BENDING FREQUENCIES OF BEAMS, RODS, AND PIPES

Revision S
By Tom Irvine
Email: tom@vibrationdata.com
November 20, 2012
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Introduction
The fundamental frequencies for typical beam configurations are given in Table 1.
Higher frequencies are given for selected configurations.
Table 1. Fundamental Bending Frequencies
Configuration

Frequency (Hz)
f1 =

Cantilever

1 3.5156 EI

2 L2

f2 = 6.268 f1
f3 = 17.456 f1

Cantilever with
End Mass m

f1 = 1

Simply-Supported
at both Ends
(Pinned-Pinned)

1 n
fn =
2 L

f1 = 0
f2 =
Free-Free

3EI

0.2235 L m L3
2

EI
, n=1, 2, 3, .

(rigid-body mode)

1 22.373 EI

2 L2

f3 = 2.757 f1
f4 = 5.404 f1

Table 1. Fundamental Bending Frequencies (continued)

Configuration

Frequency (Hz)

Fixed-Fixed

Same as free-free beam except there is no rigid-body

mode for the fixed-fixed beam.

Fixed - Pinned

f1 =

1 15.418 EI

2 L2

where
E
I
L

is the modulus of elasticity

is the area moment of inertia
is the length
is the mass density (mass/length)
is the applied force

Note that the free-free and fixed-fixed have the same formula.
The derivations and examples are given in the appendices per Table 2.
Table 2. Table of Contents
Appendix
A
B
C
D
E
F

Title
Cantilever Beam I

Mass

Solution

End mass. Beam mass is

negligible

Approximate

Beam mass only

Approximate

Cantilever Beam III

Both beam mass and the

end mass are significant

Approximate

Cantilever Beam IV

Beam mass only

Beam Simply-Supported at
Both Ends I
Beam Simply-Supported at
Both Ends II

Center mass. Beam mass

is negligible.

Cantilever Beam II

Beam mass only

Eigenvalue
Approximate
Eigenvalue

Table 2. Table of Contents (continued)

Appendix
G
H
I

Title

Mass

Free-Free Beam

Beam mass only

Eigenvalue

Beam mass only

Approximate

Beam mass only

Approximate

Steel Pipe example, Simply

Supported and Fixed-Fixed
Cases
Rocket Vehicle Example,
Free-free Beam

Solution

Fixed-Fixed Beam

Beam mass only

Eigenvalue

Fixed-Pinned Beam

Beam mass only

Eigenvalue

Reference
1. T. Irvine, Application of the Newton-Raphson Method to Vibration Problems,
Revision E, Vibrationdata, 2010.

APPENDIX A

Cantilever Beam I
Consider a mass mounted on the end of a cantilever beam. Assume that the end-mass is
much greater than the mass of the beam.
g

EI
m
L

Figure A-1.
E
I
L
g
m

is the modulus of elasticity.

is the area moment of inertia.
is the length.
is gravity.
is the mass.

The free-body diagram of the system is

L

MR

mg
R

Figure A-2.
R is the reaction force.
MR is the reaction bending moment.
Apply Newtons law for static equilibrium.

forces 0

(A-1)

R - mg = 0

(A-2)

R = mg

(A-3)

At the left boundary,

moments 0

(A-4)

MR - mg L = 0

(A-5)

MR = mg L

(A-6)

Now consider a segment of the beam, starting from the left boundary.
V
y
x

MR

M
R

Figure A-3.
V is the shear force.
M is the bending moment.
y is the deflection at position x.

Sum the moments at the right side of the segment.

moments 0

(A-7)

MR - R x - M = 0

(A-8)

M = MR - R x

(A-9)

The moment M and the deflection y are related by the equation

M EI y

(A-10)

EI y M R R x

(A-11)

EI y mgL mg x

(A-12)

EI y mg L x

(A-13)

mg
L x
y
EI

(A-14)

Integrating,

x2
mg
y Lx a
EI
2

(A-15)

Note that a is an integration constant.

Integrating again,

2
3

mg x x
y( x) L ax b
EI 2 6

(A-16)

A boundary condition at the left end is

y(0) = 0

(zero displacement)

(A-17)

Thus
b=0

(A-18)

Another boundary condition is

y' 0 0

(zero slope)

(A-19)

Applying the boundary condition to equation (A-16) yields,

a=0

(A-20)

The resulting deflection equation is

2
3

mg x x
y( x) L
EI 2 6

(A-21)

The deflection at the right end is

2
3

mg L L
y( L) L
EI 2 6

(A-22)

mgL3

y( L)
3EI

(A-23)

Recall Hookes law for a linear spring,

F=ky

(A-24)

F is the force.
k is the stiffness.
The stiffness is thus
k=F/y

(A-25)

The force at the end of the beam is mg. The stiffness at the end of the beam is

mg
k

mgL3
3EI


k

(A-26)

3EI
L3

(A-27)

The formula for the natural frequency fn of a single-degree-of-freedom system is

fn

1 k
2 m

(A-28)

The mass term m is simply the mass at the end of the beam. The natural frequency of the
cantilever beam with the end-mass is found by substituting equation (A-27) into (A-28).

fn

1 3EI
2 mL3

(A-29)

APPENDIX B
Cantilever Beam II
Consider a cantilever beam with mass per length . Assume that the beam has a uniform
cross section. Determine the natural frequency. Also find the effective mass, where the
distributed mass is represented by a discrete, end-mass.

EI,

Figure B-1.
The governing differential equation is

EI

4 y
2 y

x 4
t 2

(B-1)

The boundary conditions at the fixed end x = 0 are

y(0) = 0

(zero displacement)

dy
0
dx x 0

(zero slope)

(B-2)
(B-3)

The boundary conditions at the free end x = L are

d2y
dx 2

(zero bending moment)

(B-4)

x L

d 3y
dx 3

(zero shear force)

x L

Propose a quarter cosine wave solution.

(B-5)


x
y( x) y o 1 cos
2L

(B-6)

dy
x
y o sin
2L 2L
dx

(B-7)

d2y
2
x
y o cos
2L
2L
dx 2

(B-8)

d 3y
x 3 x
y o sin
2L
2L
dx 3

(B-9)

The proposed solution meets all of the boundary conditions expect for the zero shear
force at the right end. The proposed solution is accepted as an approximate solution for
the deflection shape, despite one deficiency.
The Rayleigh method is used to find the natural frequency. The total potential energy
and the total kinetic energy must be determined.

The total potential energy P in the beam is

2
EI L d 2 y
P
dx
2 0 dx 2

(B-10)

By substitution,
EI L
P
2 0

2
2
x
y o cos dx
2L
2 L

EI 2
y
P
2 o 2 L
EI 2
y
P
2 o 2 L

(B-11)

2
L x
0 cos 2L dx

(B-12)

L 1
x
2 1 cos L dx

(B-13)

10

2
EI 2 1 L x
y
P
x sin
2 o 2 L 2 L

L
(B-14)

4
EI
2
P
y
L
2 o 32 L4

(B-15)

1 4 EI
2
yo
64
L3

(B-16)

The total kinetic energy T is

1
L 2
2n y dx
0
2

(B-17)

2
1
L
x
2
T n y o 1 cos dx
2L
0
2

(B-18)

1
x
x
2 L
2n y o 1 2 cos cos2 dx
2L
2L
0
2

(B-19)

1
x
x
2 L
2n y o 1 2 cos cos2 dx
2L
2L
0
2

(B-20)

1
x 1 1 x
2 L
2n y o 1 2 cos cos dx
2L 2 2 L
0
2

(B-21)

1
x
x
2 L 3
2n y o 2 cos cos dx

L
0 2
2
2L

(B-22)

L
1
4 L x L x
2 3
2n y o x sin sin
2L L
2
2
0

(B-23)

1
4L
2 3
2n y o L

2
2

(B-24)

11

1
2 8
2n y o L 3
4

(B-25)

Now equate the potential and the kinetic energy terms.

1
2 8 1 4 EI
2
2n y o L 3
yo
4
64
L3

(B-26)

EI
8 1
2n L 3 4
16 L3

(B-27)

EI
4

L3
2n

16L 3 8

(B-28)

1/2

EI
4

L3
n

16L 3 8

(B-29)

1/2

EI
4

1
L4
f n

8
2
16 3

(B-30)

1/2

EI
4

1
L4
f n

8
2
16 3

(B-31)

12


1/2

EI
2

1
f n

2 8
2
4L
3

1 3.664 EI
f n

2 L2

(B-32)

(B-33)

Recall that the stiffness at the free of the cantilever beam is

k

3EI
L3

(B-34)

The effective mass meff at the end of the beam is thus

meff

meff

2 fn

(B-35)

3EI
2

1 3.664 EI

3
L 2

2 L

meff

3EI

(B-36)

(B-37)

EI
L3
13.425

L4

meff 0.2235 L

(B-38)

13

APPENDIX C
Cantilever Beam III
Consider a cantilever beam where both the beam mass and the end-mass are significant.
g

EI,
m
L

Figure C-1.

The total mass mt can be calculated using equation (B-38).

mt 0.2235L m

(C-1)

Again, the stiffness at the free of the cantilever beam is

k

3EI
L3

(C-2)

The natural frequency is thus

fn

1
2

3EI

(C-3)

0.2235L m L3

14

APPENDIX D

Cantilever Beam IV
This is a repeat of part II except that an exact solution is found for the differential
equation. The differential equation itself is only an approximation of reality, however.

EI,

Figure D-1.
The governing differential equation is

EI

4 y
2 y

x 4
t 2

(D-1)

Note that this equation neglects shear deformation and rotary inertia.
Separate the dependent variable.

y( x, t ) Y( x)T(t )

(D-2)

4 Y( x)T( t )
2 Y( x)T( t )
EI

x 4
t 2

(D-3)

d4

d2

EI T(t )
Y( x) Y( x)
T(t )
4
2

dx

dt

(D-4)

15

 d 4

4 Y( x )

EI dx

Y( x )

d 2

2 T(t )
dt

T(t )

(D-5)

Let c be a constant

d 4

Y
(
x
)

EI dx 4

Y( x )

d 2

T(t
)
2

dt

c2
T(t )

(D-6)

Separate the time variable.

d 2

2 T(t )
dt

c2
T(t )

(D-7)

d2
T(t ) c 2 T(t ) 0
2
dt

(D-8)

Separate the spatial variable.

d 4

Y( x )

EI dx 4
c2

Y
(
x
)

(D-9)

d4

Y( x) c 2 Y( x) 0
EI
dx 4

(D-10)

A solution for equation (D-10) is

Y( x) a1 sinhx a 2 coshx a 3 sinx a 4 cosx

16

(D-11)

dY( x)
a1 coshx a 2 sinh x a 3 cos x a 4 sinx
dx

(D-12)

d 2 Y( x)
a1 2 sinh x a 2 2 cosh x a 3 2 sin x a 4 2 cos x
2
dx

(D-13)

d 3 Y( x)
a1 3 cosh x a 2 3 sinh x a 3 3 cos x a 4 3 sin x
3
dx

(D-14)

d 4 Y( x)
a1 4 sinh x a 2 4 cosh x a 3 4 sin x a 4 4 cos x
4
dx

(D-15)

Substitute (D-15) and (D-11) into (D-10).

a14 sinhx a 24 coshx a 34 sinx a 44 cosx

c 2 a1 sinh x a 2 cosh x a 3 sin x a 4 cos x 0

EI

(D-16)

4 a1 sinh x a 2 cosh x a 3 sin x a 4 cos x

c 2 a1 sinh x a 2 cosh x a 3 sin x a 4 cos x 0

EI

(D-17)
The equation is satisfied if

4 c2
EI

(D-18)

1/4

c 2
EI

(D-19)

17

The boundary conditions at the fixed end x = 0 are

Y(0) = 0

(zero displacement)

dY
0
dx x 0

(zero slope)

(D-20)
(D-21)

The boundary conditions at the free end x = L are

d 2Y
dx 2
d 3Y
dx 3

(zero bending moment)

(D-22)

(zero shear force)

(D-23)

x L

x L

Apply equation (D-20) to (D-11).

a2 a4 0

(D-24)

a4 a2

(D-25)

Apply equation (D-21) to (D-12).

a1 a 3 0

(D-26)

a 3 a1

(D-27)

Apply equation (D-22) to (D-13).

a1 sinhL a 2 coshL a 3 sinL a 4 cosL 0

(D-28)

Apply equation (D-23) to (D-14).

a1 coshL a 2 sinhL a 3 cosL a 4 sinL 0

(D-29)

Apply (D-25) and (D-27) to (D-28).

a1 sinhL a 2 coshL a1 sinL a 2 cosL 0

18

(D-30)

a1 sinL sinhL a 2 cosL coshL 0

(D-31)

Apply (D-25) and (D-27) to (D-29).

a1 coshL a 2 sinhL a1 cosL a 2 sinL 0

a1 cosL coshL a 2 sinL sinhL 0

(D-32)
(D-33)

Form (D-31) and (D-33) into a matrix format.

sin L sinh L

cos L cosh L

cos L cosh L a1 0


sin L sinh L a 2 0

(D-34)

By inspection, equation (D-34) can only be satisfied if a1 = 0 and a2 = 0. Set the

determinant to zero in order to obtain a nontrivial solution.

sin2 L sinh2 L

2 0

cos L cosh L

(D-35)

sin2 L sinh2 L cos2 L 2 cosL coshL cosh2 L 0

(D-36)

sin 2 L sinh 2 L cos2 L 2 cosL coshL cosh 2 L 0

(D-37)

2 2 cosL cosh L 0

(D-38)

1 cosL coshL 0

(D-39)

cosL coshL 1

(D-40)

There are multiple roots which satisfy equation (D-40). Thus, a subscript should be
added as shown in equation (D-41).
(D-41)
cos n L cosh n L 1

19

The subscript is an integer index. The roots can be determined through a combination of
graphing and numerical methods. The Newton-Rhapson method is an example of an
appropriate numerical method. The roots of equation (D-41) are summarized in Table D1, as taken from Reference 1.

Table D-1. Roots

Index
n L
n=1

1.87510

n=2

4.69409

n>3

(2n-1)/2

Note: the root value formula for n > 3 is approximate.

Rearrange equation (D-19) as follows

EI
c2 n4

(D-42)

Substitute (D-42) into (D-8).

EI
d2
T(t ) n 4 T(t ) 0

dt 2

(D-43)

Equation (D-43) is satisfied by

EI
EI
t b 2 cos n 2
t
T(t ) b1 sin n 2

20

(D-44)

The natural frequency term n is thus

EI

n n2

(D-45)

Substitute the value for the fundamental frequency from Table D-1.

.
187510
2 EI
1

f1

(D-46)

1 3.5156 EI

2 L2

(D-47)

Substitute the value for the second root from Table D-1.

4.69409
2

L2

f2

EI

(D-48)

1 22.034 EI

2 L2

(D-49)

f 2 6.268 f1

(D-50)

Compare equation (D-47) with the approximate equation (B-33).

SDOF Model Approximation

The effective mass meff at the end of the beam for the fundamental mode is thus
meff

2 fn

(D-51)

21

meff

3EI
1 35156
2
EI
.

3
L 2

2 L

meff

3EI

(D-53)

EI
L3
12.3596

L4

meff 0.2427 L

(D-52)

(SDOF Approximation)

(D-54)

Eigenvalues

n L

1.875104

4.69409

7.85476

10.99554

(2n-1)/2

Note that the root value formula for n > 5 is approximate.

Normalized Eigenvectors
Mass normalize the eigenvectors as follows
L

0 Yn

2 ( x ) dx 1

(D-55)

22

The calculation steps are omitted for brevity. The resulting normalized eigenvectors are

Y1 ( x )
cosh1 x cos1 x 0.73410 sinh 1 x sin 1 x

(D-56)

Y2 ( x )
cosh 2 x cos 2 x 1.01847 sinh 2 x sin 2 x

(D-57)

Y3 ( x )
cosh3 x cos3 x 0.99922 sinh 3 x sin 3 x

(D-58)

Y4 ( x )
cosh 4 x cos 4 x 1.00003 sinh 4 x sin 4 x

(D-59)

The normalized mode shapes can be represented as

Yi ( x )
coshi x cosi x Di sinhi x sini x

(D-60)

where

Di

cosi L coshi L
sini L sinhi L

(D-61)

Participation Factors
The participation factors for constant mass density are
L
0

n Yn ( x ) dx

(D-62)

23

The participation factors from a numerical calculation are

1 0.7830 L

(D-63)

2 0.4339 L

(D-64)

3 0.2544 L

(D-65)

4 0.1818 L

(D-66)

The participation factors are non-dimensional.

Effective Modal Mass
The effective modal mass is
2

m eff , n

L Y ( x )dx
n
0

L
2
Yn (x) dx

(D-67)

The eigenvectors are already normalized such that

2
0 Yn (x) dx 1
L

(D-68)

Thus,
L
m eff , n n 2 Yn ( x )dx
0

(D-69)

The effective modal mass values are obtained numerically.

m eff , 1 0.6131 L

(D-70)

m eff , 2 0.1883 L

(D-71)

m eff , 3 0.06474 L

(D-72)

m eff , 4 0.03306 L

(D-73)

24

APPENDIX E

Beam Simply-Supported at Both Ends I

Consider a simply-supported beam with a discrete mass located at the middle. Assume
that the mass of the beam itself is negligible.
g

EI
m
L1

L1
L

Figure E-1.

The free-body diagram of the system is

L
L1

L1

Rb

mg

Ra

Figure E-2.
Apply Newtons law for static equilibrium.

forces 0

(E-1)

Ra + Rb - mg = 0

(E-2)

Ra = mg - Rb

(E-3)

At the left boundary,

25

 moments 0

(E-4)

Rb L - mg L1 = 0

(E-5)

Rb = mg ( L1 / L )

(E-6a)

Rb = (1/2) mg

(E-6b)

Substitute equation (E-6) into (E-3).

Ra = mg (1/2)mg

(E-7)

Ra = (1/2)mg

(E-8)

L1

Ra

mg

Sum the moments at the right side of the segment.

moments 0

(E-9)

- Ra x + mg <x-L1 > - M = 0

(E-10)

26

Note that < x-L1> denotes a step function as follows

for x L1
0,

x L1
x L , for x L
1
1

(E-11)
M = - Ra x + mg <x-L1 >

(E-12)

M = - (1/2)mg x + mg <x-L1 >

(E-13)

M = [ - (1/2) x + <x-L1 > ][ mg ]

(E-14)

EI y [ - (1/2) x x - L1 ][ mg ]

(E-15)

mg
y [ - (1/2) x x - L1 ]

EI

(E-16)

y [ -

1 2 1
mg
x x - L1 2 ]
a
4
2
EI

1
1
mg
y( x ) - x 3 x - L1 3
ax b
6
12
EI

(E-17)

(E-18)

The boundary condition at the left side is

y(0) = 0

(E-19a)

This requires
b=0

(E-19b)

Thus
1
1
mg
y( x ) - x 3 x - L1 3
ax
6
12
EI

(E-20)

The boundary condition on the right side is

y(L) = 0

(E-21)

27

 1 3 1
3 mg
- 12 L 6 L - L1 EI aL 0

(E-22)

1 3 mg
1 3
- 12 L 48 L EI aL 0

(E-23)

1 3 mg
4 3
- 48 L 48 L EI aL 0

(E-24)

3 3 mg
- 48 L EI aL 0

(E-25)

1 3 mg
- 16 L EI aL 0

(E-26)

1 3 mg
aL
L

16
EI

(E-27)

1 2 mg
a
L
16
EI

(E-28)

Now substitute the constant into the displacement function

1
1
mg 1 2 mg
y( x ) - x 3 x - L1 3
L
x
6
12
EI 16 EI

(E-29)

1
1
1
mg
y( x ) - x 3 xL2 x - L1 3

16
6
12
EI

(E-30)

The displacement at the center is

3

mg
1 L 2 1 L
L 1 L

3
y - L - L1
16 2
6 2
EI
2 12 2

28

(E-31)

1 mgL3
L 1

y
2 96 32 EI

(E-32)

3 mgL3
L 1

y
2 96 96 EI

(E-33)

3
L 2 mgL

y
2 96 EI

(E-34)

3
L 1 mgL

y
2 48 EI

(E-35)

Recall Hookes law for a linear spring,

F=ky

(E-36)

F is the force.
k is the stiffness.
The stiffness is thus
k=F/y

(E-37)

The force at the center of the beam is mg. The stiffness at the center of the beam is

mg
k

mgL3

48EI

(E-38)

48 EI
L3

(E-39)

The formula for the natural frequency fn of a single-degree-of-freedom system is

29

 1 k
fn
2 m

(E-40)

The mass term m is simply the mass at the center of the beam.

1 48 EI
fn
2 mL3

(E-41)

EI
1
fn 6.928
2
mL3

(E-42)

30

APPENDIX F
Beam Simply-Supported at Both Ends II
Consider a simply-supported beam as shown in Figure F-1.
EI,

Figure F-1.

Recall that the governing differential equation is

4 y
2 y
EI

x 4
t 2

(F-1)

The spatial solution from section D is

Y( x) a1 sinhx a 2 coshx a 3 sinx a 4 cosx

d 2 Y( x)
a1 2 sinh x a 2 2 cosh x a 3 2 sin x a 4 2 cos x
2
dx

(F-2)

(F-3)

The boundary conditions at the left end x = 0 are

Y(0) = 0

d 2Y
dx 2 x 0

(zero displacement)

(zero bending moment)

31

(F-4)

(F-5)

The boundary conditions at the right end x = L are

Y(L) = 0
d 2Y
dx 2

(zero displacement)
0

(zero bending moment)

(F-6)

(F-7)

x L

Apply boundary condition (F-4) to (F-2).

a2 a4 0

(F-8)

a4 a2

(F-9)

Apply boundary condition (F-5) to (F-3).

a2 a4 0

(F-10)

a2 a4

(F-11)

Equations (F-8) and (F-10) can only be satisfied if

and

a2 0

(F-12)

a4 0

(F-13)

The spatial equations thus simplify to

Y( x) a1 sinhx a 3 sinx
d 2 Y( x )
a1 2 sinh x a 3 2 sin x
2
dx

(F-14)

(F-15)

Apply boundary condition (F-6) to (F-14).

a1 sinhL a 3 sinL 0

32

(F-16)

Apply boundary condition (F-7) to (F-15).

a1 2 sinhL a 3 2 sinL 0

(F-17)

a1 sinhL a 3 sinL 0

(F-18)

sinh L

sinh L

sin L a1 0


sin L a 3 0

(F-19)

By inspection, equation (F-19) can only be satisfied if a1 = 0 and a3 = 0. Set the

determinant to zero in order to obtain a nontrivial solution.

sinL sinhL sinL sinhL 0

(F-20)

2 sinL sinhL 0

(F-21)

sinL sinhL 0

(F-22)

Equation (F-22) is satisfied if

n L n, n 1, 2, 3,....

(F-23)

n
, n 1, 2, 3,....
L

(F-24)

The natural frequency term n is

EI

(F-25)

2
n EI
n
, n 1, 2, 3,...

(F-26)

n n2

2
1 n EI
fn
, n 1, 2, 3,...

2 L

33

(F-27)

2
1 n EI
fn
, n 1, 2, 3,...

2 L

(F-28)

SDOF Approximation
Now calculate effective mass at the center of the beam for the fundamental frequency.

1
L

EI

(F-29)

Recall the natural frequency equation for a single-degree-of-freedom system.

k
m

(F-30)

Recall the beam stiffness at the center from equation (E-39).

k

48EI

(F-31)

L3

Substitute equation (F-31) into (F-30).

48EI

(F-32)

mL3

Substitute (F-32) into (F-29).

3
L
mL

48EI

EI

(F-33)

4
EI

mL3 L

(F-34)

4
1

mL3 L

(F-35)

1 4

m 48 L

(F-36)

48EI

48

34

The effective mass at the center of the beam for the first mode is
m

48 L
4

(SDOF Approximation)

(F-37)

Normalized Eigenvectors
The eigenvector and its second derivative at this point are

Y( x) a1 sinhx a 3 sinx

(F-38)

d 2 Y( x )
a1 2 sinh x a 3 2 sin x
2
dx

(F-39)

The eigenvector derivation requires some creativity. Recall

Y(L) = 0
d 2Y
dx 2

(zero displacement)
0

(zero bending moment)

(F-40)

(F-41)

x L

Thus,

d 2Y
dx 2

Y 0

for x=L and n L n, n=1,2,3,

(F-42)

2
2

1 n a sinh n 1 n a sin n 0 , n=1,2,3,

L 1
L 3

(F-43)

The sin(n) term is always zero. Thus a1 = 0.

The eigenvector for all n modes is
Yn (x) a n sinnx / L

(F-44)

35

Mass normalize the eigenvectors as follows

L

0 Yn

2 ( x ) dx 1

(F-45)

a n 2 sin 2 nx / L dx 1

(F-46)

a n 2 L
1 cos(2 n x / L) 1
2 0

(F-47)

a n 2
1
sin(2nx / L) 1
x
2
2 n
0

(F-48)

L
0

a n 2 L
2

(F-49)

an2

2
L

(F-50)

an

2
L

(F-51)

Yn ( x )

2
sin n x / L
L

(F-52)

36

Participation Factors
The participation factors for constant mass density are
L
0

n Yn ( x ) dx

L
0

(F-53)

2
sin n x / L dx
L

2 L
sin n x / L dx
L 0

2
L

(F-53)

(F-54)

L
L
n cosn x / L 0

(F-55)

1
n 2 L cosn 1 , n=1, 2, 3, .
n

(F-56)

Effective Modal Mass

The effective modal mass is
2

m eff , n

L Y ( x )dx
n
0

L
2
Yn (x) dx

(F-57)

The eigenvectors are already normalized such that

L
2
0 Yn (x) dx 1

(F-58)

37

Thus,

m eff , n n

L
Yn ( x )dx
0

m eff , n 2 L

m eff , n 2 L

1
n cosn 1

n2

cosn 12

38

(F-59)

(F-60)

, n=1, 2, 3, .

(F-61)

APPENDIX G

Free-Free Beam
Consider a uniform beam with free-free boundary conditions.

EI,

Figure G-1.
The governing differential equation is

EI

4 y
2 y

x 4
t 2

(G-1)

Note that this equation neglects shear deformation and rotary inertia.
The following equation is obtain using the method in Appendix D

d4

Y( x) c 2 Y( x) 0
4
EI
dx

(G-2)

The proposed solution is

Y( x) a1 sinhx a 2 coshx a 3 sinx a 4 cosx

(G-3)

dY( x)
a1 coshx a 2 sinh x a 3 cos x a 4 sinx
dx

(G-4)

d 2 Y( x)
a1 2 sinh x a 2 2 cosh x a 3 2 sin x a 4 2 cos x
2
dx

(G-5)

d 3 Y( x )
a13 coshx a 23 sinh x a 33 cosx a 43 sin x
3
dx

(G-6)

39

Apply the boundary conditions.

d 2Y
dx 2

(zero bending moment)

x 0

a2 a4 0

(G-8)

a4 a2

d 3Y
dx 3

(G-7)

(G-9)

(zero shear force)

(G-10)

x 0

a1 a 3 0

(G-11)

a 3 a1

(G-12)

d 2 Y( x )
a1 2 sinh x sin x a 2 2 coshx cosx
dx 2

(G-13)

d3 Y( x )
a13coshx cosx a 23sinh x sin x
3
dx

(G-14)

d 2Y
dx 2

(zero bending moment)

x L

40

(G-15)

a1sinhL sinL a 2 coshL cosL 0

d 3Y
dx 3

(zero shear force)

(G-16)

(G-17)

x L

a1coshL cosL a 2sinhL sinL 0

(G-18)

Equation (G-16) and (G-18) can be arranged in matrix form.

sinh L sin L

coshL cosL

cosh L cosL a1 0


sinh L sin L a 2 0

(G-19)

Set the determinant equal to zero.

sinhL sinLsinhL sinL coshL cosL2 0

(G-20)

sinh 2 L sin 2 L cosh 2 L 2 coshLcosL cos 2 L 0

(G-21)

2 coshLcosL 2 0

(G-22)

coshLcosL 1 0

(G-23)

The roots can be found via the Newton-Raphson method, Reference 1.

The free-free beam has a rigid-body mode with a frequency of zero, corresponding to
L 0.

41

The second root is

L 4.73004

n n2
4.73004
2

(G-24)

EI

(G-25)

EI

(G-26)

22.373 EI
2

L2

(G-27)

The third root is

L 7.85320

(G-28)

2 EI

n n

(G-29)

7.85320
3

EI

(G-30)

61.673 EI
3

L2

(G-31)

3 2.757 2

(G-32)

L 10.9956

(G-33)

The fourth root is

42

2 EI

n n

(G-34)

10.9956
4

EI

(G-35)

120.903 EI
4

L2

(G-36)

4 5.404 2

(G-37)

Eigenvalues

n L

4.73004

7.85320

10.9956

n L n
2

for n 5

(G-38)

The following mode shape and coefficient derivation applies only to the elastic modes
where L 0 .
Equation (G-18) can be expressed as
coshL cosL
a 2 a1

sinh L sin L

(G-39)

Recall

a4 a2

(G-40)

43

a 3 a1

(G-41)

The displacement mode shape is thus

Y(x) a1sinhx sinx a 2coshx cosx

(G-42)

coshL cosL
coshx cosx
Y( x ) a1 sinh x sin x

sinh L sin L

(G-43)

Modify the mode shapes as follows.

Y( x )

a 1
coshL cosL
coshx cosx
sinh x sin x

L
sinh L sin L

(G-44)

Normalize the eigenvectors with respect to mass.

2
0 Yn (x) dx 1
L

(G-45)

The eigenvectors are mass-normalized for a 1 =1.

Thus

Y( x )

coshL cosL
1
coshx cosx
sinh x sin x

L
sinh L sin L

(G-46)

44

The first derivative is

coshL cosL
dy

sinhx sinx

coshx cosx

dx
L
sinh L sin L

(G-47)

The second derivative is

coshL cosL
2

sinh

sin

cosh

cos

L
dx 2
sinh L sin L

d2y

(G-48)

The participation factors for constant mass density are

n Yn ( x ) dx

(G-49)

The participation factors are calculated numerically.

As a result of the rigid-body mode,

n 0

for n > 1

(G-50)

45

APPENDIX H
Pipe Example
Consider a steel pipe with an outer diameter of 2.2 inches and a wall thickness of 0.60
inches. The length is 20 feet. Find the natural frequency for two boundary condition
cases: simply-supported and fixed-fixed.
The area moment of inertia is
I

Do 4 D i 4
64

(H-1)

D o 2.2 in

(H-2)

D i 2.2 2(0.6) in

(H-3)

D i 2.2 1.2 in

(H-4)

D i 1.0 in

(H-5)

2.2 4 1.0 4
64

in 4

(H-6)

I 1.101 in 4

(H-7)

The elastic modulus is

E 30 10 6

lbf

(H-8)

in 2

The mass density is

mass per unit length.

(H-9)

lbm

0.282
2.2 2 1.0 2 in 2
3 4

in

46

(H-10)

lbm
in

0.850

(H-11)

1 slug ft / sec2 12 in

1.101 in 4
2

1 ft
1
lbf
in

lbm 1 slug

0.850
in 32.2 lbm
lbf

30 106
EI

(H-12)

EI
1.225 10 5

in 2
sec

(H-13)

The natural frequency for the simply-supported case is

2
1 n EI
fn
, n 1, 2, 3,...

2 L

(H-14)

1
1.225 105
f1
12 in
2

20 ft

1ft

f1 3.34 Hz

in 2
sec

(simply-supported)

(H-15)

(H-16)

The natural frequency for the fixed-fixed case is

1 22.37 EI
f1

2 L2

(H-17)

47

1
22
.
37

5
f1
1.225 10
2
2
12 in

20 ft

1ft

f1 7.58 Hz

in 2
sec

(fixed-fixed)

(H-18)

(H-19)

48

APPENDIX I
Suborbital Rocket Vehicle
Consider a rocket vehicle with the following properties.
mass = 14078.9 lbm (at time = 0 sec)
L = 372.0 inches.

14078.9 lbm
372.0 inches

37.847

lbm
in

The average stiffness is

6
EI = 63034 (10 ) lbf in^2

The vehicle behaves as a free-free beam in flight. Thus

f1

f1

1 22.37 EI

2 L2

1 22.37

2 372 in 2

(I-1)

.2 lbm
63034e 06 lbf in 2 slug ftlbf/ sec2 12ftin 32slugs

37.847

lbm
in

(I-2)

f1 = 20.64 Hz

(at time = 0 sec)

(I-3)

Note that the fundamental frequency decreases in flight as the vehicle expels propellant
mass.

49

APPENDIX J
Fixed-Fixed Beam
Consider a fixed-fixed beam with a uniform mass density and a uniform cross-section.
The governing differential equation is

EI

4 y
2 y

x 4
t 2

(J-1)

Y( x ) c 2 Y( x ) 0
EI

(J-2)

The spatial equation is

4
x 4

The boundary conditions for the fixed-fixed beam are:

Y(0) = 0

(J-3)

dY( x )
0
dx x 0

(J-4)

Y(L)=0

(J-5)

dY( x )
0
dx x L

(J-6)

The eigenvector has the form

Y( x) a1 sinhx a 2 coshx a 3 sinx a 4 cosx

dY( x)
a1 coshx a 2 sinh x a 3 cos x a 4 sinx
dx

50

(J-7)
(J-8)

d 2 Y( x)
a1 2 sinh x a 2 2 cosh x a 3 2 sin x a 4 2 cos x
2
dx

(J-9)

Y(0) = 0

(J-10)

a2+a4=0

(J-11)

-a2=a4

(J-12)

dY( x )
0
dx x 0

(J-13)

a1 + a3 = 0

(J-14)

a1 + a3 = 0

(J-15)

- a1 = a3

(J-16)

Y(x) a1sinhx sinx a 2 coshx cosx

(J-17)

dY( x )
a1coshx cosx a 2sinh x sin x
dx

(J-18)

Y(L) = 0

(J-19)

a1sinhL sinL a 2 coshL cosL 0

dY( x )
0
dx x L

(J-20)
(J-21)

a1coshL cosL a 2sinhL sinL 0

51

(J-22)

a1coshL cosL a 2 sinhL sinL 0

(J-23)

sinh L sin L coshL cosL a1 0

coshL cosL sinh L sin L a 0

(J-24)

sinh L sin L coshL cosL

det
0
coshL cosL sinh L sin L

(J-25)

[sinhL sinL][sinhL sinL] [coshL cosL]2 0

(J-26)

sinh 2 L sin 2 L cosh 2 L 2 cosLcoshL cos 2 L 0

(J-27)

2 cosLcoshL 2 0

(J-28)

cosLcoshL 1 0

(J-29)

The roots can be found via the Newton-Raphson method, Reference 1. The first root is
L 4.73004

(J-30)

2 EI

n n

(J-31)

4.73004
1

EI

(J-32)

22.373 EI
1

L2

(J-33)

52

f1

1 22.373 EI

2 L2

(J-34)

a1coshL cosL a 2 sinhL sinL

Let a 2 = 1

(J-36)

a1coshL cosL sinhL sinL

a1

(J-35)

sinh L sin L
coshL cosL

(J-37)

(J-38)

sinh L sin L
Y( x ) coshx cosx
sinh x sin x
coshL cosL

(J-39)

sinh L sin L
Y( x ) coshx cosx
sinh x sin x

cosh

cos

(J-40)

The un-normalized mode shape for a fixed-fixed beam is

(x) cosh x cos x sinh x sin x

Y
n
n
n
n
n
n

(J-41)

where

sinh L sin L
n

coshL cosL

(J-42)

53

The eigenvalues are

n L

4.73004

7.85321

10.9956

14.13717

17.27876

For n> 5
1

n L n
2

(J-43)

Normalized Eigenvectors
Mass normalize the eigenvectors as follows
L

0 Yn

2 ( x ) dx 1

(J-44)

The mass normalization is satisfied by

Yn ( x )

1
L

cosh n x cos n x n sinh n x sin n x

(J-45)

where

sinh L sin L
n

coshL cosL

(J-46)

54

The first derivative is

d
1
n sinh n x sin n x n n cosh n x cos n x
Yn ( x )
dx
L

(J-47)

The second derivative is

d2

Yn ( x )

dx 2

n 2 cosh n x cos n x n n 2 sinh n x sin n x

L
1

(J-48)
Participation Factors
The participation factors for constant mass density are
L
0

n Yn ( x ) dx

1
n

sinh n x sin n x n cosh n x cos n x 0L

L

cosh n x cos n x n sinh n x sin n x dx

L 0

(J-49)

(J-50)

(J-51)

1
n

sinh n L sin n L n cosh n L cos n L 2 n

L

(J-52)

1
n

sinh n L sin n L n 2 cosh n L cos n L

L

(J-53)

55

The participation factors from a numerical calculation are

1 0.8309 L

(J-54)

2 0

(J-55)

3 0.3638 L

(J-56)

4 0

(J-57)

5 0.2315 L

(J-58)

The participation factors are non-dimensional.

56

APPENDIX K
Beam Fixed Pinned
Consider a fixed pinned beam as shown in Figure K-1.
EI,

Figure K-1.

Recall that the governing differential equation is

4 y
2 y
EI

x 4
t 2

(K-1)

The spatial solution is

Y( x) a1 sinhx a 2 coshx a 3 sinx a 4 cosx

dY( x)
a1 coshx a 2 sinh x a 3 cos x a 4 sinx
dx

d 2 Y( x)
a1 2 sinh x a 2 2 cosh x a 3 2 sin x a 4 2 cos x
2
dx

(K-2)

(K-3)

(K-4)

The boundary conditions at the left end x = 0 are

Y(0) = 0

(zero displacement)

57

(K-5)

dY( x )
0
dx x 0

(zero slope)

(K-6)

The boundary conditions at the right end x = L are

Y(L) = 0
d 2Y
dx 2

(zero displacement)
0

(zero bending moment)

(K-7)

(K-8)

x L

Apply boundary condition (K-5).

a2 a4 0

(K-9)

a 4 a 2

(K-10)

Apply boundary condition (K-6).

a1 a 3 0

(K-11)

a 3 a1

(K-12)

Apply the left boundary results to the displacement function.

Y(x) a1sinhx sinx a 2 coshx cosx

(K-13)

Apply boundary condition (K-7).

a1sinhL sinL a 2 coshL cosL 0

58

(K-14)

Apply the left boundary results to the second derivative of the displacement function.

d 2 Y( x )
dx 2

a1 2 sinh x sin x a 2 2 coshx cosx

(K-15)

Apply boundary condition (K-7).

a1 2 sinhL sinL a 2 2 coshL cosL 0

(K-16)

a1sinhL sinL a 2 coshL cosL 0

(K-17)

sinh L sin L coshL cosL a1 0

sinh L sin L coshL cosL a 0

(K-18)

sinh L sin L coshL cosL

det
0
sinh L sin L coshL cosL

(K-19)

sinhL sinLcoshL cosL sinhL sinLcoshL cosL 0

(K-20)

sinh L coshL sinh L cosL sin L coshL sin L cosL

sinh L coshL sinh L cosL sin L coshL sin L cosL 0

(K-21)

2 sinhLcosL 2 sinLcoshL 0

59

(K-22)

sinhLcosL sinLcoshL 0
tanhL tanL 0

(K-23)

(K-24)

The eigenvalues are

n L

3.9266

7.0686

10.2102

13.3518

16.4934

For n>5,

a 2 a1

n L n
4

(K-25)

sinhL sinL
coshL cosL

(K-26)

The unscaled eigenvector is

sinhL sinL coshx cosx

Y( x ) a1 sinh x sin x

coshL cosL

(K-27)

The mass-normalized eigenvector is

Y( x )

sinhL sinL coshx cosx

1
sinh x sin x

coshL cosL
L

60

(K-28)

Participation Factors
The participation factors for constant mass density are
L
0

n Yn ( x ) dx

(K-29)

sinh n x sin n x n cosh n x cos n x dx

L 0

1
n

sinhL sinL
coshL cosL

1
n

1
n

(K-30)

(K-31)

cosh n x cos n x n sinh n x sin n x 0L

L

(K-32)

cosh n L cos n L n sinh n L sin n L 2

L

(K-33)

2 cosh n L cos n L n sinh n L sin n L

L

(K-34)

The participation factors from a numerical calculation are

1 - 0.8593 L

(K-35)

2 -0.0826 L

(K-36)

3 - 0.3344 L

(K-37)

4 - 0.2070 L

(K-38)

5 - 0.0298 L

(K-39)

The participation factors are non-dimensional.

61