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Volume 3, Number 2, February 2013 (Serial Number 22)
David Publishing
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D
DAVID PUBLISHING
Jour na l of
Agric ult ura l Sc ie nc e
a nd Te chnology A
Volume 3, Number 2, February 2013 (Serial Number 22)
Contents
Research Papers
83
99
Research on the Soil Carbon Storage of Alpine Grassland under Different Land Uses in
Qinghai-Tibet Plateau
Tao Li, Lei Ji, Tao Liu, Zhongqi Song, Shujing Yang and Youmin Gan
105
Chemical and Sensory Properties of Olive Oil as Influenced by Different Sources of Irrigation Water
Salam Ayoub, Saleh Al-Shdiefat, Hamzeh Rawashdeh and Ibrahim Bashabsheh
113
Ethical Trading: The Implications of the Human Rights Watch Report on South African Fruit
Exports
Portia Ndou and Ajuruchukwu Obi
126
131
140
Quantitative Changes in Protein and Cholesterol in Haemolymph of the Red Palm Weevil
Rhynchophorus ferrugineus after Treatment LeucokininII
Mona Mohammed Saleh Al-Dawsary
146
The Role of Cellulase and Pectinase in Apricot Canker Caused by Hendersonula torulidi and
Phiaoacremonium aleophillium
Nidhal Y. M. Al-Morad
151
Innovation and Technical Efficiency in the Smallholder Dairy Production System in Ethiopia
Amlaku Asres, Johann Slkner and Maria Wurzinger
165
Richness and Diversity of Ants and Beetles in Genetically Modified Cotton Field in Brazil
Carla Cristina Dutra, Marcos Gino Fernandes, Josu Raizer and Camila Meotti
D
DAVID
PUBLISHING
1. Introduction
Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) is a tropical
rhizomatous high value spice crop adapted for
cultivation in tropical and subtropical climate. The
NorthEastern region of India with the subtropical
climate, where it is the main cash crop, has
Corresponding author: Jagadish Timsina, Ph.D., research
field: agronomy. E-mail: timsinaj@hotmail.com.
84
Effect of Biofertilizer on Growth, Productivity, Quality and Economics of Rainfed Organic Ginger
(Zingiber officinale Rosc.) Bhaisey cv. in North-Eastern Region of India
has
attracted
increasing
attention
for
Effect of Biofertilizer on Growth, Productivity, Quality and Economics of Rainfed Organic Ginger
(Zingiber officinale Rosc.) Bhaisey cv. in North-Eastern Region of India
Table 1 Mean maximum and minimum air temperature,
relative humidity and precipitation and during growing
season 2007 and 2008.
Month
T max
T min
Relative
Precipitation
(C)
(C)
humidity (%) (mm)
2007 2008 2007 2008 2007 2008 2007 2008
Mar.
Apr.
May
Jun.
Jul.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
25.1
26.2
28.3
28.7
28.1
28.8
27.8
26.9
24.1
24.9
28.8
29.6
28.6
28.1
28.5
29.4
27.6
25.3
10.7
14.3
19.9
21.9
22.2
22.3
20.9
18.3
13.6
12.5
15.6
19.3
21.3
22.2
22.5
21.3
18.2
9.6
58.5
70.7
74.5
81.6
84.7
82.7
79.7
81.5
74.1
70.2
58.9
69.7
80.3
84.0
83.0
84.3
88.5
83.8
17.6
136.8
233.4
201.0
218.6
112.2
191.0
178.0
52.6
39.6
97.8
94.6
260.2
210.2
244.5
151.1
87.6
21.7
Treatments
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
T7
T8
T9
T10
T11
T12
T13
T14
T15
T16
T17
T18
T19
T20
T21
T22
T23
T24
T25
T26
T27
T28
Combinations
a1b1c1
a1b1c2
a1b1c3
a1b2c1
a1b2c2
a1b2c3
a1b3c1
a1b3c2
a1b3c3
a2b1c1
a2b1c2
a2b1c3
a2b2c1
a2b2c2
a2b2c3
a2b3c1
a2b3c2
a2b3c3
a3b1c1
a3b1c2
a3b1c3
a3b2c1
a3b2c2
a3b2c3
a3b3c1
a3b3c2
a3b3c3
a0b0c0
85
86
Effect of Biofertilizer on Growth, Productivity, Quality and Economics of Rainfed Organic Ginger
(Zingiber officinale Rosc.) Bhaisey cv. in North-Eastern Region of India
Effect of Biofertilizer on Growth, Productivity, Quality and Economics of Rainfed Organic Ginger
(Zingiber officinale Rosc.) Bhaisey cv. in North-Eastern Region of India
87
2.5 Economics
Canopy spread
Leaf area index
(cm-2 clump-1)
90
150
210
90
150
210
DAP DAP DAP DAP DAP DAP
Control
504
1,597 1,965 0.29 2.33 2.55
Treatment 700
1,823 2,306 0.41 3.24 3.56
89.8
107.3 0.03 0.15 0.21
S. Em () 40.3
LSD 0.05 121.8 271.3 323.9 0.08 0.46 0.62
Azotobacter level
a1
540
1,626 2,010 0.31 2.41 2.72
a2
585
1,680 2,100 0.34 2.63 2.96
a3
682
1,825 2,298 0.40 3.32 3.49
29.9
35.8
0.01 0.05 0.07
S. Em () 13.4
LSD 0.05 38.0
84.8
101.2 0.02 0.14 0.19
Azospirillum level
b1
561
1,653 2054 0.32 2.53 2.84
b2
658
1,792 2,250 0.39 3.17 3.40
b3
587
1,686 2,103 0.33 2.66 2.94
29.9
35.8
0.01 0.05 0.07
S. Em () 13.4
LSD 0.05 38.0
84.8
101.2 0.02 0.14 0.19
Phosphotica level
c1
571
1,666 2,077 0.33 2.59 2.90
c2
650
1,781 2,234 0.39 3.11 3.33
c3
585
1,684 2,097 0.34 2.66 2.94
29.9
35.8
0.01 0.05 0.07
S. Em () 13.4
LSD 0.05 38.0
84.8
101.2 0.02 0.14 0.19
*a = Azotobacter; b = Azospirillum; c = Phosphotica; doses of
biofertilizer 1, 2 and 3 are 2.5, 3.75 and 5.0 kg ha-1, respectively.
3. Results
3.1 Growth Parameters
Use of biofertilizer exhibited significant effect on
growth attributes of rainfed organic ginger. The
canopy spread increased by 14.2% to 38.9%, LAI by
39.1% to 41.4% (Table 3), CGR by 23.9% to 25.2%
and DMA by 21.2% to 27.9% (Table 4) at different
stages due to biofertilizer treatments over control.
Table 3 Effect of biofertilizer on canopy spread and leaf
area index of ginger at different stages (average data of two
years).
Particulars
88
Effect of Biofertilizer on Growth, Productivity, Quality and Economics of Rainfed Organic Ginger
(Zingiber officinale Rosc.) Bhaisey cv. in North-Eastern Region of India
the
rhizome
yield
over
control.
Effect of Biofertilizer on Growth, Productivity, Quality and Economics of Rainfed Organic Ginger
(Zingiber officinale Rosc.) Bhaisey cv. in North-Eastern Region of India
89
Fig. 1 Interaction effect of Azotobacter and Phosphotica on growth attributes of ginger. (A) canopy spread, (B) leaf area
index, (C) crop growth rate and (D) dry matter accumulation; vertical lines show the error bars.
a1, a2 and a3 represent Azobactor levels of 2.50 kg ha-1, 3.75 kg ha-1 and 5.00 kg ha-1, respectively; c1, c2 and c3 represent Phosphotica
levels of 2.50 kg ha-1, 3.75 kg ha-1 and 5.00 kg ha-1, respectively.
90
Effect of Biofertilizer on Growth, Productivity, Quality and Economics of Rainfed Organic Ginger
(Zingiber officinale Rosc.) Bhaisey cv. in North-Eastern Region of India
Table 6
Effect of biofertilizer on productivity and
efficiency of ginger.
Particulars
Particulars
Effect of Biofertilizer on Growth, Productivity, Quality and Economics of Rainfed Organic Ginger
(Zingiber officinale Rosc.) Bhaisey cv. in North-Eastern Region of India
91
Fig. 2 Interaction effect of Azotobacter and Phosphotica on (A) rhizome growth, (B) rhizome bulking rate, (C) rhizome yield
and (D) economics of rainfed ginger; vertical lines indicate the show the error bars.
a1, a2 and a3 represent Azobactor levels of 2.50 kg ha-1, 3.75 kg ha-1 and 5.00 kg ha-1, respectively; c1, c2 and c3 represent Phosphotica
levels of 2.50 kg ha-1, 3.75 kg ha-1 and 5.00 kg ha-1, respectively.
92
Effect of Biofertilizer on Growth, Productivity, Quality and Economics of Rainfed Organic Ginger
(Zingiber officinale Rosc.) Bhaisey cv. in North-Eastern Region of India
3.19
3.52
0.10
0.32
4,239.09
4,406.87
4,811.36
63.88
180.79
2,928.07
3,077.84
3,449.34
49.74
140.76
3.23
3.32
3.53
0.03
0.10
4,313.74
4,696.38
4,447.20
63.88
180.79
2,995.25
3,338.30
3,112.70
49.74
140.76
3.27
3.46
3.33
0.03
0.10
Azotobacter level
a1
a2
a3
1,311.02
1,329.03
1,362.02
S. Em () 21.82
LSD 0.05 NS
Azospirillum level
b1
b2
b3
1,318.49
1,358.08
1,334.50
S. Em () 21.82
LSD 0.05 NS
Phosphotica level
c1
c2
c3
1,318.20
4,311.27 2,993.07 3.27
1,355.92
4,674.49 3,318.57 3.45
1,336.93
4,471.56 3,134.63 3.34
63.88
49.74
0.03
S. Em () 21.82
LSD 0.05 NS
180.79
140.76
0.10
*a = Azotobacter; b = Azospirillum; c = Phosphotica; doses of
biofertilizer 1, 2 and 3 are 2.5 kg ha-1, 3.75 kg ha-1 and 5.0 kg
ha-1, respectively; Ginger seed rhizome $330/ton, FYM
$5.5/ton, Biofertilizers $5/kg, Labour charges $1.4/man-day
and price of ginger rhizomes $220/ton.
Effect of Biofertilizer on Growth, Productivity, Quality and Economics of Rainfed Organic Ginger
(Zingiber officinale Rosc.) Bhaisey cv. in North-Eastern Region of India
4. Discussion
4.1 Growth Parameters
Biofertilizers exhibited significant and positive
effect on growth attributes like canopy spread, LAI,
CGR and DMA in organic rainfed ginger over those
of the control plots. Seed treatment with high dose
(5.0 kg ha-1) of Azotobacter (a3) and medium dose
(3.75 kg ha-1) of both Azospirillum (b2) and
Phosphotica (c2) caused marked increase of all of
these growth attributes at most of the growth stages
over those of their higher and lower levels. The higher
canopy spread and greater LAI of biofertilizer treated
plots might be due to better development of shoots by
greater availability of plant nutrients and growth
promoting hormones released by higher microbial
activities [4]. Similar beneficial effect of biofertilizer
inoculation on growth attributes of different crops was
observed by many workers [9, 11, 19].
The leaf area index is a factor closely related to its
productivity because of the fact that the total leaf area
affects the amount of photosynthate available. Increase
in LAI enables the plant to enhance photosynthetic rate
and results in higher growth and yield. The higher
CGR and DMA in biofertilizers inoculated plants
might be correlated with the increased LAI and canopy
spread. The increased LAI and canopy spread
ultimately enhanced CGR and DMA. Such increase
was attributed to effective N fixation by Azotobacter
and Azospirillum, solubilization of soil available and
native P through production of organic acids by
phosphate solubilizing bacteria (PSB) and release of
growth regulators [4, 10].
Combined use of Azotobacter and Phosphotica
showed significant interaction effect on influencing
most of the growth attributes like canopy spread, LAI,
CGR and DMA. Combined application of high level
(5.0 kg ha-1) of Azotobacter with medium level (3.75
93
94
Effect of Biofertilizer on Growth, Productivity, Quality and Economics of Rainfed Organic Ginger
(Zingiber officinale Rosc.) Bhaisey cv. in North-Eastern Region of India
Fig. 3 Subfigures [A-C] represent the relationships of rhizome yield with canopy spread at [A] 90, [B] 150 and [C] 210 days
after planting; subfigures [D-F] represent the relationships of rhizome yield with leaf area index at [D] 90, [E] 150 and [F]
210 days after planting.
DAP represents days after planting and LAI indicates leaf area index.
Effect of Biofertilizer on Growth, Productivity, Quality and Economics of Rainfed Organic Ginger
(Zingiber officinale Rosc.) Bhaisey cv. in North-Eastern Region of India
95
96
Effect of Biofertilizer on Growth, Productivity, Quality and Economics of Rainfed Organic Ginger
(Zingiber officinale Rosc.) Bhaisey cv. in North-Eastern Region of India
Fig. 4 Relationships among different quality parameters of rhizome: [A] dry matter content (%) with specific gravity (g
cc-1), [B] dry matter content (%) with oleoresin content (%), [C] dry matter content (%) with crude fibre (%), and [D] crude
fibre content (%) with oleoresin content (%).
5. Conclusions
The beneficial effect of biofertilizer on influencing
the growth, productivity, quality and economics of
organic ginger grown under rainfed condition has
been established. The seed treatment with Azotobacter
5.0 kg ha-1 (a3), Azospirillum 3.75 kg ha-1 (b2) and
Effect of Biofertilizer on Growth, Productivity, Quality and Economics of Rainfed Organic Ginger
(Zingiber officinale Rosc.) Bhaisey cv. in North-Eastern Region of India
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
References
[15]
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
97
98
Effect of Biofertilizer on Growth, Productivity, Quality and Economics of Rainfed Organic Ginger
(Zingiber officinale Rosc.) Bhaisey cv. in North-Eastern Region of India
[27]
[28]
[29]
[30]
D
DAVID
PUBLISHING
1. Introduction
The grassland ecosystem is one of the most
important and widely distributed ecosystem types in
terrestrial ecosystems and playing an important role in
the global carbon cycle and climate regulation [1, 2].
The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, as the highest and largest
Eurasia geomorphology unit, is an essential
component of the grassland ecosystem and the worlds
concentrated distribution area of low-latitude
permafrost. It is not only sensitive to global climate
change, but also playing an important role in Asia
even global climate change [3]. Due to its unique
geographical location, the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau
widely distributed with such typical alpine grassland
vegetation as the alpine meadow, alpine steppe and
Corresponding author: Youmin Gan, professor, research
fields:
grassland
resources
and
ecology.
E-mail:
ganyoumin1954@163.com.
100
101
102
Table 1
Soil carbon storage of each soil layers of the different use of grassland kg m-2.
Artificial
grassland
Mean
SD
0-5cm
2.83880.1083bc
5-10cm
2.27960.0671c
10-20cm 3.96070.0907a
20-30cm 3.05380.0457b
30-50cm 4.2740.2409a
50-70cm 3.19390.0398b
70-100cm 4.22210.4632a
Total
3.40330.1709
Mean
SD
4.25630.0236e
4.06670.0917e
7.69160.0987a
5.62190.0835d
7.26430.0842b
3.71700.0481f
6.34220.1291c
5.56570.3327
Summer and
Winter and spring
autumn mild
grazing grassland
grazing grassland
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
5.30130.032e
2.99870.1062c
5.13810.0207e 2.08140.0602c
9.72230.0528c 5.05210.0458ab
8.22740.053d
3.26960.1343c
15.4140.7047a 5.79630.1633a
13.1210.4235b 4.47050.2464b
15.3570.0999a 5.41170.7212a
10.32590.9155 4.25720.2718
Summer and
autumn moderate
grazing grassland
Mean
SD
3.13330.4526d
3.340.0925cd
4.58420.234bc
4.88030.324b
8.11110.49a
7.83680.8098a
6.92340.4132a
5.54420.4525
Summer and
autumn severe
grazing grassland
Mean
SD
5.27890.013d
4.66950.0518e
7.48280.0458c
4.98670.0638de
8.13630.0294b
7.15070.101c
9.49460.5121a
6.74280.3810
Lowercase in the same treatment of each column in the table show significant difference (P < 0.05).
Table 2
Analysis of variance about the soil carbon storage of the different use of grassland.
Grassland types
Fenced mowing
meadow
Artificial grassland
Winter and spring
grazing grassland
Summer and
autumn mild
grazing grassland
Summer and
autumn moderate
grazing grassland
Summer and
autumn severe
grazing grassland
0 cm-5 cm
5 cm-10 cm
2.83880.1083c 2.27960.0671f
10 cm-20 cm
20 cm-30 cm
30 cm-50 cm
50 cm-70 cm
70 cm-100 cm
3.19390.0398d 4.22210.4632e
3.13330.4526c 3.340.0925d
5.27890.013a
4.58420.234d
4.88030.324c
8.11110.49b
7.83680.8098b 6.92340.4132c
9.49460.5121b
Lowercase in the same treatment of each column in the table show significant difference (P < 0.05).
4. Conclusions
One of the characteristics of the grassland
ecosystem significantly different from the other
terrestrial ecosystems is that its carbon storage most
concentrated in the soil [20]. Grazing decline the
ability on fixed carbon of grassland vegetation,
promoting soil respiration and accelerating carbon
release from the soil to the atmosphere, which reduce
the soil carbon storage [21]. The experimental results
show that carbon storage of grazing grassland is more
than artificial grassland and fenced mowing grassland
during the vegetation growing season in August in
alpine grassland. The research results are similar to
Acknowledgments
This study was supported by Strategic and Pilot
Project of Chinese Academy of Science
(XDA05050404-1-2).
References
[1]
[2]
103
[3]
[4]
[5]
104
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
D
DAVID
PUBLISHING
1. Introduction
The olive (Olea europaea L.) is one of the most
important trees in the Middle-East region. Olive tree
has been traditionally grown under rainfed conditions
and is considered as one of the best adapted species to
the semi-arid environment [1]. Area under olive
cultivation in Jordan is about 129,000 ha with an
annual production of 222,000 tons of olive fruits [2].
Jordan is facing a drastic water shortage problem
and is classified among the poorest countries with
regard to water availability [3]. Therefore, one of the
strategies to be adopted to alleviate the water shortage
problem in the country is to use treated municipal
wastewater for irrigation purposes. Olive is considered
moderately tolerant to salinity [4-6] and therefore
Corresponding author: Salam Ayoub, Ph.D., research
fields: olive tree physiology and oil quality. E-mail:
sayoub@ncare.gov.jo.
106
Chemical and Sensory Properties of Olive Oil as Influenced by Different Sources of Irrigation Water
Chemical and Sensory Properties of Olive Oil as Influenced by Different Sources of Irrigation Water
107
Fresh water
Reclaimed
wastewater
Maximum limit
(Jordanian
standard, No.
893/2006)*
6.0-9.0
< 2.5
150
9
11.5
8.0
10.0
11.0
30
10.0
70
45
1.0
100
0.01
5
500
200
pH
8.20 0.10 7.97 0.31
EC (dS/m)
1.22 0.11 2.60 0.29
TSS (ppm)
19.67 0.58 47.00 19.92
SAR
2.93 0.42 11.05 3.02
Ca (meq/L)
3.81 0.54 3.43 0.25
Mg (meq/L) 3.01 0.42 3.52 0.16
Na (meq/L)
5.38 0.69 20.59 5.35
Cl (meq/L)
5.92 0.80 18.75 3.31
K (meq/L)
0.28 0.04 1.41 0.12
T-PO4 (ppm) 0.00
0.67 0.75
SO4 (meq/L) 4.91 0.66 6.78 3.03
Na (%)
43.15 4.38 70.41 5.34
T-N (ppm)
28.67 11.55 49.67 20.55
NO3 (ppm)
8.27 5.24 16.73 11.45
B (ppm)
0.24 0.13 0.50 0.27
As (ppb)
< 0.002
< 0.002
Cd (ppm)
< 0.002
< 0.002
Pb (ppm)
< 0.01
< 0.01
COD (ppm)
9.00 1.73 36.67 12.34
BOD5 (ppm) 5.33 1.53 14.20 2.31
Fecal coliform
<2
58.00 15.87 1,000
(100 mL-1)
*Jordanian standard for reclaimed waste water, Ministry of
Water and Irrigation, 893/2006.
108
Chemical and Sensory Properties of Olive Oil as Influenced by Different Sources of Irrigation Water
Table 2 Quality characteristics of olive oil extracted from Nabali Muhassan olive fruits grown under rainfed and
irrigated conditions during the three experimental years (2008, 2009 and 2010).
2008
2009
2010
Fresh Reclaimed
Fresh Reclaimed
Fresh Reclaimed Limit
Rainfed
Rainfed
Rainfed
water wastewater
water wastewater
water wastewater value**
Free acidity as oleic acid (%) 0.60 a* 0.47 b 0.67 a
0.39 a 0.29 a 0.35 a
0.28 a 0.30 a 0.30 a
Max 3.3
Peroxide value (meq O2 Kg-1 oil) 7.18 a 7.20 a 6.00 a
5.54 a 4.18 a 4.16 a
6.24 a 5.62 ab 4.18 b
Max 20
K270
0.15 a 0.15 a 0.15 a
0.10 a 0.11 a 0.14 a
0.10 a 0.10 a 0.12 a
Max 0.22
K232
1.81 a 1.78 a 1.80 a
2.12 a 2.06 a 2.14 a
2.07 a 1.90 a 1.81 a
Max 2.5
K
0.001 a 0.001 a 0.001 a
0.001 a 0.001 a 0.002 a
0.002 a 0.001 a 0.001 a
Max 0.01
Iron (Fe) (mg kg-1)
< 0.1
< 0.1 < 0.1
< 0.1
< 0.1 0.5
< 0.1
< 0.1
< 0.1
Max 3.0
Copper (Cu) (mg kg-1)
< 0.1
< 0.1 < 0.1
< 0.1
< 0.1 < 0.1
< 0.1
< 0.1
< 0.1
Max 0.1
Lead (Pb) (mg kg-1)
< 0.1
< 0.1 < 0.1
< 0.1
< 0.1 < 0.1
< 0.1
< 0.1
< 0.1
Max 0.1
Cademium (Cd) (mg kg-1)
< 0.1
< 0.1 < 0.1
< 0.1
< 0.1 < 0.1
< 0.1
< 0.1
< 0.1
Max 0.1
*Means within rows for each parameter and year having the same letters are not significantly different at 5% probability level
according to Duncans multiple-range test;
**Source: IOC, 2008, trade standard applying to olive oils and olive-pomace oils, International Olive Council, COI/T.15/NC
no.3/Rev. 2, Madrid, Spain.
Parameter
Chemical and Sensory Properties of Olive Oil as Influenced by Different Sources of Irrigation Water
109
Table 3 Fatty acid composition (%) of olive oil extracted from Nabali Muhassan olive fruits grown under rainfed and
irrigated conditions during the three experimental years (2008, 2009 and 2010).
2008
2009
2010
Limit
Fresh Reclaimed
Fresh
Reclaimed
Fresh
Reclaimed value**
Rainfed
Rainfed
Rainfed
water wastewater
water
wastewater
water
wastewater
Myristic acid C14:0
0.02 a* 0.02 a 0.02 a
0.02 a
0.02 a 0.02 a
0.02 a 0.02 a 0.02 a
Max 0.05
Palmitic acid C16:0
15.88 b 17.78 a 17.28 ab
15.86 a 16.44 a 15.64 a
16.13 a 15.97 a 17.32 a
7.5-20.0
Palmitoleic acid C16:1
1.18 b
1.44 a 1.32 ab
1.03 a
1.14 a 1.08 a
1.12 a 1.29 a 1.29 a
0.3-3.5
Heptadecanoic acid C17:0 0.04 a
0.04 a 0.04 a
0.04 a
0.04 a 0.04 a
0.05 a 0.05 a 0.05 a
Max 0.3
Heptadecenoic acid C17:1 0.06 a
0.06 a 0.06 a
0.06 a
0.06 a 0.06 a
0.06 a 0.06 a 0.07 a
Max 0.3
Stearic acid C18:0
2.14 a
2.10 a 2.03 b
2.27 b
2.26 b 2.46 a
2.50 a 2.69 a 2.32 a
0.5-5.0
Oleic acid C18:1
64.23 a 60.62 b 62.77 ab
65.87 a 62.94 b 64.43 ab
66.20 a 61.79 b 62.16 b
55.0-83.0
Linoleic acid C18:2
15.01 b 16.50 a 15.06 b
13.70 b 15.81 a 14.71 ab
14.17 b 15.14 ab 16.59 a
3.5-21.0
Linolenic acid C18:3
0.74 a
0.74 a 0.73 a
0.74 a
0.72 a 0.75 a
0.75 a 0.72 a 0.72 a
Max 1
Arachidic acid C20:0
0.34 b
0.36 a 0.36 a
0.42 a
0.41 a 0.40 a
0.40 a 0.44 a 0.40 a
Max 0.6
Gadoleic acid C22:1
0.22 b
0.20 a 0.22 b
0.22 a
0.22 a 0.23 a
0.23 a 0.24 a 0.22 a
Max 0.4
Behenic acid C22:0
0.09 b
0.10 a 0.09 b
0.11 a
0.10 a 0.11 a
0.10 a 0.12 a 0.11 a
Max 0.2
Lignoceric acid C24:0
0.04 b
0.06 a 0.06 a
0.05 a
0.06 a 0.06 a
0.06 a 0.06 a 0.06 a
Max 0.2
*Means within rows for each parameter and year having the same letters are not significantly different at 5% probability level
according to Duncans multiple-range test;
**Source: IOC, 2008, trade standard applying to olive oils and olive-pomace oils, International Olive Council, COI/T.15/NC
no.3/Rev. 2, Madrid, Spain.
Fatty acids
110
Chemical and Sensory Properties of Olive Oil as Influenced by Different Sources of Irrigation Water
Table 4 Total polyphenol content in olive oil extracted from Nabali Muhassan olive trees grown under rainfed and
irrigated conditions during the three experimental years (2008, 2009 and 2010).
Parameter
Total polyphenol contents
(mg L-1 caffeic acid)
Rainfed
213.56 a
2008
Fresh
water
Reclaimed
wastewater
Rainfed
174.41 a
185.20 a
224.91 a
2009
2010
Fresh
Reclaimed
Fresh Reclaimed
Rainfed
water
wastewater
water wastewater
178.17 a 155.24 a
Table 5 Means of positive and negative attributes of olive oil from trees grown under rainfed and irrigated conditions
during the three experimental years (2008, 2009 and 2010).
2008
2009
2010
Reclaimed
Fresh
Reclaimed
Reclaimed
Rainfed Fresh water
Rainfed
Rainfed Fresh water
wastewater
water
wastewater
wastewater
Fruity
4.1 a*
3.9 a
3.7 a
3.0 a
2.8 a
2.6 a
3.2 a
2.9 a
2.8 a
Bitter
2.8 a
1.7 b
1.5 b
1.8 a
1.2 b
1.3 b
1.9 a
1.4 b
1.2 b
Pungent
3.1 a
1.9 b
2.1 b
3.2 a
1.9 b
2.3 b
3.4 a
2.2 b
2.5 b
Fusty
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
Musty
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
Winy
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
Metallic
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
Rancid
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
0.0 a
Olive oil
Extra
Extra
Extra
Extra
Extra
Extra
Extra
Extra
Extra
Grade
virgin
virgin
virgin
virgin
virgin
virgin
virgin
virgin
virgin
*Means within rows for each parameter and year having the same letters are not significantly different at 5% probability level
according to Duncans multiple-range test.
Parameter
4. Conclusions
Olive oil quality parameters (acidity,
values, K270, K232, and K) were not
significantly among the treatments. Oleic
total polyphenol contents were significantly
peroxide
affected
acid and
higher in
Chemical and Sensory Properties of Olive Oil as Influenced by Different Sources of Irrigation Water
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the US Agency for
International Development, Middle East Regional
Cooperation
(MERC)
Program,
Grant
No.
TA-MOU-06-M26-062. The authors wish to thank the
Director General of the National Center for
Agricultural Research and Extension for his support
during the implementation of this study.
[12]
[13]
[14]
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
111
112
Chemical and Sensory Properties of Olive Oil as Influenced by Different Sources of Irrigation Water
D
DAVID
PUBLISHING
1. Introduction
The Human Rights Watch Report about the
negative ethical conditions in the South African fruit
farms
and
wine
industry
made
strong
recommendations to international retail markets. The
recommendations may have very significant
implications and impact on the nations fruit and wine
market shares in international markets. The
implications can add to existing market access
challenges that include food health and safety
regulations as well as trade-related private standards.
An ex-ante establishment of the stakeholder views and
opinions on the implications of the may result in the
establishment of possible preventive actions and
multi-stakeholder engagements to regain a good
Corresponding author: Portia Ndou, Ph.D., research field:
agricultural economics. E-mail: ndoupoh@yahoo.com.
114
Ethical Trading: The Implications of the Human Rights Watch Report on South African Fruit Exports
Ethical Trading: The Implications of the Human Rights Watch Report on South African Fruit Exports
115
116
Ethical Trading: The Implications of the Human Rights Watch Report on South African Fruit Exports
This report is very new and its contents are not yet
fully disseminated among the scientific community
and its implications have not been assessed with
regard to the extent to which it can add to market
access challenges, consumer decision making and
South African fruit flows into the high value markets.
The impact can only be known several years from
now by means of ex-poste studies. It is thus
worthwhile to analyse the report and assess the
opinions and views of the stakeholders with regard to
the implications of the recommendations made by the
report on the demand and supply of the South African
fruit into the high value markets.
The main objective of this study is to establish the
stakeholder views and opinions on the implications of
the Human Rights Watch Report about the South
African fruit industries. Representatives of labour and
government are obviously important this study is
primarily concerned with the impact on producers.
The other stakeholders involved in regulation and
support have a role and do respond to such opinions
and that is taken in a separate study. Specifically, the
study seeks to establish the possible implications and
impact of the report on the extent to which it can add
to market access challenges, general economic
situation of South Africa, rural development, poverty
alleviation, welfare of farm workers, international
consumer decision making and the South African fruit
and wine flows into the high value markets. The study
also seeks possible precautionary measures and
interventions that the industry and other stakeholders
may take to regain a good public image especially in
the export market.
2. Methods
This article focuses specifically on the implications
of the Human Rights Watch Report on the South
African fruit industry ethical codes, the corporate
strategies for the management of labour codes and the
responsibility of the producers, exporters and
government. It is an investigation of the implications of
Ethical Trading: The Implications of the Human Rights Watch Report on South African Fruit Exports
117
118
Ethical Trading: The Implications of the Human Rights Watch Report on South African Fruit Exports
Ethical Trading: The Implications of the Human Rights Watch Report on South African Fruit Exports
Table 1
119
The positive implications of the Human Rights Watch recommendations on South African fruit.
Positive implications
Score
Ethical trade can also help to raise support for public policies
3.9
Increased human resource capacity
3.5
Networking to develop ethical codes of conduct
3.7
Environmental responsibility
4.8
Ethical premium
3.2
Voluntary codes can encourage ministries of labour to carry out their proper role
3.6
Savings through increased efficiency
2.3
Improved market access
3.6
Voluntary codes and monitoring systems can potentially be used to reinforce existing legislation and encourage governments
4.2
to enforce the legislation
Price competitiveness in international markets
1.8
Long-term co-operative and transparent relationships
3.7
Descent wages and fair working conditions
4.3
Improves government services in farms
3.8
Respect for workers rights
4.7
Increased and urgent need for basic competence training for farm workers and for smallholder farmers and their extension
4.8
officers
Concern for health and fairness to consumers
3.9
Better working conditions for employees
4.2
Investing in labour saving technology
2.6
Codes standardise practices and assure consumers of the highest quality, safe and hygienic produce
3.1
Producers gain credibility with the European markets
3.7
Compliance with codes becomes very critical determinant for competitiveness in the export markets
4.5
Voluntary codes and monitoring systems impact on local labour legislation and its enforcement
3.6
1 = strongly decrease; 5 = strongly increase.
120
Ethical Trading: The Implications of the Human Rights Watch Report on South African Fruit Exports
Table 2
The negative implications of the Human Rights Watch recommendations on South African fruit.
Negative implications
Score
Increased impact evaluation which generally stops at the farm gate and does not reach far enough down the supply chain
4.3
Trade flows
2.7
Revenues
2.7
Increased prices to consumers
3.2
Elimination of small producers
3.9
Increased pressure in competing with heavily subsidized northern hemisphere rivals
4.8
Marginalisation of the already disadvantaged producers and marketing chains
3.7
Increased independent monitoring and evaluation
3.6
Increasing costs of auditing and certification for compliance with the code of practice
3.8
Impact on rural livelihoods
3.5
The code of conduct has a potential to result in many suppliers being cut by retailers
3.2
Lack of capacity among the South African exporters to engage at a technical, strategic and governance level
2.5
Limited amount of information transfer in smallholder production units may hamper the implementation of ethical codes of
2.4
conduct
Procedure imposed on exporters by their main markets may serve as a barrier to the inclusion of the smallholders
3.9
Unfair advantage given to retailers to rationalise their supply base in view of the greater efficiencies to be gained through
4.2
monitoring only a small number of larger suppliers
Contracts cancelled due to boycotts
2.3
Voluntary processes used to undermine public regulation
1.7
Increased need for more coordination in order to meet the requirements
3.6
Increased complexity of monitoring standards against the Base Code in the context of the kinds of vast networks of
3.6
subcontracting relationships
Relocation of multinational exporting companies to other countries if improved conditions lead to cost increases locally
2.3
Exporters assume the role of setting up strict supervisory system and assuming responsibility for rigid enforcement of
3.7
standards
Codes used to replace and thereby undermine collective bargaining
4.2
Increased complexity of traceability as the retailers in the export market have to lay down specifications and details of the
3.3
traded product at the point of production
Failure of membership of the ETI and acceptance of Base Code to resolve supplier insecurity
3.2
The demands for ethical trade may strengthen the economic power of multinational corporations thus squeezing out medium
3.1
and small sized enterprises
1 = strongly decrease; 5 =strongly increase.
Ethical Trading: The Implications of the Human Rights Watch Report on South African Fruit Exports
121
Fig. 1 Supporting stakeholders to sustain export competitiveness (own recommendations based on results and approach
used for this study).
122
Ethical Trading: The Implications of the Human Rights Watch Report on South African Fruit Exports
Table 3
Authority
Responsibility
Fruit
exporting Provision of information
companies
Assist producers with support in implementing the codes
Capacity building
Consolidation of international codes of conduct
ETI
Provide incentives for those suppliers who comply with codes
Establishing efficient systems of conformity and enforcement assessment
Trade unions
Educating farm workers on ethical codes
Promotion of skills development
Strengthening the legislations on: basic employment conditions, employment insurance, labour relations and
the right to strike action, ensuring adequate health and safety condition on farms
Capacity building
The South African
Financial support e.g. in the form of soft loans
government
Provide incentives for those suppliers who comply with codes
Enforce compliance with ethical codes and labour laws
Enforcing the provision of descent housing to workers
Ensure protection of immigrant workers
Engagement of independent accreditation bodies
Fruit producers
Engage in self-assessment of compliance with codes
Support producer compliance with codes
Improved communication with suppliers
Retailers
Explaining codes to suppliers and workers
Active in monitoring of audits rather than rely on third parties
4. Conclusions
By way of conclusion, the implications of lack of
compliance with the ethical codes of conduct may ruin
the industrys export sector. There is need for urgent
action to address the perceptions of exporters and
consumers, redress the bad image that may emanate
from the report on the South African farm labour
conditions and equipping exporters for compliance.
On the other hand, strategies for a sustainable
competitive advantage, compliance with the ethical
trading codes and government intervention are
urgently needful.
Recognition is not made for any possible options
available to existing suppliers who may be facing an
initial failure to adhere to the ethical codes. Immediate
removal from the supply base seems to be the only
option available to the retailers as recommended by
the Human Rights Watch. The main challenge is that
it is easier to retain a market than to regain it
Ethical Trading: The Implications of the Human Rights Watch Report on South African Fruit Exports
123
124
Ethical Trading: The Implications of the Human Rights Watch Report on South African Fruit Exports
Watch Report.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
Ethical Trading: The Implications of the Human Rights Watch Report on South African Fruit Exports
421-437.
[14] P. Ndou, A. Obi, The business environment and
international competitiveness of the South African citrus
industry, Paper presented at the International Food and
Agribusiness Association (IFAMA)s 21st World Annual
Forum and Symposium, June 20-23, 2011, Frankfurt,
Germany, 2011, p. 15.
125
D
DAVID
PUBLISHING
1. Introduction
Vegetable seeds have a high commercial value, thus
a lot of information about seed vigor are always
important. The cultivation of these species, conducted
intensively, should be established with seed of high
physiological potential and seed health [1].
Researches talking about vegetable seeds have shown
significant development in Brazil since the beginning
of the 1990s, but papers are still less frequent than
those conducted with species of other crops. It is true
that many vegetable crops are grown, but each one has
its own peculiarity, and the volume of available
knowledge is not enough to the importance of this
subject [2]. There are increasing demands on high
quality seeds for the establishment of more productive
and sustainable agriculture, and it is growing also the
127
128
24
468
615
432
724
560 d
Average
389 B
532 C
363 A
628 D
478
129
130
[8]
4. Conclusions
The accelerated aging test using saturated saline
solution showed efficiency in assessing the
physiological quality of both lots of radish seeds and
coriander. This test at 41 C for 48 h is recommended
to be used for both species.
[9]
[10]
[11]
Acknowledgments
[12]
[13]
[14]
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
D
DAVID
PUBLISHING
1. Introduction
The rainfall distribution in the SouthWestern
Nigeria is bimodal with peaks in June and September.
The dry season extends from November to March.
During the rainy season, the rainfall is high and
relatively adequate for the production of most crops.
However, towards the end of the rainy season, the
rainfall becomes erratic and reduces to about 500 mm.
In the dry season, there is always an increasing
competition for water by agriculture and domestic
uses and irrigation is the only option for providing
water to crops. Soils with low water holding capacities,
combined with high evaporation rates, result in low
water use efficiency [1]. Water use efficiency is useful
because of its role in sustainable development.
Improving the efficiency of resource use is one of the
means of meeting sustainable development goals.
Corresponding author: Jimmy Akinfemi Osunbitan, Ph.D.,
research fields: soil and water conservation, soil and water
management for improved soil conditions and increased crop
yield,
irrigation,
organic
farming.
E-mail:
josunbit@oauife.edu.ng, josunbit@yahoo.com.
132
with
increase
in
livestock
manure
soil
management
measures
aimed
at
133
134
Table 1
Analysis of variance for growth and yield of Amaranth grown under different organic waste incorporation.
Source of variation
Organic matter (OM)
Irrigation interval (II)
Depth (ID)
OM II
OM ID
II ID
OM II ID
DF
3
2
2
6
6
4
12
F value
Leaf area (cm2)
NS
0.70
2.15 NS
0.14 NS
0.06 NS
0.02 NS
0.21 NS
0.07 NS
Plant height (cm) Dry matter (Kg/ha) Total water use (cm)
**
5.45
13.96**
0.23 NS
0.49 NS
0.25 NS
0.19 NS
0.24 NS
> 5,000
155**
4,077**
114 **
990**
7.23**
21.91**
**
**
26.48
759.84**
38.96**
11.55**
1.47NS
12.35**
12.22**
Drainage (cm)
6.74**
> 5,000**
3,696**
2.33NS
1.47NS
958**
1.28NS
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 1 Total depth of water used at different irrigation depths, (a) 4 mm, (b) 6 mm, (c) 8 mm irrigation depths and irrigation
interval in response to organic matter.
135
136
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 2 Plant height as affected by the different irrigation depths, (a) 4 mm, (b) 6 mm, (c) 8 mm irrigation depths and
irrigation interval in response to organic matter incorporation.
137
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 3 Plant yield as affected by the different irrigation depths, (a) 4 mm, (b) 6 mm, (c) 8 mm irrigation depths and
irrigation interval in response to organic matter incorporation.
138
Table 2
Relationship between percent organic matter content (OM) and dry matter yield (DMY).
8
*
Equation*
DMY = 0.43 OM3 5.55 OM2 +19.11 OM + 16.3
DMY = 2.55 OM3 21.15 OM2 +52.6 OM 1.4
DMY = 1.65 OM3 14.65 OM2 +39.4 OM + 4.3
DMY = 7.65 OM3 64.05 OM2 +165.2 OM 76.7
DMY = 14.88 OM3 120.20 OM2 +291.30 OM 153
DMY = 10.15 OM3 83.65 OM2 +208 OM + 103
DMY = 2.7 OM3 24.15 OM2 +64.35 OM 12.4
DMY = 5.27 OM3 43.10 OM2 +103.60 OM 31.3
DMY = 4.10 OM3 34.70 OM2 +87.20 OM 24.9
Equations are significant at 0.05 level of significance; DMY and OM are dry matter yield and organic matter content respectively.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
4. Conclusions
[5]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
139
D
DAVID
PUBLISHING
1. Introduction
The red palm weevil (RPW) Rhychophorus
ferrugineus (Olivier) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is
considered as one of the most damaging invasive insect
species [1, 2]. The geographic origin of RPW was
claimed to be South East Asia and Melanesia [3-6].
Multiple introductions of RPW to the Middle East, the
Mediterranean Basin and US have occurred since mid
1980s through movement of infested offshoots [2].
Recently, the RPW is being considered as a major pest
of date palms (Phoenix dactylifera) and different
ornamental palm species in the Middle East and the
Mediterranean basin, Caribbean (Island of Curacao,
Netherland Antilles), Lebanon and USA [2, 6-9].
Insect neuropeptides are involved in almost all
physiological aspects in insects, such as diereses,
ecdysis, pheromone biosynthesis and control of
muscle activity. Thus, these peptide hormones and
Corresponding author: Mona Mohammed Saleh
Al-Dawsary, Ph.D., research fields: insects physiology, sense
organs and pharmacology. E-mail: wisdom1425@yahoo.com.
141
solution
and
preparation
different
142
8 A sample
A standard
C=
(1)
C=
200 sample
A standard
(2)
3. Results
3.1 Effect of LeucokininII on Total Proteins and
Cholesterol Concentration in Haemolymph of R.
ferrugineus
3.1.1 Total Proteins
Table 1 shows significant difference between total
protein concentration in Haemolymph when treating
males and females with different concentrations of
leucokininII. These treatments have significant effects
on protein content in Haemolymph for adult females
compared with control, where concentration recorded
significant increase, 0.05% in the protein content
followed by 0.4% compared control. Also, the
leucokininII have significant increase when treating
females with 0.25% that decreased recorded in protein
content 0.110 g mg-1. These results show
leucokininII have an active effect in creating protein
in heamolymph. It is clear that the changes in protein
content in insects tissues fall under hormonal system
control of insect treatment which is the juvenile
hormone and ecdysteroid hormone. With exception to
the females treated with 0.25% concentration which
recorded a decrease in the protein content 0.110 g
mg-1, it indicates suppression in creating protein
[24-26].
3.1.2 Cholesterol
Table 2 shows effect of leucokininII on cholesterol
concentration in haemolymph for adults of red palm
weevil. That results showed a significant decrease in
Males
Mean g mg-1 SD
3.872* 1.00
0.500* 0.18
1.679* 0.04
0.232* 0.00
Females
Mean g mg-1 SD
4.846 0.13
0.110 0.00
1.296 0.00
0.134* 0.00
Significant of 0.001.
Table 2 Effect treatment of LeucokininII on cholesterol
concentration in haemolymph adult red palm weevil R.
ferrugineus.
Concentration
0.05%
0.25%
0.4%
Cont.
Males
Mean g mg-1 SD
37.989* 1.12
114.243* 0.29
82.960* 0.56
120.123* 22.91
Females
Mean g mg-1 SD
57.263* 0.48
63.967* 0.00
82.681* 2.79
96.087* 5.58
Significant of 0.001.
143
4. Discussion
Neuropeptides are chemical messengers which are
released from neurons into the haemolymph of the
insect to reach their distal target organs. Insect
neuropeptides are involved in almost all physiological
process in insects, such as dieresis, pheromone
biosynthesis, and control of muscle activity. In
previous study, we have studied leucokininII effect on
some biological aspects of red palm weevil, and
observed leucokininII, and some deformation on
5. Conclusions
LeucokininII effected significantly on total proteins
and cholesterol concentration in haemolymph for Red
Palm Weevil, it has effect on nerve gland secretion
hormones that regulated metabolism of these
compounds.
Acknowledgments
The authors extend their sincere thanks to the
144
[13]
References
[1]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
145
D
DAVID
PUBLISHING
1. Introduction
Phytopathogenic fungi that attempt to colonize higher
plants must contend with physical barriers of the host as
surface waxes and cell wall [1], phytopathogenic fungi
produce several pectolytic enzymes, which are capable
to degrade plant cell wall components during plant
pathogenesis. These enzymes are called pathogenic
enzymes mostly cellulolytic and pectinolytic enzymes
by the activity of these enzymes, which may facilitate
fungal growth and provide the fungus with nutrients [2,
3]. In a number of systems, a strong correlation has been
found between the presence of pectinolytic enzymes and
disease symptoms and disease virulence [4, 5]. Many
phytopathogenic fungi possess the enzymes destroying
cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectin. Wood-destructive
147
Fig. 1
148
48 h
0.92g
2.56j
72 h
0.64gh
2.82j
One week
0.64gh
3.10j
4. Conclusions
The present results indicate that pectinase and
149
cellulases
have
been
inducted
peroxidase,
polypolyphenol oxidase in apricot trees. We also find
that combinations of pectic and cellulases enzymes
cooperate in the induction oxidative enzymes in
apricot trees.
Reference
[1]
150
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
D
DAVID
PUBLISHING
1. Introduction
Developing-country agriculture is frequently
characterized by low innovation capacity [1], low
productivity [2, 3], demographic pressures [4],
small-scale subsistence farming, and low levels of
market integration and value addition [3]. However,
there is significant variation across developing
countries [2]. This suggests a need for a better
understanding of the factors that influence
productivity and variations in productivity among
countries, development sectors and farm enterprises.
Ethiopia is one of the most populous countries in the
developing world and agriculture is central in its
Corresponding author: Amlaku Asres, M.Sc., research
field: innovation capacity in the livestock systems. E-mail:
asresamlaku@yahoo.com.
152
Innovation and Technical Efficiency in the Smallholder Dairy Production System in Ethiopia
Innovation and Technical Efficiency in the Smallholder Dairy Production System in Ethiopia
153
yi f xi ; i 1,2,........N
th
(1)
farm,
i vi ui
vi
(2)
is a systematic random error which
ui is one sided
154
Innovation and Technical Efficiency in the Smallholder Dairy Production System in Ethiopia
Variables
Ln output (Y)
Inputs
Ln roughage
Ln concentrate
Ln labor
Ln health
Ln breeding cost
Ln hay
Inefficiency variables
Age
Age2
Family size
Education
Farm size
Credit availability
Extension visit
Training
Off-farm income
Group membership
a
Description
Natural log. of household total milk output in Birra
Expected sign
+
+
+
+
+
+
Negative sign in the inefficiency variables indicates a positive effect on efficiency impact.
Innovation and Technical Efficiency in the Smallholder Dairy Production System in Ethiopia
155
156
Innovation and Technical Efficiency in the Smallholder Dairy Production System in Ethiopia
Table 2 Summary statistics of the variables for dairy farmers in northwest Ethiopia in 2010/11.
Variables
Milk output (Birr)
1. Inputs
Roughage (kg)
Concentrate (kg)
Labor (man days)
Health expense(Birr)
Breeding expense(Birr)
Hay purchase(Birr)
2. Inefficiency factors
2.1 Household characteristics
Age
Experience in farming (years)
Family size (no.)
2.2 Proxy factors to AIS
Education (years)
Farm size (ha)
Credit availability (1/0)
Extension visit (no.)
Training (1/0)
Off-farm income (1/0)
Group membership (1/0)
All respondents
Mean Range
2,321 0-32,000
2,759 (2,050)
500 (1,044)
4 (2)
120 (105)
14 (36)
1,433 (1,506)
0-10,000
0-7,200
2-8
0-500
0-300
0-7,000
2,041 (3,104)
195 (370)
4 (2)
108 (106)
7 (14)
806 (1,587)
0-40,000
0-2,400
1-10
0-720
0-74
0-13,500
2,230
275
4
111
9
971
0-40,000
0-7,200
1-10
0-720
0-300
0-13,500
47.2 (9.5)
23.17 (9.6)
7.36 (1.75)
28-75
8-56
4-11
48.4 (11.9)
24.85 (12.2)
6.76 (1.8)
22-83
5-60
2-12
48.11
24.41
6.92
22-83
5-60
2-12
4.54 (2.27)
1.64 (0.78)
0.4 (0.49)
2.93 (1.3)
0.66 (0.48)
0.28 (0.45)
0.96 (0.19)
0-11
0-3
0-1
1-5
0-1
0-1
0-1
3.55 (2.66)
1.46 (0.82)
0.43 (0.5)
2.69 (1.16)
0.62 (0.49)
0.2 (0.4)
0.85 (0.36)
0-12
0-3.75
0-1
1-5
0-1
0-1
0-1
3.81
1.51
0.42
2.75
0.63
0.22
0.88
0-12
0-3.75
0-1
1-5
0-1
0-1
0-1
Innovation and Technical Efficiency in the Smallholder Dairy Production System in Ethiopia
ln Yi o k ln X ik Vi U i
6
k 1
(3)
U i 0 i X i j
(4)
157
and
s2 v2 u2 ;
2
u
2
s
and 0 1
(5)
(6)
158
Innovation and Technical Efficiency in the Smallholder Dairy Production System in Ethiopia
0.9985
0.0014
Log likelihood function
-701.7271
LR test (one-sided error)
153.0634***
*** significance at the 1% level; ** significance at the 5% level.
t-statistics
16.6016***
-1.0477
3.3558***
2.1483**
1.2707
2.8274***
-0.1682
-0.4652
-0.4908
0.6582
1.0221
-1.0031
0.2462
-0.2423
0.0735
0.3324
-0.6941
-0.9290
1.0872
736.9893***
Innovation and Technical Efficiency in the Smallholder Dairy Production System in Ethiopia
159
Frequency
4
21
13
20
%
1.3
6.9
4.6
6.6
246
80.6
304
0.2617
0.02
0.85
100
160
Innovation and Technical Efficiency in the Smallholder Dairy Production System in Ethiopia
presented in Table 5.
In the model, a coefficient of breeding is found to
be positively significant to the dependant variable
dairy milk output to both groups. The coefficient of
health and breeding are found to be significantly
positive in case of adopters. Similarly, the coefficients
of concentrate, labor and breeding are significantly
positive in case of non-adopter farmers. The
negatively non-significant coefficient of roughage and
positive but non-significant coefficient of hay inputs
in both groups imply no effect to the output.
The output elasticities of inputs for both adopters
and non-adopter farmers are variable. For the adopters
group, output elasticity of inputs was highest for
breeding (0.1798), followed by health input (0.1105).
In the non-adopters group, output elasticity of inputs
was highest for labor (0.5706), followed by breeding
Table 5 Maximum-likelihood estimates for parameters of the Cobb-Douglas stochastic frontier production functions for
dairy technology adopter and non-adopter farmers.
Variable
Adopters
Non-adopters
Stochastic frontier
Coefficient
Std.dev
Coefficient
Std.dev
Constant
8.4665
0.0696
7.0735
0.6692
Ln roughage (kg)
-0.0296
0.0402
-0.0012
0.0598
Ln concentrate (kg)
0.0470
0.0613
0.1186***
0.0457
Ln labor (man days)
0.2094
0.3088
0.5706***
0.3046
Ln health expense(Birr)
0.1105***
0.0437
0.0316
0.0843
Ln breeding expense(Birr
0.1798***
0.1741
0.1790**
0.1013
Ln hay purchase(Birr)
0.0072
0.0509
0.0054
0.0400
Inefficiency model
Constant
0.1528
0.9992
-20.5590
29.29
Age
0.1548
0.2274
-0.5387
0.9774
Age2
-0.0996
0.2354
0.6632
0.9295
Family size (number)
-0.7839
0.7971
1.8860*
1.2468
Education (years)
-1.2337***
0.4255
-0.2010
0.4045
Farm size (ha)
1.1279
0.9694
-3.4067
2.7478
Credit availability (1/0)
-2.1958**
1.1189
2.7738
3.2894
Extension (number )
0.3813
0.8949
0.1217
1.3739
Training (1/0)
-0.9522
1.0179
3.0090
3.3153
Off-farm income (1/0)
- 3.3906***
1.2709
1.0874
4.2103
Group membership (1/0)
1.2093
1.0353
3.8079
5.2752
Variance parameters
2
17.2752***
0.9451
78.1963*
53.3134
0.9999***
0.0000
0.9958***
0.0031
Log likelihood function
-146.93
-531.73
LR test (one-sided error)
85.87***
88.96***
The coefficients in the inefficiency function are inefficiency effects and therefore a positive coefficient implies a negative effect on
performance while a negative sign indicates a positive impact on efficiency. Significant at * 10%, ** 5%, *** 1%.
Innovation and Technical Efficiency in the Smallholder Dairy Production System in Ethiopia
business
and
enterprise
domain
(group
161
Non-adopters (N = 224)
Frequency
%
0.9
3.1
3.1
5.0
87.9
100
0.21
0.20
0.02
0.85
162
Table 7
Innovation and Technical Efficiency in the Smallholder Dairy Production System in Ethiopia
Variable
Efficiency combined
Efficiency adopters
Efficiency non-adopters
Efficiency men
Efficiency women
Efficiency by District Gonderzuria
Efficiency by Lay armachiho
Efficiency by Wogera
Efficiency by Debark
Mean
0.2617
0.4000
0.2124
0.2354
0.4389
0.2190
0.2904
0.3092
0.2061
StD
0.2280
0.2481
0.1987
0.2274
0.3757
Min
0.02
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.02
0.02
0.02
Max
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.85
0.77
technology
households.
The
adopting
results
and
non-adopting
indicated
significant
5. Conclusions
The paper uses a Cobb-Douglas stochastic frontier
analysis of production functions to estimate the level
of technical efficiency of dairy farmers in four
districts during 2011 production year. The stochastic
production function was modeled in such a way that
local level agricultural innovation systems framework
and indicators of its different domains (the knowledge
and education domain, the business and enterprise
domain, the bridging institutions domain and the
enabling environment domain) serve as an
environment that determines the level of technical
inefficiency. The production function and the
inefficiency effects were estimated simultaneously.
The results showed that the overall mean efficiency
score among sampled dairy farmers is about 26% and
there is room for significant increase of production by
reallocation of the existing resources. Despite
significant variation from the frontier, it is also
revealed that individual farm households efficiency
measures
of
differences
efficiency
in
indicate
productivity
that
changes
Innovation and Technical Efficiency in the Smallholder Dairy Production System in Ethiopia
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
Acknowledgments
The authors greatly acknowledge OEAD-Gmbh
(Austrian Agency for International Cooperation in
Education and Research), Sustainable Resource
Management Program (SRMP) of North Gondar Zone,
and Sustainable Water Harvesting & Institutional
Strengthening Project (SWHISA), both in Amhara
region of Ethiopia, for financing this study and
facilitating logistics support.
[12]
[13]
[14]
References
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[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
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[7]
[15]
[16]
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[19]
[20]
[21]
163
164
Innovation and Technical Efficiency in the Smallholder Dairy Production System in Ethiopia
D
DAVID
PUBLISHING
1. Introduction
Cotton, Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae), has been
genetically modified (GM) by the insertion of the cry
genes, which code for insecticidal proteins cry (type
-endotoxin) from a common soil bacterium, Bacillus
thuringiensis (Bt). The cry proteins kill insects that feed
on Bt modified crops by causing the osmotic rupture of
the epithelial layer of the digestive tract, thus acting as
an efficient population control agent [1-3].
Bt cotton is cultivated in many parts of the world,
including Argentina, Australia, China, India, South
Africa and United States [3]. Nowadays, Brazil is the
second largest producer of GM crops, with production
area of 30.3 million hectares, trailing only the United
States (69 million ha) [4]. In Brazil high scale
production are soybeans, maize and GM cotton.
Cotton is the transgenic plant most extensively
cultivated in the mid-west of Brazil, this region is
Corresponding author: Carla Cristina Dutra, Ph.D., research
fields: integrated pest management and risk assessment of
transgenic plants. E-mail: carlacristina.dutra@gmail.com.
166
Richness and Diversity of Ants and Beetles in Genetically Modified Cotton Field in Brazil
[14].
Two
different
groups
of
insects
Richness and Diversity of Ants and Beetles in Genetically Modified Cotton Field in Brazil
167
Bt cotton
Fields
Non-Bt cotton
3. Results
Formicinae
Brachymyrmex sp.1
66.66%
Camponotus crassus
11.11%
Camponotus ruphipenis
11.11%
Camponotus sp.1
22.22%
Dolichoderinae
Dorymyrmex sp.1
100%
Dorymyrmex sp.2
11.11%
Ecitoninae
Labidus sp.1
0
Myrmicinae
Pheidole oxyopsis
22.22%
Pheidole sp.1
100%
Pheidole sp.2
22.22%
Pheidole sp.3
0
Solenopis invicta
11.11%
Solenopsis sp.1
100%
Solenopsis sp.2
11.11%
Ponerinae
Hypoponera sp.1
11.11%
Hypoponera sp.2
0
Pachycondyla striata
11.11%
Pseudomyrmecinae
Pseudomyrmex sp.1
11.11%
The species used in the statistical analysis,
three traps, are indicated in grey.
88.88%
0
0
11.11%
88.88%
11.11%
33.33%
44.44%
100%
33.33%
22.22%
66.66%
100%
11.11%
0
22.22%
0
0
present in at least
168
Richness and Diversity of Ants and Beetles in Genetically Modified Cotton Field in Brazil
4. Discussion
Fig. 2 Species composition of ants in 10 samples (occurrences in four pitfalls by samples), five in a Bt cotton field and five in
a non-Bt cotton field, Maracaju-MS, Brazil, 2007/2008 crop season.
Richness and Diversity of Ants and Beetles in Genetically Modified Cotton Field in Brazil
169
Table 2 Number of specimens of Coleoptera registered in pitfall traps on a field of Bt and another non-Bt cotton, during the
reproductive season, Maracaju-MS, Brazil, 2007/2008 crop season.
Taxon
Field
Bt Cotton
Non-Bt Cotton
Taxon
Anthicidae
Erotylidae
Formicilla sp.1
5
2
Pselaphacus sp.
Carabidae
Histeridae
Calosoma granulatum
3
29
Phelister sp.1
Galerita sp.1
1
2
Nitidulidae
Scarites sp.1
1
3
Carpophilus sp.
Tetracha sp.1
1
13
Stelidota sp.
sp.4
5
1
Scarabaeidae
sp.5
1
2
Ataenius sp.1
sp.6
0
1
Leucothyreus kirbyanus
sp.7
0
1
Canthidium sp.1
sp.8
1
0
Canthon chalybaeus
Chrysomelidae
Canthon histrio
Brasilaphthona sp.
5
8
Canthon sp.1
Systena sp.1
1
0
Coprophanaeus cyanecens
Phaedon consimilis
0
1
Coprophanaeus horus
Colaspis joliveti
5
1
Pseudocanthon sp.
Myochrous sp.
0
1
Eutrichillum sp.
sp.9
3
0
Scirtidae
Coccinelidae
Scirtes sp.1
Cycloneda sanguinea
2
2
Silvanidae
Eriopis connexa
4
14
Ahasverus s.p
Hippodamia convergens
6
4
Staphylinidae
Hyperaspis festiva
3
4
Pinophilus sp.
Scymnus (Scymnus) sp.
4
11
sp.12
Colydiidae
sp.13
Phloeonemus sp.1
7
0
sp.10
Curculionidae
sp.11
Conotrachelus sp.
0
1
Tenebrionidae
Rhyssomatus sp.
0
1
Ctesia hirta
Sternechus subsignatus
1
0
Lagria villosa
Elateridae
Blapstinus sp.1
Aeolus sp.1
2
2
sp.14
Aeolus sp.2
1
1
Conoderus malleatus
11
4
Heteroderes sp.1
4
0
Total of individuals
The species used in the statistic analysis, present in at least three traps, are indicated in grey.
Field
Bt Cotton
Non-Bt Cotton
141
13
143
10
2
1
19
2
1
2
1
0
1
0
4
0
81
2
0
6
0
3
1
10
36
14
1
1
0
1
2
0
0
1
1
7
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
310
397
170
Richness and Diversity of Ants and Beetles in Genetically Modified Cotton Field in Brazil
Richness and Diversity of Ants and Beetles in Genetically Modified Cotton Field in Brazil
171
Fig. 4 Beetle species composition, in 10 samples (occurrences in four pitfalls trap by sample), five a Bt cotton field and five
in a non-Bt cotton field, Maracaju-MS, Brazil, 2007/2008 crop season. We only present the species with more than five beetles,
this facilitates the knowledge of the species turnover pattern between the areas. The gradient generated from the association
these plots of relative abundance, recovered a pattern where species that occurred with highest abundances in samples of the
Bt cotton field are represented in the figure base. Species with highest abundances in samples of the non-Bt cotton field are
the other extremity in the figure top.
5. Conclusions
Through this study, we verified the species that
occurred in reproductive period of cotton in one
commercial field cotton (Bt and non-Bt plants) farm
in the Midwest of Brazil. Therefore, additional studies
are necessary through the years and in different
locations, thereby, to make clear enough about the
richness and diversity of ants and beetles. These
insects are very important in maintaining soil quality,
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the UFPR team members: Dr.
Germano H. Rosado Neto, Paschoal Coelho Grossi,
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