Refrigeration Manual: Part 3 - The Refrigeration Load

Refrigeration Manual
Part 3 - The Refrigeration Load
FOREWORD
The practice of refrigeration undoubtedly goes back as far as the history of mankind, but
for thousands of years the only cooling mediums were water and ice. Today refrigeration in
the home, in the supermarket, and in commercial and industrial usage is so closely woven
into our everyday existence it is difficult to imagine life without it. But because of this rapid
growth, countless people who must use and work with refrigeration equipment do not fully
understand the basic fundamentals of refrigeration system operation.
This manual is designed to fill a need which exists for a concise, elementary text to aid
servicemen, salesman, students, and others interested in refrigeration. It is intended to
cover only the fundamentals of refrigeration theory and practice. Detailed information as to
specific products is available from manufacturers of complete units and accessories. Used
to supplement such literatureand to improve general knowledge of refrigerationthis
manual should prove to be very helpful.
1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

All rights reserved.
Part 3
THE REFRIGERATION LOAD
Section 12. HEAT TRANSMISSION
Section 14. PRODUCT LOAD
Transmission Heat Load Q........................... 12-1

Thermal Conductivity k................................. 12-1
Thermal Resistivity r..................................... 12-1
Conductance C............................................. 12-1
Thermal Resistance R.................................. 12-1
Surface File Resistance.................................... 12-1
Overall Coefficient of Heat Transfer U.......... 12-1
Transmission Heat Load.................................... 12-2
Values of Thermal Conductivity for

Building Materials....................................... 12-3
Outdoor Design Data......................................... 12-3
Allowance for Radiation from the Sun............... 12-8
Recommended Insulation Thickness................. 12-8
Quick Calculation Table for Walk-in Coolers..... 12-9
Tables of Specific Product Data........................ 14-1

Heat of Respiration............................................ 14-1
Sensible Heat Above Freezing.......................... 14-7
Latent Heat of Freezing..................................... 14-8
Sensible Heat Below Freezing.......................... 14-8
Total Product Load............................................ 14-8
Storage Data..................................................... 14-8
Section 13. AIR INFILTRATION
Section 16. EQUIPMENT SELECTION
Air Change Estimating Method.......................... 13-1

Air Velocity Estimating Method.......................... 13-1
Ventilating Air..................................................... 13-2
Infiltration Heat Load......................................... 13-2
Hourly Load....................................................... 16-1

Sample Load Calculation.................................. 16-1
Relative Humidity and Evaporator TD............... 16-2
Compressor Selection....................................... 16-2
Component Balancing....................................... 16-3
The Effect of Change in Compressor

Only on System Balance............................ 16-9
Quick Select Tables for Walk-in Coolers........... 16-11
Section 15. SUPPLEMENTARY LOAD

Electric Lights and Heaters............................... 15-1
Electric Motors................................................... 15-1
Human Heat Load............................................. 15-1
Total Supplementary Load................................. 15-1

INDEX OF TABLES
Table 4
Table 5
Table 6
Table 7
Table 7A
Table 8
Table 9
Table 10
Table 11
Table 12
Table 13
Table 14
Table 15
Table 16
Table 17
Table 18
Table 19
Typical Heat Transmission Coefficients.................................................................................. 12-3

Summer Outdoor Design Data............................................................................................... 12-5
Allowance for Sun Effect......................................................................................................... 12-8
Recommended Minimum Insulation Thickness...................................................................... 12-9
Quick Estimate Factors for Heat Transmission Through Insulated Walls............................... 12-9
Average Air Changes per 24 Hours for Storage Rooms Due to Opening and Infiltration....... 13-1
Heat Removed in Cooling Air to Storage Room Conditions................................................... 13-2
Food Products Data................................................................................................................ 14-1
Properties of Solids................................................................................................................. 14-4
Properties of Liquids............................................................................................................... 14-6
Storage Requirements and Properties of Perishable Products.............................................. 14-9
Storage Conditions for Cut Flowers and Nursery Stock......................................................... 14-11
Space, Weight, and Density Data for Commodities Stored in Refrigerated Warehouses...... 14-12
Heat Equivalent of Electric Motors.......................................................................................... 15-1
Heat Equivalent of Occupancy............................................................................................... 15-1
Recommended Condensing Unit Capacity for Walk-in Coolers, 35F. Temperature.............. 16-12
Recommended Condensing Unit Capacity for Walk-in Coolers, Low Temperature................ 16-12

Section 12
HEAT TRANSMISSION
The heat gain through walls, floors and ceilings will vary
with the type of construction, the area exposed to a different temperature, the type of insulation, the thickness
of insulation, and the temperature difference between
the refrigerated space and the ambient air.
the thermal conductivity factor should be as small as

possible, and the material as thick as possible.
THERMAL RESISTIVITY r
Thermal resistivity is defined as the reciprocal of thermal
conductivity of 1/k. r is of importance because resistance values can be added numerically.
In catalog and technical literature pertaining to heat

transfer, certain letter symbols are commonly used to
denote the heat transfer factors, and a working knowledge of these symbols is frequently necessary to easily
interpret catalog data.
R total = r1 + r2 + r3
Where r1, r2, and r3 are individual resistances. This
makes the use of r convenient in calculating overall
heat transfer coefficients.
TRANSMISSION HEAT LOAD Q

The basic formula for heat transfer through some heat
transfer barrier is:
CONDUCTANCE C
Q = U x A x TD
Q = Heat transfer, BTU/Hr
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient
BTU/(hour)(sq. ft.)(F TD)
A = Area in square feet
TD = Temperature differential between

sides of thermal barrier, for
example, between outside design
temperature and the refrigerated
space temperature.
Thermal conductance is similar to thermal conductivity, except that it is an overall heat transfer factor for
a given thickness of material, as opposed to thermal
conductivity, k, which is a factor per inch of thickness.
The definition is similar, BTU/(hour)(square foot of
area)(F TD).
THERMAL RESISTANCE R
Thermal resistance is the reciprocal of conductance, 1/C
in the same way that thermal resistivity is the reciprocal
of conductivity.
Q is the rate of heat flow, the quantity of heat flowing

after all factors are considered.
SURFACE FILM RESISTANCE
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY k
Heat transfer through any material is affected by the

surface resistance to heat flow, and this is determined
by the type of surface, rough or smooth; its position,
vertical or horizontal; its reflective properties; and the
rate of airflow over the surface. Surface film conductance, normally denoted by fi for inside surfaces and fo
for outside surfaces is similar to conductance.
Thermal conductivity, k, is defined as the rate of heat

transfer that occurs through a material in units of
BTU/(hr)(square foot of area)(F TD) per inch of thickness. Different materials offer varying resistances to
the flow of heat.
For example, the heat transfer in 24 hours through two
square feet of material three inches in thickness having a thermal conductivity factor of .25 with an average
temperature difference across the material of 70F
would be calculated as follows:
However, in refrigeration work with insulated walls, the

conductivity is so low that the surface film conductance
has little effect, and therefore, can be omitted from the
calculation.
OVERALL COEFFICIENT OF HEAT
TRANSFER U

.25(k) x 2 sq. ft. x 24 hours x 70 TD
Q=
3 inches thickness
= 280 BTU

Since the total heat transferred by conduction varies
directly with time, area, and temperature difference, and
varies inversely with the thickness of the material, it is
readily apparent that in order to reduce heat transfer,
The overall coefficient of heat transfer, U, is defined as

the rate of heat transfer through a material or compound
structural member with parallel walls. The U factor,
as it is commonly called, is the resulting heat transfer
12-1

coefficient after giving effect to thermal conductivity,

conductance, and surface film conductance, and is expressed in terms of BTU/(hour) (square foot of area)(F
TD). It is usually applied to compound structures such
as walls, ceilings, and roofs.
.80, and two inches of insulation having a conductance

of .16, the U value is found as follows:
The formula for calculating the U factor is complicated

by the fact that the total resistance to heat flow through a
substance of several layers is the sum of the resistance
of the various layers. The resistance of heat flow is the
reciprocal of the conductivity. Therefore, in order to
calculate the overall heat transfer factor, it is necessary
to first find the overall resistance to heat flow, and then
find the reciprocal of the overall resistance to calculate
the U factor.

1 2
= .16 + .80
The basic relation between the U factor and the various

conductivity factors is as follows:
TRANSMISSION HEAT LOAD

1 X
R Total = C + k
1
1
U = R Total = 8.75
=.114 BTU/(hour)(sq. ft.)(F TD)
Once the U factor is known, the heat gain by transmission through a given wall can be calculated by the basic
heat transfer equation.

1 X1 X2
R Total = C + k1 + k2

1
U= R Total
Assume a wall with a U factor of .114 as calculated in the

previous example. Given an area of 90 square feet with
an inside temperature of 0F, an outside temperature of
80F, the heat transmission would be:
In the above equation, k1, k2, etc. are the thermal

conductivities of the various materials used, C is the
conductance if it applies rather than k1, and X1, X2, etc.
are the thicknesses of the material.
Q = U x A x TD
= .114 x 90 sq. ft x 80TD
= 812 BTU/hr
For example, to calculate the U factor of a wall composed of two inches of material having a k1 factor of

= 6.25 + 2.5 = 8.75
The entire heat gain into a given refrigerated space

can be found in a similar manner by determining the
U factor for each part of the structure surrounding the
refrigerated space, and calculating as above.
12-2
VALUES OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY FOR

BUILDING MATERIALS
OUTDOOR DESIGN DATA

Extensive studies have been made of weather bureau
records for many years to arrive at suitable outdoor
design temperatures. For air conditioning or refrigeration applications, the maximum load occurs during the
hottest weather.
Extensive testing has been done by many laboratories

to determine accurate values for heat transfer through
all common building and structural materials. Certain
materials have a high resistance to the flow of heat (a
low thermal conductivity) and are therefore used as
insulation to decrease the heat transfer into the refrigerated space. There are many different types of insulation
such as asbestos, glass fiber, cork, reflective metals,
and the new foam materials. Most good insulating
materials have a thermal conductivity (k) factor of approximately .25 or less, and rigid foam insulations have
been developed with thermal conductivity (k) factors as
low as .12 to .15.
However, it is neither economical or practical to design

equipment for the hottest temperature which might ever
occur, since the peak temperature might occur for only
a few hours over the span of several years. Therefore,
the design temperature normally is selected as a temperature that will not be exceeded more than a given
percentage of the hours during the four month summer
season. Table 5 lists summer design temperatures,
which will be equaled or exceeded only during 1% of
the hours during the four summer months.
Heat transmission coefficients for many commonly used

building materials are shown in Table 4.
(continued on p. 12-8)
12-3


12-4
12-5


12-6
12-7

ALLOWANCE FOR RADIATION FROM THE SUN
RECOMMENDED INSULATION THICKNESS
The primary radiation factor involved in the refrigeration

load is heat gain from the suns rays. If the walls of the
refrigerated space are exposed to the sun, additional
heat will be added to the heat load. For ease in calculation, an allowance can be made for the sun load in
refrigeration calculations by increasing the temperature
differential by the factors listed in Table 6.
As the desired storage temperature decreases, the

refrigeration load increases, and as the evaporating
temperature decreases, the compressor efficiency
decreases. Therefore, from a practical and economic
standpoint, the insulation thickness must be increased
as the storage temperature decreases.
Table 7 lists recommended insulation thickness from the
1981 ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals. The recommendations are based on expanded polyurethane which
has a conductivity factor of .16. If other insulations are
used, the recommended thickness should be adjusted
base on relative k factors.
This table is usable for refrigeration loads only, and is

not accurate for air conditioning estimates.

12-8
QUICK CALCULATION TABLE FOR

WALK-IN COOLERS
As an aid in the quick calculation of heat transmission
through insulated walls, Table 7A lists the approximate
heat gain in BTU per 1F. temperature difference per
square foot of surface per 24 hours for various thicknesses of commonly used insulations. The thickness of
insulation referred to is the actual thickness of insulation,
and not the overall wall thickness.
For example, to find the heat transfer for 24 hours
through a 6 x 8 wall insulated with 4 inches of glass
fiber when the outside is exposed to 95F ambient
temperature, and the box temperature is 0F., calculate
as follows:
1.9 factor x 48 sq. ft. x 95TD = 8664 BTU
12-9

Section 13
AIR INFILTRATION
Any outside air entering the refrigerated space must be
reduced to the storage temperature, thus increasing the
refrigeration load. In addition, if the moisture content of
the entering air is above that of the refrigerated space,
the excess moisture will condense out of the air, and
the latent heat of condensation will add to the refrigeration load.

Velocity = 100 FPM x

2.83 10
=100 x 2.65 x 7.74
= 138 FPM
Because of the many variables involved, it is difficult to

calculate the additional heat gain due to air infiltration.
Various means of estimating this portion of the refrigeration load have been developed based primarily on
experience, but all of these estimating methods are
subject to the possibility of sizable error, and specific
applications may vary widely in the actual heat gain
encountered.
Estimated rate of Infiltration

138 FPM x 8 ft. x 4 ft. = 2210 cu. ft per min.
2
Infiltration velocities for various door heights and TDs
are plotted in Figure 67.
If the average time the door is opened each hour can
be determined, the average hourly infiltration can be
calculated, and the heat gain can be determined as
before.
AIR CHANGE ESTIMATING METHOD

The traffic in and out of a refrigerator usually varies with
its size or volume. Therefore the number of times doors
are opened will be related to the volume rather than the
number of doors.
Table 8 lists estimated average air changes per 24 hours
for various sized refrigerators due to door openings
and infiltration for a refrigerated storage room. Note
that these values are subject to major modification if it
is definitely determined that the usage of the storage
room is either heavy or light.
AIR VELOCITY ESTIMATING METHOD

Another means of computing infiltration into a refrigerated space is by means of the velocity of airflow through
an open door. When the door of a refrigerated storage
space is opened, the difference in density between cold
and warm air will create a pressure differential causing
cold air to flow out the bottom of the doorway and warm
air to flow in the top. Velocities will vary from maximum
at the top and bottom to zero in the center.
The estimated average velocity in either half of the door
is 100 feet per minute for a doorway seven feet high at
60F. TD. The velocity will vary as the square root of
the height of the doorway and as the square root of the
temperature difference.
For example the rate of infiltration through a door 8
feet high and 4 feet wide, with a 100F. TD between
the storage room and the ambient can be estimated
as follows:


8 100
7 x 60
13-1
VENTILATING AIR
per cubic foot of infiltration as given in Table 9. For accurate calculations at conditions not covered by Table
9, the heat load can be determined by the difference
in enthalpy between entering air and the storage room
air conditions. This is most easily accomplished by use
of the psychrometric chart, which will be discussed in
detail in a subsequent section.
If positive ventilation is provided for a space by means of

supply or exhaust fans, the ventilation load will replace
the infiltration load (if greater) and the heat gain may be
calculated on the basis of the ventilating air volume.
INFILTRATION HEAT LOAD
Once the rate of infiltration has been determined, the
heat load can then be calculated from the heat gain
13-2


13-3
Section 14
PRODUCT LOAD
HEAT OF RESPIRATION
The product load is composed of any heat gain occurring due to the product in the refrigerated space. The
load may arise from a product placed in the refrigerator
at a temperature higher than the storage temperature,
from a chilling or freezing process, or from the heat of
respiration of perishable products. The total product load
is the sum of the various types of product load which
may apply to the particular application.
Fruits and vegetables, even though they have been

removed from the vine or tree on which they grew, are
still living organisms. Their life processes continue for
some time after being harvested, and as a result they
give off heat. Certain other food products also undergo
continuing chemical reactions which produce heat.
Meats and fish have no further life processes and do
not generate any heat.
TABLES OF SPECIFIC PRODUCT DATA

The following tables list data on specific products that
is essential in calculating the refrigeration product load.
Table 10 covers food products, Table 11 solids, and
Table 12 liquids.
The amount of heat given off is dependent on the

specific product and its storage temperature. Table 10
lists various food products with pertinent storage data.
Note that the heat of respiration varies with the storage
temperature.
14-1


14-2
14-3


14-4
14-5


14-6
SENSIBLE HEAT ABOVE FREEZING
temperature above freezing may be calculated as follows:
Most products are at a higher temperature than the storage temperature when placed in a refrigerator. Since
many foods have a high percentage of water content,
their reaction to a loss of heat is quite different above
and below the freezing point. Above the freezing point,
the water exists in liquid form, while below the freezing
point, the water has changed its state to ice.
Q = W x c x (T1 - T2)

As mentioned previously, the specific heat of a product

is defined as the BTUs required to raise the temperature
of one pound of the substance 1F. The specific heats
of various commodities are listed in Tables 10, 11, and
12. Note that in Table 10 the specific heat of the product
above freezing is different than the specific heat below
freezing, and the freezing point (listed in the first column)
varies, but in practically all cases is below 32F.
Q = BTU to be removed
W = Weight of the product in pounds
c = Specific heat above freezing
T1 = Initial temperature, F.
T2 = Initial temperature, F. (freezing or above)
For example, the heat to be removed in order to cool

1,000 pounds of veal (whose freezing point is 29F.)
from 42F. to 29F. can be calculated as follows:
Q =
=
=
=
The heat to be removed from a product to reduce its
14-7
W x c x (T1 - T2)
1000 pounds x .71 specific heat x (42-29)
1000 x .71 x 13
9,230 BTU

LATENT HEAT OF FREEZING
The latent heat of fusion or freezing for liquids other

than water is given in Table 12. Substances such as
metals which contain no water do not have a freezing
point, and no latent heat of fusion is involved in lowering
their temperature.
= BTU to be removed
= Weight of product in pounds
= Specific heat below freezing
= Freezing temperature
= Final temperature
For example, the heat to be removed in order to cool

1,000 pounds of veal from 29F. to 0F. can be calculated as follows:
Most food products, however, have a high percentage

of water content. In order to calculate the heat removal
required to freeze the product, only the water need be
considered. The water content percentage for various
food products is given in Table 10, Column 2.
Since the latent heat of fusion or freezing of water is 144

BTU/lb., the latent heat of fusion for the product can be
calculated by multiplying 144 BTU/lb. by the percentage
of water content, and for ease in calculations this figure
is given in Column 5 of Table 10. To illustrate, veal has a
water percentage of 63%, and the latent heat of fusion
listed in Column 5 for veal is 91 BTU/lb.
= W x ci x (Tf - T3)
= 1,000 lbs. x .39 specific heat x (29-0)
= 1,000 x .39 x 29
= 11,310 BTU
TOTAL PRODUCT LOAD

The total product load is the sum of the individual
calculations for the sensible heat above freezing, the
latent heat of freezing, and the sensible heat below
freezing.
63% x 144 BTU/lb. = 91 BTU/lb.
From the foregoing example, if 1,000 pounds of veal is

to be cooled from 42F. to 0F., the total would be:
The heat to be removed from a product for the latent

heat of freezing may be calculated as follows:
Sensible Heat above Freezing 9,230

Latent Heat of Freezing
91,000
Sensible Heat Below Freezing 11,310

Total Product Load
111,540
Q = W x hif
Q = BTU to be removed
W = Weight of product in pounds
hif = latent heat of fusion, BTU/lb.
BTU
BTU
BTU
BTU
If several different commodities or crates, baskets, etc.

are to be considered, then a separate calculation must
be made for each item for an accurate estimate of the
product load.
The latent heat of freezing of 1000 pounds of veal at

29F. is:
STORAGE DATA
Q = W x hif

= 1000 lbs. x 91 BTU/lb.

= 91,000 BTU
Most commodities have conditions of temperature and

relative humidity at which their quality is best preserved
and their storage life is a maximum. Recommended storage conditions for various perishable products are listed
in Table 13 and recommended storage conditions for cut
flowers and nursery stock are listed in Table 14.
SENSIBLE HEAT BELOW FREEZING

Once the water content of a product has been frozen,
sensible cooling again can occur in the same manner
as that above freezing, with the exception that the ice in
the product causes the specific heat to change. Note in
Table 10 the specific heat of veal above freezing is .71,
while the specific heat below freezing is .39,
Data on various types of storage containers is listed

in Table 15.
The heat to be removed from a product to reduce its temperature below freezing may be calculated as follow:
Q = W x ci x (Tf - T3)

Q
W
ci
Tf
T3
14-8
14-9


14-10
14-11


14-12
14-13

Section 15
SUPPLEMENTARY LOAD
TOTAL SUPPLEMENTARY LOAD
In addition to the heat transmitted into the refrigerated

space through the walls, air infiltration, and product load,
any heat gain from other sources must be included in
the total cooling load estimate.
The total supplementary load is the sum of the individual

factors contributing to it. For example, the total supplementary load in a refrigerated storeroom maintained at
0F. in which there are 300 watts of electric lights, a 3
HP motor driving a fan, and 2 people working continuously would be as follows:
ELECTRIC LIGHTS AND HEATERS

Any electric energy directly dissipated in the refrigerated
space such as lights, heaters, etc. is converted to heat
and must be included in the heat load. One watt hour
equals 3.41 BTU, and this conversion ratio is accurate
for any amount of electric power.
300 Watts x 3.41 BTU/hr.

1,023 BTU/hr.
3 HP motor x 2,950 BTU/hr. 8,850 BTU/hr.
2 people x 1300 BTU/hr.
2,600 BTU/hr.
Total Supplementary Load 12,473 BTU/hr.
ELECTRIC MOTORS
Since energy cannot be destroyed, and can only be
changed to a different form, any electrical energy
transmitted to motors inside a refrigerated space must
undergo a transformation. Any motor losses due to friction and inefficiency are immediately changed to heat
energy. That portion of the electrical energy converted
into useful work, for example in driving a fan or pump,
exists only briefly as mechanical energy, is transferred
to the fluid medium in the form of increased velocity, and
as the fluid loses its velocity due to friction, eventually
becomes entirely converted into heat energy.
A common misunderstanding is the belief that no heat
is transmitted into the refrigerated space if an electric
motor is located outside the space, and a fan inside the
space is driven by means of a shaft. All of the electrical
energy converted to mechanical energy actually becomes a part of the load in the refrigerated space.
Because the motor efficiency varies with size, the heat
load per horsepower as shown in Table 16 has different
values for varying size motors. While the values in the
table represent useful approximations, the actual electric power input in watts is the only accurate measure
of the energy input.
HUMAN HEAT LOAD
People give off heat and moisture, and the resulting
refrigeration load will vary depending on the duration of
occupancy of the refrigerated space, temperature, type
of work, and other factors. Table 17 lists the average
head load due to occupancy, but stays of short duration,
the heat gain will be somewhat higher.

15-1
Section 16
EQUIPMENT SELECTION
Once the refrigeration load is determined, together with
the required evaporating temperature and the expected
condensing temperature, a compressor can be intelligently selected for a given application.
able, but in general the fact that the compressor is sized

on the basis of 16 to 18 hour operation in itself provides
a sizable safety factor. The load should be calculated
on the basis of the peak demand at design conditions,
and normally the design conditions are selected on the
basis that they will occur no more that 1% of the hours
during the summer months. If the load calculations are
made reasonably accurately, and the equipment sized
properly, an additional safety factor may actually result
in the equipment being oversized during light load conditions, and can result in operating difficulties.
For refrigerated fixtures or prefabricated coolers and

cold storage boxes to be produced in quantity, the
load is normally determined by test. If the load must
be estimated, the expected load should be calculated
by determining the heat gain due to each of the factors
contributing to the total load. Many short methods of
estimating are commonly used for small refrigerated
walk-in storage boxes with varying degrees of accuracy.
A great deal of judgment must be used in the application
of any method.
SAMPLE LOAD CALCULATION

The most accurate means of estimating a refrigeration
load is by considering each factor separately. The following example will illustrate a typical selection procedure,
although the load has been chosen to demonstrate the
calculations required and does not represent a normal
loading.
HOURLY LOAD
Refrigeration equipment is designed to function continuously, and normally the compressor operating time is determined by the requirements of the defrost system. The
load is calculated on a 24 hour basis, and the required
hourly compressor capacity is determined by dividing
the 24 hour load by the desired hours of compressor
operation during the 24 hour period. A reasonable safety
factor must be provided to enable the unit to recover
rapidly after a temperature rise, and to allow for loading
heavier than the original estimate.
Walk-in cooler with 4 inches of glass fiber insulation,

located in the shade.
Outside Dimensions, Height 8 ft., Width 10 ft.,
Length 40 ft., inside volume 3,000 cu. ft.
Floor area (outside dimensions) 400 sq. ft. on insulated
slab in contact with ground.
When the refrigerant evaporating temperature will not be

below 30F., frost will not accumulate on the evaporator,
and no defrost period is necessary. It is general practice
to choose the compressor for such applications on the
basis of 18 to 20 hour operation.
Ambient temperature 100F., 50% relative humidity

Ground temperature 55F.

Refrigerator temperature 40F.
For applications with storage temperatures of 35F.

or higher, and refrigerant temperatures low enough to
cause frosting, it is common practice to defrost by stopping the compressor and allowing the return air to melt
the ice from the coil. Compressors for such applications
should be selected for 16 to 18 hour operation.
1/2 HP fan motor running continuously

Two 100 watt lights, in use 12 hours per day.
Occupancy, 2 men for 2 hours per day.
On low temperature applications, some positive means

of defrost must be provided. With normal defrost periods, 18 hour compressor operation is usually acceptable, although some systems are designed for continuous operation except during the defrost period.
In storage: 500 pounds of bacon at 50F.

1000 pounds of string beans
Entering product:

500 pounds of bacon at 50F.

15,000 pounds of beer at 80F.

To be reduced to storage temperature

in 24 hours.
An additional 5% to 10% safety factor is often added to

load calculations as a conservative measure to be sure
the equipment will not be undersized. If data concerning
the refrigeration load is very uncertain, this may be desir-
Heavy door usage.
16-1

(A)
HEAT TRANSMISSION LOAD
(E) REQUIRED COMPRESSOR CAPACITY
Sidewalls:
40 x 8 x 2 = 640 Ft2 x
60TD x 1.9 (Table 7A)
24 Hour Load:
= 72,960 BTU
10 x 8 x 2 = 160 Ft2 x
60TD x 1.9
= 18,240
Ceiling:
40 x 10 = 400 Ft2 x 60TD
x 1.9
= 45,600
Floor:
40 x 10 = 400 Ft2 x 15TD
x 1.9
= 11,400
Heat Transmission
Air Infiltration
Product
Supplementary

Total 24 Hour Load
148,200 BTU
120,270
608,025
62,544
939,039 BTU
Required compressor capacity:

Based on 16 hour operation 58,690 BTU/Hr.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND EVAPORATOR TD
2,500 BTU
Relative humidity in a storage space is affected by

many variables, such as system running time, moisture
infiltration, condition and amount of product surface exposed, air motion, outside air conditions, type of system
control, etc. Perishable products differ in their requirements for an optimum relative humidity for storage, and
recommended storage conditions for various products
are shown in Tables 13 and 14. Normally satisfactory
control of relative humidity in a given application can be
achieved by selecting the compressor and evaporator
for the proper operating temperature difference or TD
between the desired room temperature and the refrigerant evaporating temperature.
15,000 lbs. beer x 1.0 sp. ht.

(Table 10) x 40TD
= 600,000 BTU
The following general recommendations have proven

to be satisfactory in most normal applications:
500 lbs. lettuce x 2700

BTU/24 Hr/Ton (Table 10) =

Desired
TD
Temperature
Relative
(Refrigerant
Range
Humidity
to Air)
25F. to 45F.
90%
8F. to 12F.
25F. to 45F.
85%
10F. to 14F.
25F. to 45F.
80%
12F. to 16F.
25F. to 45F.
75%
16F. to 22F.
10F. and below

15F. or less
Total 24 hour transmission load = 148,200

(B) AIR INFILTRATION
3000 Ft3 x 9.5 air changes
(Table 8) x 2 usage factor x
2.11 factor (Table 9) 120,270 BTU
(C) PRODUCT LOAD
500 lbs. bacon x .50 sp.
ht. (Table 10) x 10TD
675 BTU

1,000 lbs. beans x 9700
BTU/24 Hr/Ton (Table 10)
= 4,850 BTU

Total 24 hour Product Load 608,025 BTU
(D) SUPPLEMENTARY LOAD
200 Watts x 12 hours x 3.41
BTU/Hr
8,184 BTU
1/2 H.P. x 4250 BTU/Hr-Hr

(Table 16) x 24
51,000 BTU
2 People x 2 Hrs/Day x 840

BTU/Hr (Table 17)
3,360 BTU
Total 24 hour Supplementary

Load
62,544 BTU

COMPRESSOR SELECTION

In order to select a suitable compressor for a given
application, not only the required compressor capacity
must be known, but also the desired evaporating and
condensing temperatures.
Assuming a desired relative humidity of 80%, a 14 TD
might be used, which in a 40F. storage room result
in evaporating temperature of 26F. To provide some
safety factor for line losses, the compressor should be
selected for the desired capacity at 2F. to 3F. below
the desired evaporating temperature.
16-2
The condensing temperature depends on the type of

condensing medium to be used, air or water, the design
ambient temperature or water temperature, and the
capacity of the condenser selected. Air cooled condensers are commonly selected to operate on temperature
differences (TD) from 10F. to 30F. the lower TD normally being used for low temperature applications, and
higher TDs for high temperature applications where the
compression ratio is less critical. For the purposes of
this example, a design TD of 20F. has been selected,
and in 100F. ambient temperatures, this would result
in a condensing temperature of 120F.
accumulation involving latent heat will occur, unless the

latent load is unusually large, the dry bulb ratings may
be used without appreciable error.
Because of the many variables involved, the calculation
of system balance points is extremely complicated. A
simple, accurate, and convenient method of forecasting system performance from readily available manufacturers catalog data is the graphical construction of
a component balancing chart. The following example
illustrates the use of such a chart in checking the possible balance points of a system when selecting equipment. To illustrate the procedure, tentative selections
of a compressor, condenser, and evaporator have been
made for the sample load previously calculated.
COMPONENT BALANCING
Commercially available components seldom will exactly
match the design requirements of a given system, and
since system design is normally based on estimated
peak loads, the system may often have to operate at
conditions other than design conditions. More than
one combination of components may meet the performance requirements, the efficiency of the system
normally being dependent on the point at which the
system reaches stabilized conditions or balances under
operating conditions.
Figure 69 shows the compressor capacity curves as

published by Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc. on
the Copeland brand compressor specification sheet.
It should be noted that Copeland brand compressor
capacity curves for Copelametic compressors are
based on 65F. return suction gas. In order to realize the
full compressor capacity, the suction gas must be raised
to this temperature in a heat exchanger. If the suction
gas returns to the compressor at a lower temperature,
or if the increase in suction gas temperature occurs due
to heat transfer into the suction line outside the refrigerated space, the effective compressor capacity will be
somewhat lower. In the example, the desired capacity
was 58,690 BTU/hr. at 24F. evaporating temperature
and 120F.condensing temperature, and this compressor was the closest choice available, having a capacity
of 57,000 BTU/hr. at the design conditions.
The capacities of each of the three major system

components, the compressor, the condenser, and the
evaporator, are each variable but interrelated. The
compressor capacity varies with the evaporating and
condensing temperatures. For illustration purposes an
air cooled condenser will be considered, and for a given
condenser with constant air flow, its capacity will vary
with the temperature difference between the condensing
temperature and the ambient temperature.
Figure 70 shows the same compressor curves, with

the condenser capacity curves for the tentative condenser selection superimposed. From the condenser
manufacturers data, condenser capacity in terms of
compressor capacity at varying evaporating temperatures are plotted, and the condenser capacity curves can
then be drawn. Note that the net condensing capacity
decreases at lower evaporating temperatures due to
the increased heat of compression.
The factors involved in the variation in evaporator capacity are quite complex when both sensible heat transfer
and condensation are involved. For component balancing purposes, the capacity of an evaporator where
both latent and sensible heat transfer are involved (a
wet coil) may be calculated as being proportional to the
total heat content of the entering air, and this in turn is
proportional to the wet bulb temperature. For wet coil
conditions, evaporator capacities are normally available
from coil manufacturers with ratings based on the wet
bulb temperature of the air entering the coil. For conditions in which no condensation occurs (a dry coil) the
evaporator capacity can be accurately estimated on
the basis of the dry bulb temperature of the air entering the coil.
It is now possible to construct balance lines for the compressor and condenser at various ambient temperatures
as shown in Figure 71. For an ambient temperature
of 100F., point A would represent the balance point
if the compressor were operating at a suction pressure equivalent to a 28F. evaporating temperature
and 120F. condensing temperature. At this point the
capacity of the condenser would exactly match that of
the compressor at a 20 TD (condensing temperature
minus ambient temperature). The balance point is determined by the intersection of the 20F. TD condenser
capacity curve with the compressor capacity curve for
Some manufacturers of commercial and low temperature coils publish only ratings based on the temperature
difference between entering dry bulb temperature and
the evaporating refrigerant temperature. Although frost
16-3


16-4
CONDENSER CAPACITY CURVES SUPERIMPOSED

ON COMPRESSOR CAPACITY CURVES
16-5


16-6
16-7


16-8
a condensing temperature 20F above the specified

ambient temperature of 100F., or 120F. In a similar
manner balance point B can be located by the intersection of the 25F. TD condenser capacity curve and
the compressor capacity curve (estimated) for 125F.
condensing, and balance point C can be located by the
intersection of the 15F. TD condenser capacity curve
with the compressor capacity curve (estimated) for
115F. condensing. The line connecting points A, B, and
C represents all the possible balance points when the
system is operating with air entering the condenser at a
temperature of 100F. In a similar fashion, condensercompressor balance lines can be determined for other
ambient temperatures, and plotted as shown in Figure
72. (To simplify the illustration, condenser capacity
curves have not been shown)
ambient temperature. With 100F. ambient temperature

and an evaporator entering air temperature of 40F.,
the original design conditions, the system would have
a capacity of 59,000 BTU/hr, a compressor suction
pressure equivalent to an evaporating temperature of
26F., and a condensing temperature of 120F. Even
under extreme load conditions of 50F. entering air and
110F. ambient, the condensing temperature would not
exceed 133F. These conditions are close enough to
the original design requirement to insure satisfactory
performance.
The tentative evaporator coil selected was rated by

the manufacturer only in terms of BTU/hr per degree
temperature difference between the entering dry bulb
temperature and the refrigerant evaporating temperature, and have a capacity of 4,590 BTU/hr/TD. In Figure
73 evaporator capacity curves have been plotted and
superimposed on the compressor capacity curves and
the condenser-compressor balance lines. An evaporator
capacity curve for each entering air temperature can be
constructed by plotting any two points.
THE EFFECT OF CHANGE IN COMPRESSOR

ONLY ON SYSTEM BALANCE
This type of graphical analysis can be quickly and easily made by using the compressor specification sheet
as the basic chart, and superimposing condenser and
evaporator capacity curves.
Occasionally the exact replacement compressor may

not be available, and the question arises as to whether
an alternate compressor with either more or less capacity might provide satisfactory performance. The
graphical balance chart provides a convenient means
of forecasting system performance.
Figure 74 is a revised balance chart for a system utilizing
the same evaporator and condenser as in the previous
example, but with a compressor having only 5/6 of the
previous capacity. New compressor capacity curves for
the smaller compressor have been plotted on the same
capacity chart used previously. Since there is no change
in the basic capacity of the condenser or evaporator,
the condenser capacity and evaporator capacity curves
are unchanged.
Point A represents the evaporator capacity at 14TD

which for an entering air temperature of 40F. would
require a refrigerant evaporating temperature of 26F.
However, an allowance must be made for line friction
losses since the pressure in the evaporator will always
be higher than the suction pressure at the compressor
because of pressure drop in the suction line. Allowing
2F. as an estimated allowance for line pressure drop,
an evaporating temperature of 26F. would result in a
pressure at the compressor equivalent to a saturated
evaporating temperature of 24F. Therefore the capacity of the evaporator for a 14 TD and 40F. entering
air would be plotted at the corresponding compressor
capacity at 24F.
However, a new compressor-condenser balance line

must be plotted, and to avoid excessive detail in the illustration, a balance line for 100 ambient temperature
only has been shown.
A comparison can now be made between the system
with the original compressor, Figure 73, and the system
with the smaller compressor, Figure 74.
Point B represents the evaporator capacity at 10

TD, which for 40F. entering air temperature requires
a refrigerant evaporating temperature of 30F., and
after allowing for suction line losses, a corresponding
compressor capacity at 28F. A line can then be drawn
through these two points, representing all possible
capacities of the evaporator with 40F. entering air
and varying refrigerant evaporating temperatures. In a
similar fashion, capacity curves can be constructed for
other entering air temperatures.

Original Revised

System System
Ambient Temperature 100F.
100F.
Air Entering Evaporator 40F. 40F.
Refrigerant Evaporating
Temp. 26F. 27F.
Condensing Temperature 120F.
115F.
Capacity at 100F. Ambient
and 40F. Entering Air,
BTU/hr. 59,000
53,000
The system performance can now be forecast for any

condition of evaporator entering air temperature and
16-9


16-10
QUICK SELECTION TABLES FOR WALK-IN

COOLERS
Note that although the compressor capacity was decreased by 1/6 or 16 2/3%, the net system capacity
decreased only about 10%. Since the condenser and
evaporator were unchanged, the compressor could
operate at more efficient conditions, with decreased
condensing pressure and increased suction pressure.
The most accurate means of determining the refrigeration load is by calculating each of the factors contributing
to the load as was done in the previous example. However, for small walk-in coolers, various types of short
cut estimating methods are frequently used.
The same type of analysis can be applied to determine

the effect on system capacity if the compressor on a
unit designed for 60 cycle operation is operated on 50
cycle power. However for the evaporator and condenser
capacity to remain constant, the air flow across both
evaporator and condenser must be unchanged. If the
original balance chart was made on the basis of fans
operating on 60 cycle power, and the fan air delivery is
decreased by operation of the fan motors on 50 cycle
power, then both the evaporator and condenser capacity curves must be changed to reflect the decrease in
capacity.
The transmission load will always be dependent on the

external surface, and an actual calculation should be
made where possible.
As an aid in rapid selection of a condensing unit for the
normal walk-in cooler application, Tables 19 and 20 give
recommended refrigeration capacities for various sized
coolers. The condensing unit capacity must be equal
to or greater than the capacity shown at the required
refrigerant evaporating temperature after allowance for
the desired evaporating and condensing TD.
Another type of application where this type of analysis

may be valuable is on systems with fluctuating loads
and compressors with capacity control features. Since
the evaporator and condenser remain unchanged, the
reduced compressor capacity can be plotted as demonstrated, and new balance points determined, taking
into effect any changes in the temperature of the air
entering the evaporator.
The capacities given are for average applications. If the

load is unusual, these tables should not be used. The
low temperature tables do not include any allowance
for a freezing load, and if a product is to be frozen, additional capacity will be required.
16-11

Table 18
Table 19

16-12
16-13

Form No. AE 103 R3 (10/06)

Emerson, Emerson. Consider It Solved, Emerson Climate Technologies and
the Emerson Climate Technologies logo are the trademarks and service marks of
Emerson Electric Co. and are used with the permission of Emerson Electric Co.
Copelametic, Copeland, and the Copeland brand products logo are the
trademarks and service marks of Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.
All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.
Printed in the USA. 1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc. All rights reserved.
1675 W. Campbell Rd.

Sidney, OH 45365
EmersonClimate.com

Refrigeration Manual: Part 3 - The Refrigeration Load

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Refrigeration Manual: Part 3 - The Refrigeration Load

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Refrigeration Manual

Part 3 - The Refrigeration Load

1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

Section 14. PRODUCT LOAD

Transmission Heat Load Q........................... 12-1

Tables of Specific Product Data........................ 14-1

Section 13. AIR INFILTRATION

Section 16. EQUIPMENT SELECTION

Air Change Estimating Method.......................... 13-1

Hourly Load....................................................... 16-1

Section 15. SUPPLEMENTARY LOAD

1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

Typical Heat Transmission Coefficients.................................................................................. 12-3

1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

the thermal conductivity factor should be as small as

In catalog and technical literature pertaining to heat

TRANSMISSION HEAT LOAD Q

Q is the rate of heat flow, the quantity of heat flowing

SURFACE FILM RESISTANCE

Heat transfer through any material is affected by the

Thermal conductivity, k, is defined as the rate of heat

However, in refrigeration work with insulated walls, the

The overall coefficient of heat transfer, U, is defined as

1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

coefficient after giving effect to thermal conductivity,

.80, and two inches of insulation having a conductance

The formula for calculating the U factor is complicated

The basic relation between the U factor and the various

TRANSMISSION HEAT LOAD

Assume a wall with a U factor of .114 as calculated in the

In the above equation, k1, k2, etc. are the thermal

1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

= 6.25 + 2.5 = 8.75

The entire heat gain into a given refrigerated space

VALUES OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY FOR

OUTDOOR DESIGN DATA

Extensive testing has been done by many laboratories

However, it is neither economical or practical to design

Heat transmission coefficients for many commonly used

1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

ALLOWANCE FOR RADIATION FROM THE SUN

RECOMMENDED INSULATION THICKNESS

The primary radiation factor involved in the refrigeration

As the desired storage temperature decreases, the

This table is usable for refrigeration loads only, and is

1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

QUICK CALCULATION TABLE FOR

1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

Because of the many variables involved, it is difficult to

Estimated rate of Infiltration

AIR CHANGE ESTIMATING METHOD

1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

If positive ventilation is provided for a space by means of

1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.

Fruits and vegetables, even though they have been

TABLES OF SPECIFIC PRODUCT DATA

The amount of heat given off is dependent on the

1968 Emerson Climate Technologies, Inc.