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Fluid Flow in Porous Media PDF
Fluid Flow in Porous Media PDF
in Petroleum Engineering
2002-2003
1.
Section 1
Page 1
where:
CA(P gz)
L
(1)
P = pressure [Pa]
= density [kg/m3]
g = gravitational acceleration [m/s2]
z = vertical coordinate (measured downwards) [m]
L = length of sample [m]
Q = volumetric flowrate [m3/s]
C = constant of proportionality [m2/Pa s]
A = cross-sectional area of sample [m2]
Any consistent set of units can be used in Darcys law, such
as SI units, cgs units, British engineering units, etc.
Unfortunately, in the oil industry it is common to use oilfield
units, which are not consistent.
Darcys law is mathematically analogous to other linear
phenomenological transport laws, such as Ohms law for electrical
conduction, Ficks law for solute diffusion, or Fouriers law for heat
conduction.
Department of Earth Science and Engineering
Imperial College
Section 1
Page 2
where
(2)
Q k (P gz)
=
,
A
L
(3)
Imperial College
Section 1
Page 3
For transient processes in which the flux varies from pointto-point, we need a differential form of Darcys law. In the vertical
direction, this equation would take the form
qv =
Q k d(P gz)
=
.
A
dz
(4)
The minus sign is included because the fluid flows in the direction
from higher to lower potential.
The differential form of Darcys law for one-dimensional,
horizontal flow is
qH =
Q k d(P gz) k dP
=
=
.
dx
A
dx
(5)
12
m 10
12
m .
(6)
Imperial College
Section 1
Page 4
Many soils and sands that civil engineers must deal with
have permeabilities on the order of a few Darcies. The original
purpose of the Darcy definition was therefore to avoid the need
for using small prefixes such as 10-12, etc. Fortunately, a Darcy is
nearly a round number in SI units, so conversion between the two
units is easy.
The numerical value of k for a given rock depends on the
diameter of the pores in the rock, d, as well as on the degree of
interconnectivity of the void space. Very roughly speaking,
k d 2 /1000 . Typical values for intact (i.e., unfractured) rock are
given in the following table:
Rock Type
k (Darcies)
k (m2)
coarse gravel
103 - 104
10-9 - 10-8
sands, gravels
100 - 103
10-12 - 10-9
10-4 - 100
10-16 - 10-12
clay, shales
10-9 - 10-6
10-21 - 10-18
limestones
100 - 102
10-12 - 10-10
sandstones
10-5 - 101
10-17 - 10-11
weathered chalk
100 - 102
10-12 - 10-10
unweathered chalk
10-9 - 10-1
10-21 - 10-13
granite, gneiss
10-8 - 10-4
10-20 - 10-16
The permeabilities of various rock and soil types vary over many
orders of magnitude. However, the permeabilities of petroleum
reservoir rocks tend to be in the range of 0.001-1.0 Darcies. It is
therefore convenient to refer to permeability of reservoir rocks in
units of milliDarcies (mD), which equal 0.001 Darcies.
Imperial College
Section 1
Page 5
The values in the above table are for intact rock. In some
reservoirs, however, the permeability is due mainly to an
interconnected network of fractures. The permeabilities of
fractured rock masses tend to be in the range 1 mD to 10 Darcies.
In a fractured reservoir, the reservoir-scale permeability is not
closely related to the core scale permeability that one would
measure in the laboratory.
1.2. Datum levels and corrected pressure
If the fluid is in static equilibrium, then q = 0, and eq. (1.1.4)
yields
d(P gz)
=0
dz
P gz = constant .
(1)
(2)
(3)
Imperial College
Section 1
Page 6
Q k dPc
=
.
A dx
(4)
(5)
Imperial College
Section 1
Page 7
R1
R2
Imperial College
Section 1
Page 8
P = Po
Ro
H
R
kA dP
.
dR
(1)
Imperial College
Section 1
Page 9
2kH
dP
.
dR
(2)
P 2kH
dR
=
dP
Q
Ro
Po
ln
P(R) = Po
R 2kH
=
(P Po )
Ro
Q
Q ln R .
2kH Ro
(3)
Imperial College
Section 1
Page 10
(P-Po )2kH/ Q
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
Thiem formula
4.00
5.00
0.2
0.4
0.6
R/Ro
0.8
Imperial College
Section 1
Page 11
Q Rw
Pw = Po +
ln .
2kH Ro
(5)
q(x)
x
x+x
Imperial College
(1)
Section 1
Page 12
Note that the property that is conserved is the mass of the fluid,
not the volume of the fluid.
Consider the period of time between time t and time t +t.
To be concrete, assume that the fluid is flowing from left to right
through the core. During this time increment, the mass flux into
this region of rock between will be
Mass flux in = A(x)(x)q(x)t.
(2)
(3)
(4)
A[ q ( x + x ) q ( x )] = lim
(5)
(6)
Imperial College
A[ q ( x + x ) q ( x )] =
Section 1
Page 13
d ( )
Ax .
dt
(7)
d ( q ) d ( )
=
.
dx
dt
(8)
(9)
Imperial College
Section 1
Page 14
d dP
d dP
+
dP dt
dP dt
= 1 d + 1 d dP
dP dP dt
= (c +cf ) dP ,
dt
where
(1)
d( q)
d k dP k d 2P d dP
+
dx
dx dx dx 2 dx dx
k d 2P d dP dP
=
+
dx 2 dP dx dx
k d 2P 1 d dP
=
+
dx 2 dP dx
Imperial College
Section 1
Page 15
dP
k d 2 P
=
+ cf .
dx 2
dx
(2)
(3)
Ratio =
Q
2kHR
(4)
(5)
cf Q cf (Po Pw )
=
.
2kH ln(Ro /Rw )
(6)
Po Pw 10 MPa = 10 Pa ,
4
10 10 107
Ratio =
= 10 4 << 1 .
10
Imperial College
(7)
Section 1
Page 16
This example shows that, for liquids, the nonlinear term in eq. (3)
is small. In practice, it is usually neglected. For gases, however, it
cannot be neglected (see section 9).
The one-dimensional, linearised form of the diffusion
equation is therefore
dP
k d 2P
=
,
dt ct dx 2
(8)
(9)
c (1/Pa)
Clay
10-6 - 10-8
Sand
10-7 - 10-9
Gravel
10-8 - 10-10
Intact rock
10-9 - 10-11
Jointed rock
10-10 - 10-12
Water
5 x 10-10
Oil
10-9
Imperial College
Section 1
Page 17
k
.
ct
(10)
= 4D H t =
4kt
.
ct
(11)
ct 2
4k
(12)
Imperial College
Section 1
Page 18
R
q(R)
q(R+R)
= m(t + t) m(t) .
(1)
dm
.
dt
(2)
(3)
Imperial College
Section 1
Page 19
d( )
dm d( 2HRR)
=
= 2HR
R .
dt
dt
dt
(4)
d( )
d( qR)
=R
.
dt
dR
(5)
(6)
Follow the same procedure as that which led to eq. (1.6.3), to find
dP 2 (cf + c ) dP
1 d dP
R
+ cf =
.
k
R dR dR
dt
dR
(7)
(8)
Imperial College
Section 1
Page 20
kkrw dPw
,
w dx
(1)
qo =
kkro dPo
,
o dx
(2)
(3)
(4)
Imperial College
Section 1
Page 21
(5)
d( wqw ) d(wSw )
=
.
dx
dt
(6)
o = o (Po ) .
(7)
w = w (Pw ) .
(8)
where the right-hand sides of eqs. (7) and (8) are known functions
of the pressure, and (for our present purposes) the temperature is
assumed constant.
Finally, the porosity must be some function of the phase
pressures, Po and Pw . Currently, little is known about the manner
in which these two pressures independently affect the porosity.
Fortunately, the capillary pressure is usually small, and so
Po Pw , in which case we can use the pressure-porosity
relationship that would be obtained in a laboratory test performed
under single-phase conditions, i.e.,
= (Po ) .
(9)
Imperial College
Section 1
Page 22
(10)
etc., where the subscript i denotes the initial state, and the
compressibility co is taken to be a constant.
______________________________________________
Tutorial Sheet 1:
(1) A well located in a 100 ft. thick reservoir having permeability
100 mD produces 100 barrels/day of oil from a 10 in. diameter
wellbore. The viscosity of the oil is 0.4 cP. The pressure at a
distance of 1000 feet from the wellbore is 3000 psi. What is the
pressure in the wellbore? Conversion factors are as follows:
1 barrel = 0.1589 m3
1 Poise = 0.1 Newton-seconds/m2
1 foot = 0.3048 m
1 psi = 6895 N/ m2 = 6895 Pa
(2) Carry out a derivation of the diffusion equation for sphericallysymmetric flow, in analogy to the derivation given in section 1.7
for radial flow. The result should be an equation similar to eq.
(1.7.8), but with a slightly different term on the right-hand side.
Imperial College
Section 2
Page 23
Imperial College
Section 2
Page 24
ct dP
k
(1)
If the well does not fully penetrate the reservoir, we must add
d 2P/dz2 to the RHS of eq. (1). The solution to this much more
difficult problem is discussed by de Marsily, pp. 179-190.
Department of Earth Sciences and Engineering
Imperial College
Section 2
Page 25
1 d dP c dP
R
=
,
k dt
R dR dR
(1)
Initial condition:
P(R,t = 0) = Pi ,
(2)
BC at wellbore:
2kH dP
= Q ,
R
lim
dR
R0
(3)
BC at infinity:
lim P(R,t) = Pi .
(4)
Imperial College
First define
transformation:
new
Section 2
Page 26
variable
cR 2
kt
using
the
Boltzmann
(5)
(6)
R dR dR R R d d R2 d d
(7)
dt
d
d dt
kt
c dP
k
c dP cR2 dP 2 dP
=
=
= 2
. (8)
2 d
kt
dt
k t d
d
R
R
(9)
Imperial College
Section 2
Page 27
(10)
= Q ,
lim
d
0
dP
Q
lim =
.
d
4
kH
(11)
where
y =
dP
,
d
(12)
Imperial College
y( ) dy
y (0)
Section 2
Page 28
y()
=
ln
y(0)
4
y() = y (0)e
/ 4
(13)
Q
,
4 kH
(14)
Q / 4
e
.
4 kH
(15)
(16)
Imperial College
Section 2
Page 29
Q e / 4
d
dP =
kH
4
Pi
P( )
Q e / 4
d .
P() = Pi
4 kH
(17)
cR
Q
e / 4
.
P
= Pi 4 kH 2 d
kt
cR
(18)
kt
cR 2
Q
e u
.
P
= Pi 4 kH 2 u du
4
kt
cR
(19)
4kt
e
u du .
x
(20)
Imperial College
Section 2
Page 30
where
Q
Ei ( x ) ,
4 kH
u
u du ,
x
(22)
x = cR2 / 4kt .
(23)
Ei ( x ) =
and
(21)
(b)
(c)
Imperial College
Section 2
Page 31
x1
.219
.049
.013
x10-1
1.82
1.22
x10-2
4.04
x10-3
1.2e-4
3.8e-5
1.2e-5
0.91
0.70
0.56
0.45
0.37
0.31
0.26
3.35
2.96
2.68
2.47
2.30
2.15
2.03
1.92
6.33
5.64
5.23
4.95
4.73
4.54
4.39
4.26
4.14
x10-4
8.63
7.94
7.53
7.25
7.02
6.84
6.69
6.55
6.44
x10-5
9.55
9.33
9.14
8.99
8.86
8.74
x10-6
11.29
11.16
11.04
x10-7
13.60
13.46
13.34
x10-8
15.90
15.76
15.65
x10-9
18.20
18.07
17.95
x10-10
20.50
20.37
20.25
x10-11
22.81
22.67
22.55
x10-12
25.11
24.97
24.86
x10-13
27.41
27.28
27.16
x10-14
29.71
29.58
29.46
x10-15
32.02
31.88
31.76
Imperial College
Section 2
Page 32
variables
tD =
kt
cR2
are
defined
as
the
(1)
PD =
2kH( Pi P)
.
Q
(2)
PD = Ei(1/ 4t D ) .
(3)
Imperial College
Section 2
Page 33
Dimensionless Drawdown, P D
PD = 2kH(Pi-P)/Q
-21
tD = kt/ cR2
-3
-42
-5
3
-7
44
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Dimensionless Time, t D
Imperial College
Section 2
Page 34
cRw2
4k
(1)
10
-1
Rw = 0.1m ,
k = 10
14
Imperial College
Section 2
Page 35
1 u
u
e
e
e
Ei(x) =
du =
du +
du .
u
u
u
x
x
1
(1)
11
du =
u
1!
u2
2!
u3
3!
+L
du .
(2)
11
11
11
11 2
e
du = du du + udu + u du L
u
1! x
2! x
3! x
x
xu
= lnu
= (ln1 lnx) (1 x ) +
= ln x + x
1
2
1
3
1u
+L
3! 3
x
1
1
2
3
(1 x )
(1 x ) + L
2!2
3!3
1 2
1 3
1
1
x +
x + L 1
+
+ L
2!2 3!3
2!2
3!3
Ei(x) = ln x ln + x
Department of Earth Sciences and Engineering
1 2
1 3
x +
x + L,
2!2
3!3
Imperial College
(3)
where
Section 2
Page 36
e u
1
1
du .
ln = 1
+
+ L
2!2 3!3
1 u
(4)
Eq. (4) may look messy, but the important point is that the term
ln is merely a number, and does not depend on x, so we can
evaluate it numerically to find
ln = ln(1.781) = 0.5772 .
(5)
1 2
1 3
x +
x +L < x .
2!2
3!3
(6)
cR2
< 0.01
4kt
kt
cR 2
> 25 .
(7)
Q
[ln x + ln ]
4 kH
Imperial College
P(R,t ) = Pi +
Q
ln(x )
4 kH
Q cR2
P(R,t ) = Pi +
ln
4 kH 4kt
Q 4kt
P(R,t ) = Pi
ln
4 kH cR 2
P(R,t) = Pi
Section 2
Page 37
Q ln 2.246kt
4 kH cR2
(8)
Q kt
.
+
0.80907
P(R,t ) = Pi
ln
4 kH cR 2
(9)
PD =
1
ln(t D ) + 0.80907)
2
(10)
Imperial College
Section 2
Page 38
Dimensionless Drawdown, P D
PD = 2kH(Pi-P)/Q
tD = kt/ cR2
1
2
Exponential Integral Solution
Logarithmic Approximation
3
4
0.1
10
10 2
10 3
Dimensionless Time, tD
Imperial College
Section 2
Page 39
Q e u
P(R,t) = Pi +
du, x = cR2 / 4kt ,
4kH x u
(1)
where t is the elapsed time since the start of injection. The + sign
is used because we are injecting rather than extracting fluid, so
the pressure in the reservoir will increase.
Now imagine that we stop injecting fluid after a small amount
of time t. This is equivalent to injecting fluid at a rate Q starting
at t = 0, and then producing fluid at a rate Q (or, equivalently,
injecting at a rate -Q) starting at time t. The pressure drawdown
in the reservoir due to this fictitious production would be given by
the same line-source solution, except that:
(1) For extraction of fluid we must use a - sign in front of
the integral;
(2) If t is the elapsed time since the start of injection, then tt will be the elapsed time since the start of the fictitious extraction
of fluid (i.e., since the end of injection!)
Hence, the full expression for the pressure will be
Q
P(R,t) = Pi +
4kH
x=
e u
Q
du
4kH
cR2 u
4kt
x=
cR2
4k (t t )
e u
du
u
Imperial College
Q
= Pi +
4kH
x=
Section 2
Page 40
cR2
4k (t t )
x=
cR2
e u
du .
u
(2)
4kt
(3)
x1
Q
4kt
P(R,t) Pi +
e
4kH cR 2
cR2
Q
4kt
Pi +
e
4kH cR 2
4kt
cR 2
2
cR
4k(t t)
4kt
cR2
4kt
Q t
Pi +
e
4kHt
cR 2t
4kt
cR2
4kt
(4)
Imperial College
Section 2
Page 41
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
-0.1
0.01
0.1
10 1
Dimensionless Time, t
= kt/ cR 2
P
t R
1 cR2 cR2
+
e 4kt ,
=
2
3
4kH t
4kt
P
=0
t R
t =
cR 2
4k
(6)
(5)
Imperial College
Section 2
Page 42
Q 2.246kt
P(R,t) = Pi
ln
.
4 kH cR 2
(1)
2.246k
Q
.
P(Rw ,t) = Pi
lnt + ln
2
4 kH
cRw
(2)
Imperial College
Section 2
Page 43
kH =
(3)
Q
.
4 m
(4)
10
20
30
60
Pw (psi)
4740
4667
4633
4596
4573
35
Imperial College
(1)
Section 2
Page 44
4800
Wellbore Pressure (data)
Straight line (fitted)
4750
4700
4650
4600
4550
4500
1
(2)
10
t (mins)
100
Look for a straight line at long times, and find its slope:
m=
P
4760 4510
=
= 54.3 psi
lnt
2 2.303
= 54.3psi
6895 Pa
= 374,400 Pa .
psi
Note: lnt has the same value regardless of which units are used
for t!
(3)
= 0.3 cP
0.001 Pa s
= 0.0003 Pa s
cP
3
hr
bbl 0.1589 m3 day
4 m
Q = 200
= 3.68 10
24hr 3600 s
day
bbl
s
Imperial College
H = 15 ft
Section 2
Page 45
0.3048 m
= 4.572 m
ft
Q
(0.0003Pa s)(3.68 10-4 m 3/s)
k=
=
4mH
4 (4.572m)(374,400Pa)
= 5.13 10 -15 m2
1mD
0.987 10
-15
= 5.1mD .
A:
Q 2.246kt *
Pi = Pi
ln
4 kH cRw2
2.246kt *
=0
ln
cR2
2.246kt *
cRw2
c =
=1
2.246kt *
Rw2
(5)
where t* is the intersection time; see the well test analysis module
for details.
Department of Earth Sciences and Engineering
Imperial College
Section 2
Page 46
______________________________________________
Tutorial Sheet 2:
(1) A well with 3 in. radius is located in a 40 ft. thick reservoir
having permeability 30 mD and porosity 0.20. The total
compressibility of the oil/rock system is 3x10-5/psi. The initial
pressure in the reservoir is 2800 psi. The well produces 448
barrels/day of oil having a viscosity of 0.4 cP.
(a) How long will it take in order for the line-source solution to be
applicable at the wellbore wall?
(b) What is the pressure in the wellbore after six days of
production, according to the line-source solution?
(c) How long will it take in order for Jacobs logarithmic
approximation to be valid at the wellbore?
(d) What is the pressure in the wellbore after six days of
production, according to the logarithmic approximation?
(e) Answer questions (b)-(d) for a location that is 800 ft.
(horizontally) away from the wellbore.
Conversion factors can be found at end of Tutorial Sheet 1.
(2) A well with radius 0.3 ft. produces 200 barrels/day of oil, with
viscosity 0.6 cP, from a 20 ft. thick reservoir. The wellbore
pressures are as follows:
t (mins)
10
20
60
120
480
1440
2880
5760
Pw (psi)
4000
3943
3938
3933
3926
3921
3911
3904
3899
3894
Imperial College
3.
Section 3
Page 47
(1)
M(cF1) = cM(F1) ,
(2)
(3)
Section 3
Page 48
dP (R,t)
d
cP1(R,t) = c 1
.
dt
dt
(4)
d(P1 + P2 )
dt
dP dP
= (P1 + P2 ) 1 + 2
dt
dt
= P1
dP1
dP
dP
dP
+ P2 1 + P1 2 + P2 2
dt
dt
dt
dt
= M {P1}+ M {P2}+ P2
dP1
dP
+ P1 2
dt
dt
(5)
Section 3
Page 49
6)
=
, etc.
dt
dt
dt
dt
(7)
Section 3
Page 50
.
P1 = Pi P1(R,t) =
Ei
4kH 4kt
(1)
(2)
Section 3
Page 51
=
Ei
Ei
+
cR 2
Q cR2
.
Ei
=
Ei
4kH 4kt
4k(t t1)
in
(3)
which
case
cR 2
Q cR 2
.
Ei
P(R,t) = Pi +
Ei
4kH 4kt
4k(t t 1)
(4)
Section 3
Page 52
2.246k
2.246k
Q
ln(t t 1) ln
lnt + ln
P(R,t) = Pi
2
2
4kH
cR
cR
P(R,t) = Pi
Q
{lnt ln(t t1)}
4kH
P(R,t) = Pi
t
Q
ln
.
4kH (t t1)
(5)
Q t + t
.
Pw (t ) = Pi
ln
4kH t
(6)
Section 3
Page 53
time
for
for
(1)
t > t1 .
(2)
Section 3
Page 54
Q0 cR 2 (Q1 Q0 ) cR2
P(R,t) =
Ei
Ei
. (3)
4kH
4kH 4kt
4k(t
t
)
1
(4)
.
4kH 4kt i =1 4kH
4k(t
t
)
i
(5)
PQ (R,t)
P(R,t;Q)
Q
cR2
Ei
4kH 4kt
(6)
(7)
Section 3
Page 55
Q4
Q0
t0
t1
t2
t3
t4
t5
=
.
dt t
t
t i t i 1
(1)
dQ(t i )
[t i t i 1 ] .
dt
(2)
Section 3
Page 56
dQ(t i )
PQ (R,t t i )[t i t i 1 ] . (3)
dt
i =1
P(R,t) = Q0 PQ (R,t) +
(4)
i =1
(5)
ti = 0
0
t
P(R,t) = Q0 PQ (R,t) +
(6)
Section 3
Page 57
physicist who first derived this equation in 1833 (in the context of
solving heat conduction problems).
The importance of eq. (6) is that it allows us to find the
drawdown for any production schedule, by merely performing a
single integral utilising the constant-flowrate solution. The
principle also works for other boundary-value problems that are
governed by a linear PDE. For example, if we have a reservoir
with, say, a closed outer boundary (see section 6), then we need
only to find the solution for the case of constant flowrate in a
reservoir with a closed outer boundary; the solution for a variable
flowrate then follows from eq. (6), with the constant-flowrate
solution playing the role of the function PQ.
Another form of the convolution integral that is sometimes
more convenient to use can be derived by applying integration-byparts to the integral in (6). First, recall that the general expression
for integration by parts is
t
t
dg( )
df ( )
d = f ( )g( ) 0 g( )
d .
f ( )
d
d
0
0
(7)
Q( )
0
dPQ (R,t )
d
d
Q( )
0
Department of Earth Science and Engineering
dPQ (R,t )
d .
d
Imperial College London
(8)
Section 3
Page 58
P(R,t) = Q( )
0
dPQ (R,t )
d .
dt
(9)
(10)
______________________________________________
Tutorial Sheet 3:
(1) Which, if any, of the following differential equations are
linear, and why (or why not)?
(a)
d2y
dy
+y
+ y = 0.
2
dx
dx
(b)
d2y
dy
+x
+ y = 0.
2
dx
dx
(c)
d2y
dy
+x
+ xy = 0 .
dx
dx 2
4.
Section 4
Page 59
k,,,c,H
Q1 cR12 Q2 cR22
+
P(R,t) = Pi +
Ei
Ei
.
4 kH 4k(t t 1) 4 kH 4k(t t 2 )
Department of Earth Science and Engineering
(1)
Section 4
Page 60
Q
Q
Ei ( )+
Ei ()= Pi ,
4 kH
4 kH
(2)
Section 4
Page 61
Section 4
Page 62
R2
R1
d
Actual Well
k,,,c,H
d
Image Well
Impermeable fault
Q
1
2 .
+
P(R,t) = Pi +
Ei
Ei
4 kH 4kt 4 kH 4kt
(1)
(2)
Q
w
+
. (3)
Pw (t ) = Pi +
Ei
Ei
4 kH 4kt 4 kH
4kt
Section 4
Page 63
or
t Dw < 25 .
(4)
or
t Dw > 25 .
(5)
This regime ends when the front edge of the pressure pulse from
the image well reaches the actual well (which is a distance 2d
away). We can consider that this occurs when the second Ei
function in eq. (3) reaches, say, 0.01.
According to Table 2.1.1, this occurs when the argument of the Ei
function reaches about 3.3. Therefore, the upper limit of this time
regime is defined by
0.3cd 2
t<
,
k
or
Section 4
Page 64
t Dw < 0.3(d / Rw )2 .
(6)
(7)
i.e., this is the drawdown that would occur in the absence of the
fault, because in this time regime the actual pressure pulse has
not yet had time to travel to the fault and reflect back to the
wellbore (where it can be detected).
(8)
or
Pw (t ) = Pi
ln
ln
4 kH cRw2 4 kH c(2d) 2
Department of Earth Science and Engineering
(9)
Section 4
Page 65
2.246k
2.246k
Q
+ lnt + ln
= Pi
lnt + ln
2
2
4 kH
cRw
c4d
2.246k
2.246k
Q
+ ln
.
= Pi
2ln t + ln
2
2
4 kH
cRw
c4d
(10)
This equation will also yield a straight line on a plot of Pw vs. lnt,
but with a slope that is twice that of the earlier slope:
dPw Pw 2 Q Q
=
=
=
.
d lnt lnt 4 kH 2 kH
(11)
Section 4
Page 66
Section 4
Page 67
Actual Well
Image Well 1
d
Symmetry lines d
d
d
Image Well 2
d
Image Well 3
Fig. 4.3.2. Use of image wells to solve problem of a well near two
intersecting impermeable faults.
Image wells 1 and 3 are both at a distance of 2d from the
actual well, whereas the distance to image well 2 is 22d. Hence,
to the line-source solution for the actual well we must add three
more line-source solutions, as follows:
cR2
2
2
4 kH[Pw (t)Pi ]
w + 2Ei c4d + Ei c8d . (1)
= Ei
4kt
4kt
Q
4kt
PDw
(d / R )2 1 2(d /R ) 2
1 1
w
w
Ei
= Ei
Ei
.
2 4t Dw
2
t
t
Dw
Dw
(2)
Section 4
Page 68
Section 4
Page 69
cR2
cR 2
Q
Q
1
2.
P(R,t) = Pi +
Ei
Ei
4 kH 4kt 4 kH 4kt
(1)
cR 2
Q cR12
1 .
P(midplane,t) = Pi +
Ei
Ei
4 kH 4kt
4kt
= Pi
for all t,
(2)
Q
w
.
P(R,t) = Pi +
Ei
Ei
4 kH 4kt 4 kH
4kt
(3)
or
t Dw < 0.3(d / Rw )2 ,
(4)
during which the effect of the image well has not yet been felt in
the actual well, and so the pressure in the well is given by
Q 2.246kt
Pw (t ) = Pi
ln
.
4 kH cRw2
Department of Earth Science and Engineering
(5)
Section 4
Page 70
or
(6)
Q 2.246kt
Q 2.246kt
Pw (t ) = Pi
ln
ln
+
4 kH cRw2 4 kH c(2d )2
2.246k
2.246k
Q
lnt ln
= Pi
lnt + ln
2
2
4 kH
cRw
c(2d)
2.246k
Q 2.246k
ln(Rw2 ) ln
+ ln (2d )2
= Pi
ln
4 kH c
c
{ }
Q
Q 2d
2
.
= Pi
ln (2d / Rw ) = Pi
ln
4 kH
2 kH Rw
(7)
Section 4
Page 71
Dimensionless drawdown, Pw
Recall that the slope of Pw vs. lnt was -Q/4kH for a well in
an infinite reservoir. An impermeable linear boundary eventually
causes an additional slope of -Q/4kH, leading to a total latetime slope of -Q/2kH. On the other hand, a constant-pressure
linear boundary causes and additional slope of +Q/4kH,
leading to a late-time slope of 0:
0
t Dw ~ 1.781(d/Rw ) 2
5
10
15
20
10-1
infinite reservoir
impermeable fault
constant-pressure boundary
101
103
105
107
109
Section 4
Page 72
____________________________________________________
Tutorial Sheet 4:
(1) As explained in Section 4.2, a doubling of the slope on a semilog plot of drawdown vs. time indicates the presence of an
impermeable linear fault. The drawdown data can also be used to
find the distance from the well to the fault, as follows. If we plot
the data and then fit two straight lines through the early-time and
late-time data, the time at which these lines intersect is called tD w .
Show that the distance to the fault can then be found from the
following equation:
d = 0.749 (t D w )1/2Rw .
(2) The curves in Fig. 4.4.1 were actually drawn for the case d/Rw
= 200. What would the curves look like for the case of a fault
located at a distance d = 400Rw?
(3) Consider a well located equidistant from two orthogonal
boundaries, as in Fig. 4.3.1, but imagine that the boundaries are
constant-pressure boundaries, rather than impermeable
boundaries. How would you utilise the method of images to find
the drawdown in this well?
5.
Section 5
Page 73
(2)
(3)
Section 5
Page 74
P=Po
Reservoir, kR
Skin Zone, ks
Rw
Pw
Rs
Ro
k = ks ,
(1)
Rs < R < Ro
k = kR .
(2)
2kH
dP
,
dR
(3)
Section 5
Page 75
1 dR Ro 1 dR Po 2H
+
=
dP
Q
k
k
R
R
Rw s
Rs R
Pw
Rs
1 Ro 2H
1 Rs
ln
+
ln
=
(P Pw )
ks Rw k R Rs
Q o
1
kR
1
kR
R
k
R 2H
ln o + R ln s =
(P Pw )
Rs ks Rw Q o
R
Rs k R Rs
R s 2 H
o
ln
=
+ ln
+
ln
ln
(P Pw )
Rs
Rw ks Rw
Rw Q o
1
kR
ln Ro Rs + kR 1 ln Rs = 2H ( Po Pw )
Rs Rw ks
Rw Q
R
2kR H( Po Pw )
Ro kR
= ln
+
1 ln s .
Q
Rw k s
Rw
(4)
Equation (4) is identical to eq. (1.4.3), except for the second term
on the RHS. This excess dimensionless pressure drop, which is
due to the presence of the skin effect, is denoted by s, i.e.,
2kR H( Po Pw )
R
= ln o + s .
Q
Rw
(5)
Pw = Po
Section 5
Page 76
Q Ro
ln
+ s ,
2k RH Rw
k
R
where s = R 1 ln s .
ks
Rw
(6)
(7)
Ps =
Qs
.
2k RH
(8)
Damaged
Zone
w/o skin
w/ skin
Ps
Rw
Rs
Section 5
Page 77
Q Ro
s
ln
Pw = Po
ln(e )
2k RH Rw
R
Q
o
= Po
ln
2kR H Rwe s
R
Q
= Po
ln o ,
2kR H Rweff
eff
where Rw = Rwe
(9)
(10)
eff
Section 5
Page 78
(1)
Q cRw2
+ 2s ,
Pw = Pi
Ei
4kH
4kt
(2)
Section 5
Page 79
Q kt
Pw = Pi
ln
+ 0.80907 + 2s ,
4kH cRw
Q 2.246e 2s kt
.
Pw = Pi
ln
4kH cRw2
or,
(3)
(4)
It is clear from eq. (3) that the skin will have no effect on the
semi-log slope of pressure vs. lnt, but it will shift the entire
drawdown curve downward by a constant amount.
The skin factor can be found by proper interpretation of a
pressure buildup test. Incorporating the skin effect into the
equation for the buildup pressure, eq. (3.2.5), gives
2s
2.246e kt
Q 2.246e 2s k(t + t)
ln
Pw = Pi
ln
2
2
4kH
cRw
cR w
Q t + t
.
Pw = Pi
ln
4kH t
(5)
The two skin terms cancel out, and do not appear in the equation
for the wellbore pressure.
Now consider the difference between the wellbore pressure
+
Pw , and eq. (5) for Pw , we find
+
Pw
Pw
Section 5
Page 80
Q t + t
Q 2.246e 2s kt
+
=
ln
ln
4kH t 4kH cRw2
2.246k
Q t + t
2s .
ln
=
ln
2
4kH tt
cRw
(6)
Pw
2.246k
Q
+ 2s .
=
ln t + ln
2
4kH
cRw
(7)
Section 5
Page 81
Drawdown
Buildup
Flow
Rate
Flow
Rate
Qwh
Section 5
Page 82
Qsf
Qwh
Qsf
Time
Time
f Qsf f Qwh =
i.e.,
d( f Vw )
,
dt
(1)
f (Qsf Qwh ) = Vw
d f
d dPw
dPw
= Vw f
= Vw f cf
,
dt
dPw dt
dt
dPw
dP
Cs w ,
dt
dt
(2)
Section 5
Page 83
surface. [If the wellbore is not fully filled with liquid, the
appropriate expression for Cs can be found in Advances in Well
Test Analysis by Earlougher (SPE, 1977)].
At early times after the start of a constant-rate drawdown
test, Qwh = Q (the nominal flowrate), but Qsf 0 , so eq. (2) takes
the form
dPw
.
(3)
dt
Eq. (3) can be integrated, using the initial condition that Pw = Pi
when t = 0:
Q = Cs
Pw (t )
Q
dt = dPw
C
P
0 s
Pw = Pi
Qt
.
Cs
(4)
(2)
2kH(Pi Pw ) 2kHQt
=
.
Q
QCs
(5)
2kHQ ct Rw2 t Dw t Dw
=
,
QCs
k
CD
(6)
Cs
2Hct Rw2
(7)
Imperial College London
Section 5
Page 84
d ln PDw
= 1.
d lnt Dw
(8)
= Qwh + Cs .
R
dR
Rw
dt Rw
(10)
Section 5
Page 85
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
10
10
102
1
P Dw
103
0.1
104
CD=105
(s = 0)
0.01
102
103
104
105
106
107
tDw
6.
Section 6
Page 86
Wells
No-flow
boundaries
Section 6
Page 87
Section 6
Page 88
Reservoir
P=Pw
P=Pi
Rw
Re
1 d dP c dP
R
=
,
R dR dR
k dt
(1)
BC at wellbore:
P( R = Rw, t ) = Pw ,
(2)
BC at outer boundary:
P( R = Re, t ) = Pi ,
(3)
Initial condition:
P( R, t = 0) = Pi .
(4)
Section 6
Page 89
RD = R / Rw ,
(5)
Dimensionless time:
tD =
kt
,
cRw2
(6)
Dimensionless drawdown:
PD =
Pi P
.
Pi Pw
(7)
Governing PDE:
(8)
BC at wellbore:
PD (RD = Rw / Rw = 1, t D ) = 1,
BC at outer boundary:
PD (RD = Re / Rw RDe , t D ) = 0 ,
(10)
Initial condition:
PD (RD, t D = 0) = 0 .
(11)
(9)
(12)
Section 6
Page 90
dRD
RD dRD
Governing ODE:
(13)
BC at wellbore:
PDs ( RD = 1) = 1 ,
(14)
BC at outer boundary:
(15)
(16)
dPDs
RD
dR
B R D + A,
D
(17)
Comparison of eq. (17) with eqs. (14) and (15) shows that A =
1 and B = 1/ lnRDe , so eq. (17) can be written as
PDs ( RD ) = 1
ln RD
ln(RD / RDe )
=
.
ln RDe
ln RDe
Imperial College London
(18)
Section 6
Page 91
1 d
dp dp
RD D = D ,
RD dRD dRD dt D
(19)
BC at wellbore:
pD (RD = 1, t D ) = 0 ,
(20)
BC at outer boundary:
pD (RD = RDe , t D ) = 0 ,
(21)
Initial condition:
pD (RD , t = 0) =
ln(RD / RDe )
.
ln RDe
(22)
(a)
Section 6
Page 92
(b)
(c)
(23)
(24)
(25)
(d) The LHS of eq. (25) doesnt depend on tD, and the RHS
doesnt depend on RD; since they are equal to each other, they
cannot depend on either variable! Hence, each side of eq. (25)
must equal a constant, which we call 2 :
1
d
RD F ( RD ) dRD
(e)
dF
1 dG
RD
=
= 2 .
dRD G (t D ) dt D
(26)
1
F (RD ) + 2F( RD ) = 0 .
RD
(27)
1
F (x) + F(x) = 0 .
x
(28)
Section 6
Page 93
an x n .
(29)
n =0
n(n 1)a x
n2
n =0
+ nan x
n2
n =0
+ an x n = 0 .
n =0
(30)
n =0
(31)
(32)
(33)
For all higher-order terms to vanish, eq. (31) shows that the
coefficients must satisfy the following recursion relationship:
an +2 =
an
.
(n + 2) 2
(34)
Section 6
Page 94
(35)
1
1
1
, a4 =
, a6 =
....
4
64
2304
(36)
The solution to eq. (28) that is given by eqs. (29), (35) and (36) is
known as the Bessel function of the first kind (of order zero), and
is denoted by Jo(x):
x2 x4
x6
J 0 ( x) = 1 +
+ ... ,
4 64 2304
or
x2
x4
x6
J 0 ( x) = 1 2 2 + 4
+ ... ,
2 (1!) 2 (2!) 2 26 (3!) 2
(37)
cos x asx .
x
4
(38)
Jo(x) or Yo(x)
1.0
Section 6
Page 95
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
Jo(x)
Yo(x)
0
10
ln(x / 2) + ]J0 (x )
x 2n ,
[
(n!) 2 22n
2
(1)n hn
(39)
n=1
Y0 (x)
sin x
x
4
as
x .
(41)
Section 6
Page 96
(42)
(43)
(44)
(45)
= .
J0 ( RDe ) Y0 (RDe ) B 0
(46)
(47)
Section 6
Page 97
.
Each of these eigenvalues
eigenfunction (see eq. (43)):
is
associated
(48)
with
its
own
(49)
Bn =
An J 0 (n )
Y0 (n ) ,
(50)
J 0( n )
Y0 ( nRD )
Y0 ( n )
An
Y0 ( n )J0 (nRD ) J 0( n )Y0 ( nRD )
Y0 ( n )
(51)
where the Cn are arbitrary constants, and the functions inside the
brackets are the eigenfunctions of this problem.
We now return to the time-dependent part of the solution,
which, according to eq. (26), must satisfy
dGn
= 2nGn (t D ) .
dt D
(52)
(53)
Imperial College London
Section 6
Page 98
Recalling eq. (23), the most general solution that satisfies the
diffusion equation (19) and the BCs (20,21) is given by
pD (RD ,t D ) =
n=1
All that remains now is to satisfy the initial condition, eq. (22).
Evaluating eq. (54) at t D = 0 , and invoking eq. (22), yields
n= 1
ln(RD / RDe )
. (55)
lnRDe
J0 (n )J0 ( nRDe )
.
J02 ( n ) J 02 ( nRDe )
(56)
R
)
e
+ 2
n
n D
2
ln RDe
n =1 J 0 (n ) J 0 (n RDe )
where
(57)
Section 6
Page 99
analysis (not given here) of the flowrate shows that at early times
it is proportional to t -1/2, and it gradually approaches a steadystate value given by eq. (1.4.4).
6.2. Well at the centre of a circular reservoir with constant
pressure on its outer boundary and constant flowrate into
the wellbore
Consider a well at the centre of a circular reservoir,
producing fluid at a constant rate, with the pressure at the outer
boundary maintained at the initial pressure at all times (see Fig.
6.2.1):
Reservoir
Q
Rw
R
P=Pi
Re
BC at wellbore:
R
= Q,
(1)
dR R =R
w
where we take Q > 0 if the flow is into the borehole.
Section 6
Page 100
(2)
(3)
dJ0 (x )
dY (x)
, Y1(x ) 0
.
dx
dx
(5)
RD = R /Rw ,
Dimensionless time:
tD =
Dimensionless pressure:
PD =
kt
cRw2
(6)
(7)
2kH(Pi P)
.
Q
(8)
Section 6
Page 101
2
;
x
(9)
(10)
R
= 0.
dR R =R
e
BC at outer boundary:
Reservoir
Q
(1)
No-flow
Rw
R
Re
Section 6
Page 102
2
2
RDe
RD2
2
ln RD
+ t D RDe
1 4
4
4
2
3R De
4 R De
1
ln R De 2 R De
2
2
4
(
R
1
)
De
J12 (n RDe )U n (n RD ) t
e
+
,
2
2
n =1 n [ J 1 (n RDe ) J 1 (n )]
2
n D
(2)
(3)
(4)
1
2
RDe
1
3R 4 4R4 lnRDe 2R 2 1
De
De
+ 2t D De
2
2
4(RDe 1)
1 2
2 J 12 (n RDe )e ntD
+ 2 2
.
2
n =1 n [ J 1 (n RDe ) J 1 (n )]
(5)
Section 6
Page 103
In most cases of practical interest, however, RDe >> 1 , and eq. (5)
can effectively be written as
2J12 ( nRDe )e nt D
2t D
3
.
PDw (t D ) = 2 + lnRDe + 2 2
2
4
RDe
n=1n[J1 ( nRDe ) J1 ( n )]
2
(6)
(7)
It is not easy to see that eq. (5) reduces to eq. (2.4.10) during
this time regime, but it does.
(ii) A second regime that is late enough that the presence of the
closed outer boundary is felt at the well, but still early enough
that the exponential terms in eq. (6) have not yet died out.
The start of this regime is given by the upper bound in eq. (7);
2 (see Tutorial Sheet 5). This regime
it ends when t Dw 0.3RDe
is therefore defined by
2 <t
2
0.1RDe
Dw < 0.3RDe .
(8)
Section 6
Page 104
2 .
t Dw > 0.3RDe
(9)
PDw =
2t Dw
3
+
ln
R
.
De
2
4
RDe
(10)
Pw (t ) = Pi
+ ln .
2kH cRe2
Rw 4
(2)
(11)
=
.
dt
2 kH cRe2 Re2Hc
(12)
Section 6
Page 105
1/ 2
Q
,
Re =
H c(dPw /dt )
(13)
Q
.
cH(dPw /dt )
(14)
A = Re2 =
Eq. (12) can also be derived in the following, much simpler way,
by just doing a mass balance on the oil in the reservoir:
(a) Imagine that the entire reservoir is at a uniform pressure, P
(i.e., a zero-dimensional model, so to speak).
(b)
(c)
(15)
(d) - dM/dt is the mass flowrate out of the reservoir, and Q is the
volumetric flowrate, so dM/dt = -Q, in which case
-Q =Vct dP .
dt
(16)
Section 6
Page 106
0
2
Constant-pressure
outer boundary
RDe =
102
No-flow outer
boundary
103
104
10
1
10
Dimensionless Time, t Dw
Section 6
Page 107
PDw =
1
[ln(t Dw ) + 0.80907] .
2
(1)
Section 6
Page 108
1 4A
= 2 t DA + ln 2 ,
2 RwCA
(2)
kt
,
cA
(3)
e 3 / 2
= 31.62 .
(4)
CA
Section 6
Page 109
CA
1
31.6
22.6
2
2.07
31.6
27.6
2.36
4
12.9
0.232
4
7.
Section 7
Page 110
Section 7
Page 111
~
L {f (t )} f (s ) f (t )e st dt .
(1)
~
Both notations, L{ f (t) } and f (s ) , are useful, depending on the
context. In the general theory of Laplace transforms, s must be
regarded as a complex variable, but for our purposes this is
usually not necessary.
~
P (R, s ) P (R, t )e st dt .
(2)
Note that the Laplace transform is taken with respect to the time
variable, not the spatial variable. To simplify the notation, we will
usually suppress the R variable when discussing the general
theory.
Section 7
Page 112
L{cf(t)} =
cf (t)e st dt
= c f(t)e st dt = cL{f (t )} ,
(3)
f1(t)e st dt
0
(4)
L{ f (t)} f (t)e st dt .
(5)
(6)
st
] + s f (t )e
st
dt
so:
(7)
Section 7
Page 113
F(t) f ( )d .
(8)
By definition, then,
F (t) = f (t),
F(0) f ( )d = 0 .
(9)
so:
1
L f( )d = L{F (t)} =
s
0
1
1
L{f(t)} = f (s) ,
s
s
(10)
Section 7
Page 114
f(t)
f(t-t0)
t0
L f (t t 0 ) = f (t t 0 )e st dt .
(11)
= - t 0 when t = 0,
Section 7
Page 115
= when t = .
(12)
Hence,
L f (t t 0 ) =
f ( )e s( +t )d .
0
(13)
t 0
L f (t t 0 ) = f ( )e
s( +t0 )
=e
st 0
d = f ( )e s e st0 d
0
f ( )e s d
= e st 0 f(s) .
(14)
}= f (t)e
e at f(t)
at e st dt
(15)
(16)
Section 7
Page 116
{ } {}
L f (t) = L 1 = 1e st dt =
0
1 st
e
s
1
.
s
(17)
(18)
Section 7
Page 117
1/ 2
} = t 1/ 2e st dt .
(19)
1/ 2
} = (u / s)
1/ 2
du
1 1/ 2 u
=
u e du .
s
s0
(20)
1/ 2
}=
2
s
e m dm =
2
s 2
(21)
(22)
= 1/ 2d = 2t 1/ 2
0
L{t 1/ 2 } =
2s 3 / 2
(23)
.
L{t n (1/ 2) } =
Section 7
Page 118
1 3 5 ... (2n 1)
2n s n+(1/ 2)
(24)
+ i ~
1
f (s ) =
f (s )est ds
2i i
6
6
x
x=
(25)
where i = 1 is the imaginary unit number, and the
integration takes place along any vertical line in the complex
plane (see above) that lies to the right of all the singularities
~
of f (s ) . The proof of eq. (25), which not elementary, can be
found in the books by Carslaw and Jaeger, or Churchill.
One additional fact about Laplace transforms that is
needed in order to use them to solve partial differential
equations is the following rule:
~
If P(R,t) is a function of R and t, and P (R, s ) is its Laplace
transform, as defined in eq. (2), then the LT of the partial
Section 7
Page 119
=
L
L P(R,t) =
.
dR dR
dR
[{
}]
(26)
d
dP(R,s)
st
=
P(R,t)e dt = dR .
dR 0
(27)
Section 7
Page 120
Top View
L
Flow
Wellbore
Fracture
z
Section 7
Page 121
d 2P
dP
=D
,
dt
dz 2
(1)
(2)
far-field BC:
P( z , t ) = Pi ,
(3)
fracture BC:
dP
Q
( z = 0, t ) =
.
dz
4kLH
(4)
IC:
(1)
~
P ( z,s ) P ( z,t )e st dt .
(5)
(6)
Section 7
Page 122
[{
}]
(7)
d 2P( z, s )
dz
sP(z, s) = Pi .
(8)
~
Although P ( z,s ) is a function of two variables, z and s, there
~
are no derivatives of P ( z,s ) with respect to s in eq. (8). So s
really appears in eq. (8) as a parameter, not a variable.
Consequently, eq. (8) is an ODE rather than a PDE.
far-field BC:
P
L{ P( z = , t )} = P(z = , s) = L{ Pi } = i ,
s
fracture BC:
(9)
dP
dP
Q
Q
=
L (z = 0, t ) =
(z = 0, s ) = L
. (10)
dz
dz
4kLH 4kLHs
s/ D
+ Be z
s /D
Pi
,
s
(11)
Section 7
Page 123
B=
Q
4kLHs s / D
(12)
s/ D
(13)
P
Q D
P(z = 0,s) = i
.
s 4kLHs 3 / 2
(14)
Q D
1 Pi
s 4kLHs 3 / 2
1
1
Pi L1
= Pi
Q D
4kLH
Section 7
Page 124
s 3 / 2
L1
Dt
2kLH
(15)
f g f ( )g(t )d ,
(1)
(2)
Section 7
Page 125
L{f g} = f( )g(t )d e st dt .
t =0 =0
(3)
t=
t=
st
L{f g} =
g(t )e dt f ( )d .
= 0 t =
(4)
Section 7
Page 126
s(
+
x)
L{f g} =
dx f( )d
g( x)e
= 0 x= 0
x=
sx
x= 0
=0
=
(5)
Section 7
Page 127
(6)
s /D
(7)
P(z = 0,s) =
.
s 4kLHs1/ 2
(8)
P(z = 0,t) = L
(s) D
Q
P(z = 0,s) = L
1/
2
s 4kLHs
1
Pi L1
= Pi
1Pi
Q(s)
L1
1/ 2
4kLH
[L
4kLH
D
1{Q
(s)}
] [L
].
1{s 1/ 2 }
(9)
Section 7
Page 128
D/
4kLH
Q( )
1
t Q( )
d
= Pi
4LH kc 0 t
1
t Q( )
d
= Pi
A kc 0 t
t q( )
d .
= Pi
kc 0 t
(10)
Section 7
Page 129
a
b
(1)
Section 7
Page 130
Section 7
Page 131
ln 2 2N ~
nln 2
Vn Pw s =
,
t n =1
t
(2)
(1) n
min(n,N )
k= (n+1) / 2
k N (2k)!
.
(N k)!k!(k 1)!(n k)!(2k n)!
(3)
Section 7
Page 132
______________________________________________
Tutorial Sheet 6:
(1)
(i)
P(z,t = 0) = Pi ,
(ii)
far-field BC:
P(z ,t) = Pi ,
(iii)
fracture BC:
P(z = 0,t) = Pf .
(iv)
PDE:
IC:
8.
Section 8
Page 133
Naturally-Fractured Reservoirs
(1)
Section 8
Page 134
km
(Pm Pf ) ,
(2)
where is a shape factor that accounts for the size and shape
of the matrix block.
Dimensional analysis shows that must have dimensions of
[1/L2 ] , or [1/ m2 ] in SI units. The precise value of for a matrix
block of a given shape is found by calculating the smallest
eigenvalue of the diffusion equation inside the matrix block. The
shape factors for a few simple, idealised geometries are as
follows (Zimmerman et al., Water Resources Research, 1993):
Section 8
Page 135
2
a
(3)
5.78
a2
(4)
(5)
3 2
2
1
= 2 + 2 + 2 .
L
x Ly Lz
2
(6)
dPm
.
dt
(7)
Section 8
Page 136
Dimensionless time:
tD =
kf t
;
( f c f + mcm ) Rw2
(1)
PDf =
(2)
2k f H(Pi Pm )
;
Q
(3)
Dimensionless radius:
RD =
R
;
Rw
(4)
Section 8
Page 137
dPf
dPf dPDf dt D
= ( c) f
dt
dPDf dt D dt
Q dPDf
= (c) f
2kf H dt D
kf
2
( f cf + mcm ) Rw
dP
c
Q
f
f
Df .
=
( f c f + mcm )2HRw2 dt D
(5)
(6)
Lastly, we transform the qmf term in eq. (8.1.1), using eq. 8.1.7).
In analogy with eq. (5), this term becomes
qmf
dP
dPm
mcmQ
Dm
= (c)m
=
.
dt
( f cf + mcm )2HRw2 dt D
(7)
Section 8
Page 138
km
kmQ
(Pm Pf ) =
(PDm PDf ) .
2kf H
(9)
mcm
dPDm kmRw2
=
(PDf PDm ) .
(f cf + mcm ) dt D
kf
(10)
Eqs. (8,10) are two coupled differential equations for the two
dimensionless pressures, PDf and PDm .
These two equations contain two dimensionless parameters.
The first is the ratio of fracture storativity to total (fracture + matrix)
storativity, known as :
f cf
.
(f cf + mcm )
(11)
kmRw2
kf
(12)
(13)
(1 )
Section 8
Page 139
dPDm
= (PDf PDm ) .
dt D
(14)
(15)
(1)
(which usually covers the times that we are interested in), the
dimensionless drawdown in the well is described by
PDw
Section 8
Page 140
t D
t D
1
.
=
lnt D + 0.8091+ Ei
Ei
2
(1 )
(1 )
(2)
(3)
PDw
t D
t D
1
ln
= lnt D + 0.8091+ ln
(1 )
(1 )
2
t D
t D
1
ln ln
= lnt D + 0.8091+ ln
(1 )
(1 )
2
=
1
ln(t D / ) + 0.8091 .
2
(4)
2kf HPw 1
kf t
[(c)f + ( c) m ]
= ln
+
0.8091
Q
2 [( c) f + (c) m ] Rw2
( c)f
i.e.,
Q kf t
+ 0.8091 ,
ln
Pw =
2
4k f H (c)f Rw
(5)
Section 8
Page 141
which is precisely the drawdown that would occur in a singleporosity system consisting only of the fractures (i.e., without
matrix blocks)! Note also that in the early-time regime, the
drawdown will be a straight line on a semi-log plot.
The physical explanation of this behaviour is as follows. At
early times, fluid flows to the well only through the fractures; fluid
has not yet had time to flow out of the matrix blocks, because of
their relatively low permeability. Hence, in this regime the matrix
storativity is irrelevant.
Now lets consider very large times. Recall from Table 2.1.1
that when x is large, Ei( x ) 0 . So, in this regime the two Ei
terms in eq. (2) drop out, and the drawdown is
PDw =
1
ln t D + 0.8091 ,
2
(6)
kf t
Q
+ 0.8091 .
ln
Pw =
4k f H [(c)f + ( c) m ] Rw2
(7)
Section 8
Page 142
Both the early-time solution given by eq. (5) and the late-time
solution given by eq. (7) will give straight lines when plotted on a
semi-log plot, with exactly the same slope,
dPw
Q
=
.
d lnt
4k f H
(8)
1
2
PDw = ln = ln(1/ ) .
(9)
Q
ln(1/ ) .
4k f H
Pw =
(10)
The full curve for the drawdown in a well in an infinite dualporosity reservoir is shown below, in schematic form, adapted
from Gringarten (SPEJ, 1984):
PDw
m
se
g
i-lo
r
st
ht
ai g
li n
fo r
c
fra
r
tu
te
ys
s
e
i-lo
m
se
tD1
ln(tD)
PDw
a ig
str
li
ht
ne
a
tot
r
fo
te
ys
ls
tD2
Section 8
Page 143
(11)
where = 1.78 is Eulers constant, and and are the two dualporosity parameters defined in eqs. (8.2.11,12).
This horizontal line intersects the late-time semi-log straight
line at a dimensionless time t D2 given by
t D2 =
(12)
Eqs. (11,12) show that the horizontal offset of the two asymptotic
semi-log straight lines is equal to ln(1/).
In dimensional form, these intercept times are
( c )f
,
km
(13)
[(c )f + ( c )m ]
.
km
(14)
t1 =
t2 =
Section 8
Page 144
______________________________________________
Tutorial Sheet 7:
(1) Without looking at the paper by Warren and Root, sketch the
forms that you think the drawdown curve in Fig. 8.3.1 would have
if
(a) The storativity ratio increased (or decreased) by a factor of
10.
(b) The permeability ratio increased (or decreased) by a factor
of 10.
(2) By examining eq. (8.3.2), and making use of either eq.
(2.1.22) or Table 2.1.1, derive an expression for the
dimensionless time that must elapse in order for the
approximation (8.3.6) to be accurate to within about 1%. Your
answer should be in terms of the parameter .
9.
Section 9
Page 145
q=
k dP
,
dR
(2)
(3)
Section 9
Page 146
(4)
(1)
=
R
P
.
dt
R dR RT dR
RT
(2)
Section 9
Page 147
The simplest model of gas flow can be derived from eq. (2)
by making the following assumptions.
(a)
=
= .
Cf = =
dP T
P dP RT T
P RT P
(3)
Section 9
Page 148
1 d
dP dP
RP
=
P
.
R dR
dR kP dt
(4)
dP 1 d(P 2 )
and P
=
,
dt 2 dt
(5)
1 d d(P 2 ) d(P 2 )
.
=
R
R dR
dR kP dt
(6)
term,
Ct Cf = 1/ P ,
varies
with
Because of point (2), eq. (6) is still nonlinear, and is not quite
equivalent to the diffusion equation used for liquid flow. However,
we can linearise eq. (6) by evaluating the term P in the
denominator of the RHS at either the initial pressure, Pi, or at the
mean wellbore pressure during the test, i.e., at
Pm =
Pi + Pw (end of test)
.
2
(7)
3.
Section 9
Page 149
P
,
zRT
(1)
(2)
(3)
k(P)P
dP .
(P)z(P)
0
m(P) = 2
(4)
Section 9
Page 150
(5)
(6)
(7)
Substituting eq. (7) into the left-hand side of eq. (3) leads to
1 d dm
d P
R
= .
dt z
2R dR dR
(8)
Section 9
Page 151
d P d ( RT )
d
d dP
=
= RT
= RT
.
dt
dt
dP dt
dt z
(9)
1 d
,
dP T
so
d
= Cg ,
dP T
(10)
(11)
Next we recall from eq. (1) that = P / zRT , and rewrite eq. (11)
as
d P Cg ( P) P dP
=
.
dt z
z (P ) dt
(12)
(13)
(14)
so that
Section 9
Page 152
dP ( P )z( P ) dm
=
.
dt
2k ( P) P dt
(15)
(16)
(17)
Section 9
Page 153
P
dP .
0 ( P ) z( P )
m ( P) = 2k
(18)
vd
< 1,
(1)
d 2
96
d 2
100
(2)
Section 9
Page 154
(3)
.
10 k
(4)
(5)
Hence, the criterion (4) for the validity of Darcys law can be
written as
3 / 2
q<
.
10 k
(6)
(7)
2RH 3 / 2
10 k
RH 3 / 2
(8)
Section 9
Page 155
(9)
q 2
qk q k
ratio =
=
.
( q / k)
(10)
Section 9
Page 156
(11)
Section 9
Page 157
1
=
2n 2
kBT
2 2P
(1)
Section 9
Page 158
8c
,
= k 1 +
(2)
kgas
8c k BT 1
.
= k 1+
2 d 2 P
(3)
4c
= k 1+
5 2
kBT
.
2
k P
(4)
Section 9
Page 159
P *
,
= k 1+
(5)
P* 15 kPa 2 psi ,
Section 9
Page 160
300
250
Kgas data
Fitted line
200
150
100
50
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000