SI units
Rep = 0.01686. . Vs. Dp

e
where
Vs
Dp
e

= slip velocity (m/min)
= particle diameter (mm)
= effective viscosity (mPa.s)
Imperial
Rep = 15.47. . Vs. Dp

e
where
Vs
Dp
e
= ppg
= ft/min
= inches
= cP
If the Particle Reynolds Number > 2000, the particle will fall at the same rate
i.e. cuttings slip velocity will be constant in turbulent flow
In the determination of slip velocity, a Cuttings Re number is incorporated. So to, because of the
different frictional forces present on the cuttings, is a friction or drag coefficient.
37
7.3 Nozzle Velocity
Vn (m/sec) =
Q
38.71A
Q = flowrate (litre/min)
A = total flow area of nozzles (in2)
Vn (ft/sec) = 0.32Q
A
Q = gpm
A = in2
Nozzle conversion to Total Flow Area
TFA (inch2) = 1/4 (d12 + d22 + d32 )

)
(
322
/4 d 2
1024
where d = nozzle size in 32nds of an inch
Alternatively, the nozzle diameters, rather than TFA can be used:
SI units
Vn (m/sec) = 21220 Q
Dn2
where Q = m3/min
Dn = mm
Imperial
Vn (ft/sec) = 418.3 Q
Dn2
where Q = gpm
Dn = 32nds inch
38
Exercise 1a Use of the Hydraulics Program

Ensure that the user units are set to the correct units, following the unit types in the question.
Use the following hole and pipe profiles and setups:
13 3/8 casing set at 500m,
ID = 12.42 (315.5mm)
12 1/4 (311.2mm) hole drilled to a depth of 1500m

200m x 9 1/2 DCs,
100m x 8 DCs
OD 9.5 ID 3.0 (241.3/76.2mm)

OD 8.0 ID 3.0 (203.2/76.2mm)
300m x HWDP
DP
OD 5.0 ID 3.0 (127/76.2mm)

OD 5.0 ID 4.28 (127/108.7mm)
Jets 3 x 15 (3 x 11.9mm)
MD 9.8ppg
100 SPM at flowrate 2.0 m3/min
600 and 300
60/35
Surface Conn Factor 0.5
(make sure you set this parameter in the QLOG equipment table)
1.
What type of flow is present in each annular section?

What is the Total System and Surface Pressure Loss?
2.
Compare the surface pressure loss using a factor of 0.2
3.
Using a SCF of 0.5, what flowrate is required to produce a system pressure of 2500psi?
4.
What new jet sizes are required to reduce the pressure back to 2000psi?
5.
What is the pressure if the mud weight is increased to 10.8ppg?
6.
With a flowrate of 2.0 m3/min, what jet sizes are now required to give a system pressure of
around 2000psi?
7.
Is the flow still laminar in all annular sections?
8.
If transitional flow is acceptable around the 9 1/2 DCs but not the 8 DCs, what is the
maximum flowrate?
9.
With this flowrate, how many jets may have washed out if a surface pressure drop to 1650psi has
been recorded?
39
8 HYDRAULICS OPTIMIZATION
8.1 Bit Hydraulic Horsepower

This is the power used by the jetting action of the bit, which has to balance maximum ROP and
maximum jetting with effective hole cleaning.
SI units
Bit HP (KW) = Pb x Q x 0.01667
Imperial
Bit HP (HP) = Pb x Q
1714
Q = flowrate (m3/min)
Pb = bit pressure loss (KPa)
Q = gpm
Pb = psi
The Total System Hydraulic Horsepower can be calculated by substituting the Total System Pressure
Loss (in place of Bit Pressure Loss) into the same equation.
8.2 Hydraulic Impact Force

This is the force exerted on the formation due to the fluid exiting the jets. Cleaning is by direct erosion
on the bottom and by cross flow under the bit. Excessive hydraulic impact is a major cause of formation
flushing, where permeable zones ahead of the bit can be swept clean of formation fluids.
SI units
Bit IF (newtons) = Q Vn
60

Q = flowrate (m3/min)
Vn = nozzle velocity (m/sec)
Imperial
Bit IF (lbs) = Q Vn
1932
= ppg
Q = gpm
Vn = ft/sec
40
8.3 Hydraulic Optimization

Hydraulics can be optimized in two ways: 1) By optimising the Impact Force of the jets on the bottom of the hole.
2) By optimising the Hydraulic Power expended by the bit.
The power expended (or used up) by the bit is a proportion of the total power available (HPt).
This can be determined from the maximum pressure of the pumps:
where max HPpump = HPt = Pmax Q

1714
Or, more typically, it can be determined on the basis of a desired maximum pump pressure together with
a maximum flow rate that will give sufficient annular velocity for cuttings removal.
Once the maximum power available to the system is known, hydraulic performance can be optimized in
the following ways: -
1) Optimize Horsepower by setting the Bit HP to 65% of Total Available Power

2) Optimize Impact Force by setting the Bit HP to 48% of Total Available Power
Impact Force relates directly to the erosional force of the drill fluid and is therefore good optimization
for bottom hole cleaning.
Hydraulic Horsepower optimization generally requires lower annular velocities so that flow type is
more likely to be laminar.
Since the hydraulic horsepower at the bit is dependent on jet velocity and therefore on the pressure loss
at the bit, hydraulic performance in practice can simply be optimized by selecting jet sizes to give:
Bit Pressure Loss = 65% System Pressure Loss
41
8.4 Use of the QLOG hydraulics programs

Current Profiles (onhyd)
This is an optimization program that works based on realtime information such as pump output, mud
density and pressure losses. These values can be changed should a change in parameters be the reason for
running the optimization program. The minimum and maximum jet velocities are suggested values.
The program can then be run to give you the parameters required for optimum hydraulics based on both
Hydraulic Impact Force and Hydraulic Horsepower at the bit.
New Profiles (offhyd)
This program is offline so that you can input any hole and pipe profiles, mud parameters, flow rate and
jet size and calculate the resulting hydraulic parameters such as pressure losses, flow types, annular
velocities etc.
This program would be used when pre-determining the correct parameters for a new hole section or bit
run. By changing the inputs, you can attempt to optimize the hydraulics.
42
Exercise 1b Optimizing Hydraulics

Use the original profiles and set ups that were used in exercise 1a
1.
What is the % Hydraulic Horsepower of the bit?
2.
Using the following ranges and limitations, try to optimize the hydraulics whilst still retaining
laminar flows and good annular velocities for cuttings removals.
Flowrate
Mud density
1.8 to 2.2 m3/min

9.6 to 10.2 ppg
Maximum System Pressure 2800 psi

Minimum Jet sizes
3 x 10mm
43
Exercise 1c Optimizing Hydraulics

Use the following hole and pipe profiles and setups:
9 5/8 casing set at 2500m, ID 8.68 (220.4mm)
8 1/2 (215.9mm) hole drilled to 4000m
500m x 6 1/2 DCs
400m x HWDP
DP
OD 6.5, ID 2.88 (165.1/73.1mm)

OD 5.0, ID 3.0 (127/76.2mm)
OD 5.0, ID 4.28 (127/108.7mm)
Flowrate
1.4 m3/min
Mud density 10.5ppg
Surface Conn Factor 0.5
600 and 300 70/42
1.
What jets would produce a system pressure of 2500 psi?

With these setups, what are
2.
With a flowrate of 1.6m3/min, what jets are required to give a system pressure of 2200psi ?
What now are
3.
a) the flow types in each annular section

b) the annular velocities in each section
c) the % HP at the bit
a) the flow types

b) the annular velocities
c) the % HP at bit
Using the following ranges and limits, attempt to optimize the hydraulics whilst retaining laminar
flows in each section and good annular velocities.
Flowrate
Mud density
1.3 to 1.6 m3/min

10.3 to 10.6 ppg
Maximum system pressure 2850 psi
44
9 Equivalent Circulating Density

The pressure exerted at the bottom of the hole by the static column of mud is known as the Hydrostatic
Pressure.
= mud density (ppg)

PHYD = x TVD x 0.052 where
PHYD = psi
TVD = feet
= SG
PHYD = x TVD x 0.433 where
PHYD = psi
TVD = feet
where
= kg/m3
PHYD = Kpa
TVD = m
During circulation, the pressure exerted by the dynamic fluid column at the bottom of the hole
increases (and also the equivalent pressure at any point in the annulus). This increase results from the
frictional forces and annular pressure losses caused by the fluid movement.
Knowing this pressure is extremely important during drilling, since the balancing pressure in the
wellbore is changing from that simply calculated from the mud density.
Higher circulating pressure will result in:
Greater overbalance in comparison to the formation pressure

Increased risk of formation flushing
More severe formation invasion
Increased risk of differential sticking
Greater load exerted on the surface equipment
The increased pressure is termed the Dynamic Pressure or Bottom Hole Circulating Pressure (BHCP).
BHCP = PHYD + Pa
where Pa is the sum of the annular pressure losses
Since pressure exerted is a function of density and vertical height, the increased pressure means that,
effectively, the equivalent density of the mud will increase when the fluid is moving.
This is termed the Equivalent Circulating Density.
45
Examples to calculate the ECD are shown below:
a.
ECD = +
Pa
(0.052xTVD)
ECD
Pa
TVD
= ppg EMW (equivalent mudweight)

= psi
= feet
= ppg
BHCP can therefore be expressed as ECD x 0.052 x TVD
b.
Pa
ECD = +
0.00981xTVD
ECD
Pa
TVD
=
=
=
=
kg/m3 EMW
KPa
m
kg/m3
BHCP can therefore be expressed as ECD x 0.00981 x TVD
46
Exercise 1d Equivalent Circulating Density

For each of the following situations, calculate the mud density from the hydrostatic pressure acting at the
depth shown.
1.
TVD
Hydrostatic Pressure
3500ft
1729psi
2.
TVD
14000ft
8010psi
3.
TVD
3000m
32373Kpa
4.
TVD
1500m
15,156Kpa
5.
TVD
4000m
9555psi
For each of the following situations, calculate
6.
TVD
4000 ft
Mud density 9.5ppg
Annular Pressure Losses 250psi
7.
TVD
3000m
Mud density 1150 kg/m3
Annular Pressure Losses 3000 Kpa
a) Hydrostatic Pressure
b) Bottom Hole Circulating Pressure
c) Equivalent Circulating Density
47
10 Swab and Surge Pressures

Similar to the increase in bottom hole pressure when circulating (ECD), pressure changes are seen, as a
result of induced mud movement and resulting frictional pressures, when pipe is run in, or pulled out, of
the hole.
10.1 Surge Pressures

Surge Pressures result when pipe is run into the hole. This causes an upward movement of the mud in the
annulus as it is being displaced by the drillstring (as seen by the mud displaced at surface into the pit
system), resulting in frictional pressure.
This frictional pressure causes an increase, or surge, in pressure when
the pipe is being run into the hole. The size of the pressure increase is
dependent on a number of factors, including the length of pipe, the
pipe running speed, the annular clearance and whether the pipe is open
or closed.
In addition to the frictional pressure, which can be calculated, it is also
reasonable to assume that fast downward movement of the pipe will
cause a shock wave that will travel through the mud and be damaging
to the wellbore.
Surge pressures will certainly cause damage to formations, causing
mud invasion of permeable formations, unstable hole conditions etc.
The real danger of surge pressure, however, is that if it is too excessive, it could exceed the fracture
pressure of weaker or unconsolidated formations and cause breakdown.
This would lead to lost circulation (mud being lost to the formation) at that zone. This in turn would lead
to a drop in the mud level in the annulus, reducing the hydrostatic pressure throughout the wellbore.
Ultimately then, with reduced pressure in the annulus, a permeable formation at another point in the
wellbore may begin to flow. With lost circulation at one point and influx at another, we now have the
beginnings of an underground blowout!
It is a common misconception, that if the string is inside casing, then the open wellbore is safe from surge
pressures. This is most definitely not the case! Whatever the depth of the bit during running in, the surge
pressure caused by the mud movement to that depth, will also be acting at the bottom of the hole.
Therefore, even if the string is inside casing, the resulting surge pressure, if large enough, could be
causing breakdown of a formation in the open wellbore. This is extremely pertinent when the hole depth
is not too far beyond the last casing point!
Running casing is a particularly vulnerable time, for surge pressures, due to the small annular clearance
and the fact that the casing is closed ended. For this reason, casing is always run at a slow speed, and
mud displacements are very closely monitored.
48
10.2 Swab Pressures

Swab Pressures, again, result from the friction caused by the mud movement resulting from lifting the
pipe out of the hole. The frictional pressure losses, with upward pipe movement, now result in an overall
reduction in the mud hydrostatic pressure.
The mud movement results principally from two processes: 1. With slower pipe movement, an initial upward movement of the
mud surrounding the pipe may result. Due to the muds viscosity, it
can tend to cling to the pipe and be dragged upward with the pipe
lift.
2. More importantly, as the pipe lift continues, and especially with
rapid pipe movement, a void space is left immediately beneath the
bit and, naturally, mud from the annulus will fall to fill this void.
This frictional pressure loss causes a reduction in the mud hydrostatic

pressure. If the pressure is reduced below the formation pore fluid
pressure, then two things can result: -
1. With impermeable shale type formations, the underbalanced situation causes the formation to
fracture and cave at the borehole wall. This generates the familiar pressure cavings that can load the
annulus and lead to pack off of the drill string.
2. With permeable formations, the situation is far more critical and, simply, the underbalanced situation
leads to the invasion of formation fluids, which may result in a kick.
In addition to these frictional pressure losses, a piston type process can lead to further fluid influx from
permeable formations. When full gauge tools such as stabilizers are pulled passed permeable formations,
the lack of annular clearance can cause a syringe type effect, drawing fluids into the borehole.
More than 25% of blowouts result from reduced hydrostatic pressure caused by swabbing.
Beside the well safety aspect, invasion of fluids due to swabbing can lead to mud contamination and
necessitate the costly task of replacing the mud.
Pressure changes due to changing pipe direction, eg during connections, can be particularly
damaging to the well by causing sloughing shale, by forming bridges or ledges, and by causing hole
fill requiring reaming.
49
10.3 Calculation of Surge and Swab Pressures

The same method is used to calculate the differential pressure caused by both surging and swabbing. To
determine the new hydrostatic pressure, the differential pressure is either added or subtracted depending
on whether surge or swab respectively.
Firstly, the Fluid Velocity of the displaced mud caused by the pipe movement has to be calculated.
For Closed Ended Pipe:
Fluid Vel (ft/min) = [ 0.45 +

[
Dp2
Dh2 Dp2
] x Vp
]
Vp = pipe speed (ft/min)

Dh = hole diameter (in)
Dp = pipe outer diameter (in)
Di = pipe inner diameter (in)
For Open Ended Pipe:
Fluid Vel (ft/min) = [ 0.45 +

[
Dp2 Di2
] x Vp
2
2
2
Dh Dp + Di ]
This fluid velocity then has to be converted to the equivalent flowrate by using the annular velocity
equation, where: -
fluid velocity (ft/min) =
24.5 Q where Q = gpm

Dh2 Dp2
The change in pressure is then calculated for each annular/pipe section using the Pressure Loss
equations. This is calculated for both laminar and turbulent flow with the largest value being taken.
The total swab or surge pressure acting on the bottom of the hole is the sum of all of the pressure losses
for each annular/pipe section.
50
10.4 Use of the QLOG Swab and Surge Program

This program is used to determine the pressures induced by the defined maximum and minimum running
speeds of the pipe. Thus, a safe speed can be deduced in order to avoid excessive pressures.
Required information: Bit depth and hole depth
Taken from the realtime system, editable if required.
Current surge/swab pressure Taken from current recorded pressures, editable if required.
Current Flow In
Taken from realtime system, editable if required.
Use Current Profile
i.e. current hole and pipe profiles, the user should select Y(es).
Max/Min running speed
Limits defined by the user. Negative values should be used in order to

calculate swab pressures. For example, for surge pressure, the minimum
running speed may be 5m/min and the maximum 50m/min. For the same
limits, the swab calculation requires the minimum to be set at -50m/min,
and the maximum at -5m/min.
Current running speed
Read from realtime system, editable if required.
Once the data is entered correctly: Press F7 to calculate the maximum and minimum pressures.
Press F2 to print the data out.
Press F8 to produce a plot. The plot will be pressure against running speed and will show the pressures
against the max/min limits defined together with the current pressure/running speed situation.
51
Exercise 1e Use of the Swab Surge program
This program accesses information from the realtime system.

Therefore: Enter the hole and pipe profiles from Exercise 1c into the realtime files.
Enter the following into equipment tablea) Mud density override 9.3ppg
b) 600 and 300 50/30
(NB for the purposes of this exercises, ensure that the mud density channel is not configured so that the
over-ride facility in the equipment table can be used)
Using maximum and minimum running speeds of 20 and 100 m/min, calculate the swab/surge pressures
with the following bit depths:
1000m
2000m
3000m
3500m
3950m
With an increased mudweight of 10.3ppg, calculate, for the same maximum and minimum running
speeds, the swab/surge pressures at 3500 and 3950m.
52
APPENDIX - Answers to Training Exercises
53
Exercise 1a Use of Hydraulics Program

1. Laminar flow in all sections
System pressure loss 2038 psi
Surface pressure loss 59.6psi
2. 23.8 psi
3. 2.24 m3/min giving a pressure of 2498psi
4. 1 x 13mm, 2 x 14mm, giving a pressure of 1994psi
5. 2162psi
6. 1 x 12mm, 2 x 13mm, giving a pressure of 1983psi
7. Yes, flow is laminar in each section
8. 2.24 m3/min
9. 1 jet
with 12mm jet washout, pressure would be 1658psi

with 13mm jet washout, pressure would be 1671psi
Exercise 1b Optimizing hydraulics

1. 46.2% HP at the bit
2. Two possible situations are: a. Mud weight 9.9ppg
Flowrate
2.0 m3/min
Jets
2 x 10, 1 x 11
This gives
60.2% HHP at the bit

2771psi system pressure loss
Laminar flow in all sections with good annular velocities
b. Mud weight 10.15ppg

Flowrate
1.9 m3/min
Jets
3 x 10
This gives
63.9% HHP at the bit

2765psi system pressure loss
Laminar flows, but lower annular velocities
54
Exercise 1c Optimizing Hydraulics

1. 3 x 10mm jets, giving system pressure loss of 2523psi
a) laminar in all sections
b) 55 to 92 m/min
c) 39.3 %
2. 3 x 14mm jets, giving system pressure loss of 2211psi
a) transitional around collars, laminar in all other sections
b) 63 to 105 m/min
c) 15.3 %
3. With flowrate
mud weight
jets
With flowrate
mud weight
jets
1.3 m3/min
10.3 ppg
2 x 9, 1 x 8mm
system pressure loss of 2834psi

% power at bit 52.2 %
Laminar flows in all sections
Annular velocities 51 to 86 m/min
1.34 m3/min
10.6 ppg
3 x 9mm
System Ploss 2841 psi

% Bit HP
49.2
Laminar flows
Ann Velocity 51 86 m/min
Note that in the second situation, the annular velocities are the same (which is the objective for the 65%
optimization), yet we are closer to 48% and optimum bottom hole cleaning this may be the preferred
selection.
Exercise 1d Equivalent Circulating Densities

1. 9.5 ppg
2. 11.0ppg
3. 1100 kg/m3
4. 1030 kg/m3
5. 14.0ppg
6. Phyd = 1976 psi
BHCP = 2226 psi
ECD = 10.7 ppg EMW
7. Phyd = 33844 Kpa
BHCP = 36844 Kpa
ECD = 1252 kg/m3 EMW
55
Exercise 1e
Swab/Surge Program
at 1000m, min/max pressure =

at 2000m,
at 3000m,
at 3500m,
at 3950m.
35 + 211 psi
50 + 280 psi
69 + 388 psi
77 + 426 psi
85 + 461 psi
With 10.3ppg mud weight:

at 3500m, min/max pressure = 77 + 460 psi
at 3950m,
85 + 497 psi
56

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DRILLING FLUID HYDRAULICS

LUBRICATION AND COOLING OF THE BIT AND DRILLSTRING ............................................................................ 3

2 TYPES OF DRILLING MUD............................................................................................................................. 8

WATER BASED MUDS ...................................................................................................................................... 8

3 RHEOLOGY DEFINITIONS ........................................................................................................................... 14

SHEAR RATE AND SHEAR STRESS .................................................................................................................. 14

4 FLUID BEHAVIORAL MODELS................................................................................................................... 17

5 LAMINAR, TURBULENT AND TRANSITIONAL FLOW PATTERNS ................................................... 24

FANNING FRICTION FACTOR........................................................................................................................... 30

7 OTHER HYDRAULIC CALCULATIONS..................................................................................................... 36

7.3 NOZZLE VELOCITY......................................................................................................................................... 38

BIT HYDRAULIC HORSEPOWER ...................................................................................................................... 40

9 EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY................................................................................................... 45

SURGE PRESSURES ....................................................................................................................................... 48

APPENDIX - ANSWERS TO TRAINING EXERCISES.................................................................................. 53

1 FUNCTIONS OF THE DRILLING FLUID

Lubrication and cooling of the drill bit and the drillstring

1.1 Lubrication and Cooling of the Bit and Drillstring

1.2 Removal of Drilled Cuttings from the Annulus and Bit

to prevent loading of the annulus

1.3 Control of Subsurface Formation Pressures

PHYD = x TVD x 0.052

= mud density (ppg)

PHYD = x TVD x 0.433

PHYD = x TVD x 0.00981

1.4 Bottom hole cleaning

1.5 Transmit Hydraulic Horsepower to the Bit

1.6 Support the Weight of the Drillstring

1.7 Formation Stability

Optimum drill rates

The drilling fluid must therefore be able to:

prevent erosion or collapse of the wellbore;

1.8 Formation Evaluation

2 TYPES OF DRILLING MUD

2.1 Water Based Muds

Provide greater shale inhibition

Encapsulate drill solids to prevent dispersion

Chloride concentration around 190,000 mg/l.

Chloride concentration between 10,000 and 190,000 mg/l.

2.2 Oil Based Muds

Inhibition to reduce problems caused by swelling or sloughing shales.

Invert Emulsion Muds

2.3 Synthetic Muds

2.4 Common Mud Additives

To control acidity and alkalinity

Lime, caustic soda, soda ash,

Reduce foaming action, especially in brackish

To create a heterogeneous mixture of two

Oil based muds fatty acids,

Filtrate or Water Loss

Additives to reduce water loss, the tendency of

Bentonite clay, lignite,

Salt, hydrated lime, gypsum,

To reduce friction, thereby reducing torque

Oils, synthetic liquids,

To reduce friction and increase lubricity at the

Detergents, soaps, oils,

To reduce shale hydration when drilling water

Surface active agents; reduce tension between

Increase rheological and filtration stability in

These modify the relationship between

Tannins, lignite and

A thinner, more specifically, acts as a

Increase viscosity, providing better solid