ANCIENTGREECE

APolitical,Social,andCulturalHistory
SarahB.Pomeroy
HunterCollegeand
theCityUniversityofNewYork
GraduateCenter

StanleyM.Burstein
CaliforniaStateUniversity,
LosAngeles

WalterDonlan
Universityof
California,Irvine

JenniferTolbertRoberts
CityCollegeand
theCityUniversityofNewYork
GraduateCenter

NewYorkOxfordOXFORDUNIVERSITYPRESS1999
iii
OxfordUniversityPress
OxfordNewYorkAthensAucklandBangkokBogotBuenosAiresCalcuttaCape
TownChennaiDaresSalaamDelhiFlorenceHongKongIstanbulKarachiKuala
LumpurMadridMelbourneMexicoCityMumbaiNairobiParisSoPauloSingapore
TaipeiTokyoTorontoWarsawandassociatedcompaniesinBerlinIbadan
Copyright1999bySarahB.Pomeroy,StanleyM.Burstein,WalterDonlan,and
JenniferTolbertRoberts
PublishedbyOxfordUniversityPress,Inc.198MadisonAvenue,NewYork,New
York10016
OxfordisaregisteredtrademarkofOxfordUniversityPress
Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedina
retrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,
photocopying,recording,orotherwise,withoutthepriorpermissionofOxford
UniversityPress.
LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData
AncientGreece:apolitical,social,andculturalhistory/bySarahB.Pomeroy,
StanleyM.Burstein,WalterDonlan,JenniferTolbertRoberts.
p.cm.
Includesindex.

ISBN0195097424(cloth).ISBN0195097432(pbk.)
1.GreeceCivilizationTo146B.C.2.Hellenism.I.Pomeroy,SarahB.
DF77.A59519989814544
938dc21CIP
Printing(lastdigit):987654
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmericaonacidfreepaper
iv
CONTENTS

ListofMaps

Preface

Acknowledgments

TimeLine

IEarlyGreeceandtheBronzeAge

TheLandofGreece
SourcesforEarlyGreekHistory

GreeceintheStoneAges

TheAncientCivilizationsoftheNearEast

GreeceintheEarlyBronzeAge(c.30002100BC)

GreeceintheMiddleBronzeAge(c.21001600BC)

TheDiscoveryofAegeanCivilization:Troy,Mycenae,

Knossos

MinoanSocietyandCulture(c.17001500BC)

TheMycenaeans

TheEarlyMycenaeans(c.16001400BC)

TheLaterMycenaeans(c.14001200BC)

TheEndoftheMycenaeanCivilization

IITheDarkAgeofGreeceandtheEighthCentury
Renaissance(c.1150700BC)

SourcesfortheDarkAge
DeclineandRecovery(c.1150900BC)

SocietyintheEarlyDarkAge

xi
xiii
xvii
xix
1
1
4
5
6
8
9
11
12
18
21
22
37
41
42
42
46

vii

Revival(c.900750BC)
HomerandOralPoetry

LateDarkAge(Homeric)Society

50
51
53

Community,Household,andEconomyintheLateDark
Age
TheEndoftheDarkAge(c.750700BC)

IIIArchaicGreece(c.700500BC)

SourcesfortheSeventhandSixthCenturies
TheFormationoftheCityState(Polis)

TheEthnos

GovernmentintheEarlyCityStates

TheColonizingMovement

EconomicandSocialDivisionsintheEarlyPoleis

Hesiod:TheViewfromBelow

TheHopliteArmy

TheArchaicAgeTyrants

ArtandArchitecture

LyricPoetry

PhilosophyandScience

RelationsBetweenStates

PanhellenicInstitutions

IVSparta

SourcesforSpartanHistoryandInstitutions
TheDarkAgeandtheArchaicPeriod

TheSpartanSystem

DemographyandtheSpartanEconomy

SpartanGovernment

SpartaandGreece

HistoricalChangeinSparta

TheSpartanMirage
SourcesforEarlyAthens

AthensfromtheBronzeAgetotheEarlyArchaicAge

TheReformsofSolon

PeisistratusandHisSons

TheReformsofCleisthenes

66
71
82
83
84
86
87
90
95
99
103
106
109
116
121
124
127
131
131
134
138
146
149
153
154
155
159
160
164
169
174

viii

TheRiseofPersia
TheWarsBetweenGreeceandPersia

VITheRivalriesoftheGreekCityStatesandtheGrowthof
AthenianDemocracy

SourcesfortheDecadesAfterthePersianWars
TheAftermathofthePersianWarsandtheFoundationof

theDelianLeague

TheFirst(Undeclared)PeloponnesianWar(460445BC)

178
181
201
202
203
212

PericlesandtheGrowthofAthenianDemocracy
LiteratureandArt

OikosandPolis

TheGreekEconomy

VIIGreeceontheEveofthePeloponnesianWar

SourcesforGreeceontheEveoftheWar
GreeceAftertheThirtyYearsPeace

TheBreakdownofthePeace

ResourcesforWar

IntellectualLifeinFifthcenturyGreece

TheLiteratureoftheFifthCentury

CurrentsinGreekThoughtandEducation

ThePhysicalSpaceofthePolis:AthensontheEveofWar

VIIIThePeloponnesianWar

SourcesforGreeceDuringthePeloponnesianWar
TheArchidamianWar(431421BC)

BetweenPeaceandWar

TheInvasionofSicily(415413BC)

TheWarintheAegeanandtheOligarchicCoupatAthens

(413411BC)
FalloutfromtheLongWar

TheWarinRetrospect

IXTheCrisisofthePolisandtheAgeofShiftingHegemonies

SourcesforFourthcenturyGreece

PostwarGreeceandtheStruggleforHegemony

215
219
233
240
246
246
247
250
254
255
260
267
274
287
287
289
303
305
311
319
326
330
331
332

ix

LawandDemocracyinAthens
TheFourthcenturyPolis

PhilosophyandthePolis

XPhillipIIandtheRiseofMacedon

SourcesforMacedonianHistory
EarlyMacedonia

MacedonianSocietyandKingship

TheReignofPhilipII

MacedonianDominationofGreece

XIAlexandertheGreat

SourcesfortheReignofAlexander
ConsolidatingPower

FromIssustoEgypt:ConquestoftheEastern

Mediterranean(332331BC)

FromAlexandriatoPersepolis:TheKingofAsia(331330

343
349
353
371
371
372
373
377
388
395
398
399
408
410

BC)

TheHighRoadtoIndia:AlexanderinCentralAsia414

IndiaandtheEndoftheDream

ReturntotheWest

XIIAlexandersSuccessorsandtheCosmopolis

ANewWorld
SourcesfortheHellenisticPeriod

TheStrugglefortheSuccession

TheRegencyofPerdiccas

ThePrimacyofAntigonustheOneEyed

BirthPangsoftheNewOrder(301276BC)

ThePlaceofthePolisintheCosmopolis

TheMacedonianKingdoms

HellenisticSociety

AlexandriaandHellenisticCulture

SocialRelationsintheHellenisticWorld

Epilogue

Glossary

ArtandIllustrationCredits

Index

419
422
427
427
429
431
432
436
441
446
450
453
455
463
471
476
490
494

LISTOFMAPSANDBATTLEPLANS
GreeceandtheAegeanWorld
MycenaeansitesinthethirteenthcenturyBC
GreekColonization:750500BC

TheAgoraintheArchaicperiod,c.500BC,showingthe
earliestbuildings

Peloponnesus

Attica

ThePersianEmpireintheReignofDarius

ThePersianWars

TheAthenianEmpire

SicilyandsouthernItaly

AlliancesattheoutsetofthePeloponnesianWar
TheatersofoperationduringthePeloponnesianWar

DiagramofSyracuseandEpipolae

MacedoniaanditsNeighbors

AlexandersCampaign
PlanoftheBattleofIssus

PlanoftheBattleofGaugamela

TheGreekviewoftheinhabitedworld

xxviiixxix
26
91
115
135
177
183
195
206
248
256257
290
308
374
396397
406
413
419

TheHellenisticWorld

444445
xi
PREFACE

Thisbookisdesignedtosharewithreadersarichandcomplexvisionofancient
Greecethathasbeenforgedbythecollaborationoffourscholarswithdifferent
backgroundsandvaryinginterests.Weundertookitbecauseofourfrustrationinthe
searchforasinglevolumethatprovidedreaderswithacomprehensivehistoryof
GreekcivilizationfromitsfirstbeginningsinthesecondmillenniumBCthroughthe
Hellenisticera.Ithasbeenmorethanaquarterofacenturysincethelastattemptto
tellthisstoryindepth;allrecenttextbookshaveeitherfocusedonpoliticaland
militarydevelopmentsoromittedtheHellenisticera.Wehopethatwhatwehave
writtenwillbeusefulandwillgivepleasurebothtothegeneralreaderandtothe
studentwhoisaskedtoreaditincollege.Wehavestrivedforapaceandalength
thataresuitableforacourselastingforasemesteroraquarterdevotedtothehistory
andcivilizationofGreecelongenoughtoprovidedepthanddetail,andshort
enoughtoenabletheinstructortoassignprimarysourcesthatwillexpandthe
studentsunderstandingofaworldthatisbothfamiliarandalien.Incorporatingthe
fruitsofthemostrecentscholarship,wehaveaimedforabalancebetweenpolitical,
military,social,cultural,andeconomichistory.TheAthenianlawgiverSolon,who
soughttoreconcilethefeudingpoliticalpartiesofhisday,lamentedthatintryingto
pleaseeverybodyheseemedtohavepleasednobody.Weareoptimisticthatwewill
notbedriventosuchlamentationsbythechallengeswefacedinourquestto
integratethevariousaspectsofGreekcivilization.
GreekculturewasforgedinthecrucibleoftheBronzeAgecivilizationsthatcropped
upinworldsasdiverseasunifiedEgyptandfragmentedMesopotamia.Absorbing
keyskillsfromthesehighlydevelopedneighborsmetallurgy,forexample,and
writingtheGreeksbuiltadistinctiveculturemarkedbyastonishingcreativity,
versatility,andresilience.IntheendthisworlddissolvedasGreekcivilization,
havingreachedfromFranceandItalyinthewesttoPakistanintheeast,mergedwith
avarietyofotherculturesMacedonian,forexample,Syrian,Iran
xiii
ian,Egyptian,Roman,andfinallyByzantine.Greekbecamethecommonlanguage
throughouttheNearEastandwasthelanguageinwhichthetextscollectedinwhat
wecalltheNewTestamentwerewritten.ThroughitsincorporationintotheRoman
empireandthefusionofGreekandItalianelementsinmythologyandarchitecture,a
hybridcultureknownasClassicalcametoholdanimportantplaceinthetraditions
ofEuropeandtheAmericas.

BetweenthedeclineoftheBronzeAgeandthediffusionofGreekculturethroughout
theMediterraneanworld,Greekcivilizationattainedanextraordinaryrichness
markedbydiversitywithinunity.TheworldoftheHomericepicstheIliadandthe
Odysseywasradicallydifferentfromthatofthefifthandfourthcenturies,yetthe
epicsremainedthetextsmostcommonlytaughtinschools,andAlexanderwas
rumoredtohavecarriedacopyofHomersworkashetraveled,andlamentedthat
hehadnogreatpoettoimmortalizehimasHomerhadimmortalizedAchilles.
Thoughreligioninspiredmuchofarchitecture,literature,andevenathletic
competitions,whichwereheldtohonorthegods,Greekgovernmentandsociety
oftenseemedtofunctioninanentirelysecularmanner.Marriage,forexample,wasa
purelysecularaffair,anddivorcewasnotbelievedtodistressthegodsatall.The
godswerenowhereandeverywhere.Idealsofequalitywerepreachedbymenwho
usuallyownedslavesandbelievedintheinferiorityofwomen.Stolid,warlikeSparta
andcultivated,intellectualAthensconsideredthemselvespolaropposites;
ThucydidesencapsulatedmanyofthedifferencesseenfromtheAthenianpointof
viewinthefuneralorationforthewardeadheputinthemouthoftheAthenian
statesmanPericles.Yetpeopleinbothcitieslivedbyagriculture,worshippedZeus
andtheotherOlympiangods,subjectedwomentomen,believedfirmlyinslavery
(providedtheywerenotslavesthemselves!),sacrificedanimals,consideredwara
constantinhumanlife,preachedanethicofequityamongmalecitizens,cherished
athleticsanddelightedintheOlympicsandothercompetitions,enjoyedpraisingthe
ruleoflaw,consideredGreekssuperiortononGreeks,andacceptedasaxiomaticthe
primacyofthestateovertheindividual.
ThehistoryoftheancientGreeksisoneofthemostimprobablesuccessstoriesinall
ofworldhistory.Asmallpeopleinhabitingapoorcountryontheperipheryofthe
civilizationsofEgyptandtheNearEast,theGreekscreatedoneoftheworldsmost
remarkablecultures.Inalmosteveryareaoftheartsandsciencestheymade
fundamentalcontributions,andtheirlegacyisstillaliveinwesternandIslamic
civilizations.ThroughouttheRenaissanceandtheeighteenthcentury,Spartawas
cherishedasthemodelofamixedandthereforestableconstitution.Inthenineteenth
andtwentiethcenturies,moreattentionhasfocusedonAthens,whereitispossibleto
witnessthegradualerosionofprivilegebasedonwealthandlineageandthegrowth
ofdemocraticmachinerylawcodesandcourts,proceduresforselectingofficialsand
holdingthemaccountable,andpublicdebatesandvotesonmattersofdomesticand
foreignpolicy.AthensandSpartafoughtruinouswarswithoneanother,andthe
propensityoftheGreekstatesforfightingoneanothershapedmuchoftheirhistory.
ThedevastatingGreekworldwarof431404knownasthePeloponnesianWar
(becauseofSpartas
xiv

locationonthepeninsulaofthePeloponnesus)placedadamperontheextraordinary
burstofcreativitythathadmarkedthefifthcenturythetragediesofAeschylus,
Sophocles,andEuripides;thecomediesofAristophanes;thebuildingofthe
ParthenonatAthensandthetempleofZeusatOlympia.Throughoutthispainfulera
andthedecadesthatfollowed,thinkerscontinuedtoexplorethequestionsthathad
intriguedGreekintellectualsatleastasfarbackasthesixthcenturytheoriginsof
theuniverseandthemechanismsbywhichitfunctioned;therelationbetween
physis,nature,andnomos,customorlaw;howandwhatmortalscanknow
aboutthegods;whatthesegodsmightwantfrompeople;whetherindeedtrue
knowledgewaspossibleforhumans;whatthebestrulesmightbebywhichpeople
couldlivetogetherinsociety;whatthebestformofeducationwaswhowasmost
qualifiedtodirectit,andhowmanycouldprofitfromit;underwhatcircumstances
theruleofasinglewisemanmightafterallbebest.Newquestionswerealsoposed
whetherinvolvementinpoliticsoughtreallytobethefocusofamanslife;whether
theindividualmightfindidentityseparatefromthestate;whetherwarwasworth
thesacrificesitentailed;andevenwhetherslaveryandthedisfranchisementof
womenwerenecessary(thoughthoseradicalspeculationsdidnotresultinsocial
change).Inevitably,theconquestsofAlexander,themassmarriageshecelebrated
betweenMacedoniansoldiersandwomenfromPersiaandMediain324BC,andthe
hybridculturethatwasforgedthroughoutwesternAsiaandEuropechallenged
conventionalGreekassumptionsabouttheclearlinethatdividedGreeksfromthe
nonGreekpeoplestheycalledbarbarianspeoplewhoselanguagesoundedlike
bar,bar,bar.InsomeofthelandsincorporatedintothenewMacedonianempires,
womenenjoyedhigherstatusthaninmostoftheGreekworld,andthissometimes
rubbedoffonthecolonialMacedonianaristocracy,changinglongentrenchedmores.
ThecountrythatthepoetByronlabeledthelandoflostgodscontinuestoliveonin
themodernimagination.Itisourhopethatthisbookwillfleshouttheseromantic
imageswithhistoricalrealities.Duringthepastdecadesourunderstandingof
ancientGreecehasvastlyexpanded.Thankstotheworkofagenerationoftalented
scholars,ourknowledgeofnumerousaspectsofGreekhistoryandlifehasbeen
transformedandisstillbeingtransformedtoday.Archaeologyhasrevealedthe
criticalimportanceoftheDarkAges,whilecomparativeanthropologyhas
illuminatedthenatureofArchaicsocietyandmadecleartheoralcharacterofearly
Greekculture.Atthesametime,socialhistorianshaveveeredawayfromthe
traditionalpreoccupationwiththeelite,wholeftwrittenrecordsoftheirdoings,and
havebeentirelessinferretingoutevidencethatthrowslightonthelivesofthose
whodonotgenerallyspeakforthemselveswomen,forexample,andslaves.
Synthesizingtheresultsofthisscholarshiphasbeenanexcitingandchallengingtask
madepossibleonlybythehelpofmanypeople.Wehave,ofcourse,profited
enormouslyfromtheworkofinnumerablescholarswhosenamesneverappearin
ourvolume;thatisthenatureofhistoricalwriting.Wearealsogreatlyindebtedto

RobertMilleroftheOxfordUniversityPressandhisenergeticstaffwhodraggedus
throughaseriesofseeminglyimpossibledeadlines,andtothe
xv
readerswhotooktimeoutfrombusyschedulestoexamineourworkandmake
numeroususefulcriticismsandsuggestions.BethCohenandH.AlanShapirogave
carefulscrutinytothevisualimagespresentedherebutareinnowayresponsiblefor
anyerrorsofjudgmenttheauthorsmayhaveexercised.Wearegratefulalsoto
JrgenMejerforhisadviceonthePresocraticsandtoMargaretMilesforbringingup
todatetheplanoftheArchaicagoraofAthens.
Finally,wemustthankGailDavis,whoseeditorialsagacityhassmoothedtherough
edgesfromseveralofthesechapters;RobertLejeune,whoofferedcomputer
assistancewhenitwasmostneededandenduredourassortedtechnoflubswith
remarkablepatience;andMiriamBurstein,whonotonlyundertooktoobtainthe
necessarypermissionsfromvariouspublishersbutalsohandledwithgraceand
firmnessthechallengingtaskofremindingusthatwewerewritingforordinary
mortals,notomniscientdeities.
Weacknowledgewiththanksthepublisherswhohavegrantedpermissiontoquote
translations.Unattributedtranslationsinthetextarebytheauthors.
Theauthorswouldalsoliketocallthereadersattentiontotheextensiveglossaryat
theend,whichprovidescapsuledescriptionsofmanyofthetermsthatoccurinthe
book.
JenniferRoberts,NewYorkCityWalterDonlan,Irvine,California
StanleyBurstein,LosAlamitos,CaliforniaSarahPomeroy,NewYorkCity
xvi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Theauthorswishtoacknowledgethefollowingpublishersfortheirkindpermission
toreprintmaterialfromtheirpublications.

AmericanHistoricalAssociation:FromTheHellenisticPeriodinWorldHistory,by
StanleyM.Burstein.Copyright1996.

Aris&Phillips,Ltd.:FromPlato:Phaedrus,editedandtranslatedbyC.J.Rowe.
Copyright1988.

CambridgeUniversityPress:FromTheHellenisticAgefromthebattleofIpsostothe
deathofKleopatraVII,editedandtranslatedbyStanleyM.Burstein.Copyright
1985.

ColumbiaUniversityPress:FromZenonPapyri.BusinessPapersoftheThird

CenturyB.C.DealingwithPalestineandEgypt,vol.2,editedbyW.L.Westermann,
C.W.Keyes,andH.Liebesny.Copyright1940.
HarvardUniversityPressandtheLoebClassicalLibrary:FromIsocrates,vol.1,
translatedbyGeorgeNorlin.Copyright1928.
JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress:FromHesiod:WorksandDays,translatedby
ApostolosN.Athanassakis.Copyright1983.FromPindarsVictorySongs,
translatedbyFrankNisetich.Copyright1980.
OxfordUniversityPress:FromTheRepublicofPlato,translatedbyFrancis
MacDonaldCornford.Copyright1945.FromThePoliticsofAristotle,translated
byErnestBarker.Copyright1946.FromXenophon:Oeconomicus:Asocialand
historicalcommentary,editedandtranslatedbySarahB.Pomeroy.Copyright
1994.
PenguinBooks:FromPlutarch:TheAgeofAlexander,translatedbyIanScottKilvert.
Copyright1973.From:PlutarchonSparta,translatedbyRichardTalbert.
Copyright1988.
SchockenBooks:FromGreekLyricPoetry,translatedbyWillisBarnstone.
Copyright1972.
UniversityofCaliforniaPress:FromSapphosLyre,translatedbyDianeJ.Rayor.
Copyright1991.
UniversityofChicagoPress:FromAeschylus:ThePersians,translatedbyS.
BernardeteandAeschylus:TheOresteia,translatedbyR.LattimoreinTheComplete
GreekTragedies,
xvii

vol.1,editedbyD.GreneandR.Lattimore.Copyright1959.FromAntigone,
translatedbyElizabethWyckoffinGreekTragedies,Vol.1,editedbyDavidGrene
andRichmondLattimore.FromTheHistoryofHerodotus,translatedbyDavid
Grene.Copyright1987.FromTheIliadofHomer,translatedbyR.Lattimore.
Copyright1951.
UniversityofOklahomaPress:FromAlexandertheGreatandtheGreeksbyA.J.
Heisserer.Copyright1980.
W.W.NortonandCompany,Inc.:FromHerodotus:TheHistories,editedby
WalterBlancoandJenniferTolbertRoberts,translatedbyWalterBlanco.
Copyright1992.FromThucydides:ThePeloponnesianWar,editedbyWalter
BlancoandJenniferTolbertRoberts,translatedbyWalterBlanco.Copyright
1998.
YaleUniversityPress:FromRoyalCorrespondenceintheHellenisticPeriod:AStudy
inGreekEpigraphy,editedandtranslatedbyC.B.Welles.Copyright1934.
xviii
TIMELINE

Political/

Cultural

Period

MilitaryEvents

SocialEvents

Development

65003000
Neolithic

Domesticationofplants
andanimals;pottery

Socialranking
emerges;
villagesand

districts
ruledbyhereditary
chiefs

30002100Early
BronzeAge
(EarlyHelladic
28001900)

21001600
MiddleBronze
Age
(Middle
Helladic
19001580)

Permanentfarming
villages

2500Widespreaduseofbronzeandother
metalsinAegean

21001900
21001900Lerna
Incursionsof
and
IndoEuropean
othersites
speakers
destroyed
intoGreece

21001900Indo
Europeangodsintroduced
intoGreece

2000Firstpalacesin
Crete

1900Mainlandcontacts
withCreteandtheNear
East

1800Cretansdevelop
LinearAwriting

16001150LateBronze
Age(LateHelladic
15801150)

1600Mycenaeandother
sitesbecomepower

centers;smallkingdoms
emerge

1600Shaftgraves

continued
xix

Period

MilitaryEvents

15001450Mycenaeans
takeoverCrete

Political/
SocialEvents

Cultural
Development

1500Tholostombs

1450LinearBwriting

Period

Political/
SocialEvents

MilitaryEvents

Cultural
Development

1375Knossosdestroyed

14001200Heightof
Mycenaeanpower
andprosperity

1400Newpalacesin
Greece

12501225TheTrojanWar

1200Invaderslootand

burnthepalacecenters

12001100Palace
systemcollapses

1200Culturaldecline

1150900EarlyDarkAge
(Submycenaean11251050)
(Protogeometric1050900)

1050Smallchiefdoms
established;migrations

ofmainlandGreeksto
Ionia

1050Irontechnology

1000DorianGreeks
settledinthemainland
andtheislands

1000Monumentalbuild
ingatLefkandi

900750LateDarkAge
(EarlyGeometric900850)
(MiddleGeometric850750)

900Population
increases;newsettle
mentsestablished;
tradeandmanufacture
expand

800Rapidpopulation

growth

800Greeksdevelopan
alphabet;earliest
templesbuilt

776Traditionaldate
offirstOlympian
games

750490Archaic
730700First
Period
750700Citystates 750720Iliadand
Messenian
emerge
Odysseycomposed
(LateGeometric750
War;LelantineWar
700)

750Overseas
coloniza
tiontotheWest
begins

720Orientalizing
pe
riodinartbegins
continued

xx

Period

MilitaryEvents

Political/
SocialEvents

Cultural
Development

700650Evolutionof
hoplitearmorand
tactics

700Hesiod;periodof
lyricpoetrybegins

669BattleofHysiae

670500Tyrantsrule
inmanycitystates

650ColonizationofBlack
Seaareabegins;earliest
650SecondMessenian knownstoneinscription

War
ofalaw;Lycurgan
ReformsatSparta;the
GreatRhetra(?)

650Templesbuiltof
stoneandmarble;
Corinthianblack
figure
technique

632Cylonfailsinattemptattyranny

inAthens

620LawcodeofDracoin
Athens

600Lydiansbeginto
mintcoins

600Beginningsof
sci
enceandphilosophy
(thePresocratics)

582573Pythian,
Isth
mian,Nemean
games
inaugurated

560514Peisistratusand
hissonstyrantsofAthens

Peisistratusexpands
religiousfestivalsat
Athens

550Spartadominantin
thePeloponnesus

530Athenianred
figure
technique

507Cleisthenesinstitutes
politicalreformsin
Athens

499IonianGreeks
rebel

fromPersianEmpire

Period

Political/
SocialEvents

MilitaryEvents

Cultural
Development

continued
xxi

Period

Political/
SocialEvents

MilitaryEvents

5thcenturyrationalists
andscientists;Hippo
crates;advancesin
medicine;increasein
literacy

494DefeatofArgosby
PeloponnesianLeague
inBattleofSepea

490323
Classical
Period

Cultural
Development

490Battleof
Marathon

489TrialofMiltiades

Classicalstyle
insculp
ture

486Decisiontochoose
Athenianarchonsby
lot

483OstracismofAristides

480479Battlesof
Thermopylae,
Artemisium,

Salamis,
Plataea,Mycale;
Xerxesdrivenfrom
Greece

477FoundationofDelian
League

470456
Constructionof
templeofZeus
at
Olympia

GrowthofdemocracyinAthens;

Themistoclesdrivenoutof
Athens,fleestoPersia

463Helotrebellion
460sProminenceofCimon
inSparta

461ReformsofEphialtesat

Period

Political/
SocialEvents

MilitaryEvents

Cultural
Development

Athens;Periclesrisesto
prominence
460445First

PeloponnesianWar

458Aeschylus
Oresteia

454Atheniansmovetreasury
fromDelostoAthens

continued
xxii

Period

Political/
SocialEvents

MilitaryEvents

Cultural
Development

451Pericles
carrieslaw
FlourishingofGreektrade
limiting
andmanufacture
citizenshipat
Athens

Herodotusat
workon
hisHistories

447432
Constructionof
Parthenonat
Athens

Sophistsactivein
Athens

431404Peloponnesian
War

Thucydides
beginshis
History

429DeathofPericles

428Sophocles
Oedipus
Tyrannus

425Aristophanes
Acharnians

423Thucydidesexiled
fromAthens

422DeathsofBrasidas,
Cleon

Period

Political/
SocialEvents

MilitaryEvents

Cultural
Development

421PeaceofNicias

415413Siciliancampaign

415Euripides
Trojan
Women

411410Oligarchiccoupin
411Aristophanes
Athens;establishmentof
Lysis
Councilof400;regimeof
trata
the5000

407AscendanceofDionysus

IatSyracuse

403377Spartathemost
powerfulstateinGreece

404403Regimeofthe
ThirtyTyrantsinAthens

399Trialandexecutionof
Socrates

399347Dialogues
of
Plato;foundation
ofthe
Academy

xxiii

Period

Political/
SocialEvents

MilitaryEvents

Cultural
Development

395387CorinthianWar

Fourthcentury:Riseof
class
ofrhetoresatAthens;
eco

nomicinequalitiesand
social
stasisthroughout
Greece

377Establishmentof
SecondAthenianNaval
Confederacy

377371Athensthemost
powerfulstateinGreece

371Thebanvictoryover
SpartansatLeuctra

371362Thebesthemostpowerful

Period

Political/
SocialEvents

MilitaryEvents

Cultural
Development

stateinGreece

Seriouspopulation
decline
inSparta;
impoverished
classofInferiorsat
Sparta;
increasingamountof
property
inhandsofSpartan
women

359DefeatofPerdiccasIII

359AccessionofPhilip

II

357SiegeofAmphipolis

357MarriageofPhilip

IIto
Olympias

357355SocialWar

356BirthofAlexander
356PhilipIIs
the
Olympic
Great;outbreakof
victory
ThirdSacredWar

355Demosthenes
first
speech

352BattleofCrocusField

348CaptureofOlynthus

347DeathofPlato

346EndofThird
Sacred
War;Peaceof
Philocrates

346Isocrates
Philippus

xxiv

Period

Political/
SocialEvents

MilitaryEvents
340Athensand
Macedon

Cultural
Development

Period

Political/
SocialEvents

MilitaryEvents

Cultural
Development

atwar

338Battleof
Chaeronea

338Assassinationof
ArtaxerxesIII;
foundation
338Deathof
ofCorinthianLeague; Isocrates
marriageofPhilipIIand
Cleopatra

338325Administration

of
LycurgusatAthens

336AccessionofDarius
336InvasionofAsia III;
by
assassinationofPhilipII;
PhilipII
accessionofAlexander
III

335Destructionof
Thebes

335Aristotlereturns
to
Athens;foundingof
Lyceum

335RevoltofThebes

334BattleofGranicus

333BattleofIssus

333Alexanderat
Gordium

331Battleof
Gaugamela

331Foundationof
Alexandria

331VisittoSiwah
byAlexander

330327Warin
Bactria
andSogdiana

330Destructionof
Persepolis;deathof
Philotas

329Assassinationof
DariusIII

328MurderofClitus

327Marriageof
327325Alexanders
Alexander
invasionofIndia
andRoxane

326Battleofthe
Hydaspes

324ExilesDecress

32330
Hellenistic

323DeathofAlexander

III;

Period

MilitaryEvents

Period

Political/
SocialEvents

Cultural
Development

accessionofPhilipIII
and
AlexanderIV
xxv

Period

Political/
SocialEvents

MilitaryEvents

Cultural
Development
322Deathsof
Aristotle
andDemosthenes

322Dissolutionofthe
323322LamianWar
CorinthianLeague

321InvasionofEgypt

321DeathofPerdiccas;
Antipaterbecomesregent

321292Careerof
Menander

318316Revolt
against
Polyperchon

317DemetriusofPhaleron
becomestyrantofAthens

315311Fouryear
war
againstAntigonus

315FreedomofGreeks
proclaimedbyAntigonus
theOneEyed

311Peacebetween
Antigonusandhisrivals

307Demetrius
invadesGreece

307283
307EndoftyrannyofDemetriusof
Foundationof
PhalerumatAthens
theMuseum

306Antigonusand
306BattleofSalamis
Demetriusacclaimedkings

305304Siegeof
Rhodes

305Ptolemy,Seleucus,
Lysimachus,andCassander
declarethemselveskings

301BattleofIpsus

301DeathofAntigonus;
divisionofhisempire

301Zenofounds
Stoa

306Epicurus
founds
Garden

300246
Construction
ofthePharos

283DeathofPtolemyI;

Period

Political/
SocialEvents

MilitaryEvents

Cultural
Development

accessionofPtolemyII

281Battleof
Corupedium

281DeathsofLysimachus
andSeleucus

279InvasionofGauls

237222Reignof
CleomenesIIIatSparta

xxvi

Period

Political/
SocialEvents

MilitaryEvents

Cultural
Development

222BattleofSellasia

222ExileofCleomenesIII;
endofhisreformsatSparta

200197Second
Macedonian
War

196Flamininusproclaims
freedomoftheGreeksat
Isthmiangames

171168Third
Macedonian
War

167EndoftheMacedonian
monarchy

167Polybiuscomes
to
Rome

146SackofCorinth

146RomeannexesMacedonand

Greece

31BattleofActium

30SuicideofCleopatraVII;
RomeannexesEgypt

xxvii
GreeceandTheAegeanWorld
xxviii

1
EARLYGREECEANDTHEBRONZEAGE
OneofthegreatestoftheGreekculturalheroeswasOdysseus,amanwhosawthe
townsofmanymenandlearnedtheirminds,andsufferedinhisheartmanygriefs
uponthesea...(Odyssey1.34).Liketheirlegendaryhero,theGreekswere
irresistiblydrawntodistantshores.Fromearlyintheirhistoryandcontinually
throughoutantiquitytheyventuredovertheseastoforeignlandsseekingtheir
fortunesastraders,colonizers,andmercenarysoldiers.Theirlimitednatural
resourcesforcedtheGreekstolookoutward,andtheywerefortunateinbeingwithin
easyreachoftheMediterraneanshoresofAsia,Africa,andEurope.Bythefifth
centuryBC,theyhadplantedcoloniesfromSpaintothewestcoastofAsiaandfrom
northAfricatotheBlackSea.ThephilosopherPlato(c.429347BC)likenedthe
hundredsofGreekcitiesandtownsthatringedthecoastsoftheMediterraneanand
Blackseastofrogsaroundapond(Phaedo109b).ThosefarflungGreekslefta
pricelesslegacyofachievementsinart,literature,politics,philosophy,mathematics,
science,andwar.Theirstoryisalongandfascinatingone.
THELANDOFGREECE
AhistoryoftheGreeks(Hellnes)mustbeginwiththeland,forthenatural
environmentofapeoplethelandscape,theclimate,andthenaturalresourcesisa
majorfactorindeterminingthewaytheyliveandhowtheydevelopsocially.Greece
(Hellas)occupiesthesouthernportionoftheBalkanpeninsula,whichjutsfarintothe
easternMediterraneanSea.ItsreachwasfurtherextendedbytheGreekislandstothe
westandeastofthemainland,embracingthelargeislandsofCreteandRhodesto
thesouth.
GreeceisaboutthesizeofEnglandinGreatBritainorthestateofAlabamainthe
UnitedStates.Thelandscapeisveryrugged,withmountainscoveringalmost75
percentoftheland.Onlyabout30percentofthelandcanbecultivatedatall,
1
andonlyabout20percentisclassifiedasgoodagriculturalland.Exceptinthe
northernmainland,wherethereareextensiveplainlands,themountainsandlower
hillscutthelandintomanynarrowcoastalplains,anduplandplainsandvalleys.
Themountainranges,whicharenotterriblyhigh(30008000feet)butquitesteepand
craggy,madeoverlandtravelverydifficultinantiquity,andsomewhatisolatedthe
smallvalleysandtheirpeoplefromoneanother.Byfartheeasiestwaytotravelwas
bysea,especiallyintheislandsandthesouthernmainland,wherethecoastisnever
morethan40milesaway.ThechainsofislandsintheAegeanSeafacilitatedsea
voyages.Itistruethattheruggedcoastlinesofferrelativelyfewgoodharbors,and
thosechoicelocationswerecontinuouslyoccupiedfromearliesttimes.Yetsailors

wereseldomfarfromsafelandfalls,wheretheycouldbeachtheirboatsforthenight
orfindhavenfromathreateningstorm.Throughoutantiquity,thenarrowAegean
tiedtheGreekstotheNearEastandEgypt,commercially,culturally,politically,and
militarily.Thecommercialcontactswerevital,for,withtheexceptionofbuilding
stoneandclay,Greeceisnotwellendowedwithrawmaterials.Thenecessitytotrade
overseasforrawmaterials,especiallyforbronze,destinedtheGreeksveryearlyin
theirhistorytotaketotheseaandminglewithpeoplefromtheother,older
civilizationstotheeastandsouth.
TheMediterraneanclimateissemiarid,withlong,hot,drysummersandshort,cool,
moistwinters,whenmostoftherainfalls.Thisgeneralpatternvariesfromregionto
regioninGreece.NorthernGreecehasamorecontinentalclimate,withmuchcolder
andwetterwintersthanthesouth.MorerainfallsonthewesternsideoftheGreek
mainlandthanontheeasternside,whiletheAegeanislandsreceiveevenless.The
generallymildweatherpermittedoutdooractivityformostoftheyear.Thesoilin
Greecethoughrockyisfairlyrich,themostfertileplowlandbeinginthesmallplains
where,overtheages,earthwasheddownfromthehillshasformeddeepdeposits.
Thelowerhillsides,whicharerockier,canbecultivatedthroughterracing,which
preventsthesoilfromwashingfurtherdowntheslopeandcapturessoilfromabove.
Themountains,withtheirjaggedlimestonepeaksandsteepcliffs,supportonlywild
vegetation,butsomeenclosemountainvalleyssuitableforfarmingandforgrazing
animals.Wood,essentialforfuelandconstruction,especiallyshipbuilding,was
originallyabundantinthehighlandareas.Astimewenton,however,forestsbecame
depletedandbythefifthcenturyBCthemorepopulousregionswereforcedto
importtimber.Water,themostpreciousnaturalresource,isscarceinGreece,because
thereareveryfewriversthatflowyearroundandfewlakes,ponds,andsprings.
UnlikeinthehugerivervalleysofEgyptandMesopotamia,irrigationonalarge
scalewasnotpossible;farmingdependedonthelimitedannualrainfall.
ItshouldbeemphasizedthatthisdescriptionofthelandandresourcesofGreeceisa
generalizedone.Thoughsmallinarea,Greecehasavarietyoflocallandscapesand
microclimatesinwhichtherainfall,thequantityandqualityoffarmland,thepasture
land,andrawmaterialsaredecidedlydifferent.Onthewhole,however,theland,
whichtheGreekscalledGaia(MotherEarth),allowedthemajorityofthefarmersa
decentthoughmodestliving.Butsheoffered
2
noguarantees.Drought,especiallyinthemoreandregions,wasaconstantand
dreadedthreat.Adrywintermeantaleanyear,andaprolongeddroughtmeant
hungerandpovertyforentirevillagesanddistricts.Torrentialrainstorms,onthe
otherhand,couldsendwaterrushingdownthehillsidesandthroughthedrygullies,
suddenlywipingouttheterraces,floodingthefields,anddestroyingthecrops.Life

ontheseawasequallyunpredictable.TheAegean,thoughoftencalmwithfavoring
winds,couldjustassuddenlyboilupintoferociousstormssendingships,cargo,and
sailorstothebottom.(Drowningatsea,unburied,wasahatefuldeathforthe
Greeks.)Itisnowonder,consideringtheextenttowhichtheGreekswereatthe
mercyoftheland,sky,andsea,thatthegodstheyworshippedwerepersonifications
oftheelementsandforcesofnature.
FoodandLivestock
Ingeneral,thesoilandclimateamplysupportedtheMediterraneantriadofgrain,
grapes,andolives.Bread,wine,andoliveoilwerethestaplesoftheGreekdiet
throughoutantiquityandforlongafterward.Grainswheat,barley,andoatsgrow
wellinGreeksoil,havingbeencultivatedfromnativewildgrasses.Olivetreesand
grapevines,alsoindigenoustoGreece,flourishedintheircultivatedstate.Legumes
(peasandbeans)andseveralkindsofvegetables,fruits(especiallyfigs),andnuts,
roundedoutandvariedthebasiccomponentsofbread,porridges,andoliveoil.
Cheese,meat,andfish,whicharerichinproteinsandfat,supplementedthediet;
however,meatprovidedaverysmallpartoftheaveragefamilysdailyfoodintake,
andbecausefisharenotabundantintheMediterranean,theywereusuallyeatenasa
smallrelishwiththemeal.TheGreeksdidnotlikebutteranddranklittlemilk.
Theirbeverageswerewaterorwine(usuallydilutedwithwater).Honeywasused
forsweetening,andvariousspicesenhancedtheflavoroffood.Thoughitmight
appearmonotonoustomoderntastes,theGreekdietwashealthfulandnourishing.
Thepasturingofsmallanimalsdidnotinterferewithagriculture.Flocksofsheepand
goatsgrazedonhillylandthatcouldnotbefarmedandonthefallowfields,
providingmanureinreturn.Assuppliersofwool,cheese,meat,andskins,theyhad
greateconomicimportance.TheGreeksalsokeptpigs,relishedfortheirmeat,and
fowl.Thetwolargestdomesticatedanimals,horsesandcattle,occupiedaspecial
nicheintheeconomyandthesociety.Oxen(castratedbulls)ormules(hybridsofthe
horseanddonkey)werenecessaryforplowingandfordrawingheavyloads.A
farmerwithoutreadyaccesstoayokeofoxenorapairofmuleswouldbeclassified
aspoor.Herdsofcattleandhorsesdidcompetewithagriculture,sincethestretches
ofgoodgrazinglandtheyrequiredwerealsoprimefarmland.Practicallyspeaking,
therecouldbelargescaleranchingofcattleandhorses(exceptinthenorthernplains)
onlyintimesoflowpopulationdensity.Becausetheyweresuchcostlyluxuries,
cattleandhorseswereastatussymbolfortherich.Cattlewereraisedmainlyfortheir
meatandhides.Horsesweretheprimarymarkersofhighsocialstatus:beautiful
creatures,veryexpensivetomaintain,andusefulonlyforridingandforpullinglight
chariots.
3

Thisagriculturalandpastoralwayofliferemainedessentiallyunchanged
throughoutGreekhistory.ThefundamentaleconomicfactthatancientGreecewas
essentiallyalandofsmallscalefarmers(mostofwhomlivedinfarmingvillagesand
smalltowns)governedeveryaspectofGreeksociety,frompoliticstowartoreligion.
IthasbeenestimatedthateveninthefifthtothirdcenturiesBC,thepeakpopulation
period,upto90percentofthecitizensofacitystatewereengagedinagriculture.
OneofthemajorunifyingforceswithintheGreekcitystateswasthecitizenfarmers
devotiontotheirsmallagriculturalplainanditssurroundinghillsides,andtheir
willingnesstodiedefendingtheirancestralearth,asthepoetHomercalledit.And
theprimarydisunifyingforcethroughoutGreekhistorywastheperpetualtension
betweenthosecitizenswhohadmuchlandandthosewhohadlittleornone.
SOURCESFOREARLYGREEKHISTORY
Truehistoryinthesenseofspecificeventsinvolvingspecificpersonswouldnot
beginuntiltheseventhcenturyBC,whenwritingmadeitpossibletorecordwhat
washappeningintheGreekworld.Knowledgeofwhathadhappenedearliercame
intheformofancientmythoi(stories),whichweretransmittedorallyfrom
generationtogenerationforhundredsofyears.TheancientGreekhistorians
acceptedthesemyths,manyofwhichhadbeencommittedtowriting,ashistorical
factandusedthemtoreconstructtheearlyhistoryoftheGreeks.Modernhistorians,
however,realizinghowmucholdstoriescanchangeintheircountlessretellings,are
generallyskepticaloftheirhistoricalvalue,althoughitispossiblethatsomeofthem
containelementsoftruth.
TheprimarylegendoftheGreekpastwasthestoryoftheTrojanWar,atenyear
assaultagainstthelargefortifiedcityofTroyinnorthwestAnatolia(modernTurkey)
byahugearmadaofGreeksledbyAgamemnon,kingofMycenae,alargecityinthe
Peloponnesus.Ifsuchawarhadactuallyoccurred(modernhistoriansaredividedon
thequestion),itwouldhavetakenplaceduringthethirteenthcenturyBC,atthe
heightofBronzeAgeprosperityandmilitarymight.ForlaterGreeks,thechief
repositoriesofknowledgeconcerningtheworldoftheTrojanWarweretheIliadand
theOdyssey,twolongnarrativepoemsattributedtoHomer,thepoetwhomthey
regardedasthegreatestofall.Thepoems,however,werecomposedfivecenturies
afterthetimeoftheTrojanWar,around750to700BC.Theycorrectlyportrayedthe
eraoftheTrojanWarasoneofgreatwealthandarchitecturalsplendor,butinthe
longprocessoforaltransmissiontheactualsocietyoftheLateBronzeAgewas
completelyforgotten.Thetypeofsocietyreflectedinthepoemsisinfactmuchcloser
intimetothatofthepoet.
ThediscrepancybetweenthewaytheeighthcenturyGreeksimaginedtheworldof
theBronzeAgeandwhatthatworldwasreallylikehasbeenrevealedby
archaeologicaldiscoveries.AlmosteverythingweknowofearlyGreecehascome

fromthestudyoftheexcavatedremains.Scientificorsystematicarchaeology(the
studyofarchaia,ancientthings)goesbackalittlemorethanacentury.
4
Beforethelatenineteenthcenturyantiquarianshadtunneledandduginancient
gravesandsettlements,buttheywereprimarilyinterestedinuncoveringpreciousart
objects,notinusingtheartifactsandotherfindstoreconstructthenatureandhistory
oftheexcavatedsite.Today,archaeologyisascience,whichemployshighly
sophisticatedmethodsandequipmenttowringeverybitofinformationfromthe
materialremains.Ithascomealongwayfromtheearlyorganizedexpeditions,
whosetechniquesappearcrudebytodaysstandards.Yet,wemustadmirethe
achievementsofthosepioneerarchaeologistswho,inventingthedisciplineasthey
wentalong,werethefirsttouncoveranddescribetheancientcivilizationsofthe
NearEast,Egypt,andGreece.
Thankstothescienceofarchaeology,scholarstodayknowinfinitelymoreaboutthe
societyandcultureofearlyGreecethandidtheancientGreeksthemselves,who
knewitonlythroughthemythsandlegends.Evenso,manyquestionsremain
unansweredoronlypartiallyanswered.Prehistoricarchaeologyhasonlythesilent
fragmentsofancientcivilizations.Thesitesareburieddeepunderthesurface,each
levelofhabitationcrushedundertheenormouspressureofthesucceedinglayers
anderodedbytimeandtheforcesofnature.Bypiecingtogethertheevidence(in
manycasesliterally),archaeologistscanreconstructwithfairaccuracythematerial
aspectsoflifeandsociety.Itismuchmoredifficult,however,tomakeinferences
aboutsocialbehaviorandbeliefsfromthearchaeologicalremains.Inthisrespect,
Aegeanarchaeologistsarefortunate,fortheyhavenotonlyalargeamountbutalsoa
widevarietyofmaterialfromwhichtoreconstructthesociety,includingpainted
pottery,murals,engravings,sculptures,and,mostimportant,writtenrecords,
preservedonclaytablets.Thosekindsofevidencehaveaddedimmeasurablytoour
understandingoftheearlyGreekculture.
GREECEINTHESTONEAGES
ThearchaeologyofprimitiveGreecehasmadegreatstridesinthiscentury;
nevertheless,thesparselypopulatedStoneAgesremainveryobscure.Humanshave
livedinGreecesinceatleasttheMiddlePaleolithic(OldStone)Age(c.55,00030,000
BC).Theseearliestinhabitantslivedmainlybyhuntingandsomegatheringofwild
plants,usingfinelycraftedtoolsandweaponsofstone,wood,andbone.Attheend
oftheIceAge,whentheglaciersthathadcoveredmuchofEuropewerereceding
(c.12,000BC),theclimateofGreecewarmedconsiderably;intheprocessthe
landscapeanditsplantsandanimalswerealteredintotheirpresentforms.Evidence
fromacaveinsouthernGreece,ataplacecalledFranchthi,showsthatthe

inhabitantsattheendoftheIceAgehunteddeerandsmallergame,caughtfishin
thecoastalwaters,andgatheredwildcereals,wildpeasandbeans,andnuts.They
probablyalsohadsomeexperiencewithgoingtoseainsmallboatsmadeofreeds
andskins.
EarlyintheNeolithic(NewStone)Age(c.65003000BC)thepeoplelearnedto
cultivatethewildcerealsandotherplantsandtodomesticateanimals,beginning
5
thefarmingandherdingeconomythatwastobethemainstayofGreeklifeuntilthe
modernera.Thisnewwayoflife,whichrepeatedaprocessthathadbeguninthe
NearEastnearlytwothousandyearsearlier,mayhavebeenintroducedby
newcomersfromwesternAnatolia.Thecultivationofplantsisawatershedeventin
thelivesofapeople.Itallowspopulationtoincreaseandforcesthemtosettledown
permanently.TheNeolithicAgesawthefirstappearanceofsmall,permanent
farmingvillages,madeupofoneroomhousessimilarinconstructiontothoseofthe
NearEast.Houseswerebuiltofsundriedmudbrickslaidoverlowstone
foundations,withfloorsofstampedearthandflatorpitchedroofsmadeofthatchor
brush.TheNeolithichousestyleandthecustomofclusteringhousestogetherin
smallcommunitieswouldpersistwithlittlechangeformillenniainGreeceandthe
NearEast.InthefavorableconditionsofthewarmNewStoneAge,villagesgrew
largerandnewvillagecommunitieswereformed.
ThesocialorganizationofthesmallStoneAgevillageswasprobablyverysimple.
Familiescooperatedandsharedwiththeirneighbors,mostofwhomwerealsotheir
kinfolk.Wemayassumethatbythistimedivisionoflaborbygenderandageand
thedominanceofmalesoverfemaleshadbecomeestablished,andalthoughnoone
individualorfamilyheldadominantposition,temporaryleadershipwasprobably
assumednowbythisman,nowbyanother,astheneedarose.Atacertainpointin
thegrowthofpopulation,however,leadershiprolesemergedthatweremoreformal
andmorelasting.Thissemipermanentpositionofleadershipwasheldbyatypeof
personanthropologistscallthebigmanortheheadman,onewhoisbetterat
gettingthingsdone.Hisforceofcharacter,senseofresponsibility,wisdomin
solvingdisputes,courageinthefaceofdanger,andlikequalitiespropelhimtothe
frontandkeephimthere.Intimethispositionbecomesasortofoffice,intowhicha
newman,havingdemonstratedthatheisbettersuitedthantheotherwouldbe
leaders,stepswhentheoldheadmanretiresordies(orispushedout).Thatthiskind
ofpoliticalandsocialrankingoccurredintheNeolithicperiodisalmostcertain.
Thereafter,thedivisionintotwogroups,theverysmallgroupofthosewholedand
thelargegroupofthosewhowereled,wouldbeapermanentfeatureofGreek
politicallife.

THEANCIENTCIVILIZATIONSOFTHENEAREAST
WhileranksocietieswereevolvinginGreeceandelsewhereontheEuropean
continent,anewkindofsocietywasforminginwesternAsiaandnorthernAfrica:
thestateandcivilization.WhentheGreeksattainedahighcivilization(around
1600BC),thecivilizedculturesoftheNearEastandEgyptwerealready1500years
old.ThedirectteachersoftheGreekswouldbetheCretans,whohadattainedthis
levelbyabout2000BC,butthegrowthofcivilizationonCretewasitselfaproductof
contactwiththeoldercivilizations.ThehistoryofancientGreekcivilizationis
entwinedwiththecivilizationsoftheEast.
6
TheregionwheretheearliestcivilizationemergedwascalledbylaterGreeks
Mesopotamia,thelandbetweentheriversTigrisandEuphrates.Inthatwide,
fertileriverplaintheabilitytoorganizeandcontrolthenaturalandsocial
environmentswasadvancingtoahigherlevelaround3500BC.Thereappeared,for
thefirsttimeinthehistoryoftheworld,largescaleirrigation,metaltechnology,
largecities,bureaucraticadministration,complextradenetworks,andwriting.
MostofthesenewfeatureshadtheirrootsinearlierMesopotamianculture.The
progressiontocivilizationwastheresultoftheconcurrentadvancementand
interactionofcertainfeatures,whichcreatedaspiralingeffect.Advancementsinthe
technologyofirrigationincreasedfoodproduction,whichenabledpopulationto
increasefurther.Theresponsibilityoftheleaderstomobilizelaborandresourcesfor
increasinglyambitiousirrigationprojectsgavethemmorepowerandturnedthem
intoaprivilegedrulingclass,sharplydifferentiatedfromthemassofthepeople.The
growingappetiteofthegoverningelitesforluxurygoodsbefittingtheirhighstatus
increasedthequantityandqualityofmanufactureathomeandledtotherapid
expansionoflongdistancetradeforrawmaterialsandexoticitems.Thesegoods
werepaidforwitheverincreasingsurplusesfromtheland,moreandmoreofwhich
cameunderthecontroloftherulers.
TheEgyptiancivilization,whichemergedaround3200BCalongthelong,narrow
valleyoftheNile,followedthesametrajectoryascivilizationsoftheNearEast,
exceptthatveryearlyonEgyptbecameaunitedkingdomunderasinglepharaoh
(king).TheAegeancivilizationsofCreteandGreecewouldpatternthemselveson
theNearEasternmodelofseparatecitystatesandkingdoms.
CityStatesandKingdoms
InMesopotamia,asadvancesweremadeinagriculturalproduction,townswith
hundredsofpeoplegrewintocitieswiththousands,andeventensofthousands,of
inhabitants.Inthefertileirrigatedareas,thelargestandmostpowerfulcity

dominatedthetownsandvillagesanddrewthemintoasinglepoliticalunit,
administeredfromthecapital.Theterritoriesofthoseearliestcitystates,astheyare
called,werefairlysmall,usuallynomorethanafewhundredsquaremiles;yetthe
stepfromaloosecommunityoftownsandvillagesintoacentralizedstatechanged
thecourseofhumanhistory.
Withcivilization,societybecamehighlystratified.Theleaderandhisimmediate
subordinatesmadeallthedecisions,whichwerecarriedoutbylowerstatusofficials
andtheirassistants.Thewidebaseofthesocialpyramidwasmadeupoftheprimary
producers,freefarmersandherdsmen,whowererequiredtogivetothestate(i.e.,
thepalace)aportionoftheirannualproduction,contributetheirlabortoirrigation
andconstructionprojects,andserveinthearmy.Manyofthemweredependentsof
therulingclass,workingastenantsonlandthatbelongedtothepalaceandtothe
templesofthegods.Somecraftsmenalsoworkeddirectlyforthestate.Atthevery
bottom,belowthefreebutdependentpopulation,wereslaves.Althoughslavery
predatedtheadventofciviliza
7
tion,itwasonlyaftertheformationofthestatethatitbecameeconomically
importantandpracticedonalargescale.
TheformationofstatestransformedMesopotamiansocietyinallsortsofways.
Artistryandcraftsmanshipmadegiganticstrides,writingwasinvented,architecture
tookonamonumentalcharacter.Alloftheseculturalrefinementsservedtheelitesas
toolsofsocialcontrol.Thekingsandthehighnobles,usingahugeportionofthe
surpluswealthfromagriculture,manufacture,andtrade,aswellasmillionsofhours
ofhumanlabor,builtmassivedefensivewallsandtemples,andluxuriouspalaces
andelaboratetombsforthemselvesandtheirfamilies.Architectureespeciallyserved
religion,whichbecamethemostimportantmeansofcontrol,foritidentifiedthewill
oftherulerwiththewillofthegods.Vastwealthandincreasedpopulationallowed
battlestobefoughtonalargescalebywellorganizedarmies;andwarprogressed
fromspontaneousactionsinspiredbyrevengeorgreedforbootyintodeliberate
campaignsofpunishmentorconquestbyoneruleragainstanother.
Thenaturalreflexofstatesthatborderononeanotheristotrytogaindominion.In
earlyMesopotamia,apowerfulcitystatewouldintimidateandconqueritsweaker
neighbors,becomingthecapitalcity.Itsrulerwouldthenbecomethegreatkingover
anumberofvassalstates.Thesekingdomswereinherentlyunstable,bothbecause
thecorecitystateitselfwascontinuallybesetbyinternalstrugglesforpower,and
becausethesubjectcitieswereconstantlyassertingtheirindependence.Moreover,
therewasanongoingthreatofraidsfrompeopleonthefringesofcivilization.Large
groupsofwarriorswouldsometimesmoveenmasseoutofthemountainsordeserts

totakeovercitiesandkingdoms.Suchwasthegeopoliticalworldinwhichthe
civilizationsofCreteandthenofGreeceemergedinthesecondmillenniumBC.
GREECEINTHEEARLYBRONZEAGE(c.30002100BC)
Thetechnologyofsmeltingandcastingcopperappearstohaveoriginated
independentlyinbothwesternAsiaandsoutheasternEuropebefore6000BC.The
crucialnextstep,ofadding10percentoftintothecoppertoproducebronze,amuch
hardermetal,wastakenintheNearEastduringthefourthmillennium.The
techniquecametoGreecearound3000BC;byabout2500,theuseofbronzeaswell
asothermetalssuchaslead,silver,andgoldbecamewidespreadthroughoutGreece
andtheAegean.
Theintroductionofmetallurgywasamajortechnologicaladvance,fortoolsand
weaponsofbronzewereconsiderablymoreefficientthanthosemadeofstone,bone,
orcopper.Theimpactwasnotjustutilitarian,however;themovementintothe
BronzeAgemarkedaturningpointinGreeksocialandeconomicrelations,justasit
hadintheEast.Itwasthehighrankedindividualsandfamilies,thosewithgreater
surplusesofwealth,whohadthemostaccesstobronzeandscarcemetalproducts.
Possessionoftheseandotherprestigeitemssetthemfurtherapartfromthemassof
thepopulation.Theirincreasingdemandformetal
8
goodsgaverisetolocalspecialistsandworkshopsandacceleratedtradeforcopper
andtinandothermetals,notonlywiththeEast,butalsowiththepeoplesofcentral
andwesternEurope.EarlyBronzeAgeGreecewasedgingitswayintothewider
economyandcultureoftheMediterraneanworld.Andastheeconomyexpanded
andthesettlementsgrewlarger,sodidthewealth,power,andauthorityoftheir
leaders,nowestablishedashereditarychiefswhoruledforlifeandwereaccorded
exceptionalhonorsandprivileges.
AmajorEarlyBronzeAgesettlementwasthetownofLernainArgolis,wherethe
remainsofstrongstonefortificationsandsomemonumentalbuildingshavebeen
found,thelargestofwhichmayhavebeenthehouseoftherulingchief.The
sophisticationofthearchitectureandthequalityoftheartifactsbetokenafairly
complexpoliticalandeconomicsystem,thoughfarlessadvancedthanthoseofthe
NearEastandEgypt.Lernaflourishedfromabout3000toabout2100,whenitwas
destroyedalongwithanumberofothertownsandvillagesinArgolis,Attica,and
Laconia.SimilardevastationofsettlementsoccurredthroughoutmuchofEuropeat
thistime.
GREECEINTHEMIDDLEBRONZEAGE(c.21001600BC)

Afterthedestructions,Greeceenteredwhatappearstohavebeenaperiodofcultural
stagnation.Duringthenextfivehundredyearsthearchaeologicalrecordisboth
sparseandgenerallyunimpressive.Mosthistoriansconnectboththedestructionsof
thesitesandtheensuingculturallagtotheincursionofanewpeopleintothecentral
andsouthernmainlandofGreece.Thearrivalofthesenewcomers,whospokeavery
earlyformofGreek,markedadecisiveturningpointinthehistoryandcultureof
GreeceandtheAegean.
Asisusualwitheventsthatoccurredsoearlyinprehistory,thereisuncertainty
aboutwhenthespeakersofprotoGreekenteredGreece.Itmayhavebeenasearlyas
2100BC,ortwocenturieslater,whenthereisevidenceofanewtypeofpotteryand
otherpossiblynewculturalfeatures.Onthebasisofsuchmaterial,archaeologists
havelabeledthisintermediateculturalstagetheMiddleHelladicperiod(c.1900
1580).Thepictureisconfusedbyathirdtheory,whichplacesthearrivalofthe
GreekspeakersattheendoftheMiddleHelladicperiod,around1600BC.Despite
theongoingcontroversyaboutwhentheyentered,however,itisunanimously
agreedthatthenewcomerswerepartofahugewaveofmigratinggroupsfromthe
northandeastknowncollectivelyastheIndoEuropeans.Thisknowledgewasthe
resultofmodernlinguisticdiscoveries.
TheIndoEuropeans
IntheeighteenthcenturyAD,scholarsbegantorecognizethatancientGreekbore
manysimilaritiestootherdeadlanguages,suchasLatin,OldPersian,andSanskrit
(thelanguageofancientIndia),aswellastoentirefamiliesof
9
spokenlanguages,suchastheGermanicandSlavic.Theyobserved,forexample,a
strikingsimilarityinwordssuchasmother:Sanskritmtar,Greekmtr,Latin
mater,AngloSaxonmdor,OldIrishmathir,Lithuanianmote,Russianmat.Theclose
likenessesinvocabularyandgrammaticalstructureamongancientlanguagesand
theirdescendantssoonledtotheinsightthattheyhadallsprungfromacommon
linguisticancestor,whichwastermedProtoIndoEuropean.Itwasreasonedthat
therehadoncebeenasingleIndoEuropeanhomeland,locatedperhapsinthevast
steppesnorthoftheBlackandCaspianseas(oneofseveralsuggestedhomelands),
andthattheseparatelanguagesdevelopedinthecourseofemigrationsfromthe
homelandintodistantplaces.ThespeakersofprotoGreekwerethusapartofagreat
andlengthyancientexodusofpeoples,whichgraduallyoverthecenturiesspread
theIndoEuropeanlanguagesacrossEuropeandAsia,fromIrelandtoChinese
Turkestan.
TheFirstGreekSpeakers

Eventually,thelanguageoftheGreekspeakingnewcomersreplacedthenonIndo
EuropeanAegeanlanguages,whichsurvivedinGreekprimarilyinplacenames
(e.g.,Korinthos)andinnamesforindigenousanimalsandplants,suchashyakinthos,
(hyacinth).ThiswouldseemtoindicatethattheGreekspeakerswerethedominant
groupwithinthesociety,butonelanguagemaydisplaceanotherforreasonsother
thanconquestanddominance.Atanyrate,theprocessofdisplacementwasprobably
alongone,withbothGreekandindigenouslanguagesexistingsidebysidefor
centuries.
Duringthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturies,therewasconsiderable
conjectureaboutthenatureofthesocialorganizationandcultureoftheseearliest
Greekspeakers.ItwasassumedthattheIndoEuropeanswereasuperiorraceof
northernhorseridingAryanwarriors,whosweptdownintosouthernEuropeand
violentlyimposedtheirlanguagesandcustomsontheweaker,unwarlike,agrarian
natives.SuchsuppositionsweretheproductsofaraciallybiasedEurocentrism.No
scholartodayacceptsanypartofthisAryanmyth,whichwasthepretextforso
manycrimesagainsthumanityinthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies,
culminatinginthehorrorsperpetratedbytheNazisandFascistsinthe1930sand
40s.
ThemostwecansafelysayabouttheseincomingIndoEuropeanGreekspeakersis
thatforsubsistencetheypracticedherdingandagriculture,andtheyknew
metallurgyandothercrafts,suchaspotteryandclothmaking.Oftheirsociety,we
cansurmiseonlythattheywereorganizedinfamiliesandlargergroups(clansand
tribes)thatwerepatriarchal(thefatherwasthesupremeauthorityfigure)and
patrilineal(descentwasreckonedinthemaleline).TheirprimarydivinitywasZeus,
apowerfulmalegod;andtheywereawarlikepeoplewithahierarchicalleadership
system.TheoncecommonnotionthatthepreIndoEuropeansocietiesofGreece
around2000BCwerepolaroppositespeaceful,nonhierarchical,andmatriarchal
(wheredescent,
10
inheritance,andauthoritycamedownthroughthemother)isnowdiscredited.In
mostrespects,exceptforlanguage,religion,andsomerelativelyminorfeatures(such
asarchitectureandpottery),thetwopeopleswereprobablyverysimilar.
ThedropintheculturallevelduringthearchaeologicalMiddleHelladicperiod(c.
19001580BC)isbestexplainedasalongstageofadjustment,duringwhichthe
nativepeopleandthenewcomersgraduallymergedintoasinglepeoplethrough
generationsofintermarriage,andtheirtwoculturesfusedintoasingleGreek
speakingculturethatcontainedelementsofboth.NorinfactwastheMiddleBronze
(MiddleHelladic)periodtotallystatic.Populationincreased,newsettlementsgrew

up,therewereadvancesinmetallurgy,andcontactswiththecivilizationsofCrete
andtheNearEastbegan.Thesewouldlead,towardtheendoftheperiod,toa
suddenculturalquickeningthatusheredinthehighcivilizationoftheLateBronze
(LateHelladic)period.
THEDISCOVERYOFAEGEANCIVILIZATION:TROY,MYCENAE,KNOSSOS
ThatadvancedcivilizationshadexistedintheAegeanduringtheBronzeAgewas
notknownuntiltheunearthinginthelatenineteenthcenturyofthreefamouscities
fromthemythicalAgeofHeroes.First,in1870,HeinrichSchliemann,awealthy
Germanbusinessmanturnedarchaeologist,discoveredthecityofTroy.In
Schliemannsday,mosthistoriansdismissedtheMycenaeanswaragainstTroy(the
centraleventoftheGreeksancientpast)asjustanothermythicaltale.Schliemann,
however,wasconvincedthattheTrojanWarhadhappenedexactlyasitwastoldin
theearlyepicpoems,theIliadandtheOdyssey.UsinghisbelovedHomerasaguide,
hedugataplacecalledHissarlikonthenortheastcoastofAnatoliaandrevealedthe
massiveruinsofaBronzeAgecity,whichheidentifiedasthefabledTroy.Thenews
electrifiedthescholarlyworldandcapturedthepublicsimagination.Therereally
hadbeenaTroy,foundwhereHomersaiditwaslocated!
Fouryearslater,SchliemannbeganhisexcavationsofBronzeAgeMycenaeitself.
Thoughasmall,ratherinsignificanttownthroughoutrecordedGreekhistory,
prehistoricMycenaeturnedouttobemorethanworthyofthelegendaryhero
Agamemnon,itskingandtheleaderoftheGreekinvasionofTroy.Although
Schliemannsdiscoveriesarenotconclusiveevidenceofalargescalewarbetween
TroyandMycenae,theimpressiveruinsunearthedatbothsites,withtheirimmense
wealthingoldandothercostlythings,doprovecorrecttheGreeksremembranceof
theirHeroicAge(i.e.,theLateBronzeAge)asatimeoffabulouswealthand
splendor.BecauseMycenaewastherichest(aswellasthefirst)siteexploredin
mainlandGreece,archaeologistsrefertotheentirecultureofGreeceintheLate
Bronze(LateHelladic)period(c.15801150BC)astheMycenaeanAge.
11
MINOANSOCIETYANDCULTURE(c.17001500BC)
Nolessspectacularwasthediscoveryin1899ofthethirdfabledsite,thepalace
complexofKnossosonCrete,bytheEnglisharchaeologistArthurEvans.Evans
calledthecivilizationonCreteMinoan,afterthemythicalkingMinosofKnossos,
wholived,accordingtoHomer,threegenerationsbeforetheTrojanWar.IntheIliad
andtheOdysseyKnossosisthedominantcityofarichandpopulousland.Odysseus,
theherooftheOdyssey,describesitasfollows:

ThereisalandcalledCrete,inthemiddleofthewinedarksea,
beautifulandfertile,surroundedbywater;andinit
therearemanypeople,countless,andninetycities....
andamongthemisKnossos,thegreatcity,whereMinos
wasking...andconversedwithgreatZeus.
(Odyssey19.172179)
Verylittleisknownabouttheearlyhistoryofthislarge,mountainousisland(3400
squaremiles).Around7000BC,theearliestinhabitants,peopleofunknownlanguage
andorigin,settledinthecentralandeasternparts,wheretherewerefairlylarge
fertileplains,andpracticedfarmingandstockraising.Duringthefourthmillennium,
newsettlementssprangupandsomeofthesmallfarmingvillagesgrewinto
substantialtowns.Withpopulationgrowthandincreasingproduction,thechiefs
gainedconsiderablygreaterpowersintheirtownsandvillages.Andjustasinthe
NearEast,thechiefsofthemajorsettlementsemergedasthesinglerulersoverthe
otherchiefsandpeopleinthevariousdistricts.ThusCretebecamealandofsmall
citykingdoms.
ThefirstroyalpalaceinCretewasbuiltabout2000BcatKnossos,whichbythenwas
alargetownwithseveralthousandinhabitants.Othermajorpalaces,thoughnotas
bigorasmagnificentasKnossos,followedatPhaistos,Mallia,Zakro,andelsewhere,
eachcentercontrollinganareaofafewhundredsquaremiles.Thepoliticaland
culturalfloweringinCrete(andonotherAegeanislandsaswell)probablycanbe
attributedtotheirinclusionintheinternationaltrade,whichwasamajorcomponent
ofthestateeconomiesoftheEast.CretancontactwithEgyptandwesternAsiawas
bothheavyanddirect,becausetheislandslocationandnaturalharborsmadeitan
importantcrossroadinthetraderoutesacrosstheMediterraneanSea.Thepalace
centeredeconomiesthatemergedinCrete,accordingly,werereplicas,onamuch
smallerscale,ofthestateeconomiesoftheNearEast.
WhetherthesmallMinoankingdomswereconsolidatedintolargerpoliticalunits,as
happenedintheNearEast,remainsanopenquestion.Oneopinionisthatbythe
sixteenthcenturyBCtheisland,ormostofit,wasaunifiedkingdom,ruledbythe
kingofKnossos.OtherssuggestthatKnossoswasthedominantcenterofalooser
federationofselfrulingstates,whichseemsmorelikely.
12
TheMinoanPalaceEconomy
ThepalacecomplexthatweseetodayatKnossoswasbegunaround1700BC,after
thefirstpalacewasdestroyedbyanearthquake.Duringitsexistenceitunderwent
numerousrestorationsandadditionsuntilitsfinaldestructionaround1375.Knossos

andtheothersmallerCretanpalacesconsistedofamazeofroomsresidential
quarters,workshops,andstoreroomsclusteredaroundalargecentralcourtyard.As
intheEast,thepalacewasthecentralplaceoftheentiresociety.Theimpressive
residenceoftherulerandhishighrankingsubordinatesappearstohavebeenthe
politicalandadministrativecenterandthefocalpointofeconomicactivity,state
ceremony,andreligiousritualfortheentirekingdom.
ThetypeofeconomythatdevelopedaroundKnossosandtheotherCretancentersis
calledaredistributiveeconomy.Thecenterthekingandthepalaceprobablyhad
considerablecontrolovertheallocationanduseofthesurroundingland,muchof
whichbelongeddirectlytothepalace.Producefromthepalaceslandsalongwith
producefromprivatefarmsandherds,paidastaxes,wasfunneledintothepalace,
whereitwasstored.Thekingcoulddistributetheseashewilled.Theinfluxoffood
andrawmaterialsprovidedhisfamilyandhisentouragewithaluxuriouslifestyle
andalsosuppliedtheneedsofthelowstatusworkersinthepalacecomplex.In
addition,thegreatquantitiesofgrainandoliveoilstoredinthepalaceformeda
reservefordistributiontothepopulaceintimesoffamineorothercalamity.
Thekingsmainuseofhissurplus,however,wasfortrade.Thelargeareasofthe
palacedevotedtostorageandworkshopsindicatethatasignificantportionofwhat
wasproducedwasmeanttobesentoutinexchangeforotherthings.Thepalaces
workshopswerekeptbusyturningrawmaterialsfromthecountryside,suchas
wool,flax,andhides,aswellasbronze,gold,ivory,andamberfromabroad,into
materialgoods.Nodoubtsomeoftheseweretradedinternally,amongthecity
kingdoms.Throughouttheisland,traceshavebeenfoundofnetworksofgoodroads,
alongwhichfood,animals,andgoodswouldhavepassedbetweenthecentersand
intothesmallertownsandvillages.Itwastheexchangeofmaterialsandgoodson
theMediterraneanwidemarket,however,thatmadeKnossosandtheotherCretan
centerssorich.
TheincreasingdiversityandcomplexityoftheCretanpalaceeconomiesisshownby
theiradoptionofwritingforthepurposeofmanagement.About1900BCtheCretans
developedpictographicwriting,perhapsinspiredbyEgyptianhieroglyphics,in
whichapicturesymbolizesanobjectoridea(asinI[heartsymbol]NewYork).This
evolvedaround1800BCintoamorestylizedlinearscriptmadeupofspecificsigns
thatstoodforsyllablesandwerejoinedtogethertoformthesoundofthewords
themselves.Althoughthisscript(calledLinearAbyarchaeologists),preservedon
smallclaytablets,remainslargelyundeciphered,itisclearthatitwasusedfor
keepingtheeconomicrecordsinthepalaces.
13
TheSocialClassesofCrete

Evidenceofaclasssocietyshowsuparchaeologicallyasahugedifferenceinthe
livingstandards,lifestyles,andsocialstatusoftheprivilegedfewandtherestofthe
people.ThearchitectureandthefindsatKnossosandothercentersgiveusagood
ideaoftheenormousluxuryenjoyedbytheroyalfamilyandthenobility.
Archaeologistshavealsofoundintownsoutsidethepalacescomfortabletwoand
threestoryhouses,whichindicatetheexistenceofalowertierofelitefamilies.This
groupofwellofftownspeopleprobablyformedaverysmallsegmentofthefree
population,andwaspossiblypartoftheadministrativeandcommercialsectors.On
theotherhand,thethousandsofordinaryfarmersandcraftsworkershaveleft
almostnotraceinthearchaeologicalrecord.Whatlittleevidencethereisindicates
thattheylivedinsmall,sparselyfurnishedhousesinsmallvillagesandwereburied
withmeagerfunerarygiftsinsimplegraves.Inotherwords,theylivedmuchastheir
ancestorshad.Itwasonlythehighrankedfamiliesthatenjoyedvastlyincreased
wealthandmoreluxuriouslifestyles,benefitsderivedfromthetaxesandlabor
extractedfromthepeople.
Inallprobability,ordinaryCretanpeople,likethecommonpeopleinEgyptandin
theNearEast,acceptedtheirrolesasexploitedsubjectswillingly,inthebeliefthat
therigidlyhierarchicalarrangementwasquiteproper.Itistruethatpeoplereceived
benefitintheformofprotectionfromfamineandfromoutsideaggressors.Still,their
willingacceptanceoftheheavyinterferenceintheirlivesbythecenterindicates
somethingmoretheirpositiveidentificationwiththecenter,thatis,theking.In
Crete,asinallancientkingdoms,thekingwasasymbolaswellastheactualruler.
Hewastheembodimentofthestate:supremewarleader,lawgiverandjudge,and,
mostimportant,therepresentativeofthelandandpeopletothegods.
Thisenlargementoftherulerspriestlyfunction,culturalhistoriansbelieve,wasone
ofthekeyfactorsintheriseofmonarchicalpower.Certainlythekingsofancient
EgyptandtheNearEastderivedmuchoftheirlegitimacyfromtheofficialequation
ofroyalpowerwiththewillofthegods.TheEgyptiansexpandedthisprincipleby
identifyingeachnewpharaohasthehumanincarnationofthegodHorus.Some
MediterraneanscholarsbelievethattheMinoankingsruledaspriestkingslikethe
Mesopotamiankings.Amajordifference,though,isthatBronzeAgeCretelackedthe
hugetemplecomplexesoftheNearEast;ratherthepalacesthemselvesappearto
havebeenthereligiouscentersofthesociety.
Slavery
Occupyinganeconomicandsociallevelbelowthefreefarmersandpalace
dependentsweretheslaves.Whatdifferentiatestrueslavesfromotherswhoworkby
compulsionisnotsomuchhowtheyaretreatedasthefactthattheyarepossessions,
notpersons.Thoughtheyliveinacommunity,theyarenotmembersofitandthus

lackeventhemostrudimentaryprotectionsagainstarbitraryuseoftheirbodies.
Becausemostslavesintheancientworldwerewarcaptives,thatis,
14
outsiders,itwaseasytosetthemapartasnonpersons.Althoughthepracticeof
capturingpeopleandmakingthemslavesundoubtedlywentbacktotheStoneAges,
itwasonlywiththeemergenceofcivilizationandthestateinthefourthmillennium
thatenslavementoccurredonalargescaleasamatterofpolicyandeconomic
necessity.Wehavenowayofestimatingtheproportionofslavestotherestofthe
populationintheAegeansocieties.Itisprobable,however,thatthemajorityofthem
belongedtothepalaces.
MinoanCulture
MinoanartandarchitectureowedalargedebttothecivilizationsoftheNearEast,
andespeciallyEgypt.TheCretansdevelopedextensivecommercialanddiplomatic
relationswithEgyptandthestatesalongtheSyrianandPhoeniciancoasts,andthey
adoptedboththetechniquesandstylesoftheoldercivilizations.ThespiritofMinoan
artandarchitecture,however,wasverydifferent.Thepredominantfunctionof
palaceartintheEastwastoglorifytheroyalhousehold.Thekingsweredepictedas
mightyconquerorsandpowerfulrulers.InMinoanart,ontheotherhand,thereare
noscenesthatshowthekingasaconqueringwarriorandindeedveryfew,ifany,
imagesofroyalpomp.Thesubjectsandmotifsofthewallpaintingsaremuchthe
sameasthoseinthemiddleclass,villas.Naturemotifsareeverywhere.Thespirit
ofMinoanpalaceartissereneandhappy,evenplayfulattimes.Itwasmeantto
makethepalaceaplaceofbeautyandcharm.
VisitorstotheruinsofKnossos,whichwasgreatlyrestoredbyArthurEvansinthe
earlytwentiethcentury,aredazzledbyitssizeandcomplexity(itcovered3.2acres
withperhapsthreehundredrooms)andtheeleganceofitsarchitecture.Thepalace
waswellconstructedofstoneandmudbrick,reinforcedwithtimbers(tohelp
withstandearthquakes);itstoodtwoandthreestorieshighwithbasementsbeneath.
Porticoes(withcolumnsthatseemupsidedowntous)andnumerousbalconiesand
loggias,allbrightlypainted,gavetheexterioratheatricallook.Lightwellsbrought
daylightandfreshairintotheinteriorofthepalace.Asystemofconduitsanddrains
providedmanyoftheroomswithrunningwaterandwastedisposal.Wallsand
passagewayswereadornedwithbrilliantlycoloredpaintingsofplantandanimallife
andwithscenesofhumanactivity,oftenreligiousprocessionsorrituals.
Minoanpaintingsaremuchadmiredtodayfortheirsophistication,vitality,and
exuberanceandstandcomparisonwiththebestofcontemporaryancientart.
AlthoughEgyptianscenepaintingsweremoreaccurateindetail,Cretanpainters
weremoreskillfulatconveyingasenseofmovementandlife.Minoanpottery,

jewelry,andmetalandivoryworkdisplayequaltechnicalandartisticskill.Minoan
frescoesandsmallsculptureshavepreservedavisualimageofwhatthepeople
lookedlike,thatistosaytherichandpowerfulinhabitantsofthepalacesand
villas.Menandwomenbotharedepictedasyoung,slender,andgraceful.Themen
aresmoothshavenandwearonlyashortkilt,similartotheEgyptianmaledress.The
womenwearelaborateflouncedskirtsandatight,sleevedbodice
15
ThePalaceatKnossos.1WestPorch2CorridoroftheProcession3PalaceShrine
4Steppedporch5ThroneRoom6GrandStaircase7HalloftheDoubleAxes8
QueensMegaron9PillarHall10Storerooms11RoyalRoad,toLittlePalaceFigure
1.1a.GroundplanoftheMinoanpalaceatKnossos,Crete.Figure1.1b.Viewofthe
ruinsoftheMinoanpalaceatPhaistos,Crete.
16

17
thatexposestheirbreasts.Bothmenandwomenhavelonghair,stylishlycurled,and
weargoldbraceletsandnecklaces.
TheplacidandcarefreeoutlookofMinoanart,thefactthatnoneoftheCretan
palacecomplexeswaswalled,andthelaterGreektraditionthatKnossosunderking
Minoshadbeenamightyseapower,ledearliergenerationsofscholarstopicture
Creteasapeaceful,secureisland,untouchedbyinternalandexternalconflict.
However,morerecentdiscoveriesofdepictionsoflandandnavalbattlesandsome
remainsoffortificationwallshavelargelydispelledthatromanticview.
MinoanInfluenceintheAegean:Thera
ThattheCretansexercisedactualpoliticalcontroloutsideofCreteisdoubtful.They
did,however,exertconsiderableeconomicandculturalinfluenceintheCycladic
islands.AremarkableexampleofMinoanculturalhegemonywasdiscoveredonthe
islandofThera(modernSantorini),80milesnorthofCrete.In1967,theGreek
archaeologistSpyridonMarinatosbeganexcavationofathrivingcityofseveral
thousandinhabitants,whichlayburiedunder50yardsofvolcanicash.Theexplosion
thattoreapartthetinyislandconsideredthemostpowerfulvolcaniceruptioninall
ofhistoryoccurred,accordingtothelatestscientificdating,around1630BC.Asin
Pompeii(theRomanprovincialcityburiedbyaneruptionofMountVesuviusin79
AD),thehardenedashformedaprotectiveenvelope,allowingustodayadetailed

pictureoftownlifeattheheightoftheMinoancivilization.Thefrescoesthatadorn
thewallsofanumberofhousesareverysimilarinstyleandalsoequalin
imaginationandexecutiontothefinestpaintingsfromCrete.Lessspectacularfinds
fromotherCycladicislandsshowasimilarMinoanizationinsuchthingsasart,
religion,dress,andlifestyles.Nevertheless,severaldistinctlylocalfeaturesamong
theislandculturesindicatethatthoseprosperousislandswereindependentsocieties,
tradingpartners,notcolonialoutpostsofaCretanempire.
THEMYCENAEANS
AboutthetimeTherawasdestroyed,theGreekswerejustemergingintotheir
civilizationalstage.TheytoowereheavilyinfluencedbytheCretansandeven
adoptedthemodeloftheMinoanstate.AcenturyorsolaterMinoanizedGreeks
fromthemainland,theMycenaeans,ungratefullyrepaidtheirteachersbyinvading
Creteandtakingovertheirpowercenters.
Aswasnotedearlier,MycenaeanreferstotheentirecivilizationofGreeceduring
theLateBronze(LateHelladic)period(c.15801150BC).Theemergenceinmainland
Greeceofahierarchicalpoliticalandsocialsystem,basedoncentralizedcontrolof
theeconomy,recapitulatedtheprocessofstateformationintheNearEastandCrete.
Before1600Greecehadgonethroughthepreparatorysteps:riseinpopulation,
increasedproductivity,expansionoftradewiththeout
18
Figure1.2.FrescoofafishermanfromThera.
side,andthestrengtheningoftheeconomicandpoliticalpoweroftheleaders.Asthe
southernmainlandGreekstatesbecamefullparticipantsintheMediterranean
tradingeconomy,theyputonthereadymadecloakofMinoanadministration.
ContactsbetweenmainlandGreeceandCretehadbegunasearlyas2000BCand
increasedsteadilythereafter.TheevidenceofMinoaninfluenceoverGreecewasso
overwhelmingthatArthurEvans,theexcavatorofKnossos,wasconvincedthatthe
mainlandGreekpalacesofthefourteenthandthirteenthcenturyhadbeenoccupied
byCretankings,loyalsubjectsofthekingofKnossos,whosemightyseapowerhad
conqueredGreece.Evansreasonableconclusionturnedouttobejusttheoppositeof
whathappened:itwastheMycenaeanswhodidtheconquering.WealthyCretemust
haveseemedajuicyprizetothewarlikeMycenaeans,whohadintimateknowledge
oftheislandanditsdefenses.Yet,theMycenaeanswerecertainlynotouttodestroy
Crete.Oncetheyhadbeatenthe
19

Cretanforces,sackedsomepalacesandtowns,andkilledtheleaders,the
mainlanderstookoverKnossosandothercentersandruledinplaceoftheoldrulers.
TheMycenaeantakeoverisdatedtoaround1500to1450.Aboutthattime,anumber
ofimportantCretansiteswerebadlydamaged,thoughKnossositselfsufferedlittle
harm.Therearealsosignsthatabout1500BcMinoanexportstoplacesaroundthe
Aegeandeclined,whileMycenaeanexportsrose;andonseveralCycladicislands
Mycenaeanculturalinfluencesappearmoreprominently.Cretansocietyandculture
undertheruleofthealreadyMinoanizedMycenaeaninvadersdidnotchangemuch,
however.Forthemassofthepeoplelifewentonasbefore,althoughtheynowpaid
theirtaxestokingswhospokeGreek.Andthenewkingsruledandlivedinthe
mannerofCretankings,althoughtheydidkeeptocertainmainlandways(inburial
rites,forexample).FromthefifteenthcenturyonwardwecanspeakofaMinoan
Mycenaeanculture,adynamicfusionofthetwocultures,whichwasfurther
enrichedbycontinuinginfluencesfromtheNearEastandEgypt.
ThereissomereasontobelievethatunderMycenaeanruleKnossoscontrolledmuch
ofcentralandwesternCrete(anareaofperhaps1500squaremiles),having
incorporatedtheterritoriesoftheformerlyindependentorsemiindependentpalace
centers.Buttheirsuccesswasrelativelyshortlived.Around1375,Knossoswas
burnedandlooted,andalthoughtheruinedpalacecontinuedtobeoccupied,
MycenaeanCretesankinimportancewhileMycenaeandtheothermainlandcenters
reachedthezenithoftheirprosperityandinfluenceintheAegean.Itisnotknown
whodestroyedKnossosandsetofftheirreversibledeclineoftheentireCretan
economyandculture.ThemostlikelysuspectsaremainlandMycenaeanstempted
bytherichesoftheCretanpalacesandperhapseagertogetridoftheirbiggestrival
intheMediterraneantrade.
TheFamousClayTablets
Aswesawearlier,theMinoanshaddevelopedapictographicwritingsystemtokeep
recordsoftheirpalaceeconomies,whichwasinusefromabout1900Bc.The
pictographsweremostlyincisedonsmallstonesusedasseals(whenpressedonwax
orclaytheyleaveanimpressionofthesymbols)andwereprobablyusedaslabels
andmarksofownership.Thispicturewriting,whichcouldconveyonlyminimal
information,wasreplacedbyasyllabicwritingsystemincisedonsmallclaytablets,
usedfromabout1800.ArthurEvansfoundafewtabletswiththiswritinginKnossos;
smallquantitieswerelaterdiscoveredatPhaistos,Mallia,andothersitesinCrete
andtheCycladicislands,showingthatitwaswidelyusedintheareaduringthe
eighteenthtofifteenthcenturiesBC.
InthedestructionlevelatKnossos,Evansfoundahugenumber(aroundthree
thousand)ofclaytabletsinscribedwithamoreelaborateversionofthelinearscript.

EvansnamedtheearlierscriptLinearAandthislateroneLinearB.Heassumed
withoutquestionthatthelanguageofbothwasCretan.Thediscoveryin1939of
manyhundredsoftheLinearBtabletsatthepalacecomplexofPylosonthe
southwesternGreekmainlandseemedtostrengthenhistheorythatmainlandGreece
wascontrolledbytheMinoans.
20
Therewasnowasufficientamountofmaterialtoallowseriousattemptsat
deciphermentoftheLinearBtablets.Evenso,thetabletspresentedanenormous
challenge,becausethescriptwastotallyunlikeanyoftheotherwritingsystemsin
useamongtheLateBronzeAgecivilizations,andnooneknewwhattheunderlying
languagewas.Relativelylittleprogresswasmadeuntiltheearlyfifties,whena
youngBritishamateur,MichaelVentris,brokethecode.Workingfromthe
hypothesisthatthesignsstoodforwholesyllablesratherthansinglelettersandthat
thelanguagemightpossiblybeGreek(andnotMinoan,afterall),Ventriswas
graduallyabletoobtainthephoneticvaluesofsomeofthesigns.Forexample,a
combinationofthreesignstiripoyieldsthesyllabicequivalentoftheGreekword
tripous(tripod).
In1953,Ventrisandacollaborator,JohnChadwickofCambridgeUniversity,jointly
publishedtheirfindingsinafamousarticlethathascompletelychangedourpicture
oftheBronzeAgeAegean.Itisnowcertainbeyondanydoubtthat(1)Greekwasthe
languageoftheMycenaeanculture,(2)theMycenaeanshadadaptedtheCretan
LinearAscripttotheirownGreeklanguageanduseditforthesamepurposeas
LinearA,tokeeppalacerecords,and(3)MycenaeanswererulinginCretebyatleast
thefifteenthcenturyBC.
MorerecentfindsofLinearBtabletsatPylos(in1952)andatMycenae,Tiryns,and
Thebesonthemainland,aswellasatChaniaonCretehaveincreasedthefundof
texts.Today,mostofthemorethanfivethousandLinearBinscriptionshaveyielded
upmostoftheirsecrets.Despitesomesuccesses,however,LinearA,thescriptofthe
unknownCretanlanguage,hasnotyetbeendeciphered.
THEEARLYMYCENAEANS(c.16001400BC)
HundredsofBronzeAgehabitationsiteshavebeenfoundinmainlandandisland
Greece,manyofwhichcanbeidentifiedbynamefromtheancientlegends.
Archaeologyhasconfirmedthatthefamousmainlandcitiesofepicpoetry,suchas
Mycenae,Tiryns,Pylos,Thebes,andAthens,wereinfactthemajorBronzeAge
centers.Theirgrandpalaces,however,werebuiltinthefourteenthandthirteenth
centuries,overtheremainsoftheolder,lessimposingstructuresoftheearly
Mycenaeans.Accordingly,whatweknowoftheearlystageoftheMycenaean

civilization,roughly1600to1400,isrevealedchieflythroughgravesandthe
offeringsinterredwiththebodiesofthedeceasedmen,women,andchildren.
TheRiseofMycenaeanPower:
TheShaftGravesandTombs
Thecontentsoftwocircularburialgrounds,reservedfortheelitefamilies,haveshed
muchlightonMycenaesearlydevelopment.Theolderofthetwogravecircles,
whichwasdiscoveredoutsidethecitadelin1952,wasusedfromthelateseventeenth
century(MiddleHelladic)toabout1500.Itoverlapsintimewiththelatergravecircle
locatedattheedgeofthecitadel,discoveredbySchliemann.
21
Thislater,richergroupwasinusefromtheearlysixteenthcenturyuntilafter1500.
Thegravesinthetwocircularburialgroundsarecalledshaftgraves,becausethe
bodieswereloweredintodeeprectangularpitscutintothesoftbedrock.Theearlier
circlecontainedmanybronzeweapons(swords,daggers,spearheads,andknives)
andquantitiesoflocalpottery,butlittlegoldorjewelry.Bycomparison,asingleone
ofthegravesfromthelatercemetery,containingthebodiesofthreemenandtwo
women,heldnotonlyanarsenalofweapons(43swords,forexample),butalso
hundredsofotherexpensiveobjects,includingexquisitegoldjewelryadorningthe
bodiesofthewomen.Theseburialgiftsexhibitsuperbworkmanshipandaremade
ofpreciousmaterials,suchasgold,silver,bronze,ivory,alabaster,faence,and
amber,importedfromCrete,Cyprus,Egypt,Mesopotamia,Syria,Anatolia,and
westernEurope.ThestylesandtechniquesareaneclecticmixoftraditionalHelladic
andforeignelements.
Theincreasingwealthoftheshaftgravesrevealstheevolvingpoweroftheruling
classinMycenaeoverroughly150years.BurialgoodsshowthatduringtheMiddle
Helladicperiodwarriorchiefsandtheirclosesupporterswerealreadyincontrolof
thelocaleconomyandwereincontactwiththeestablishedcivilizations.Their
grandsonsandgreatgrandsonsbecamepowerfulwarlordswho,withthehelpof
theirclosesubordinates,tightlyorganizedandexpandedtheirlocaleconomies,
becomingsignificantplayersinthepanMediterraneaneconomy.
Shortlybefore1500,theMycenaeanelitesadoptedadifferenttypeoftomb,calleda
tholos,whichprovidesfurtherevidenceoftheirgrowingpowerandresources.The
tholoi(plural),whichhavebeenfoundthroughoutGreece,werethehighest
achievementofMycenaeanengineering.Theywereverylargestonechambers,
shapedlikebeehives,cuthorizontallyintoahillside.Thehighvaultedburialand
ceremonialchamberwasapproachedthroughalongstonelinedpassagewayand
hugebronzedoorsandwascoveredoverbyanearthenmound.Thetholos,

representstheheightofMycenaeanupperclassostentation.Wemayseeitasa
conspicuousstatementoftheirarrivalonthewiderMediterraneanscene.
Unfortunately,mostofthetholoiwererobbedcenturiesago,butthefewthat
remainedunplunderedhaveyieldedburialgiftsevenmorenumerousandbeautiful
thanthoseoftheshaftgraves.Theroyalandnoblefamiliesthatownedthosetombs
appearjustaswarlikeastheirforebears,butfarricherandmorethoroughly
Minoanized.Manyofthelaterburialsinthetholoioverlapintimewiththe
constructionofthegreatpalacesinthefourteenthandthirteenthcenturies,whose
ruinsweseetoday.
THELATERMYCENAEANS(c.14001200BC)
WiththenewpalacestheMycenaeansenteredthefinalphaseoftheirwealthand
power.ThearchitectureanddecorationoftheMycenaeanpalacescloselyfollowed
theMinoanstyle,thoughwithsomenotabledifferences.Forone,theMycenaean
centersweremuchsmallerandwereusuallylocatedonacommandinghilland
22
a b c dFigure1.3a.Abronzedaggerinlaidwithasceneofalionhunt,
fromalatershaftgraveatMycenae.Figure1.3b.Planandcrosssectionofatholos
tombfromMycenae.Figure1.3c.InteriorvaultofatholostombatMycenae(theso
calledTreasuryofAtreus).Figure1.3d.Goldmaskfromoneoftheearlyshaftgraves
atMycenae.
23
fortifiedbyhigh,thickwalls.WhereastheMinoanpalaceshadhadlittledefensive
function,defenseseemstohavebeentheparamountconsiderationintheGreek
palaces.TheimmenselystrongfortificationwarsofMycenaeandTiryns,builtof
enormousstoneblocks,areanimpressivesightevenintheirruinedstate.Thelater
GreeksreferredtothemasCyclopeanwalls,somassivethattheycouldonlyhave
beenbuiltbythemythicalraceofgiantCyclopes.Thefortificationswerewell
engineered,takingfulladvantageofthenaturalslopes,withrefinementsthat
alloweddefenderstofiredownontwosidesatattackersstormingthegates.
Toconstruct,maintain,andrepairthedefensescalledforhugeexpendituresof
materialresourcesandthemobilizedlaborofmanyhundredsofpeople.Thewalled
citadelprovidednotonlyprotectionforthepalace,butalsoaplaceofrefugeforthe
inhabitantsoftheunfortifiedtownbelow.ButtheseMycenaeanfortificationswereas
muchaboastbythekingofhiswealthandmilitarymightastheywereadefensefor
hispalaceandpeople.Suchhugewalls,20feetthickinmanyplaces,weremuch
morethanwasnecessarytostaveoffanenemyassault.Thecitywallsthatwerebuilt

inthelaterperiodswerefarlessimmense,yetremainedimpregnableuntilthe
adventofworkablesiegemachineryinthefourthcenturyBC.
TheMycenaeansalsoutilizedspacewithinthepalacesinonenotablydifferentway
fromtheMinoans.InplaceoftheopenpavedcourtyardoftheCretancomplexes,
theymadethefocusoftheirpalacesthemegaron,alargerectangularhall,witha
smalleranteroom,andaporticointhefront,openingontoacourtyard.Inthemiddle
ofthegreathallstoodalarge,raisedcircularhearth,flankedbyfourcolumnsthat
supportedabalcony;akindofchimneywasbuiltintotheroofabovethehearthto
drawoffthesmoke.FortheMycenaeansthemegaronwasclearlytheceremonial
centerofthepalace;theyuseditforfeasts,councils,andreceptionsofvisitors.The
megaronroomwouldsurviveintheformofachieftainshouseduringthelongDark
Agethatfollowed,andastheessentialplanoftheGreektemple,thegodshouse,
fromtheeighthcenturyonward.
ThefinalMycenaeanpalacesprovidedtheirinhabitantsastandardofluxury,
refinement,andbeautyalmostashighasthatoftheMinoans.Althoughtheyhad
fewerroomsandlackedsomeofthearchitecturalembellishmentsoftheirCretan
models,theMycenaeanpalacesboastedsuchMinoanrefinementsasindoor
plumbingandbeautifulwallpaintings.ThefrescoesarecompletelyMinoaninstyle,
thoughreproducedinamoreformalizedmanner,andshowapreferenceformartial
themes,suchaspersonalcombats,sieges,andhuntingscenes.Inthewallpaintings,
womenandmenareusuallyshownwearingthetraditionalMinoancostume,but
otherdepictions,asonpaintedvases,revealthatmainlandmennormallyworea
loosewoolenorlinentunic,cinchedbyabelt,andwomenworealongerversionof
thesametunic.
RelationsAmongthePalaceCenters
ScholarsnolongerbelieveinaunitedKingdomofGreece,ruledbythekingof
Mycenae.TheextentofpoliticalormilitaryexpansioninGreecewastheformationof
smallregionalkingdomsunderasinglecenter;thekingdomofPylosin
24
Messeniapresentsaclearexample.Thepictureislesscertaininthoseregionswhere
majorcenterswereclosetogether,asinArgolis,whichheldtenimportanttowns
includingtheimpregnablefortressesofMycenaeandTiryns,onlyafewmilesapart.
ItispossiblethatthekingofMycenaewasthesoleandabsoluteruleroftheregion,
justasthekingofPyloswasofMessenia.Inthatcase,weshouldseethepalaceat
TirynsasanoutpostofthepalaceatMycenae.Wemustnotassume,however,that
allMycenaeankingdomswerestructuredalike.ItisequallypossiblethatTirynsand
theotherstrongholdsweresemiindependentsettlementswhoseleaders
acknowledgedtherulerofMycenaeastheirsuperiorandpledgedtheirloyaltyto

him.ThepalacetownsofAthensandThebesmayhavehadsimilardominant
positionsintheregionsofAtticaandBoeotia.
Itappears,atanyrate,thatfrom1600until1200,relationsbothwithinandbetween
regionsweregenerallystable.Undoubtedlytherewerebattlesbetweenrivalpalace
townsastheyfeudedandfoughtforhegemonyintheirregion,butarchaeology
revealsveryfewexamplesofalloutwarfare.TheburningofThebesearlyinthe
thirteenthcenturymayhavebeentheworkofaneighboringcenter,possibly
Orchomenus,whichwasarichandpopuloussiteandwouldlaterbeThebes
perennialrivalduringtheClassicalperiod.
MycenaeanInfluenceintheMediterranean
Intheirheyday,around1300,Mycenaeankingdomswereactivelytradingallacross
theMediterranean,fromSardinia,southernItaly,andSicilyinthewesttoTroydown
toEgyptintheeast,aswellastoMacedoniainthenorth.Mycenaeansettlementsand
tradingpostswerestrungalongtheAsiancoastlineandthroughouttheislands,
includingRhodesandCyprus.AcrossthiswideexpansetheMycenaeanculture
exhibitsaremarkableuniformity;eventheexpertsfinditdifficulttodetermine
whetheravaseoradaggerfound,say,inMiletusinAnatoliawasmadelocallyor
camefromapalaceworkshopinGreeceorCrete.
TheimmensewealthoftheMycenaeankingsandnoblescamenotonlyfrom
peacefultradebutalsofrominternationalpiracy.Thegenerationsofwarriorsburied
intheweaponladengravesandtombsoftheLateHelladicperiodwerewealthy
marauderswhocouldeasilyaffordtomountlargeseaborneexpeditionsforbooty.
ThoughtheywerefewinnumberscomparedwiththevastpopulationsoftheEast,
andweredividedintosmallstates,theMycenaeanGreekswerethethirdpowerin
theMediterranean,afterthehugeHittiteempire,whichcoveredAnatoliaandSyria,
andthebrilliantandaggressiveNewKingdomofEgypt.Hittitearchivesofthe
fourteenthandthirteenthcenturiesmentionapeopletheycalledAhhiyawan,which
manybelieveisthecuneiformversionofMycenaeanAkhaiwoi,thatis,Achaeans,
aninclusivetermforGreeksintheeighthcenturyBCepicpoems.Inaletter,the
kingoftheHittitesaddresseshisbrother,thekingofAhhiyawa(Achaea).Other
recordsspeakofanexchangeofgiftsbetweenthekingofHattiandthekingof
Ahhiyawa;AhhiyawansaresenttoHattitolearnchariotwarfare;agodofthe
AhhiyawansissummonedtocureaHittiteking.Relationswerenotalwayspeaceful;
inthethirteenthcenturyamanfrom
25
a

26
b cFigure1.4a.(facingpage)MycenaeansitesinthethirteenthcenturyBC.
Figure1.4b.ViewoftheruinsofthemegaronhalloftheMycenaeanpalaceatPylos.
Figure1.4c.TheLionGateentrancetothecitadelofMycenae.
27
AhhiyawawasinvadingHittiteterritoryinwesternAnatolia.Thesereferenceswere
probablynottomainlandGreeksbuttooneormoreofthenearerMycenaean
kingdoms,locatedintheislandsorontheAsiancoast.Nevertheless,thementionsof
GreeksintheHittiterecords(andpossiblyalsoinEgyptianrecords)supplementthe
archaeologicalevidencethatMycenaeanswereasignificantpresenceintheworldof
thefourteenthandthirteenthcentury.
TheAdministrationofaMycenaeanKingdom
OneoftheimportantleadersintheTrojanWar,astoldintheIliadandOdyssey,was
Nestor,who,Homertellsus,livedinamagnificentmanyroomedhouseinatown
calledPylos,fromwhichheruledoveralargekingdominMessenia.Thediscovery
ofthepalaceofNestorbytheAmericanarchaeologistCarlBlegenin1939wasas
momentousastheearlierdiscoveriesofTroy,Mycenae,andKnossos.Itnotonly
confirmedthataBronzeAgecenterknownonlyinlegendhadactuallyexisted,butit
alsorevealedthatacenterfarawayfromthegreatpalacesofeasternandcentral
Greececouldbejustasrichandimportant.
ThefertileandwellwateredregionofMesseniainthesouthwestcornerofthe
PeloponnesuswasoneofthemostheavilypopulatedpartsofMycenaeanGreece.
Accordingtoarecentsurvey,populationthererosefromabout4000inEarly
Helladicto10,000inMiddleHelladicandsurgedtowellover50,000inLateHelladic.
Someestimatesputthefigureashighas100,000.Pylos(writtenPurointheLinearB
script)becamearegionalcenterofpoweraroundthetimeMycenaeandtheother
centersdid,reachingitsheightduringtheLateHelladicIIIAandIIIBperiods
(roughly14001200BC).Thepalace,locatedonahill5milesfromthesea,wasbuilt
around1300BContheruinsofanearlier,smallercomplexofbuildings.
Blegensmeticulousexcavationofthesite,whichhadlainundisturbedsinceits
destructionaround1200BC,andthehugenumbersofLinearBtabletsfoundinthe
archiverooms,provideourclearestpictureoftheorganizationandworkingsofa
Mycenaeankingdom.ThePylostablets,togetherwiththosefromMycenaean
Knossos,revealmuchofthedaytodayadministrativedetailsofthehighly
regimentedproductionanddistributionsystemofMycenaeanpalaces.

ThesundriedtabletsfromPylosandKnossosweretemporaryrecords,meanttolast
onlyuntiltheinformationonthemwastransferredontolarger,permanentrecords.
Theywerepreservedonlybecausetheywerebakedhardinthefiresthatdestroyed
thepalaces.Whatwehave,inotherwords,arepalacescribesnotesonpersonneland
productionwhichpertaintoonlyasmallpartofthelastyearofthepalaceswhere
theywerefound.Nevertheless,theyarerepresentativeofpalaceadministration
throughoutthetimespanofthelaterpalaceperiod.
ThetabletsgiveussomeideaoftheMycenaeanrulinghierarchy.Atthetopwasthe
wanax,whichperhapsmeantlordormaster.Nextinrank,apparently,wasaman
calledlawagetas,whichseemstobeacombinationofthewordsforpeopleand
leader,andiscommonlybelievedtohavedesignatedthecommanderofthearmy.
Therewasalsoahighrankinggroupcalledtelestai,whoreceivedthesameallotment
oflandasthelawagetas.Theirfunctionisunknown;
28
a

bFigure1.5a.ALinearBtabletfromMycenaeanKnossos.Figure1.5b.
DrawingofachariottabletfromKnossos.

somebelievetheywerepriests.Otherindividuals,withthetitlehequetas(possibly
meaningfollower),mayhavebeenhighrankingmilitaryofficers.
Belowthistopechelonwerelesserofficials,whoappeartohavebeeninchargeofthe
outlyingareas.ThekingdomofPyloswasabout1400squaremilesinextentand
containedovertwohundredvillagesandtowns.Itwasdividedadministrativelyinto
twoprovinces,eachsubdividedintoseveraldistricts,namedaftertheprincipal
towninthedistrict.Thetitleskoreteandprokoretefoundonthetabletsmayhave
belongedtothegovernorofadistrictandhisdeputy.Finally,therewasan
apparentlylargegroupofofficialswiththetitlepasireu,whoseemtohavebeenin
chargeofaffairsatthetownandvillagelevel.Theofficialsandmilitaryofficers
namedinthetabletsrepresentonlythetipofalargebureaucracy.Subordinateto
themwerenumerouslowlevelfunctionaries,whowerejustasdependentonthem
astheythemselvesweredependentonthewanax.Thetabletsrevealthatthehigher
officialsreceivedlandfromthewanaxinreturnfortheirservicetothepalaceanda
shareoftheircrops;asimilarrelationshipundoubtedlyexistedbetweensuchofficials
andtheirsubordinates.
Thehighestofficials,andperhapssomeportionofthelowerrankingones,occupied
substantialprivatehouses,somequitelarge,foundonthecitadels,inthelower
towns,andalsooutinsmallcountrytowns.Onlythehighestrankingfamiliescould
afford(or,perhaps,werepermitted)tobeburiedintheostentatioustholoi.The
familiesofthelesserelitewerelaidtorestinsmaller,simplertombs,rectangular

cryptscutintothesoftrock.Likethetholoi,someofthesechambertombswere
granderthanothersandtheycontainedgreaterorlesseramounts
29
ofexpensivegravegoods.Itispossiblethatsomeoftheinhabitantsoftherichhouses
andchambertombswereprivatemerchantsandtraders,actingasagentsofthe
palace.
However,thegreatmajorityofthepeople,asusual,livedinsmall,modestly
furnishedhouseswithfewamenities,andtheywereburiedinsimplegraveswith
onlyacoupleofvasesorothersmallitems.Theirstandardoflivingwasmuchthe
sameastheirancestors,nobetterorworse.Infact,throughoutlaterantiquity,the
majorityofGreekswouldliveatessentiallythesamemateriallevelastheinhabitants
oftheBronzeAge,andlikethemwouldmaketheirlivingasfarmers,herders,and
artisans.IntheMycenaeanAge,aslater,mostofthefarmersandherderslivedin
ruralvillages,whilemostofthecraftsspecialistswereconcentratedintheregional
centersandthelargersettlements.Itappearsfromthetabletsthatmanyfamilies
farmedastenantsonlandbelongingtothenobles,someofwhoseholdingswere
verylarge.Othernonelitefamiliesheldplotsoflandintheirownnames;craftsmen
andherdersarelistedasownersofprivateland.Itappearsthatthefiftytoseventy
fivefamiliesthatmadeupatypicalMycenaeanvillageeitherhadsharesinthe
villageslandorelserentedlandthatwasallocatedtohighofficials.
Thepalacessupervisionoverthepeoplewasverythorough.Officialsweresentout
intothecountrysideonregularinspections,andthetaxesinproduceandanimals
leviedonindividualsandvillagesweremeticulouslyrecorded,includingdeficiencies
intheassessments.OnetabletfromKnossosreports:MenofLyktos246.7unitsof
wheat;menofTylisos261unitsofwheat;menofLato30.5unitsofwheat.Although
estimationsofwhatconstitutedaunit,areuncertainitdoesappearthatthefarmers
fromthosevillageswerenottooheavilytaxedAllinall,theevidenceofthetablets
doesnotsupporttheoncecommonviewthatthemassofthepopulationwere
oppressedpeasants,toilinginmiseryontheestatesoftheirnoblemasters.Themen
ofthevillagefarmedtheirplotsandtendedtotheirtrees,vines,andlivestock;they
paidtheirtaxes,contributedsomelabortothepalace,andservedinthearmy.The
womenprobablyhelpedwiththefarmchoresandperformedthedomestictasksof
spinningandweaving,foodpreparation,andchildcare.Anumberofthevillage
womenwerealsoengagedastextileworkersforthepalace,forwhichtheyreceived
rationsofwoolandflax.
AsinMinoansociety,slaveswereatthebottom.Referencestocaptivesand
boughtshowthattheMycenaeanwarrioraristocratswereactiveintheslavery
business.Thenumbersofslaveswerehigh,verymanyofwhomwerefemale.Tablets

fromPylos,forexample,recordoversixhundredslavewomen,andaboutthesame
numberofchildren.Thewomennamedonthetabletsworkedasgrindersofgrain,
bathattendants,flaxworkers,weavers,andsoon.Mostofthewomenlistedwere
attachedtothepalace;somelivedinothertownsinthekingdomandreceived
rationsoffoodfromthepalace.Highrankingindividualsalsoownedslaves,though
infarfewernumbersthanthewanax.Slaveswerevaluablepossessions,bothas
producersandascommoditiestosellforprofit.Somealsoservedasdomesticslaves,
freeingtheirownersfromeverysortofmeniallabor.ThroughoutantiquityGreeks
wouldfindthiscombinationofbenefitsirre
30
sistible.Indeed,itiscommonlysaidthatGreekcivilizationwasbasedonslavery.
Whilethisisanoversimplification,itistruenonethelessthatslaverywasacentral
institution,andwithfewexceptionsitsmoralityremainedunquestioned.Itwas
practicedeverywhereintheGreekworldandatallperiods.Thepracticeofslavery
onareallymassivescale,however,wouldnotcomeuntilaboutthesixthcenturyBC.
Itisalsopossiblethatsomeoftheloweststatusworkerslistedonthetabletwerenot
trueslaves,thatis,foreignerscapturedorbought,butwerenativeindividualsand
familieswhowerereducedtoastateofpermanentdependenceonthepalace.Ifso,
theywouldberecognizedaspersons,notchattels,yettheirconditionwouldbe
hardlydifferentfromthatofslaves.InlaterGreekhistorysuchsemislaveswerenot
uncommon,themostfamousbeingthehelotsofLaconiaandMesseniaownedby
thestateofSparta.
ManufacturingandCommerce
TheLinearBtabletsalsodemonstratethesizeandcomplexityofthemanufacturing
operationsofMycenaeankingdoms.Awidearrayofspecialistsislistedforthe
palacesandotherlocations.Menwereengagedascarpenters,masons,bronze
smiths,goldsmiths,bowmakers,armorers,leatherworkers,perfumemakers,and
more.Ononetabletaphysicianismentioned.Womenworkedmostlyinthetextile
sector,ascarders,spinners,weavers,andembroiderers.Theworkshopareasofthe
palacemusthavebeennoisy,bustlingplaceswithinterestingsmells.Thewanaxkept
acloseeyeontheworkshops,andhisscribesscrupulouslywrotedownhowmuch
rawmaterialwasprovidedtothecraftsspecialists,theobjectstheyproduced,and
therationsoffoodtheyreceivedinreturn.Thetabletsattestbothtotheskillsofthe
specialistsandthecarefulaccountingbythescribes.Dozensofentriesgolikethis:
oneebonyfootstoolinlaidwithfiguresofmenandlioninivory.Mostkindsof
laborintensiveobjects,suchasthisone,madeofexpensiveimportedmaterial,are
knownonlyfromtheirdescriptionsinthetablets;theobjectsthemselveslongago
crumbledintodust.Theinventoriesareexhaustive.Forexample,individualchariot

wheelsarelisted,andtheircondition(serviceable,unfitforuse)isnoted.Even
damagedbronzecauldronswereinventoried.
Severalindustrieswereonalargescale.AboutathirdoftheKnossostabletsare
concernedwithsheepandwool.Thequantitiesofsheepareimpressive;19,000are
recordedfromonedistrictalone.Andlargenumbersofwomenwereemployedat
Knossosandthesurroundingtownsinspinningyarnandweavinganddecorating
thewoolencloth.ThewanaxofPylosalsocontrolledalargetextileindustry,bothin
woolandinlinen.MetalworkingwasanotherimportantindustryatPylos,wherethe
largenumberofbronzesmiths(estimatedat400)receivingrationsofbronze
indicatesthattheproductionofbronzemanufactures,includingweapons,far
exceededlocalconsumptionneeds.
Thesizeofthesemanufacturingoperationsrevealsthattextilesandmetalworkwere
thetwoleadingexportsofthepalaceeconomy.Tothesewemayaddolive
31
oil(bothplainandperfumed),wine,hides,leather,andleatherproducts.
Highqualitymanufactures,suchaspaintedceramics,jewelry,andothercostlyitems
(likethedecoratedfootstoolmentionedabove),competedwellintheinternational
luxurytrade.Itismainlyceramics(whicharevirtuallyindestructible),thathavebeen
foundindistantlocales.Butthepresenceofthoseitemsmeansthatother,more
perishablegoodsalsoreachedthetradingcentersaroundtheMediterranean.In
return,thepalacesimportedthingslackinginGreece,suchascopper,tin,gold,ivory,
amber,dyes,andspices,aswellasforeignvarietiesofthingsthattheydidhave,such
aswine,textiles,ceramics,jewelry,andotherexoticluxuryitems.Needlesstosay,
veryfewluxurygoodsmadetheirwayintothehousesandgravesofthecommon
people.
Religion
Thebeliefinsupernaturalforcesandbeingsthatcontrolthenaturalworldis
probablyasoldashumankind.Nearlyasoldasthebeliefingodsarethepracticesof
religion:cultandritual,whicharetheworshipandactsofdevotionperformedbythe
worshippers,andreligiousmyths,thesuppositionsaboutthegodstoldinstoryform
aspartofritualactivity.Thespecificcontentofcultandritualdevelopsandchanges
throughtheages,buttheessenceandpurposeremainthesame:tomaintain
harmoniousrelationsbetweenhumansocietyandthegods.
Amongagriculturalpeople,therelationshipofmortalstoimmortalsrevolvesaround
thecontinuationofthefertilityofthelandandanimals.Toappeasethegods,who
canbestowortakeawaytheblessingsofnatureatwill,thepeoplemakecommunal
displaysofrespect,includingsacrificesoffoodandanimalsand,insomecultures,

evenhumans.Thelargerandmorecomplexthesocietybecomes,themoreelaborate
thedisplays.ArchaeologyrevealsthattheBronzeAgepeoplesofCrete,theother
islands,andtheGreekmainlandwerenodifferentfromotheragrariancultures.They
honoredtheirgodswithprocessions,music,anddance,andpropitiatedthemwith
giftsandsacrifices.Theslaughterandbutcheringofanimalsonoutdooraltarswas
themostsolemnritual.Theremaypossiblyhavebeenhumansacrificeamongthe
earlyMinoans.
TheprincipalrecipientofworshipdepictedinMinoanartisagoddess,picturedasa
womandressedintheMinoanstyleandplacedinoutdoorsettingsthatfeaturetrees
andothervegetation,andanimals.Thesamekindsofscenesofworshipwere
reproducedinMycenaeanfrescoesandongoldandsilverrings.Minoanreligious
symbols(whosemeaningisnotwellunderstood)alsorecurinmainlandandisland
art:snakes,birds,bulls,stylizedbullhorns,andaxeswithdoubleheads.However
muchthesesimilaritiesshowMinoaninfluenceonMycenaeanreligion,therewere
significantdifferencesinritualsandpractices.Forexample,muchoftheMinoan
worshipofgodstookplaceincavesandinsanctuariesbuiltonmountainpeaks,
whilethemainlandMycenaeansdidnotconstructshrinesoutsideofthecenters.
Moreover,Cretanpalacescontainedmoreshrines,andmoreelaborateones,thanthe
Mycenaeanpalaces,wherethemegaroncomplexappearstohavebeenthemain
placeforreligiousceremony.
32
Figure1.6a.StatuetteofagoddessfigurefromKnossos,Crete.Figure1.6b.
GoldringfromKnossosshowingwomenworshipingagoddess.
33
TheubiquitousgoddessfiguresdepictedinMinoanMycenaeanartwereoriginally
identifiedasrepresentationsofasingle,panAegeanmothergoddess,whoruled
overallofnature.Itnowappearsmorelikelythattheywererepresentationsof
differentgoddesses,someofwhomwerelocaldeities.Theymayhaveexercised
specializedfertilityfunctionswithinthecommunityofworshippers,orpresidedover
otheraspectsoflifebesidesfertility.Thetabletsassignthetitlepotnia(ladyor
mistress)tothefemaledeities.Theyalsorevealthatmalegodswerealmostas
numerousandequallyimportantasthefemalegods,althoughtheywereveryrarely
depictedinart.Thereisnoexplanationforthiscuriousfact.
Namesofaroundthirtygodsandgoddesseshavebeenfirmlyortentatively
recognizedonthetabletsfromMycenaeanKnossosandPylos.Manyofthesewere
unknowninlatertimes,butquiteafewarethenamesofthemajorgodsoflater
Greekreligion:Zeus,Hera,Poseidon,Hermes,Athena,Artemis,andpossibly

Apollo,Ares,andDionysus,aswellassomeminordivinities.Zeus,thesupremegod
ofthelaterGreekreligion,isplainlytheIndoEuropeanskyfather,andwasbrought
inbytheearliestGreekspeakers.Zeuspatr(Zeusthefather)isthesamedeityas
theIndicDyauspitar,RomanIuppiter,andGermanicTiew(whogivesusTuesday).
ThenamesofHera,Poseidon,andAresarealsoformedfromIndoEuropeanroots.
ItisgenerallybelievedthatsomeofthegodstheMycenaeansworshipped,in
particulartheladygoddesses,werepreGreek(i.e.,notIndoEuropean)inorigin,
andthatthedeities,rituals,andbeliefsoftheMycenaeansweretheresultofafusion
oftheAegeanfertilityandmotherreligionsandtheIndoEuropeanworshipofsky
andweathergods.Ofcourse,theMycenaeanreligioustraditionthatwenowobserve
hadevolvedoveraspanofsevencenturies,muchtoolongforustosayforcertain
whatelementsinthethirteenthcenturyMycenaeanreligionwereoriginallyIndo
European,orAegean,orCretan,or,forthatmatter,NearEastern.
Itiscertain,however,thatthepalacecontrolledthereligiousorganizationofthe
kingdom.Thetabletslistthegiftsofland,animals,preciousobjects,andhumanlabor
fromthepalacetothegodstobeusedforthemaintenanceoftheirsanctuariesandof
thepriestsandpriestesses.Thetighteconomicandpoliticalcontrolexercisedbythe
kingoverthesanctuariesandthepriesthoodsisanindicationthathewasableto
claimdivinesanctiontoruleastheundisputedsovereign.Whenthekingofficiated
atreligiousceremoniesandsacrifices,hedidsoasthespecialrepresentativeofthe
communitytothegods.Thereisnothinginthewrittenormaterialevidence,
however,tosuggestthatthewanaxwasconsidereddivinehimselfeitherinhis
lifetimeorafterdeath,orthathefunctionedasapriestkingoveratheocraticstate.
Warfare
ThattheMycenaeankingswerethecommandersinchiefoftheirmilitaryforcesis
beyonddoubt.Byanalogywithothersmallwarriorstates,thewanaxandhis
militarycommander(lawagetas)wouldhavebeenpresentonthefieldinmajor
34
battles,andwouldprobablyhavetakenpartinthefightingalongwithhis
subordinatecommanders.Themilitarywassociallystratified;theofficerscamefrom
thenobilitywhiletherankswereleviedfromamongthefarmersandcraftsmen.The
palacedirectedallmilitaryoperations.Troopmovementsofrowersand[coastal]
watchers,andthedisbursementsofweaponsandrationsforthesoldiersare
recordedonthetablets.Theactualorganizationofthemilitaryisbeyondour
knowledge,thoughitappearsthatitwasmadeupofunitsfromalloverthe
kingdom.

Weaponsandarmorarefairlywellknownfromthematerialevidence,depictions,
andtheLinearBtablets.Afullyequippedsoldierwasprotectedbyaleatherhelmet
withbronzestripssewedon,bodyarmorofleatherorpaddedlinen,andalarge
shieldmadeofoxhidestretchedoverawoodenframe.Officersworemoreelaborate
bodyarmor:helmetsmadeofbronzeorofboarstusks,
Figure1.7.BronzeplatearmorandboarstuskhelmetfromDendrainArgolis,c.
1400BC.
35
corseletsofbronzeplates,andbronzegreaves(kneeandshinprotectors).The
weaponryconsistedofbronzeswordsanddaggers;heavy,bronzetippedthrusting
spearsandshorter,lighterthrowingspears;andbowsandarrows.Howthese
weaponswerecombinedinbattle,andthetacticsemployedbythecommanders,are
poorlyunderstood.Thegreatestpuzzle,however,isthemilitaryuseofthechariotby
theMycenaeans.
TheChariot
Thechariotwasinventedearlyinthesecondmillennium(justwhereisuncertain),
and,becauseofitsspeed,itsoonbecameverypopularinthecivilizationsof
Mesopotamia,Anatolia,Syria,andEgypt.Asmallplatformsetatoptwohigh,
spokedwheels,andpulledbytwohorses,thechariotwasamagnificentinnovation
inwheeledtransport.Horsescouldnotpulltheheavyfourwheeledcartsthathad
beeninuseforcenturies,becausetheharnessesconstrictedtheirnecksandchests(a
problemnotsolveduntiltheinventionofthehorsecollarintheMiddleAges).
Becausethechariotwasextremelylight(onemancouldeasilyliftit),apairofhorses
coulddrawitandtwopassengersformanymilesatapacepreviouslyunknownon
land.Ahorseandridercouldgofaster,butonlyforashortdistance.Usedatfirstby
thenobilityonlyforfastcommunication,hunting,ceremony,andracing,thechariot
acquiredamilitaryfunctionintheseventeenthcenturyBC,andeventuallythe
chariotcorpsbecametheprimarymilitaryarmthroughouttheNearEast.The
essentialmaneuverwasthemassedchariotchargeagainstanenemyschariots,one
mandrivingandtheothershootingarrows.Cavalry,mountedwarriorsfightingin
formation,wasnotknownintheBronzeAge.
ChariotsappearedinGreecearound1600BC,afterthedifficultartofchariotryhad
alreadybeenperfectedamongtheHittitesandothermajorstates.Fromtheveryfirst,
theMycenaeansuseditinbattleaswellasforthewholerangeofpeacefulpurposes.
Itisgenerallybelieved,however,thatitsmilitaryusewasrestrictedtoconveying
heavilyarmoredelitewarriorstoandfromthefighting.Thatisthesolefunction
ascribedtothewarchariotintheeighthcenturyHomericepics.Indeed,itishardto

imaginemassformationsofchariotschargingacrossthebrokenterrainofGreece.
Yet,whileitistruethatGreecewasnotlikethevastplainscountriesoftheEast,itis
conceivablethatminiversionsofeasternchariotwarfaretookplaceontheplains
thatlaybelowtheMycenaeanfortresses.ThewanaxofKnossoshadachariotcorps
withperhaps200chariots,andPylosmayhavehadnearlyasmany.Thesenumbers
aresmallcomparedwiththe3500HittitechariotsthatthepharaohRamesesII(1298
1232BC)claimedtohavedefeatedinasinglebattle,buttheyfitthescaleofthesmall
Mycenaeankingdoms.
Inanycase,thesignificanceofthechariotwasnotitsuseinbattle,butratheritshigh
prestigevalue.Likethegrandpalacesandthetholostombswiththeirrichburial
offerings,theadoptionofchariotryproclaimedthatthesemibarbarouswarriorchiefs
ofLateBronzeAgeGreeceweretheculturalequalsofthegreatkingsofAsiaand
Egypt.Thechariot,themostintricateandcostlyitemofman
36
ufactureknowntotheGreeks,wouldretainitsimportanceasaprestigesymbolfor
manycenturiesafteritceasedtohaveanymilitaryfunction.
THEENDOFTHEMYCENAEANCIVILIZATION
Attheheightofitsprosperity,theMycenaeancivilizationsufferedafatalblow.Over
thecourseofafewdecadesaround1200Bc,almosteverycenter,majorandminor,
fromIolcusinThessalytothesouthernPeloponnesus,wasattacked,plundered,and
burnedbyinvaders.Thisdevastationbeganarapiddownwardspiralsoseverethat
bytheendofthetwelfthcenturythereisscarcelyatraceinthearchaeologicalrecord
ofthegreatMycenaeancivilizationandculture.
Someofthecenters,Pylosamongthem,wereneverreinhabitedaftertheinitial
onslaught.Others,suchasMycenaeandTiryns,werequicklyreoccupiedandeven
enjoyedabriefresurgence,buttherevivalswereshortlived.Mycenaesuccumbedto
newattacksaround1150,fromwhichitdidnotrecover.Tirynsactuallygrew
considerablyinsizeandpopulationinthetwelfthcentury(probablybyaninfluxof
refugees),butby1100ittoohaddeclinedintoagroupofsmallvillagessurrounding
theacropolis.Theplacesthatwerenotdestroyedwereeitherabandonedcompletely
orshrankdrasticallyinsize.AnotableexampleisthemajorBronzeAgecenterof
AthensinAttica,whichlapsedintoacollectionofsmallvillageswithinsightofthe
acropolis,eventhoughitspalaceandtownhadescapeddestruction.The
destructionsalsocausedlargemovementsofpeopletoother,presumablysafer,
areas,suchaseasternAttica,southernArgolis,Achaea(whichpreservedthe
MycenaeannameofAchaeans),thewesternislandofCephallenia,andfaroff
Cyprus.

ThecollapseofLateBronzeAgeGreekcivilizationwasactuallypartofawider
catastrophethatoverwhelmedtheentireeasternMediterraneanregionandwasfelt
eveninthewest,inItaly,Sicily,andtheadjacentislands.Around1200themighty
Hittiteempirefellapart;itscapitalHattusasandmanyofthecitiesandtownsin
AnatoliaandSyriawerecrushed.Theinvaderswereapparentlybarbariantribes
fromnorthandeastofAnatoliaandanothergroupofmarauderswhomEgyptian
inscriptionsrefertoasthelandandseapeoples,andnorthernersfromalllands.
Thislattergroup,commonlyreferredtotodayastheSeaPeoples,attackedEgyptin
1232andagainearlyinthetwelfthcentury,bothtimesrepelledatgreatcost.The
KingdomofEgyptsurvivedbutneverfullyrecovereditsformerpower.InAnatolia
civilizationlanguishedforalmostfourcenturies.AmongthecasualtieswasTroy,
whichwasbesiegedandburnedbetweenabout1250and1200.Thereisnowayof
knowingwhetherthedestroyerswerereallytheMycenaeanGreeks,asthelegendof
theTrojanWarsaid,thoughthereissomeevidencethatMycenaeansdidtakepartin
thegeneralhavocthatengulfedtheMediterraneaninthelatethirteenthandearly
twelfthcenturies.
Egyptianinscriptionsrecordedthenamesoftheraidingandmigratingwarrior
bandsfromaroundtheMediterraneanwhomadeuptheattackingSea
37
Peoples.AmongthepeoplesthathavebeententativelyidentifiedwereLibyansfrom
NorthAfrica;Philistines,whogavetheirnametoPalestine;andgroupsfrom
Anatolia,Sicily,andSardinia.AlsolistedwereapeoplecalledEkwesh,whowere
possiblytheAchaioi(thenamebywhichtheMycenaeanswereknown).Thus,
althoughthepictureishopelesslyconfused,thedestructionsintheMediterranean
mayhavebeenlinkedtomigrationsofnorthernpopulationswhodisplaced
populationsfurthertothesouth,settingoffconvulsiveraidsamongthelatterand
sparkingmigrationsthatendedcenturiesofrelativestabilityintheregion.
TheDorianInvasionandOtherGuesses
Startinginthemidthirteenthcentury,theMycenaeankingdomsshowapparent
signsofanxietyconcerningthethreatofattack.Thereisagreatincreasein
fortificationbuildinginGreece,withpreviouslyunwalledcentersconstructing
defenses.Mycenae,Tiryns,andAthensconsiderablystrengthenedtheircircuitwalls,
andalsotookelaboratemeasurestoensureawatersupplywithinthecitadelsby
sinkingnewwells.Afortificationwallwasevenconstructedacrossthenarrow
IsthmusofCorinth,presumablytodefendthePeloponnesusfrominvasionfromthe
north.CentersthroughoutGreeceweretakingprecautions,whichwouldprovetobe
ofnoavail.

Theidentityoftheattackersof1200Bcremainsoneofthegreatunsolvedmysteries
ofGreekhistory.Untilfairlyrecentlytherewasunanimousagreement:theywere
Dorians,tribesofGreekspeakerswholivedinnorthernGreeceintheareaofthe
PindusMountainsinEpirusandThessaly.SituatedonthefringesoftheMycenaean
world,butnotreallypartofit,thewarlikeDorians,accordingtothetheory,came
southinaseriesofmigrations,firstplunderingthepalacesandthensettlingdownin
richplainsofthePeloponnesus.
ThemodernDorianinvasiontheoryislargelybasedontheclaimsoflaterDorians
inantiquity.DoricwasoneofthethreemaindialectsofGreek,spokeninthe
Peloponnesus,fromwhereithadspreadtoCrete,Rhodes,andotherAegeanislands
andtothesouthwesterncoastofAnatolia.TheseDorianspeakersclaimedthattheir
ancestorsweretheHerachds,descendantsofHeracles,sonofZeusandamortal,
Alcmene,andthegreatestofthemythicalGreekheroes.AfterHeraclesdeath,sothe
storywent,hissonswereexpelledfromthePeloponnesusandwentnorth.Then,
severalgenerationsaftertheTrojanWar,hisdescendantsreturnedsouthtoreclaim
byforcetheirrightfulownershipofthePeloponnesus,assertingthattheywerethe
trueAchaeans.ThelegendsoflaterGreeksfromIoniaandAtticalendadditional
credencetotheDorianinvasiontheory.Theytoldthatthedesiretoescapethe
ReturnsoftheHeraclidshadcausedsomeoftheirancestorstorelocateintoremoter
partsofthemainland(forexampleintoAchaea,whichpreservedtheirname),while
othergroupsforexample,fugitivesfromthekingdomofPylosfledtoAthens,
whichwasspareddestruction,andfromtheremigratedacrosstheAegeantosettle
thecentralcoastofAnatolia,whichtheycalledIonia.Thesemigrationscorrespondto
thedialectmap,
38
whichsituatesspeakersoftheIoniandialectinAttica,theAegeanislands,andonthe
Anatoliancoast,inanorthsouthbandfromSmyrnadowntoMiletus.Archaeology
confirmsthatmigrationstoIoniaoccurredaround1050BC.
Archaeologistshavefound,however,thatthefeaturesthatwereoncethoughtto
havebeenbroughtinbytheinvadingDorians(suchasiron,cremation,andnew
typesofweapons)wereinfactnotintroducedbynewpeopleduringasingle
circumscribedperiod;andtheonlymaterialsignsofDoriansarenowdatedmuch
laterthanthedestructionperiod,toaround1000BCorlater.Othertheorieshave
beenbroughtforthtoaccountforthedestructionsoftheMycenaeancenters:
devastatingearthquakes,maraudingbandsofthesortthatmadeuptheSeaPeoples,
fiercewarsamongthekingdomsthatresultedinmutualdestruction,orrevoltsofthe
Mycenaeanpeasantsandslaveswhoroseupagainsttheiroppressivemasters.

AmorelikelyexplanationisthattheMycenaeans,andotherMediterranean
civilizationsaswell,experiencedsystemcollapse,abreakdownoftheireconomic
andsocialsystems.These,itissuggested,weretriggeredbyproblemssuchas
prolongeddrought,overpopulation,soilexhaustion,relianceontoofewcrops,and
similarinternaldifficulties,whichtheponderousbureaucracieswereunableto
correct.Asoneareaofthegovernmentalsystemfaltered,otherareaswereaffected,
untiltheentirerulingstructurebrokedownandthestrongholdsbecameeasyprey
forvariousinvaders.Compoundinginternalproblemswasthealmosttotal
interruptionofMediterraneancommerceduringandafterthegeneralupsetofthe
latethirteenthcentury.Thecessationofforeigntradeandthelucrative
opportunitiesforbootyitofferedmightaloneaccountfortheinabilityofthe
Mycenaeaneconomytorecoverandalsomayexplainwhythecentersand
subcentersthatdidnotsufferphysicaldamagedeclinedandstagnatedjustthesame
asthosethathadbeenburnedtotheground.
ThecomingoftheDorians,then,wasperhapsnotreallyaninvasionbutanintrusion
intoapoliticalvacuumcreatedbytheobliterationoftheMycenaeankingdoms.
GroupsofDoricspeakersfromthenorthmayhavefilteredinoveralongperiodand
takenoverthePeloponnesusandsomeoftheislands,includingCrete,usingforceto
subjugatetheremnantsoftheMycenaeanpopulations.
FromtheNewStoneAgeuntiltheLateBronzeAge.,Greecewasastatelesssocietyof
farmersandshepherdsledbylocalchieftains,whilethecivilizationsoftheEast
emergedandbecamemighty.PropelledbycontactwithCrete,Greecemadea
suddenleapintocivilizationandstatehoodaround1600BC.TheMycenaeanstates
reachedtheirheightofpowerandsophisticationaround1300.Forabriefperiodthey
wereanimportantpresenceintheeasternMediterraneanandattainedalevelof
culturalrefinementapproachingthatoftheoldercivilizations.Thenaround1200the
Mycenaeancivilizationdisintegratedcompletely.
Withthedestructionofthepalaces,theNearEasterntypeofsocialandeconomic
organizationwoulddisappearforeverfromGreece.Yet,inEgyptandtheNearEast,
whichalsosufferedsevereshocksinthelatethirteenthcentury,theancientpatternof
highlycentralized,rigidlyhierarchical,monarchicalstatescon
39
tinued.Thisisagoodindicationthatunderneaththeveneerofgreatwealthand
stabilitytheMycenaeaneconomyandgovernmentwereshallowlyrooted,essentially
fragilesystems.
WewillprobablyneverknowforcertainwhytheMycenaeancivilizationendedso
abruptlyandwithsuchfinality.Thiswedoknow:withtheendofthefirststageof
Greekcivilizationcamethebeginningofanewera,sodifferentthatwhentheGreeks

lookedbackupontheirLateBronzeAgepasttheycouldonlyimagineitasakindof
mythicaldreamworld,atimewhengodsandhumansmingledtogether.
SUGGESTEDREADINGS
Barber,ElizabethWayland.1994.WomensWork:TheFirst20,000Years.Women,Cloth,
andSocietyinEarlyTimes.NewYorkandLondon:Norton.Thehistoryoftextile
manufactureaswomensworkandartfromthePaleolithicthroughtheIronAge,
includingweavingtechniquesandmythsaboutweaving.Amajorstudyofwomens
principalcontributiontotheancienteconomy.
Chadwick,John.1967.TheDeciphermentofLinearB.2nded.Cambridge,Eng.:
CambridgeUniversityPress.ThestoryofhowtheLinearBtabletsweredeciphered
toldbyoneoftheprincipalinvestigators.
Chadwick,John.TheMycenaeanWorld.1976.Cambridge,Eng.:CambridgeUniversity
Press.Alavishlyillustrateddescriptionoftheworkingsofthepalacesocietiesof
MycenaeanGreece,withemphasisonthekingdomofPylos.
Dickinson,Oliver.1994.TheAegeanBronzeAge.Cambridge,Eng.:Cambridge
UniversityPress.Ascholarly,butaccessible,surveyofallaspectsoftheprehistoric
AegeanculturesfromtheEarlyBronzeAgetothecollapseofMycenaeancivilization.
Drews,Robert.1993.TheEndoftheBronzeAge:ChangesinWarfareandtheCatastrophe
ca.1200B.C.Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress.Anoverviewanddetailed
analysisofthelatesttheoriesofthefallofthegreatcivilizationsoftheLateBronze
Age.
Hooker,J.T.MycenaeanGreece.1976.London:Routledge.Agoodgeneral
introductiontotheancientAegeansocieties.
McDonald,WilliamA.andCarolG.Thomas.1990.ProgressintothePast.The
RediscoveryofMycenaeanCivilization.Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress.An
accountofthemajorandminordiscoveriesoftheMinoanandMycenaean
civilizationswrittenfromthepointofviewofthearchaeologiststhemselves,from
EvansandSchliemanntothepresent.
vanTjerdAndelandCurtisRunnels.1987.BeyondtheAcropolis:ARuralGreekPast.
Stanford,Calif.:StanfordUniversityPress.Adescriptionofthetopography,floraand
fauna,andsubsistencestrategiesofancientGreekfarminglife.
Vermeule,Emily.1972.GreeceintheBronzeAge.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.
OneoftheforemostexpertsofearlyGreekculturedescribestheland,art,culture,
andlifeofprehistoricGreecefromtheStoneAgetotheendoftheBronzeAge.

40
2
THEDARKAGEOFGREECEANDTHEEIGHTHCENTURYRENAISSANCE
(c.1150700BC)
Thearchaeologicalremainsfromthelatetwelfthcenturygivetheimpressionthata
gianthandhadsuddenlysweptawaythesplendidMycenaeancivilization,leaving
initswakeonlyisolationandpoverty.By1100BCthepalacecenterswereinruinsor
uninhabited;sowerethescoresofoncebustlingtownsandvillagesacrosstheentire
Greekworld.Theculturallosseswerecatastrophicandlonglasting.Forthenext450
yearsnomonumentalstonestructureswouldbebuiltinGreece.Theartofwriting
wasforgotten,andwouldnotreturnuntiltheeighthcentury.Suppliesofbronzeand
othermetalsdwindledtoatrickle,asvitaltradelinkswerebroken.Itwouldbetwo
hundredyearsbeforeGreekcraftsmenagainturnedoutobjectsandjewelryofgold,
silver,andivory.AndthekindsofluxurygoodsandweaponsthattheMycenaean
elitehadtakenwiththemintotheeartharenotfoundinthegravesofthe
postdestructionperiod.Bycontrasttothebrilliantagethathadgonebefore,Greece
hadtrulydescendedintoadarkage.Yetduringthoseobscurecenturies,anew
Greecewasrising,radicallydifferentfromboththeoldGreeceandtheothersocieties
oftheancientMediterranean.Thepatternsofsocialandpoliticalintegrationthat
emergedfromtheshatteredpalacestateswouldsetthepathtoanewkindofstate
governmentinGreece,thecitystate(polis),whicharoseintheeighthcenturyBC.
TherootsoftheGreekcitystate,consideredbymanytohavebeenthecradleof
westerndemocracyandlegalequality,werefirmlyplantedintheDarkAge.
IttookmanyyearsforGreecetorecuperatefullyfromtheshocksofthedestructions
andtheiraftermath.IntheearlypartoftheDarkAge,fromabout1150toabout900
BC,Greecewasdisturbedbysporadicincursionsandmovementsofpeople.Yetitis
duringthisperiodofdislocationandturbulencethatevidenceof
41
recoveryandmaterialprogressappears.ThelaterpartoftheDarkAge,fromabout
900toabout750BC,sawaslowlyacceleratingrevival,culminatingintheremarkable
culturalleapoftheeighthcenturyrenaissance(c.750700).
SOURCESFORTHEDARKAGE
Theprincipalreasonforcallingthisadarkageisnotsomuchforculturaldeclineas
forarchaeologicalobscurity.TherichmaterialrecordoftheLateBronzeAgeturns
nearlyblankintheeleventhandtenthcenturies.Andthoughthematerialfinds
increaseafter900BC,theyarestillrelativelymeageruntilabout700.Evenso,the
archaeologyoftheDarkAgehasmadesignificantprogresssincethe1960s.A

numberofnewDarkAgesettlementshavebeendiscovered.Atechniquecalled
surveyarchaeology,inwhichateamofinvestigatorssystematicallywalkslargeareas
oftheterrain,isprovidingapictureofthesparselypopulatedDarkAgecountryside.
Moreover,theincreasinguseofthecomparativemethodsofanthropologyand
sociologytoanalyzethematerialevidencehasfurtheredourknowledgeofhowthese
societiesfunctioned.
AveryrichsourceofinformationaboutthelaterpartoftheDarkAgearethe
Homericpoems,theIliadandtheOdyssey(c.750720BC).AswesawinChapter1,
althoughtheytakeplaceintheglorydaysoftheMycenaeanperiod,thepoemsdo
notdescribethesocietyrevealedbythematerialremainsandtheLinearBtablets.
ThesocialbackgroundoftheHomericnarrativesfitsinsteadthearchaeological
pictureofthelateDarkAge.Thequestionofwhereintheperiodfrom1100to700BC
toplaceHomericsocietyisfarfromsettled,butthereisagrowingbeliefthatit
largelyreflectstheactualsocietyofthelateninthandearlyeighthcenturyBC.
ThetwopoemsofHesiodofferawealthofinformationaboutGreeklifeandthought
around700BC,thetimeoftheircomposition.TheTheogony,inconjunctionwiththe
Homericepics,providesacomprehensivepictureofearlyGreekreligiousbeliefs.
Hesiodsotherpoem,WorksandDays,whichreflectsthesocialandeconomic
relationsofhisownday,willbeanimportantsourceforthenextchapter.
DECLINEANDRECOVERY(c.1150900BC)
Theneartotalabsenceoffinelymadeandexpensiveartifactsisthestrongest
evidenceforthedeclineofGreekcivilizationafter1200.Throughpaintedpottery,
however,whichisrelativelyabundant,wecanchartthegeneralcourseofdecline
andrecovery.TheperiodsoftheDarkAgeinfactarenamedafterthestagesof
potteryshapesandornamentation.Luckilyforhistorians,theGreekscontinuedto
taketheartofmakingandpaintingvasesveryseriously,andsotheirclaycontainers
furnishareliableindextothegeneralstateofculture.
Thepotterydatingfromabout1125toabout1050,thelowpointintheaftermathof
thedestructions,iscalledSubmycenaean,sinceitisstillrecognizablyMycenaeanyet
ismuchinferiorinquality.Ithasbeenaptlycalledastyleofex
42
haustion.Potterswerecontenttoreplicateamerehandfulofthelargerepertoireof
shapesanddecorativeelementsthathadbeenavailabletotheirgrandparents.The
clayisoftenpoorlyprepared.Thevesselsaresmaller,lesswellformed,andpoorly
fired.Theexecutionofthetraditionalmotifsanddecorationsisclumsyandirregular.
Yetthesevases,wretchedbycomparisonwiththoseofthethirteenthcenturyand
feebleevenbytheloweredstandardsofthedestructionperiod,arethemainwealth

oftheSubmycenaeangravesinwhichtheywerefound.Nothingelseofvaluewas
buriedexceptforanoccasionalgoldringorbronzedresspin,andeventhepottery
wasnotabundant.(Forexample,only160vaseswerefoundin220gravesinAthens
andSalamis,placesthatwerenotdestroyedorabandoned.)Theevidencebothfrom
thegravesandfromabovegroundrevealsasocietyinadeepdepression,both
economicandcultural.
AcrosstheGreekworld,populationlevelshaddroppedprecipitously.Estimatesof
thedecreasevary,accordingtoregion,from60to90percent,apictureofalmost
inconceivabledepopulation.TheAegeanislandofMelos,forexample,heavily
populatedintheLateBronzeAge,appearstohavebeenvirtuallyemptyforthenext
twohundredyears.EveninAttica,whichwasnotinvadedsuccessfully,thenumber
ofsettlementsdroppedby50percent.ThepopulationofGreeceattheendofthe
eleventhcenturywasprobablythelowestithadbeeninathousandyears.
Thecauseofthedramaticdropinpopulationisnotfullyunderstood,butitseemsto
havebeenconnectedtothecollapseoftheredistributivesystemandthegeneral
economiclethargythatgrippedGreeceatthebeginningoftheDarkAge.The
insecureconditionscausedbylargemovementsofpeoples,oftenaccompaniedby
violence,mayalsohavebeenafactor.Atthesametime,however,movementsand
relocationsofpeoplecangiveanexaggeratedimpressionofoveralldepopulation.
ThedesertionsofsomeofthesmallerBronzeAgesettlementsweretheresultoftheir
inhabitantsmovingtoanother,moresecure,village.RecentexcavationsatTiryns,for
example,haverevealedthatitspopulationactuallyincreasedafter1200.Inaddition,
substantialnumbersfledtoAchaeaandArcadiaandotherregionsnotheavily
populatedearlier,whileothersrelocatedoverseas.
Whatsurvivedfromtheworldofthethirteenthcenturyintotheworldofthe
eleventh,andwhatwaslost?Plainly,thecentralizedeconomicandpolitical
organizationhaddisappearedalongwiththepalaces.Thepowerfulwanax(king)
andhissmallarmiesofofficials,scribes,andworkersthathadsupportedthe
elaborateredistributivesystemweregoneforever.Withinafewgenerationsall
knowledgeofthosethingsdisappeared,leavingonlythememoryoflegendary
warriorchiefs,powerfulrulersofoncelargeandprosperouskingdoms,imaginedas
bettermenineverywaythantheirpunydescendants.
Thedisappearanceofthepoliticalandeconomicsystemsandthehighculturethat
accompanieditdoesnotmean,however,thatGreecehadlapsedintoaprimitive
state.Despitethecollapseofthepalaceorganization,everythingthatmatteredin
dailylifeatthelevelofthehouseholdandthevillagecontinuedwithout
interruption.AstheyhadintheMycenaeanAge,theDarkAgeGreeksgrewwheat
andbarley,olives,figs,andgrapes;theymadewineandcheese,tannedhides,

shearedtheirsheep,spunandwovetheirwoolandflax,usingthesamemethodsand
equipmentasbefore.Sotoo,thebasictechnicalcraftsofthepotter,
43
weaver,metalworker,andcarpenterbuildersurvived,thoughatalowerlevelofskill
andrefinement.Tobesure,therewasnolongeranydemandformetalinlayorblue
glasspasteorfrescopaintings,which,liketheartofwriting,haddisappearedwith
thepalaces.Forcentralmanufacturing,storage,anddistributionhadbeen
eliminated,alongwithluxurygoods,trade,andthetaxcollector.Yetthetimeless
rhythmandactivitiesoftheagriculturalyearandthefarmingvillagewenton
unchangedandwouldremainconstantoverthefollowingcenturies.
Similarly,intherealmofreligion,theDarkAgewasaperiodofbothcontinuityand
discontinuity.ThenamesofsixorsevenofthelatertwelveOlympiangodsare
foundintheLinearBtablets.Ontheotherhand,manyofthosenamedinthetablets
didnotsurvive,suchasDrimios,sonofZeus,andDia,afeminineformofZeus,
presumablyhisconsort.Thegeneralmannerofworshippingandplacatingthegods
throughprayerandsacrificeandgiftsremainedmuchthesame.IntheDarkAge,
however,religiousworshipwasnolongercenteredinthepalacesbutwasdiffused
amongthevillages,andmanyofthecultsandfestivalsforspecificdeitieswere
foundedthen.Ideasaboutthenatureandpersonalitiesofthegodsprobablyalso
changed.Thoughmanyofthestories(mythoi)aboutgodsandheroesthatformedthe
coreoflaterliteratureandartoriginatedinthefourteenthandthirteenthcenturies
BCanddidsurvivemoreorlessintactthroughthedestructionperiod,otherswere
probablymadeuporborrowedfromtheEastduringtheDarkAge.
Paradoxically,signsofrecoveryappearatatimewhenthematerialculturewasatits
lowestebb.Beginningaround1050,differentdialectgroupsfromthemainland
beganmigratingtotheAegeanislandsandtothecoastofAsiaMinor,settlingina
northsouthbandfromtheHellesponttoRhodes.AswesawinChapter1,according
tothelegendsthesettlersofthecentralportion,theIonians,wereAchaeanrefugees
fromthePeloponnesuswho,toescapetheDorians,fledfirsttoAtticaandlaterset
outacrosstheAegean.Doriansalsoparticipatedinthemovements,takingoverthe
southernAegeanislandsandthesouthwestcoastofAsiaMinor.Thenumerous
coastalandislandtownscreated,forthefirsttimeinhistory,alargepermanent
GreekpresenceinAsiaMinorandensuredthattheAegeanSeawouldonedaybe
knownastheGreekSea.
Anotherindicationofrecoverywasthemasteryofthedifficultprocessofsmelting
andworkingiron,whichproducedweaponsandtoolsthatwereharderthanthose
madeofbronzeandkepttheiredgebetter.AlthoughGreeceisfairlyrichinironore,
andthetechnologyforexploitingitwaslongknownintheEast,theMycenaean

Greekshadpreferredtoimportfromabroadcopperandtin(resourceslargely
lackinginGreece)tomakebronze.Butwhenthecollapseoftradecutoffthesupply
ofbronze,necessityprovedthemotherofinvention.From1050on,smalllocaliron
industriessprangupallacrossthemainlandandtheislands.Archaeologyshowsthat
by950mostoftheweaponsandtoolsweremadeofiron,notbronze.TheIronAge
haddawnedinGreece.
RenewedenergyisrevealedinanewstyleofpotterycalledProtogeometric(1050
900),whichseemstohaveoriginatedinAtticaandveryquicklyspreadintoother
regions.AlthoughProtogeometricbearsclearaffinitiestothedecadent
Submycenaeanstylefromwhichitevolved,thereareremarkabledifferences.The
44
a

b
Figure2.1a.ASubmycenaeanvasefromtheKerameikuscemeteryinAthens.Note
thebarelyrecognizableoctopus,whichhadbeenastandardmotifon
MinoanMycenaeanvases.Figure2.1b.ALateProtogeometricvasefromthesame
cemetery,foreshadowingtheGeometricstyle.
45
vasesbecomebetterproportioned,slimmerandlesssquat.Newvarietiesofshapes
appear.TheabstractdecorativedesignsinheritedfromSubmycenaeanhorizontal
linesandbands,arcs,halfcircles,andconcentriccirclesarenowcrisplydrawnand
fittheshapesofthevasesmorepleasingly.Theoveralleffectisoneofbalance,order,
andsymmetry.
Theaestheticrefinementwaspartlyaresultofadvancesintechnique.Pottershad
developedafasterwheel,whichallowedthemtoimprovetheshapesofthevases.
Andtheynolongerdrewtheirlinesandcirclesfreehand.Forlinesandbandsthey
usedaruler;forcirclestheyinventedamultiplebrushandcompass(severalbrushes
onasinglearmaffixedtoapairofdividers).Moreovertheypreparedtheclaybetter
andachievedafiner,morelustrousglazebyfiringatahighertemperature.
Beginningaround1000BC,populationslowlybegantoinchupward,althougheven
attheendoftheProtogeometricperiod(c.900BC)populationlevelswerestillquite
lowandthenumberofsettlementshadincreasedonlyslightly.Archaeologistslabel
asprominentanytenthorninthcenturysitethatheldmorethantwohundred
people;thesmallersitesweremerehamletscontainingahandfuloffamilies,atotal
oftwentytofortypeople.Manyofthesesiteshadbeenflourishingtownsand

villagesintheLateBronzeAge.Theyweredestroyedorabandonedinthetwelfth
centuryandlefttotallyornearlyuninhabitedforseveralgenerations,andthenwere
reinhabited(thoughnotalwaysontheexactsite)onamuchsmallerscaleinthe
Protogeometricperiod.AfewmajorsettlementslikeAthensorCorinthmayhave
hadpopulationsofathousandorevensubstantiallymoreatthistime.However,
becausesuchplaceshavebeencontinuouslyinhabitedandbuiltover,thereisnoway
tojudgetheirsizeorgrowthintheDarkAgewithoutstrippingawaythemodern
buildingsordemolishingtheexcavatedClassicalstructures.
Althoughrecoverywasslowanditspacevariedfromregiontoregion,progresswas
steady.AbandonedMycenaeanvillagescamebacktolife,and,thoughfewand
small,newsettlementsappeared.Communicationimprovedaswell,bothbetween
thevariousregionsofGreeceandbetweentheGreeksandtheEast.Foreigntrade,
whichhadvirtuallyceasedbytheendofthetwelfthcentury,resumed,thoughat
muchreducedlevels.Bytheendofthetenthcentury,themajormovementsof
peopleintoandwithinGreecehadslackened.Greecehadachievedastabilityithad
notknownsincethedestructionphase.In900Greekcivilizationstoodatthe
thresholdofanewera.
SOCIETYINTHEEARLYDARKAGE
MaterialandsocialconditionsintheearlyDarkAgewerevastlydifferentfromwhat
theyhadbeeninthehighlypopulatedandhighlyregulatedregimesofthe
MycenaeanAge.Withthedissolutionoftheintricatetiesthathadboundtheoutlying
settlementstothepalacecomplexesandtooneanother,theformercentersand
peripheralvillagesfoundthemselveslargelyontheirownpoliticallyand
46
economically.Withthedeclineofpopulation,landwasplentiful.Thefertileplains
weremorethansufficientfortheinhabitantsofthesmallfarmingcommunities.The
lessfertilefarmlandprovidedareserve.Distantuplandplainsandmountainvalleys
layuntouchedorweregivenovertograzing.Game,birds,wildfoods,andother
naturalresources,liketimber,wereplentifulandreadilyavailable.
Leadershipandgovernmentalrolesintheseselfsufficientcommunitiesweresimple
andoperatedfacetoface.AfterthecollapseoftheMycenaeansystemGreecemost
likelyrevertedtoagovernmentoflocalchiefs,similartothetypeoforganizationthat
hadexistedintheMiddleBronzeAgebeforetheconsolidationofpowerbyasingle
chief.Thegravesandbuildingremainsfromtheeleventhandtenthcenturiesshow
littlesocialdifferentiation.Thechiefsandtheirfamiliesseemnottohavelivedmuch
differentlyfromtherest.
TheBasileus

TheMycenaeanLinearBtabletsprovideanimportantcluetotheprocessof
decentralization.AswesawinChapter1,thereoccursonthetabletsthetitlepasireu,
whichseemstohavebelongedtoaminorofficial,thelocalrepresentativeofthewanax,who
functionedasakindofmayorofatownorvillage.ThetitlepasireusurvivedintotheDark
Age,writteninthelaterGreekalphabetasbasileus.IntheHomericsociety,however,the
basileusisthepoliticalandmilitaryleaderofasettlementanditsadjacentland.Itappears
thatwhentheMycenaeankingdomsfellapart,theirseparatecomponentsthevillages,with
theirsurroundingfarmlandsandpasturescontinuedtobeheadedbymencalledbasileis
(plural).Thedifference,ofcourse,wasthatabasileusnolongerreportedtoorcarriedoutthe
instructionsofacentralwanax.Thisscenarioisborneoutbythefactthatthetitlewanax
doesactuallyappearinHomerbutisusedonlyasanhonorificequivalentofbasileus,andas
thetitleofZeus,thesupremegod,whoiscalled(w)anaxofgodsandmen.Clearly,afterthe
destructionsofthepalaces,nosuchfigureasthewanaxexistedinreallife,onlythenameand
avaguememoryofhisexaltedstatus.
TheGreekwordbasileusisusuallytranslatedaskingwhereveritappearsinliterature,
includingintheIliadandOdyssey.Itwouldbemisleading,however,tocalltheDarkAge
leaderskings,atitlethatconjuresupinthemodernmindvisionsofmonarchswith
autocraticpowers.AmoreappropriatenamefortheDarkAgebasileusistheanthropological
termchief,whichsuggestsamanwithfarlesspowerthanaking.Thebasileus,
nevertheless,wasamanofgreatstatureandimportanceinhiscommunity.
EvidenceofanearlyDarkAgebasileuswasrecentlydiscoveredatthesiteofLefkandionthe
islandofEuboea.AbustlingMycenaeantown,Lefkandihaddeclinedduringthecollapseand
thenrevivedintheSubmycenaeanperiod,enjoyinganexceptionalprosperity(byDarkAge
standards)until700,whenitwasabandoned.In1981,theexcavatorsmadeasurprising
discovery:thelargestDarkAgebuildingyetfound,measuring30by146feet,constructed
around1000BC.A
47
burialbeneaththefloorofthemainroomheldabronzeamphoracontainingthe
crematedremainsofamanandbesideitanironsword,spearhead,andwhetstone.
Nexttotheamphoralaytheskeletonofawoman,presumablythemanswife,buried
withgoldornaments.Nearbywasanotherburialcontainingtheskeletonsoffour
horses.Soonafterthefuneralthewholebuildingwasapparentlydeliberately
demolishedandcoveredoverwithahugemoundofearthandstones.Scholars
remainpuzzledaboutthebuildingsfunction:Wasitthecoupleshouseora
deliberatelydesignedmassivetomb?Ineithercase,themanwhoreceivedthis
elaboratewarriorsburial(andmayhavebeengivenculthonorsafterhisdeath),was
plainlythebasileusofLefkandianditssurroundingarea,amanwhohadbeenthe
focalpointofthesocietyinhislifeandwasequallyhonoredindeath.

RecentexcavationshaverevealedotherearlyDarkAgechieftainsandtheirsocieties.
EspeciallynoteworthyisthesiteofNichoria,locatedinthesouthwestPeloponnesus,
apoorerandlessprogressiveregionthanEuboea,whichhadmaintainedsteady
contactwiththeNearEast.Nichoriahadbeenanimportantsubsidiarytownofthe
kingdomofPylosandwasabandonedaround1200,whenthemarauderscame.It
camebacktolifearound1050asamuchsmallervillageactuallyseveralseparate
hamletsstrungalongtheridgetopwhosepopulationreachedabouttwohundred
earlyintheninthcenturyBC.Nichoriawasfairlyprosperousinahumbleway,
supportingitselfbyfarmingandherding,especiallycattle.
Inthemainpopulationcluster,locatedatthecenteroftheridge,archaeologists
uncoveredalargetenthcenturybuilding,about35feetlongand23feetwide,
consistingofonelargeroomandasmallporch(room2).Theyidentifieditasthe
villagechieftainshouse.Althoughmuchlargerandbetterconstructedthanthe
ordinaryhousesontheridge,itwasthesameshapeandmadeofthesamematerials.
Itsfloorwaspackedearthanditswallswereofmudbrick,supportingasteep
thatchedroofthatextendedovertheshallowfrontporch.Aremodelingearlyinthe
ninthcenturyaddedasecond,smallerroomattherear(room3)andalarge
courtyardinfront,lengtheningthebuildingtoanimpressive52feet.Thehousewas
abandonedinthelateninthcentury;butrightnexttoitanewtworoomhousewas
erected,builtevenbetterandboastingamuchlongercourtyard.Aroundthistime,
however,thepopulationofNichoriawasdeclining.Finally,thewholesitewas
abandonedabout750BC,perhapsthevictimofSpartanaggressioninMessenia.
TheresidencesofDarkAgebasileisrevealthattheywereimportantpersonagesin
theirvillagesandthesurroundingarea.Theconstructionandrenovationsofthe
chieftainshomesrequiredthetimeandlaborofasubstantialnumberofpersons,
unliketheordinaryhouses,whichcouldbebuiltbytheoccupantsthemselves.The
chiefshousesmayalsohavehadsomecommunalfunctions.Theexcavatorssuggest
thatthechiefshouseatNichoria,forexample,servedasthereligiouscenterofthe
settlementandperhapsasacommunalstorehouse.Yet,althoughthechiefsheldthe
higheststatusinthecommunity,itisclearthattheylivedinastylethatwashardly
differentfromthatoftheirneighbors.
48
a

b
Figure2.2a.Artistsplananddrawingoftheninthcenturyvillagechieftainshouse
atNichoria.Figure2.2b.ArtistsconceptionofanordinaryDarkAgehouse.
49

NichoriaandotherDarkAgesitesalsotellusthattheeconomy,thegovernment,and
othersocialinstitutionsunderwentnobasicchangesduringtheDarkAge.New
generationscouldexpecttolivethesamekindoflifeastheirparents,sharingthe
samebeliefs,andunderthesameformofgovernment.Suchastaticexistencein
smallvillagecommunitieswasnotabadthingatall,foritcreatedandpreserved
triedandtruerulesforsocialconduct.ThroughouttheirhistorytheGreekswould
clingtotheirancienttraditionsofrightandwrongbehavior,evenamidstchanging
conditions.Thispersistentreferencetotheancientwayswasoneofthebinding
forcesofHellenicculture.
REVIVAL(c.900750BC)
Thoughsocialinstitutionsremainedconstant,thepaceofmaterialprogress
quickenedaround900BC.Asusual,vasesfoundingravesprovidethemainindexof
changeanddevelopment.TheProtogeometricpottersandpaintersofthetenth
centurywerestillveryconservativeanddidnotinnovateorexperimentmuch,but
theycontinuedtorefineandperfecttheirtechniques.However,around900,asthe
lateProtogeometricstyleevolvesintotheGeometricstyle,anewartisticand
aestheticspiritbecomesevident.Thereisnodramaticbreakwiththetradition,andin
someregionstheoldstylecontinuesforsometime.Nevertheless,aremarkable
proliferationofgeometricdesignsmarkstheGeometricasadistinctlynewperiod.
TheGeometricstyle(c.900700)isconventionallydividedintothreearthistorical
phases,Early(c.900850),Middle(c.850750),andLate(c.750700).IntheEarly
Geometricperiod,thevasemakersaddednewshapesandnewdecorativemotifsto
theirrepertoires.Thecirclesandsemicirclesthathadbeenthestapledesignsofthe
Protogeometricvaseswerelargelyreplacedbymorelinearandangularmotifs,such
asthemeanderpattern(alsocalledtheGreekkeydesign),zigzags,triangles,and
crosshatching,setintoclearlydefinedzonesandbands.TheMiddleGeometric
pottersdisplayagrowingcommandofincreasinglyelaboratelineardecoration,
graduallyfillingtheentiresurfaceofthevase.Thevasesbecomelargerandmore
ambitious,showoffpiecesforartistsandcostlytrophiesforbuyers.
Intheearlyeighthcentury,thevasepaintersbegantodepictlivingcreaturesonce
again,revivingamotifthathadvirtuallydisappearedafter1200.Atfirsttheydrew
onlyanimalsandbirds,reproducingthemcookiecutterstyleonfriezesacrossthe
vase.Humanfiguresreappeararound760to750,andsoonthepictorialelements
begintodominate,untilrepresentationaldrawingtakesovermostofthesurfaceand
geometricdesignrecedesintothebackground.LateGeometric(c.750700)islinked
tothepast,buthasunmistakablybrokenwithit.Accordingly,LateGeometricvase
paintingandotherculturalinnovationsoftheeighthcenturyrenaissancewillbe
treatedlaterinthischapter.

Otherindicationsofmaterialprogress,consistentwiththedevelopmentsinthe
pottersart,becomevisibleatthebeginningoftheGeometricperiod.Ninthcentury
Greekcraftsmenwerenowproducingluxuryitemslikefinegoldjewelryandivory
carvingsfordomesticconsumption.Thisdevelopmentattestsnotonlytotherevival
ofcraftskillsandamarketforthem,butalsotoarenewedavailabilityof
50
rawmaterialsfromabroad,includingbronze,whichbegintoappearinlarger
quantitiesasaresultofincreasingtradewiththeNearEast.Thesedomesticluxury
items,aswellasimportedones,turnupwithincreasingfrequencyinninthand
eighthcenturyburials.Withveryfewexceptions,gravegoodsfrombeforeabout900
reveallittledisparityinwealthorsocialstatus.Intheninthcentury,itispossiblefor
thefirsttimetospeakofrichandostentatiousgraves,althoughthedistinctionsof
wealtharegenerallyslightuntiltheLateGeometric(c.750700).
Housesalsowereforthemostpartbetterbuiltintheninthcentury,reflectingthe
generalriseinprosperity.Buttherewerenomajorchangesinbuildingstyleand
materials,andthetopfamilieswereonlyalittlemorecomfortablyhousedthanthe
rest.Therearestillnosignsofcommunalbuildings.Theearliestofthese,thefree
standingtempleofagod,wouldnotappearuntilabout800.
HOMERANDORALPOETRY
Thetwogreatepicpoems,theIliadandtheOdyssey,werenotproduceduntiltheLate
Geometricperiod,buttheyareintroducedherebecausethetextsaswehavethem
arereallytheculminationofalongoraltraditiongoingbackcenturiesbe
Figure2.3.GoldjewelryfromthecremationgraveofawealthyAthenianwoman,
around850BC.Inadditiontothejewelry,shewasburiedwithalargenumberoffine
vases,bronzeandironpins,ivoryseals,afaiencenecklace,andalargeceramicchest,
surmountedwithfivemodelgranaries,attestingtotheagriculturalwealthofher
family.

51
foretheeighthcentury.Epicpoemsarelongnarrativetales;theytellastoryinverse
andaresungorrecitedinfrontofanaudience.TheHomericepicsaretheoldest
knownliteratureofEurope,thoughtheyarequiteyoungcomparedwiththeepic
poetryoftheNearEast,whichgoesbackatleasttothethirdmillenniumBC.
AlthoughthelaterGreeksreveredHomerastheirfirstandgreatestpoet,theyknew
nothingabouthim.TraditionhaditthathewasanIonian,fromSmyrnaorChios;

somesaidthathewasblind.Andtheygavewidelydifferentdatesforhislifetime,
mostofthembefore700BCaccordingtoourreckoningoftime.
ModernlinguisticanalysisoftheHomericpoemsplacestheircompositionbetween
about750and720,theIliadseveraldecadesearlierthantheOdyssey.Thetime
differentialhasledmanyscholarstoquestionwhethertheIliadandtheOdysseywere
theworkofasinglepoetoroftwoseparatepoets.Themethodoftheircomposition
hasalsobeenamatterofcontroversy.AsearlyastheeighteenthcenturyAD,
suspicionshadarisenthatthepoemswerecomposedorally,andnotwrittendown,
becausesomuchofthenarrativeconsistsoffrequentlyrepeatedcombinationsof
stockphrases.Butthecompositionofextremelylongandcomplexpoemswithout
writingtheIliadisaroundsixteenthousandlinesandtheOdysseytwelvethousand
seemedimpossible.Atheorythusarosethatthepoemsaswenowhavethemwere
stitchedtogethercenturieslater,outofshortlaysorballadsthattoldaboutthe
deedsofoldenheroes.TherealauthorsoftheIliadandOdyssey,accordingtothis
theory,werethegenerationsofanonymous,literatepoeteditorswhocollected,
expanded,andelaboratedonthetraditionaloralsongs.
Amajorshiftinopinionoccurredwhenitwasshownthatilliteratepoetscouldin
factcomposelongpoemsthathadthecomplexityandstylisticexcellenceofwritten
poetry.Intheearly1930s,ayoungclassicalscholar,MilmanParry,andhisco
worker,AlbertLord,madephonographrecordsofilliterateBosniansingerpoets
singingatraditionaltypeofsouthSlavicepicheroicpoetry.Comparingrecordings
ofthesamepoemssomeover10,000linesmadeatdifferenttimes,ParryandLord
discoveredthatnotwoperformanceswereexactlythesame.Itturnedoutthatthe
singerhadnotlearnedandmemorizedhispoem,butwasrathercomposing,or,
morecorrectly,recomposingitashewentalong.Thiswaspossiblebecausethe
storycontentwastraditionalandwassunginahighlyformalizedstyle.
ParryconcludedthattheHomericpoemshadbeencreatedinasimilarmanner.
Homer,hebelieved,wasthegreatestinalongsuccessionoforalsingerpoets,who
hadlearnedthedifficultcraftoforalcompositionfromthepreviousgenerationof
poets,whointurnhadlearneditfromtheirelders.Inretellingtheancientstories,
whichwerefamiliartotheaudiences,Homerdrewonaninheritedstockof
traditionalformulas(fixedphrases,lines,andblocksoftext)andthemes(typical
scenes,storypatterns)thathehadmemorizedandcouldvaryastheoccasion
demanded.Overalifetimeofprivaterehearsals,writingthepoetryinhismind,
andpublicperformances,Homercraftedandperfectedthepoemsthatborehis
personalsignature.Theoralformulaictheory,asitiscalled,isnowuniversally
acceptedandinfacthasgreatlyinfluencedtheworldwidestudyofotheroral
literaturesofthepastandpresent.
52

OnthequestionofwhentheHomericpoemswerecommittedtowriting,andthus
fossilized,sotospeak,theprevailingviewtodayisthattheywerewrittendownvery
nearthetimeoftheircomposition.Itwasduringthistimethattheartofwriting
returnedtoGreece.LordarguedthattheilliterateHomerdictatedhisepicsto
personswhocouldwrite.Otherscholars,however,believethatthepoemsaswe
havethemwerememorizedandtransmittedorallybyprofessionalreciterscalled
rhapsodesforsomegenerationsbeforetheywerewrittendown,perhapsaslateas
thesixthcentury.StillothersmaintainthatHomerwastrainedintheoraltradition
buthadlearnedtowrite,andwasthereforeawritingpoet.Whatevertheactualrole
ofwritinginthefinalcompositionofthetwogreatepics,itisagreedthatthey
representtheculminationofaverylongoralepictradition,whichceasedtoevolve
withtheadventofwriting.
InthewordsofaBosniansinger,epicpoetryisthesongoftheoldentime,ofthe
deedsofthegreatmenofoldandtheheroesovertheearth.Suchsongshadbeen
sungandresunginGreececontinuouslysincetheBronzeAge;intheintervening
centuries,storiesandthemesfromtheheroicliteraturesoftheancientNearEastalso
foundtheirwayintotheslowlyevolvingGreekoralepictradition.FortheGreeksof
theDarkAgeandlater,theoldentimewasanAgeofHeroes,arelativelybrief
periodthatencompassedagenerationortwobefore,andonegenerationafter,the
TrojanWar;this,inourtimereckoningwasapproximatelythethirteenthcenturyBC.
ThestoryoftheTrojanWarisaclassicallysimplefolksaga.Paris,thesonofKing
PriamofTroy,seducedandbroughtbacktoTroythebeautifulHelen,thewifeof
Menelaus,ruleroftheSpartans.Toavengetheinsult,Menelausandhisbrother,
Agamemnon,anax(wanax)ofMycenae,gatheredahugearmyofAchaeanwarriors,
whosailedtoTroyanddestroyedthecityafteratenyearsiege.Whethersuchan
expeditionactuallyoccurredisunimportant;fortheGreeksthemselvestheTrojan
Warwasthepivotaleventoftheirearlyhistory.
TheIliadandOdysseydonotnarratetheentireTrojanWar.TheIliadcompressesthe
actionintoaboutfortydaysinthetenthyearoftheWar,andtheOdysseytellsabout
thereturnhomeofonewarriorchief,Odysseus.Thepoemsassumethattheeighth
centuryaudiencesknewtherestoftheplotsandactions.Intheseventhandintothe
sixthcentury,anEpicCycleofseparate,andshorter,poemswasconstructed
aroundthetwogreatpoems,completingthestoryofTroy.Theselesserepics,
sometimesattributedtoHomerhimself,narratedtheeventsleadinguptothewar,
eventsduringthewar,includingtheSackingofTroy,andthereturnsofother
Greekchiefs.
LATEDARKAGE(HOMERIC)SOCIETY

Notsurprisingly,consideringthevastremoveintime,theHomericpoemspreserve
almostnothingaboutLateBronzeAgesociety.Nordotheyrevealmuchaboutthe
poetsowntime,thelateeighthcentury.Thepoemsdo,however,provideawealthof
detailaboutDarkAgesocietyafewgenerationsearlier,some
53
wherearound800BC.Thetimelagisnotsurprising.Duringthepoetslifetime,
fundamentalchangesweretakingplaceinthesociety,andthesecouldnoteasilybe
fittedintothetraditionalnarrativebackgroundthathadevolvedduringthecenturies
oforalcomposition.Thesocietydepictedintheepics,therefore,musthavebeen
earlierthanthetimeoftheircomposition,yetwithinlivingmemoryofthepoetand
hisaudiences.Homericsocietyresemblesbothinitsgeneralstructureandinmanyof
itsdetailsthetypeofsocialorganizationthatanthropologistscallachiefdom.Such
warriorsocietieshaveexistedthroughouttheworldandinallperiodsofhistory.
HomericsocietyisnaturallyadistortionofthelateDarkAgesocietyonwhichitwas
based.Theoralpoetswererecreatinganimaginarypastworldthatwasineveryway
betterandgranderthantheircontemporaryworld.Forexample,theTrojanleader
Hectorpicksup,foruseasaweapon,astone
whichtwomen,thebestintheland,couldnoteasilyliftfromthegroundontoa
wagon,mensuchasmortalsaretoday;buthebrandisheditlightly,allbyhimself.
(Iliad12.445449)
Nevertheless,aspectsofthatimaginedworld,especiallyitssocialinstitutionsand
ideologies,musthavebeenbasedontheaudiencesreallifeexperienceinorderfor
themtomakesenseoftheactionandtorelatetothecharactersandtheirmotivations.
Amodernanalogyissciencefiction,whichhastoreflectthereadersownworldto
someextentnomatterhowfantasticorsurrealthesettingandtheplot.Similarly,the
Homericpoemsarefullofsheerfantasyandexaggeration,yetstuddedwithtelltale
signsofpresentdayreality.So,forexample,thefrontcourtyardofOdysseus
splendidresidencecontainsalargepileofmanure,aswellasthefamilysgeeseand
ewesatmilkingtime.Inside,thefloorsaremadeofpackedearth,andthegreathall
(megaron)isblackenedwithsootfromthesmokycentralhearth.Infact,Odysseus
palaceisfarmorelikethehouseofthebasileusofDarkAgeNichoriathanthe
excavatedpalaceofthekingofBronzeAgePylos.
TheHomericChiefdoms
ThegeographicalandpoliticalmapoftheHomericworldconsistsofdistinctregions
andpeoples.Forexample,intheCatalogueoftheShipsintheIliad(2.484759),

whichliststhecontingentsthatmadeuptheGreekarmyatTroytheentryforthe
largeregionofAetoliareads:
Thoas,sonofAndraemonledtheAetolians,thosewhodwelledinPleuronand
OlenosandPyleneandChalcisbythesea,androckyCalydonandwithhim
followedfortyblackships.
(Iliad2.638644)
54
ThoasistheparamountchiefinAetolia,superiorinauthoritytothelocalchiefsof
thevillageslistedhereandtheacknowledgedleaderofallwhocallthemselves
Aetolians.ElsewhereintheIliadheisdescribedasThoas,whointhewholeof
PleuronandsteepCalydonruledovertheAetolians,andwashonoredlikeagodby
thepeople(Iliad13.216218).Thepeopleisthedmos(therootofmanyEnglish
wordssuchasdemocracy,demographics,andepidemic).Dmos,whichonthe
LinearBtablets(intheformdamo)apparentlyreferredtoavillagecommunity,
signifies,fromHomeron,bothaterritorialunitandthepeoplewholiveinit.Thus,
dmosinthispassageindicatesbothAetolia,theregion,andtheAetolians,the
people.
TheregionalchiefdomsintowhichHomericsocietywasdividedweresimpler
versionsoftheMycenaeankingdomsfromwhichtheydevolved.Theessential
differencewasthattheparamountchief,unliketheBronzeAgewanax,hadonly
limitedcontroloverthelocaldistrictsofthedemos.Thelocalchiefs,though
subordinatetohim,wereessentiallyindependentofhim.Oneindicationofthe
loosenessofthepowerstructureisthattheparamountchiefiscalledsimplybasileus,
withnoothertitletodistinguishhimfromtheotherbasileiswhorankbelowhim.In
fact,therearenootherofficialtitlesofrankinHomer.
ChiefsandFollowers
Becauseepicpoetryconcentratesalmostexclusivelyontheactivitiesofbasileisand
theirfamilies(largelyignoringthemassoftheordinarypeople),theIliadandthe
Odysseyprovideafairlydetaileddescriptionofchieftainship.Asiscommonamong
chiefdomsocietieseverywhere,theofficeandtitleofbasileuspassfromfathertoson.
Butinheritancealoneisnotenough;theyoungchiefmustalsobecompetenttofulfill
hisrole,whichistoleadhispeopleinwarandpeace.Forthesuccessorofthe
paramountbasileus,thereisanadditionalchallengetosecurethecomplianceofthe
localchiefsinthedemos.Aparamountbasileusshouldhavethecapabilitiesofaman
likeThoas,whowas

byfarthebestoftheAetolians,skilledwiththethrowingspear,andagoodmanin
thecloseinfighting;andintheassemblyfewoftheAchaeanssurpassedhim,
whenevertheyoungmencompetedindebate.
(Iliad15.282284)
Thetwoprimerequisitesofleadership,skillinbattleandtheabilitytopersuade,are
encapsulatedintheadvicethatthebasileusPeleusgivestohisyoungsonAchillesas
hesendshimofftotheTrojanWar:Bebothaspeakerofwordsandadoerofdeeds.
Aboveall,itisthedeeds,theworksofwar,thatmakeamantheleader.InHomer,
asinmanychieftainsocietiesworldwide,achiefsstatusismeasuredbythenumber
ofwarriorswhofollowhim.Achiefwhodoesnotshowhimselfagoodwarriorwill
findfewwhoarewillingtofollowhislead.Forexample,intheCatalogueofthe
Ships,wearetoldthatNireus,thesonofthe
55
basileusoftheislandofSyme,ledonlythreeshipstotheTrojanWar.Althoughhe
wasthehandsomestoftheGreeksatTroy(nexttoAchilles),Nireuswasaweak
man,andfewpeoplefollowedhim(Iliad2.671675).Bycontrast,Agamemnonwas
acknowledgedastheleaderoftheentireGreekarmyatTroy,because,asthe
commanderofonehundredshipsfromtheregionaroundMycenae,heledbyfar
themosttroops.
Allbasileis,bothlocalchiefsandtheparamount,havetheirownpersonalfollowings.
Themenwhofollowachiefarecalledbyhimandcalleachotherhetairoi
(companions),awordthatconveysadeepfeelingofmutualloyalty.Thusthe
armyofademosiscomposedofseveralindividualhetairoibands,eachunderthe
commandofitsownbasileus,andallunderthecommandoftheparamount.
However,theentirefightingforceofthedemosismusteredtogetherunderthe
paramountbasileusonlywhenthereisanalloutwar,usuallyfordefenseofthe
demoswhenanoutsideenemyhasattackedinforce.Otherwise,alocalora
paramountchiefisfreetoraisehisownfollowingandgoonraidingexpeditions
againstvillagesofanotherdemos,eithertoeventhescoreinsomeongoingquarrelor
justtostealorplundertheirlivestock,valuables,andwomen.Commonly,achief
recruitshisfollowerswithalargefeast,showingthatheisagenerousleaderand
therebybindinghisfollowerstohim.Forinstance,Odysseus(posingasawarrior
leaderfromCrete),describeshowhemadearaidingexpeditionintoEgypt.Having
fittedoutnineships,hesays,hegatheredafollowing,
andforsixdaysmytrustycompanions(hetairoi)feasted,andIgavethemmany
animalvictimsbothtosacrificetothegodsandtomakeafeastforthemselves,and
ontheseventhwegotonboardandsetsailfrombroadCrete....

(Odyssey14.247252)
RaidingisawayoflifeinHomericsociety.Bootyraidsnotonlyenrichtheraid
leaderandhismen,butalsoserveasatestoftheirmanliness,skill,andcourage,and
thusbringhonorandglory.Whetheronaraidorinawar,thebasileusistheone
mostseverelytested,forheisliterallytheleader,stationinghimselfamongthe
frontfighters.Theleaderisobligedtoriskhislifefightingatthefrontofhisarmy(a
customthatpersistedthroughoutancientGreekhistory).Inreturnforhisleadership,
thedemosisunderobligationtoprovidethebasileuswithhonorsandmaterialgifts.
Document2.1Sarpedon,leaderoftheLycianalliesoftheTrojans,addressesGlaucus,his
closehetairosandsecondincomandoftheLycians,onthereciprocalobligationsbetween
chiefsandthepeople.
Glaukos,whyisityouandIarehonoredbeforeotherswithprideofplace,thechoice
meatsandthefilledwinecupsinLykia,andallthemenlookonusasifwewere
immortals,
56
andweareappointedagreatpieceoflandbythebanksofXanthos,goodland,
orchardandvineyard,andploughlandfortheplantingofwheat?
ThereforeitisourdutyintheforefrontoftheLykianstotakeourstand,andbearour
partoftheblazingofbattle,sothatamanoftheclosearmouredLykiansmaysayof
us:Indeed,thesearenoignoblemenwhoarelordsofLykia,thesebasileisofours,
whofeedonthefatsheepappointedanddrinktheexquisitesweetwine,since
indeedthereisstrengthofvalourinthem,sincetheyfightintheforefrontofthe
Lykians.
Iliad12.310321;translatedbyRichmondLattimore,TheIliadofHomer.Chicago:
UniversityofChicagoPress,1951,p.266.
Reciprocitymutualandfairexchangewhichgovernsallsocialrelationshipsinthe
Homericworld,isthecoreoftheleaderpeoplerelationship.Thegivingandthe
receivingshouldideallybalanceoneanother.So,too,fairnessistheruleinthe
apportionmentofthespoilsofwar.Followingaraid,thebootyisgatheredtogether.
Firsttheleadertakeshisshare(andsomethingextraastheleadersprize)and,
underhissupervision,specialrewardsforvaloraregivenout.Therestisthengiven
tothementodivideup,sothatnoonemaygocheatedofanequalshare.
Aleaderwhokeepsmorethanhedeservesordistributesprizesunfairlyriskslosing
therespectofhisfollowers.Toachief,beingcalledgreedyisalmostasdevastating
aninsultasbeingcalledcowardly.Inshort,abasileuscannotaffordnottoappear

generousandopenhanded.Similarly,Homericchiefsengageinaconstantexchange
ofgiftsandfeastswithotherchiefsandimportantmen.Thisisbothawayof
showingofftheirwealthandameanstocementfriendships,winnewfriends,and
collectobligationsthroughadisplayofgenerosity.
Despitethegreatauthoritygivenhimbyhisposition,abasileushaslimitedabilityto
coerceotherstofollowhislead.Heisonlyachief,notaking.ThusintheOdyssey,
thereareseveraloccasionswhenOdysseushetairoisimplyrefusetoobeyhim.Once,
whenhisfollowersdecidetodoexactlytheoppositeofwhathehasorderedthem,
Odysseuscanonlysaythatasonemanalonehemustabidebythewillofthe
many.Odysseushelplessnessillustratesthefundamentalfragilityofleadership
authorityinthistypeoflowlevelchieftainship.
Rightfulinheritancetothepositionofparamountbasileusisnotanabsolute
guaranteeofsuccession.Inasocietyinwhichperformanceismoreimportantthan
descent,aweaksuccessorwillbechallengedbyrivalbasileiswhowishtoreplace
himasheadchief.TheproblemofsuccessionisaddressedatlengthintheOdyssey.
Odysseus,theparamountchiefofIthacaanditsneighboringislands,hasbeengone
fortwentyyears(tenatTroy,tenonhisreturnhome),andhaslongbeenpresumed
dead.Odysseusagedfather,Laertes,thepreviouschief,retiredyearsagotothe
countryside.Odysseusson,Telemachus,whoisbarely20yearsold,withno
experienceofleadershipandfewsupporters(hisfathersfol
57
lowershadgonetoTroywithhim),findshimselfinadesperatesituation.Agroupof
youngchiefsorsonsofchiefs(mostlyfromtheotherislandsofthechiefdom),are
wooingTelemachusmother,Penelope,presumedawidow.Theyarecampedoutin
hiscourtyard,feastingonhislivestockandseducingtheslavegirls.Theymeanto
overthrowthelineageofLaertes,byallowingtheonewhosucceedsinwinningover
Penelopetobecomeparamountbasileus.Marryingthewidowofthedeadchief
wouldgiveanewleadersomelegitimacy.Eventhoughthesuitorsagreethatthe
chiefshipbelongstoTelemachusbyyourpaternalbirthright,theyhavenoscruples
abouttakingitawayfromhim.
Theusurpersuseforceandthethreatofforce.WhenTelemachuscallsanassemblyof
thepeopletocomplainabouttheoutrageagainsthishousehold,theythreatenthe
fewoldmenwhostandupfortheyoungheir,cowtherestoftheIthacans,and
declaretheassemblydissolved.LatertheytrytoambushandkillTelemachus
himself.LikeOdysseus,Penelopecanbecunningandresourceful;sheusesherguile
tothwarttheambitionsofthesuitors.Sheholdsthesuitorsatbayforseveralyears,
bysayingthatshewillmarryoneofthemonlywhenshehascompletedaburial
shroudforherfatherinlawLaertes.HarboringahopethatOdysseuswillreturn,she

weavesbyday,andatnightsecretlyunravelstheshroud.Eventually,Odysseus
returns,killsthesuitors,andassumeshisrightfulplaceasparamountbasileusof
Ithacaandtheotherislands.Inmostinstances,however,weakenedrulingdynasties
wouldnothavefaredaswellasthehouseandlineageofLaertes.
GovernmentintheLateDarkAge
GovernmentalinstitutionsintheDarkAgewerefewandsimple,asHomer
illustratesandthematerialremainsofthelateninthandearlyeighthcenturies
corroborate.Acouncil,calledtheboul,wasmadeupofthelocalchiefsandthe
paramountchief,inwhosegreathall(megaron)theymettoformulatepolicyforthe
wholedemos.Theparamountbasileuspresidedandhadthedeterminingvoicein
thediscussions,butusuallyheededtheadviceandcounseloftheelders,asthe
boulememberswerecalled(thoughmanywereactuallyyoungermen).Their
decisionwaspresentedattheassemblyofthepeople,calledtheagoraorgathering,
whichcomprisedthemenoffightingageandolder.SometimesinHomer,however,
oneoranotherofthechiefsorrespectedelderscallsanassemblywithoutconsulting
theotherleaders.Thenthereisanopendebate,whichgenerallyleadstoan
agreement.Althoughtheoreticallyanymanmayaddresstheassembly,customarily
onlythechiefsandotheroutstandingmenspeakout.Ateachproposal,themenof
thedemosmaketheirwillknownbyshouting,bymuttering,orbyremainingsilent.
Intheend,iftheassemblyhasbeensuccessful,thedemosshoutsitscollective
approvalofthepolicy.Theaimoftheassemblyistoachieveconsensus,bothamong
theleadersandbetweenleadersandpeople.
Inadditiontohisfunctionsasthemilitaryandpoliticalleader,thebasileusalsohada
religiousandjudicialroleinthelifeofthecommunity.Hissole,but
58
veryimportant,religiousdutywastopresideatpublicsacrificestothegods.When
heprayedtothegodsatasacrificehewasthespokesmanforthepeople,similarto
thefathersacrificingonbehalfofhisfamily.Thebasileuswasnot,however,oneof
thepriestsofthegods,nordidheclaimtohaveaspecialpersonalrelationshipwith
thegods,althoughHomerfirmlyemphasizesthatZeusupholdsandfostersthe
rulingauthorityoftheofficeofbasileus.
DuringtheDarkAge,chiefsprobablyplayedalesserroleinjudicialmatters,because
thejudicialprocesswasinanearlystageofdevelopment.Theonlylawwascustom,
thatis,thecommunitystraditionsregardingrightandwronginparticularsituations.
(Asystemofformalandwrittenlawswouldnotemergeuntiltheseventhcentury.)
Muchofthiscustomlawinvolvedproceduresforsettlingdifferencesprivately.Even
themostantisocialact,murderwithinthedemos,wasnotacrimeinthesensethatit
requiredarrestandtrialoftheallegedmurdererbythesocietyatlarge.Itwasthe

custom,rather,thatthefamiliesofthekillerandthevictimshouldcometoan
agreementonamaterialpenaltyascompensation,thusavoidingasocially
destabilizingfeudbetweenthefamilies.Thesameprocedurewasfollowedfor
anothersensitiveoffense,adultery.Whenthepartiescouldnotreachaprivate
agreement,thedisputewasbroughtbeforeacourt.Homerdescribesadisputeover
thepaymentofthemurdercompensation,whichisheardanddecidedbyagroupof
elders(probablychiefs),oneofwhomwillreceivearewardofgoldforspeaking
thestraightestjudgement.Thelawsuittakesplaceinanassembly,withthepeople
pushingandshovingandshoutingencouragementtoonepartyortheother(Iliad
18.497508).Thecouncil,assembly,andlawcourtareallthereisofgovernmentin
Homer,buttheyweresufficient.Theywouldremaintheessentialorgansof
government,inamorehighlyevolvedform,inthelatercitystates.
ForeignRelations
IntheDarkAge,diplomaticrelationsbetweenonechiefdomandanotherwere
conductedbythechiefsthemselvesorbyatrustedcompanion.Aspartofhis
training,OdysseuswassentatayoungagetoMesseniabyhisfatherandtheother
eldersonanembassytocollectadebtowedtotheIthacans.Thiswasaserious
affair,fortheMessenianshadraidedIthacaandstolenthreehundredsheepandtheir
shepherds.Ifnegotiationsfailed,theIthacanswouldstagearevengeraid,andthe
badfeelingswouldlikelyescalateintoanalloutwar.
WhilehewasinMessenia,youngOdysseusstayedatthehouseofaguestfriend
(xenos;pluralxenoi).Guestfriendship(xenia)wasareciprocalrelationshipinwhich
xenoiwerepledgedtoofferoneanotherprotection,lodging,andassistance
whenevertheytraveledtoeachothersdemos.Therelationshipwashandeddown
fromgenerationtogenerationbetweenthefamiliesofxenoi.WhileinMessenia,
OdysseusstayedatthehouseofOrtilochus,animportantmaninhisdemos,though
notthechief.Manyyearslater,OdysseussonTelemachuswouldstayovernight
withthesonofOrtilochus,onhiswaytovisitMenelausinSpartaandagainonhis
returntrip.Thehospitalityoftenincludedalavishfeastand
59
sometimesmusicalentertainment.Attheendofthevisit,thehostguestfriendgave
hisguestavaluablepartinggift(e.g.,aswordoragoldcup).Thegiftwasthe
materialtokenoftheirbondofclosefriendship,giventoensurethatwheneverhe
visitedthedemosofhisfriend,hewouldreceiveinreturnthesameprotection,
hospitality,andagiftofatleastthesameworth.
GuestfriendshipwasanindispensabledeviceforforeignrelationsintheDarkAge,
forwhenastrangercametoanotherdemoshehadnorightsandcouldbemistreated
andevenkilled.Thecustomwasparticularlyusefulinsensitivesituations.For

example,whenAgamemnonandMenelausmadealongvisittoIthacatopersuade
OdysseustojoinintheexpeditionagainstTroy,theydidnotstaywithhimbutwith
amannamedMelaneus,aguestfriendofAgamemnon.Theyusedthehospitalityof
Melaneus,notbecausetheydidnothaveafriendlyrelationshipwithOdysseus,but
becausethedelicatetaskofrecruitingforeignalliesrequiredaneutralbase.Xenia
wouldcontinue,inasomewhatdifferentform,asameansofdiplomaticrelations
intotheArchaicAgeandbeyond.
SocialValuesandEthics
Inallsocieties,thenotionsofgoodandbad,rightandwrong,arelargelydetermined
bytheirownpeculiarconditionsoflife.ThecodesofbehaviorforHomericmales
centeraroundwar.TheGreekadjectiveagathos(good)whenusedofmenin
Homer,isalmostalwaysrestrictedtothequalitiesofbraveryandskillinfighting
andathletics.Theoppositeword,kakos(bad),meanscowardly,orunskilledand
uselessinbattle.Inasocietyinwhicheveryablebodiedmanfightstodefendhis
community,allmenareunderconstrainttobehavebravely.Theleadersareexpected
tobeespeciallyvaliant,andinaddition,toexcelinpublicspeakingandcounsel.
Othertraditionalrulesofconductdictatethatagoodmanshouldhonorthegods,
keeppromisesandoaths,andbeloyaltofriendsandfellowwarriors.Heshould
exhibitselfcontrol,behospitable,andrespectwomenandelders.Pityshouldbe
showntobeggarsandsuppliantstrangers.Itispropertoshowpityeventoward
capturedwarriorsandtorefrainfromdefilingthecorpsesoftheenemy.These
gentlerqualitiesaredesirable,buttheyarenotrequired;thesolecriterionforbeing
calledagathosisgoodwarriorship.
Awarriorsocietyisforcedtobreedintoitsfuturewarriorsasavagejoyinthegrim
worksofAres,alusttoannihilatetheenemy.Attheendofapoignantfamilyscene
intheIliad,theTrojanheroHectorliftsuphisbabysonandpraystothegodsthathe
maygrowuptobeabetterwarriorthanhisfatherandbringbackthebloodyspoils
ofadeadenemyandmakehismothersheartglad(Iliad6.479481).HomericGreeks
arenotonlyfierceinwarbutalsosavageinvictory:theylootandburncaptured
villages,slaughterthemalesurvivorsincludinginfants,andrapeandenslavethe
womenandgirls.
AstrongcompetitivespiritwasanimportantpartoftheGreekmaleethos.Homeric
charactersconstantlycomparethemselves,orarecomparedwith,one
60
another.Menaredriventowinandtobecalledaristos(best).Onemanissaidtobe
bestoftheAchaeansinbowmanship,whileanothersurpassedalltheyoungmen
inrunning,orinspearthrowing,orchariotracing,orspeaking.Thistypeof

extracompetitivesocietyiscalledagonistic,fromtheGreekwordagn(contest,
struggle).Theinstincttocompeteandwinpermeatesthesociety.Apoorfarmeris
rousedtoworkhardwhenheseeshisneighborgettingrich,saysHesiod(c.700);and
potterresentspotterandcarpenterresentscarpenter,andbeggarisjealousofbeggar
andpoetofpoet(WorksandDays2026).
Thesoleobjectofcompetingandstrivingistowintim(honorandrespect).Tim
isalwayspublicrecognitionofonesskillsandachievements.Italwaysinvolves
somevisiblemarkofrespect:theseatofhonorandanextrashareofmeatatafeast,
oranadditionalshareofbooty,orvaluableprizesandgifts,includingland.To
modernreaders,Homericwarriorchiefsmayappearoverlygreedyformaterial
things,buttheirpurposeinacquiringandpossessingmanyanimalsandprecious
objectswasmainlytoincreasetheirfameandglory.Nottobehonoredwhenhonor
isdue,orworse,tobedishonored,areunbearableinsults.Thus,whenAgamemnon
intheIliadgrievouslydishonoredAchillesbytakingbackthecaptivegirlBriseis,a
prizeofhonorawardedtoAchillesbythearmy,agreatquarrelarosebetween
themthatledtodisasterforalltheGreeks.
Adherencetothecompetitiveethic(summedupinthemottoalwaysbethebestand
bepreeminentovertheothers)spurredmenontoaccomplishgreatthingsandkept
thequalityofleadershiphigh.Ontheotherhand,therelentlesspursuitofpersonal
andfamilyhonorandobsessionwithavengingdishonorcouldcauseenormous
politicalinstability.Forbetterorworse,theHomericcodesofmalebehaviorwould
endurethroughoutantiquity,andlatergenerationsofGreekwriterswouldcontinue
tolooktotheIliadandOdysseyformodelsofrightandwrongconduct.
Valuationsofgoodandbadinrespecttowomenandthebehaviorexpectedofthem
aredeterminedbythemaleethic.Withintheircommunities,womenareregarded
withgreatrespectbymen.Thereislittletraceinepicofthemisogyny(frommiso
gynia,hatredofwomen)thatoftenappearsinlaterliterature.InHomer,womenare
notreviledortreatedcontemptuously,andalsoappeartohavemoresocialfreedom
thanthoseoflaterperiods.Womengofreelyaboutthevillageandcountrysideand
participateinfestiveandreligiousevents.Andthoughtheyhavenopoliticalvoice,
womenareneverthelesspartofpublicopinion.Thoseofhighstatushouseholds
jointhecompanyoftheirhusbandsandtheothermeninthegreathallaftersupper
andtakepartintheconversation.Thewifeofachief,especiallyaparamountchief,is
heldinhighesteem,andmayevenpartakeofherhusbandsauthority,asdoesArete,
thewifeofAlcinous,thebasileusofthePhaeacians,intheOdyssey.Odysseus,
disguisedasawanderingbeggar,flattersPenelope(whodoesnotrecognizeher
husband),sayingthatherfamegoesuptobroadheaven,asofsomeblameless
basileus.

ThequalitiesthatdefineagoodwomaninHomerarenarrowlycircumscribedby
theirdomesticassignmentashousewifeandmother.Theyarehon
61
oredfortheirbeauty,skillanddiligenceinweaving,carefulhouseholdmanagement,
andgoodpracticalsense.Likemen,womenarealsocomparedwithoneanother,
thoughonlywithinthefewareasofexcellenceallowedthem;forexample,thisoneor
thatone,surpassedheragematesinbeautyandwork[i.e.,weaving]and
intelligence.Theyareexpectedtoactmodestlyinpublicandinthecompanyof
men,andabovealltobechaste.Althoughmenarepermittedtohaveconcubines,
adulterouswomenbringgreatdisgraceanddishonoruponthemselvesandtheir
families.
AsinlaterGreece,womenareunderthestrictcontroloftheirmalerelativesand
husbandsfrombirthtodeath.Theyarethemostvaluableprizesofraidandwar,not
onlybecauseoftheirintrinsicvalueasworkersorconcubines,orasgoodstobe
barteredorgivenawaybutalsobecausecapturinganenemysmother,wife,
daughter,sisteristheultimateinsult.
Document2.2Intheirmeetingduringalullinthebattle,Hectorsaysthesewordsto
Andromache,hiswife.Althoughtheoutcomeofthewarisstillindoubt,bothsharea
premonitionthattheTrojanswilllose.
ForIknowthisthingwellinmyheart,andmymindknowsit:
therewillcomeadaywhensacredIlionshallperish,
andPriam,andthepeopleofPriamofthestrongashspear.
ButitisnotsomuchthepaintocomeoftheTrojans
thattroublesme,notevenofPriamthekingnorHekabe,
northethoughtofmybrotherswhointheirnumbersandvalour
shalldropinthedustunderthehandsofmenwhohatethem,
astroublesmethethoughtofyou,whensomebronzearmoured
Achaianleadsyouoff,takingawayyourdayofliberty,
intears;andinArgosyoumustworktheloomofanother,
andcarrywaterfromthespringMesseisorHypereia,
allunwilling,butstrongwillbethenecessityuponyou;
andsomedayseeingyousheddingtearsamanwillsayofyou:
ThisisthewifeofHektor,whowaseverthebravestfighter
oftheTrojans,breakersofhorses,inthedayswhentheyfought
aboutIlion.
Soonewillspeakofyou;andforyouitwillbeyetafreshgrief,
tobewidowedofsuchamanwhocouldfightoffthedayofyour
slavery.

ButmayIbedeadandthepiledearthhidemeunderbeforeI
hearyoucryingandknowbythisthattheydragyoucaptive.
Iliad6.447465;translatedbyRichmondLattimore,TheIliadofHomer.Chicago:
LlniversityofChicagoPress,1951,p.165.
62
Slavery
SlaverydidnotcomeundertheheadingofwrongfortheGreeks.Enslavementwas
notevendiscussedasamoralissueuntilthelatefifthcenturyBC;andeventhough
someexpressedrepugnanceforit,theinstitutionflourishedinGreecethroughout
paganantiquityandforcenturiesaftertheestablishmentofChristianity.Theancient
Greekattitudetowardslaverywassimple.Itwasaterriblethingtobecomeaslave
butagoodthingtoownaslave.Slaverywasabyproductofwarandraid.One
becameaslavebybeingcapturedorkidnappedhumanbooty.Greeksdidnotbreed
slavesonalargescale,andindeedfeltsomequalmsaboutenslavingotherGreeks
(althoughtheydidit),preferringtobuyandsellnonGreeks.Eumaeus,Odysseus
swineherd,whohadbeenkidnappedasachildbyPhoeniciantradersandsoldto
Odysseusfather,sumsupthedegradationofslaveryinasentence:Zeustakesaway
halfofamansworthwhenthedayofenslavementcomesuponhim(Odyssey
17.322323).
Religion
Bytheeighthcentury,Greekreligionhadattainedessentiallytheformitwastohave
throughouttherestofpaganantiquity.Yetlittleelseisknownabouttheevolutionof
religionafterthecollapseoftheMycenaeansocietyexceptthatsomeofthegods
whosenamesappearontheLinearBtabletsdisappeared,andpossiblyoneortwo
godswereaddedtothegroupofmajorgods.Forexample,Aphrodite,theGreek
goddessoferoticlove,mayhavebeenapostMycenaeanimportfromtheNearEast,
modeledontheSemiticlovegoddessAstarte/Ishtar;andoneofAphroditeslovers,
Adonis(Semiticadon,lord),isclearlyNearEastern.Inthecenturiesafter700the
GreeksdidadoptorassimilateafewothergodsfromtheNearEastandEgypt.There
werealsoimportantlaterdevelopmentsinreligiousethics.Inallessentials,however,
Greekreligionwouldremainforthenextthousandyearsexactlyasitwas
representedinHomerandHesiod.
ThetwobasicfeaturesofHomericworshipgobacktotheoldMycenaeanMinoan
religion.Thesearepolytheism,theworshipofmanygodsandgoddesses(singular
theos;pluraltheoi);andtheritualwaysofhonoringthegods:withsacrificesand
prayers,processions,music,dancing,andhymnsinging.Liketheother
Mediterraneanreligions,Greekreligionwasformal,ritualistic,andcommunal,not

privateandmeditative.Butunlikesome,itneverdevelopedanofficialsetof
doctrinesorcompulsorybeliefs.Differentandcontradictoryideasaboutthegods
coexistedcomfortablyinGreece.
EverythinglaterGreeksunderstoodabouttheoriginsoftheworldandofthegods
theylearnedfromlateeighthcenturyepicpoetry.Thefifthcenturyhistorian
Herodotuswrote
Whereeachofthegodscamefrom,whethertheyhavealwaysexisted,whatthey
looklikethesethingswereunknownuntilonlyyesterday,sotospeak,ortheday
before....[HomerandHesiod]aretheoneswhocreatedatheogonyfor
63
theGreeks.Theygavenamestothegods,decidedwhattheirspecialskillswereand
whathonorstheyshouldbegiven,anddescribedtheirappearance.
(Herodotus2.53;Blanco1992)
Hesiodepicpoem,titledTheogony(thegenealogyofthegods),providedthe
authoritativeaccountofthebeginningsoftheuniverseandthehistoryofthegodsup
tothesupremacyofZeusandtheotherOlympiangods.AccordingtoHesiod,the
Olympianswereathirdgenerationofgods,descendedfromtheprimalpairof
cosmicdivinitiesGaia(Earth)andOuranus(Sky).Thestorycloselyparallelsmuch
olderMesopotamianaccountsandisclearlyinfluencedbythem.
Therewereviolentconflictsbetweeneachgeneration.Skywouldnotallowhis
childrentobeborn,andhidthemwithintheirmotherEarth.Earthpersuadedher
imprisonedsonCronustocutoffOuranusgenitalswithasickle,freeinghisbrothers
andsisters,whomadeupthenextgenerationofgods,theTitans.Cronus,inhisturn,
triedtopreventhischildrenbyhisTitanwifeRheafromcomingintobeing,by
swallowingthemastheywereborn.ButRheadeceivedCronusintoswallowinga
stoneinsteadofherlastborn,Zeus,causinghimtovomituptheothers.ThenZeus,
withthehelpofthemightythunderboltandthepowerfulmonstersonsofOuranus,
ledhisbrothersandsistersinaviolenttenyearwaragainsttheTitansfromtheir
strongholdatopMountOlympus.Successfulinthebattle,theOlympiansimprisoned
theTitansdeepintheearth.Afterovercomingafinalchallengebythemonster
Typhoeus,OlympianZeusreignedforeverovertheuniverse.Aftertheirvictory,the
godsdividedupcontrolovertheuniverse.Zeusreceivedcommandoftheheavens
andthesky,Poseidontheseas,andHadestheUnderworld,wherethesoulsof
humansgowhentheydie;andalltheOlympianssharedcontroloftheir
grandmotherEarthandthecreaturesonEarth,includinghumans.

TheOlympiangods,therefore,werenotthecreatorsoftheuniverse,butratherthe
offspringofthreeandfourgenerationsofsexualunions,beginningwithEarthand
Sky.Asthedescendantsofthephysicaluniversethegodsembodiedtheforcesof
nature;Zeusineffectwastheskyandallitsphenomena.ButtheGreeks
anthropomorphizedtheirdeities,portrayingthemasidealizedmenandwomenwith
specialpowerstocontrolanddirectnature.ThuspaintingsandstatuesdepictZeus
asahumanholdingorhurlingthethunderbolt.Allaspectsofnaturewereendowed
withhumanform;woods,mountains,sea,rivers,andspringswereinhabitedby
countlessspirits,imaginedasbeautifulmaidensoryouths.Evenemotionsand
behaviorsfear,pity,hate,prayers,rumor,andsoonwereallperceivedasdivinities
inhumanform,who,liketherestofthecosmos,hadcomeintobeingthrough
procreation.
Intheirtotality,thegods,naturespirits,andabstractionsrepresentthewholeof
being.ThediversityofthesupernaturalrealmofferedtheGreeksasatisfactoryway
oforderingandexplainingthebafflingcomplexityofhumanexperience,fromthe
vastmysteriousuniverseofstarsandplanets,tothebenignandhostileworldof
nature,totheconfusinginnerworldofthehumanpsyche.Thedivineworldmirrors
thehumancondition.So,forexample,Ares,thegodofwar,isthe
64
spiritofbloodlustthatentersawarriorandmakeshimeagertokillanddestroy.
Aphrodite,thegoddessoflove,istheirresistibleforceofsexualdesire.Athena
representsthesphereofpracticalwisdom(weaving,carpentry,metalworking,
technologyingeneral),whileApolloswisdomextendstomusic,poetry,and
philosophy.Artemis,likeAthena,isaperpetualvirgin,butwhereasAthenaisa
friendandhelperofwarriorheroes,Artemisshunsallcontactwithmales,andlives
intheforestsasbothhunterandprotectorofanimals.
InHomerandinHesiod,thesepowerfuldivinitieslookandthinkexactlylike
humans;theiractionsarejustasunpredictable.Buttheirinfinitelysuperiorpowers
andthefactthattheyareimmortalandagelessandneversubjecttopain,
unbridgeablysetthegodsapartfrommortalbeings.Mortals(hoithntoi,theones
whodie)areplaythingsofthegods(hoiathanatoi,thedeathlessones),who
squabbleamongthemselvesoverthefateofthisorthatpersonorgroup.The
complexintersectionoftheeternaldivineandephemeralmortalitylayatthebaseof
alllaterGreekphilosophicalandscientificspeculationabouttheorderandstructure
oftheuniverseandthehumancondition.
TheGreeksworshipedthegodsoutofawefortheirpowertodothemgoodorharm.
Thegodsdemandedthattheirpowerbeacknowledgedthroughgiftgivingandother
marksofrespect.Mortalsgavethesewillinglyandinabundancebecauseoftheir

fundamentalconvictionthatthegodsweredisposedtohelpandprotectthosewho
honoredthem,thoughrealizingatthesametimethatcapriciousdeitiesmightdojust
theopposite.Everycommunityhaditsspecialprotectinggodorgodsandsparedno
expenseoreffortinhonoringtheminordertokeeptheirfavor.AftertheDarkAge,
theGreekcitystateswouldlavishonthegodsgiftsofpublicland,hugetemples,
expensiveprivatededications,festivalsintheirhonor,andthousandsofsacrificed
animals.
InHomer,thegodsinsistontheirproperhonorsbutnotmuchelse.Theirconcern
withmoralityaswenowunderstanditislimited.Certainacts,suchasincestor
homicide,werethoughttopollutetheperpetrator,whomustberituallypurified
beforebeingreadmittedintothesociety.Therewerealsodozensofotherminor
taboos(suchastouchingacorpse)thatpollutedforafewhoursordays.Butmost
deedsthatarecondemnedbythemajormodernreligionsassinsagainstGod,such
asstealing,adultery,andrape,werenottheconcernofthegods.Asfaras
interpersonalbehaviorisconcerned,thegodsinHomerprimarilycondemnonly
oathbreakingandmistreatingofstrangers,suppliants,andbeggars.Oaths,which
weretakeninthenamesofthewitnessinggods,wereespeciallyimportant,because
theysealedthecontractsbetweenindividualsandbetweencommunities.Afew
times,however,thegodsinHomerdoshowsomeconcernforfairnessandjustice
withinthesociety.Thus,Zeusissaidtosendseverewindandrainstormsagainst
thosewhomakecrookeddecrees,usingforce,intheassembly,anddriveoutjustice,
heedlessofwatchfulnessofthegods(Iliad16.384388).BeginningwithHesiod,the
ideaofZeusastheupholderofjustice(dik)wouldbecomeanincreasinglycommon
themeinliterature.
Inmanyreligions,earthlysorrowandsufferingareeasedbythepromiseofa
paradiseafterdeathforthosewhohavelivedrighteously.TheGreeksdidnot
65
havethisconsolation.Theirconceptionsofapersonalafterliferemainedvagueand
undevelopedthroughouttheArchaicandClassicalperiods.FormostGreeks,
existenceinanymeaningfulsenseendedwhenthesoul(psych)leftthebodyand
fluttereddowntoHades.ThereissomepunishmentofsinnersinHades,butitis
reservedforthosewhohaveinsultedortriedtotrickthegods.Later,however,
throughtheinfluenceofmysterycults(suchastheworshipofDemeteratEleusis),
andofphilosophicalspeculation,ideasofablissfulafterlifeforthemorallygoodand
eternaltormentforthebadwouldbecomemorehighlydeveloped.
Olympianreligionwasmuchmoreconcernedwiththehereandnowand
propitiationofthegodsforspecialfavorsthroughformalrituals.Asinthe
MycenaeanAge,therewerespecialpriestsandpriestesses,whohadcareofthe

specialprayersandritualsandsacredobjectsthatmadeupthecultofagod.There
wasnever,however,aprofessionalpriestlyclassorcaste,setapartfromtherestof
thepeople,asintheNearEastandEgypt.Greekpriestsandseersdidnotdressor
livedifferentlyfromothercitizens;theirofficialdutiesgenerallytookupverylittle
timeandrequiredlittleinthewayofpreparationandtraining.Priestsand
priestessescamealmostexclusivelyfromtheupperranksofsociety,andalarge
numberofpriesthoodswerehereditarywithinasinglelineage.Priesthoodsincreased
theprestigeoftheleadingfamiliesandthusbuttressedtheirclaimtoleadership
positions,buttheofficeitselfheldlittlepoliticalauthorityoreconomicgain.
COMMUNITY,HOUSEHOLD,ANDECONOMYINTHELATEDARKAGE
In800BCMostGreeksettlementswerestillquitesmall,containingafewdozen
families.Ahandfulofmajorsettlements,suchasArgos,Athens,Corinth,Knossos,
andSparta,probablyheldseveralhundredormorefamilies.Alltheimportantsites
andmostofthesmalleroneshadbeencontinuouslyoccupiedsincetheBronzeAge,
fortheobviousreasonthattheyweregoodplacesforpeopletolive.Withtheir
surroundingfieldsandpastures,theywereforthemostparteconomicallyself
sufficient.
Thefarmerslifeandeventheherdsmanslifewasvillagelife.Theisolatedfarmstead
outinthecountrysidewasrareinearlyGreece;farmerslivedinthevillagesand
walkedouteachmorningtotheirplots,astheystilldotodayinruralareasofGreece.
Greekvillageswereenduring,closeknitcommunities.Familieslivedinthemfor
innumerablegenerations,intermarryingwithotherfamiliesinthevillageandin
othervillagesofthedemos.Thesmallvillagemaybelikenedtoanextendedfamily,
withthevillagechiefasasortoffather.Aswehaveseen,lawwascustomarylaw;on
thewhole,publicdisapprovalsufficedtodeterantisocialbehavior.Difficultdisputes
wereresolvedbythechiefandthesimplecourtofthevillageelders.Survivalofthe
villagedependeduponcooperationamongthefamilies;theycouldnotaffordtolet
badfeelingbetweenneighborsandrelativesdestroythesolidarityofthecommunity.
Socialrelationshipsweresome
66
whatmorecomplexinthelargersettlementsofseveralthousandinhabitants,but
theywerenotqualitativelydifferent.
Theseparatesettlementswithinaterritorialdemoswerelikewiselinkedtogetherby
bondsofkinshipandinterdependence.Villagesmightquarrelwithoneanother,and
theinhabitantsevencometoblows,buttheywereunifiedagainstthreatfrom
outside.Odysseusdescribeshowheandhismen,ontheirwayhomefromtheTrojan
War,attackedandpillagedaseacoasttownofapeoplecalledtheCicones.Insteadof
sailingoffimmediately,asOdysseusordered,themenstayedallnight,feastingon

theplunderedcattle,sheep,andwine.Butinthemeantime,theCiconeswentand
calledtheotherCicones,whoweretheirneighbors...dwellinginland.Thenext
morningthesemenfromtheneighboringvillagescounterattackedandkilleda
numberofOdysseusmenbeforetheycouldescapeintheirships(Odyssey9.3961).
Insidetheboundaryformedbythesettlementsthatsharedthedemosname,aperson
orfamilycouldliveandmovesafely.AlltheCiconesconsideredthemselvesakinto
oneanother,asdidIthacansorAthenians:theyallbelonged.Onceoutsidethe
hometerritoryonewasinthedmosofothers,inanaliencountry,sotospeak,
wheretheprotectionoftribaltiesendedandonewasastranger,withoutrights.The
largestsocialcommunitythataGreekexperiencedwasthedemos.
Thesmallest,andthefundamental,socialunitwasthehousehold(oikos).Theoikos,
nottheindividual,wastheatomofGreeksociety.Thehouseholdwasthecenterofa
personsexistence;theoverridingconcernofeverymemberwasitspreservation,
economicindependence,andsocialstanding.Theprimarymeaningofoikosis
house,whichtotheGreekssignifiednotonlythedwellingitselfbutalsothefamily,
theland,thelivestock,andallotherpropertyandgoods,includingslaves.
TheancientGreeksweremonogamous,andthecoreoftheoikoswasthenuclear
familyoffather,mother,andchildren.Greeksocietywaspatrilinealandpatriarchal.
Thefatherwassupremeinthehouseholdbycustomandlaterbylaw.Descentwas
throughthefather,andonhisdeaththepropertywasdividedequallyamonghis
sons.Althoughdaughtersdidnotinheritdirectly,theyreceivedashareoftheir
parentswealthasaweddingdowry.Anewbridetookupresidenceinthehouseof
herhusband;thustheirchildrenbelongedtothehusbandsoikos,nottohers.
InHomericsociety,theoikoi(plural)oftheleadingfamilieswhicharetheonlyones
describedareresidentiallycompactunits.ThefivemarriedsonsofNestor,basileus
ofthePylians,continuetoresideinthepaternaloikoswiththeirwivesandchildren,
occupyingseparateroomssetofffromthemaindwelling.Moreover,Nestors
marrieddaughtersalsoliveinthefamilycompoundwiththeirhusbands.Itisa
commonpracticeforachieforimportantmantobringhisdaughtershusbandinto
hishouseholdincontradictionofthenormalcustom.Inthisway,thedaughters
birthfamilyretainsherlabor,andalsogainsamanandthechildren.Theclear
purposeofthesepostnuptialresidencecustomsinDarkAgeGreecewastomaximize
thefightingforceandtheworkforceoftheoikos.Inlatertimes,sonswould
normallyleavethehouseandsetuptheirownoikos
67
aftertheymarried,andalldaughterswouldbecomepartoftheirhusbandsoikos.
AnothercommonstrategyforincreasingmanpowerinHomericsocietywasforthe
oikosheadtobegetchildrenbyslavewomeneventhoughthiscouldcausefrictionin

thehousebetweenhusbandandwife.(Laertes,Odysseusfather,didnotsleepwith
theboughtslaveEurycleianursemaidtoOdysseusandthentohissonandso
avoidedhiswifesanger.)Althoughthemalechildrenofslavewomenwereinferior
tothelegitimatesonswithrespecttoinheritancerights,theywereotherwisefull
membersofthefamilyandwerepartofitsfightingandworkforce.Illegitimate
femaleshadthesamestatusastheirlegitimatehalfsisters.Forexample,Priam
marriedoneofhisdaughtersbyaslavewomantoayoungwarriornamedImbrius,
sonofarichman.Tofulfillhisobligationsasasoninlaw,ImbriuswenttoTroy
whenthewarbegan,andwasoutstandingamongtheTrojansandlivedwithPriam,
whohonoredhimequaltohisownchildren(Iliad13.170176).Achiefalso
strengthenedhisoikosbyrecruitingnonkin(ordistantlyrelated)menasretainers,
whoservedthehouseholdinvariouscapacitiesinpeaceandasfightersinwar.Some
ofthesebecame,ineffect,adoptedmembersofthefamily.
FortheelitehouseholdsoftheDarkAgetheaimwastohavethelargestpossible
numberofmembers,eitherbybirth,marriage,oraffiliation.Malesoffightingage
wereespeciallysought.Telemachus,Odysseusson,washelplessagainsthis
motherssuitorsbecausetherewerenokinsmentobackhimup.Astheonlysonof
anonlyson,hehadnobrothers,brothersinlaw,uncles,orcousins;inaddition,the
familysretainersweregoneofftowarwithhisfather.
Allmembersofanoikosdidashareofthework.Thesonsofbasileistendedthe
flocksandherds,themainwealthofthefamily,andalsodidfarmworkandother
householdjobs.Odysseus,Homertellsus,builthisandPenelopesbedroomandbed
byhimselfandnooneelse.Thewivesanddaughtersofbasileisworkedalongside
thewomenslavesinthetasksofspinningandweaving,themostimportantdomestic
activities.Thelaborinputofelitewomeninclothproductionamountedtonearlya
fulltimeoccupation.Thedaughtersdidothertasks,suchasfetchingwaterfromthe
communalfountainorwashingclothesbytheriver.Penelopehasaflockofgeese
thatshetakescareofpersonally.
Mostofthelaborofawealthyoikos,however,wasprovidedbyfemaleandmale
slaves(eitherboughtorcaptured),andbyhiredworkerscalledthtes(singularths),
poorfreemenwhodidhardworkforlowpay.Poorfreewomen,usuallywidows
withoutclosekinfolk,alsoworkedforwages,asspinnersandweaversoras
nursemaids.Homerreferstothiscategoryofworkersasthosewholaborunder
necessity.Themaineconomicresourceforeachofthefamiliesinavillageortown
wasitsancestralplotoffarmlandcalledaklros(pluralklroi).Itisnotknownhow
thesewereoriginallyacquired.BothHomerandearlyhistoricalsourcesindicatethat
inbrandnewsettlements,suchasoverseascolonies,thefounderbasileusdistributed
theklroiamongthenewinhabitantsonamoreorlessequalbasis.Yet,howeverfair
theoriginaldivisionoflandmayhavebeen,inequitiessooncreptin.InHomersome
familiesownmanyklroi,whileoth

68
ersinthedemosarelotlessmen(aklroi).Althoughthereisnowayofdetermining
thepercentagesofeitherthelandrichorthelandlesswithinthepopulations,most
likelybothgroupswereproportionallysmall.Beforearound750,whenlandwas
becomingscarcer,itishighlyprobablethatmostfamiliesownedaklerosthatgave
themasufficientliving.
Theminoritywithoutakleroshadtohireonasthetes,agallinglifenotonlybecause
ofthehardworkforverylittlepay(essentiallytheirkeep),butalsobecauseofthe
indignityofworkingforanothermansfamily,aconditionthatallGreeksabhorred.
ToexpressthedismalnessofexistenceinHades,theghostofAchillestellsOdysseus
thathewouldprefertheindignityoflivingasthehiredhand(ths)ofanotherman,
amanwithoutaklros,whodidnothavemuchofaliving,thantoruleoverallthe
deadwhohaveperished(Odyssey11.489491).Alotlessman,whateverthereasons
forhissituation,wouldekeoutaprecariousexistenceonapoorpatchofunclaimed
marginalland,farfromthedeepsoiledplainlandsandgentlerslopeswherethe
kleroiwerelocated.Aftertheeighthcentury,theshortageofavailablelandwould
becomewidespreadandwouldbeaseriouspointoftensionbetweenthewealthy
fewandagrowingmassofpoorcitizens.
TheeconomiesofordinaryandelitehouseholdsintheDarkAgedifferedprimarily
inscale.Theprominentoikoihadlargeworkforces,whereasaveragehouseholds
hadonlyoneorperhapstwoslavesorhiredhandstosharetheworkload.High
rankingfamiliesalsofarmedproportionatelymoreland,neededtofeedtheirlarger
householdsandtosupplybreadandwineforthefeaststheyprovidedtofriends,
followers,andthecommunityatlarge.AHomericchiefsometimesreceivedasizable
pieceofprimefarmland,calledatemenos,awardedtohimbythepeoplein
recognitionofhisservicestothecommunity.Theagriculturalsurplusesoftheelite,
however,wouldnothaverisenmuchabovetheirownincreasedconsumptionneeds,
sinceatthattimetherewaslittleopportunityfortradeinfoodstuff.
Themajoreconomicdifferencebetweenrichandpoorhouseholdsseemstohave
beeninthenumberofanimalsowned.Odysseuschiefswineherd,Eumaeus,gives
anaccountofhismastersunspeakablygreatlivelihood:
Notwentymentogether
havesomuchwealth;andIwillcountitoffforyou.
Twelveherdsofcattleonthemainland;asmanyflocksofsheep,
asmanydrovesofswine,asmanyrovingherdsofgoats,
bothstrangersandhisownherdsmenpasturethem.
Andhererovingherdsofgoats,eleveninall,
grazeinthebacklands,andgoodmenwatchoverthem.

(Odyssey14.96104)
TothesefiftynineflocksandherdswemayaddthethousandpigsthatEumaeusand
fiveotherswineherdsmanagedonIthaca.Suchlargenumbersareperhapsepic
exaggerations,buttherealityneednothavebeensofaroff,inviewofthe
69
verylargeamountofavailablegrazingland.Anordinaryfarmerwouldhavehada
yokeofoxenforplowing,perhapsamule;nodoubthepasturedsomesheepand
goatsforhisfamilyswool,cheese,andmanure.Buthisoikos,evenwithaslaveor
two,wastoosmalltoherdlargenumbersofanimalsortobuildandmaintainthe
manyhutsandpensrequired.
Onlytheelitecouldcommandthelaborforceforlargescalestockraising.Asa
consequence,theirfamiliesenjoyedanabundanceofthepreferredproteinfrom
meat,aswellasalargesurplusofwool,hides,andfertilizer.Infact,itwasprobably
woolengoodsandleather,producedwithintheoikos,thatpaidfortheimported
metalgoodsandornamentstheDarkAgeelitesvaluedastreasureandusedforgift
exchangesamongthemselves.Themainvalue,however,oflivestockwasasmeatfor
feasts,somethingonlythefewcouldprovideinquantity.
Animalwealthwasthereforeprestigewealth.Theverysightoflargeherdsroving
thepasturesandhillsideswasevidenceoftheownersrankandstatus.Itwasalso
proofofhisprowessasawarrior,sincethemostprestigiouswayofacquiring
animals(aswellastreasure)wasbyraiding.Therewasacertaincircularityinthis
animaleconomy.Chiefsslaughteredlargenumbersoftheiranimalsinorderto
recruitwarriorsforraidsthatwereconductedprimarilyforthepurposeofacquiring
animalsforslaughter.Itwasnotefficientinpurelyeconomicterms,but,asinall
archaicranksocieties,theaimofacquiringwealthwasnottokeepitbuttoexchange
itforinfluenceandgoodreputation.
Thefactthatcattlearetheregularmeasurementoftheworthofotherkindsofobjects
isproofofthehighvalueplacedontheminHomericsociety.Forexample,thefirst
prizeinawrestlingcontestisalargebronzetripod,whichtheAchaeansvaluedat
twelvecattlesworth(Iliad23.702705).Thisdoesnotmean,ofcourse,thatcows,
bulls,andoxenwereusedasactualpayment;rather,inanexchangeofgoodsthe
transactingpartiesmentallyconvertedthevalueoftheobjectsinvolvedintocattleas
thestandardofvalue,apracticecommoninpremonetarysocieties.(InLatin,theroot
ofthewordformoney,pecunia,ispecus,livestock.)
Therefore,thearchaeologicallyvisiblewealthinthetenthandninthcenturies
valuablesmallobjectsdepositedingravesdoesnotbegintomeasurethetrueextent
ofelitewealthanditssocialpower.Nevertheless,theeconomicandsocialgulf

betweenthetopstratumandthemassofsmallfarmerswasnotnearlysowidein800
asithadbeenintheLateBronzeAge.Ifanything,wewouldexpectHomerto
exaggeratethedifferencesinthelifestylesofthechiefsandtheordinaryfolk,but
insteadheshowstheelitelivingnotthatmuchmoreluxuriously.
Thoughtheelitedohavesomethingstheotherscannotafford,suchashorsesand
chariotsandpreciousmetalitems,mostofthedistinctionsaremerelyrelativemore
ofthis,betterofthat.ThedailylivesofHomericchiefsandtheirfamiliesareeasier
andmorepleasant;theyhavemoreservants,and,mostimportant,moreleisuretime.
Yet,allinall,theirwayoflifeismorelikethanunlikethekindoflifeledbythosein
theaveragehouseholds.TheHomericpoemsandthematerialrecordconcurthat
socialclassdistinctionsbetweenthenoblesandthe
70
commonershadnotprogressedveryfarinthecourseofthetenthandninth
centuries.
THEENDOFTHEDARKAGE(c.750700BC)
ItwasintheeighthcenturythatGreeksocietyunderwentrapidchanges.Someof
these,suchasdevelopmentsinartandculture,weretheresultofanaccelerationof
theexistingpatternsofgrowth.Other,deeper,changesreflectaradicalbreakwith
thepast,particularlyineconomicandpoliticalrelationships.Therapid
developmentsthatmarktheendoftheDarkAgehaveearneditthetitleofthe
eighthcenturyrenaissance.Thelasthalfoftheeighthcenturyisalsoviewedby
manyasthebeginningoftheArchaicAge(c.750490BC),theperiodinwhichthe
socialandculturalmovementsthatstartedearlyintheeighthcenturywouldreach
maturity.
PopulationGrowth,LandShortage,andtheRiseofaLandowningAristocracy
Amajorfactorofchangewasawidespreadriseinpopulationintheearlyeighth
century,aftercenturiesofveryslowgrowth.Thereissomedisagreementaboutthe
rateofpopulationgrowth,butthereisgeneralconcurrencethattherewere
considerablymorepeopleinGreeceinthelateeighthcenturyBCthanatanytime
withintheprecedingfourcenturies.Populationwouldcontinuetoriseinmost
regionsforthenexttwohundredyears.Thereasonforthisincreaseremainsoneof
manyunsolvedquestionsofearlyGreekhistory.Asharpupturninpopulationafter
alongperiodofslowgrowthisnotanuncommonhistoricalphenomenon.Certainly
thematerialandsocialconditionsattheendoftheninthcenturywerefavorablefor
populationincrease.

Thepresenceofmanypeoplewheretherehadbeenbutfewagenerationortwo
beforewasboundtohaveagreatimpactonGreeksociety.Apopulartheoryisthat
populationrisewasrelatedtoashiftfromapredominantlyanimaleconomytoa
predominantlyagriculturaleconomy.Tofeedagrowingpopulation,landthathad
traditionallybeenpasturewasconvertedtotheproductionofgrain,amuchmore
effectiveuseoflandintermsofsustenanceyieldperacre.Extensionoffarmlandwas
accompaniedbymoreintensivemethodsoffarmingtoincreaseyieldandvarietyof
crops.Bytheearlyseventhcentury,atanyrate,anagrarianeconomywasinplace,
anditwasdominatedbyanaristocracyoflargelandowners.
Laterwrittensourcesdonotmentionhowtheclassoflargeproprietorscameinto
being,butitisnotdifficulttopiecetogetherwhatmighthavehappened.Itwasmost
certainlytheleadinghouseholdsthatweremostactiveinconvertingpastureland
intoagriculturalland.Althoughgrazinglandwasnominallyopentoalltouse,in
realitythechieftainfamilieshadlongbeforeappropriatedthebestforthemselves,in
particularthemoistgrassymeadows,wheretheircattleand
71
horsesgrazed,whichwerepotentiallythefinestgrainlands.Generationsofusehad
giventhemwhatamountedtoexclusivegrazingrights.Nodoubtthisprior
occupancygavetheleadingfamiliessomelegalrighttoplowandplantthe
traditionalpasturelands.Inanycase,asarablelandbecamemoreprecious,thechiefs
andotherprominentfamilyheadscametoownadisproportionateamountofit.In
thespanoftwoorthreegenerationstheytransformedthemselvesintolargescale
farmers,withsmallerflocksandherds.Therestofthepopulationcontinuedtolive
offtheirsmalltomediumsizefarmplotsandfew(perhapsnowfewer)sheepand
goats.
Thegrowingdisparityinlanddistributionbegantohaveasevereeffectasrising
populationsandthecustomofdividingtheklerosequallyamongsonsmadefamily
plotssmaller.Oneearlysignoflandhungerwastheemigration,startinginthe
secondhalfoftheeighthcentury,ofsubstantialnumbersofpeoplefrommainland
andislandGreeceintosouthernItalyandSicily,beginningalongwaveof
colonizationthatwouldeventuallyplantscoresofnewGreekcommunitiesfrom
SpaintotheshoresoftheBlackSeaandbeyond.Tradeandtheprofitsthatcouldbe
earnedattractedsome,butformostitwasthepromiseofagoodsizedkleroson
goodsoil.Amongthesenodoubtwerelandlessmen;more,however,wereseekinga
betterlivelihoodthantheirlandathomecouldgivethem.
Althoughscarcityoflandwascertainlytheprimarymotivationforemigration,this
scarcitymustbeputintoperspective.NowhereineighthcenturyGreecedidthe
populationapproachthecarryingcapacityoftheland.Infact,thefillinginofthe

countrysidecontinuedthroughtheseventhandintothesixthcentury.Theproblem
wasnotthattherewasnoland,butratherthatthemostproductivelandwas
concentratedinthehandsofaminorityofthefamilies.Sonswhoseinheritedshareof
theirpaternalkleroswasinsufficientforadecentlivelihoodwereforcedeitherto
seekmarginallandinthedemosortoemigrateoverseas.Colonizationandthe
tremendousimpactitwouldhaveonthepolitical,economic,andcultural
developmentofthehomelandduringtheseventhandsixthcenturieswillbe
discussedinthenextchapter.
TradeandCommerce
EarlycolonizationwasconnectedtowideningcontactswiththeNearEastand
westernEurope.Longdistanceseabornetrade,bothamongGreeksandbetween
Greeksandforeigners,hadbeenincreasingslowlyinthetenthandninthcenturies,
butitexpandedconsiderablyintheeighth.TheearliestevidenceforseriousGreek
involvementinoverseastradeisasettlementofEuboeanGreeks,around825,atan
internationaltradingpostofAlMinainnorthernSyria.AGreektradingcolonywas
foundedshortlyafter800atPithecusaeinsouthernItaly.Bytheearlyseventh
century,GreekshadonceagainbecomeimportantparticipantsintheAegeanandin
thewiderMediterraneantrade,andwerecompetingwiththePhoenicians,whohad
longbeentheleadingseamerchantsintheMediterranean.
72
AsithadintheLateBronzeAge,theneedforrawmaterials,especiallymetal,drove
longdistancetrade.Importsofcopperandtin,iron,andgoldincreasedconsiderably
fromthelatereighthcenturyon,aswellasofrareandexpensivematerialssuchas
ivory,amber,dyes,andobjectsmadeofthese.Inreturn,Greekswereexporting
largerquantitiesoffinepotteryandmetalworkabroadandprobablyalsofine
woolengoods,cattlehides,andleather.Productionofoliveoilandwineforoverseas
marketswouldbegininthelaterseventhcentury,followedstilllaterbyexportsof
buildingstoneandmarble,forwhichGreecewasfamous,andsilver,whichwas
abundantinregionssuchasAtticaandThrace.
TradeatthelocalorregionallevelwithinGreecewaslargelycontainedwithinafew
hundredsquaremiles.Craftsgoodswouldhaveconsistedmainlyofplainpottery
andutilitarianmetalmanufactures,suchasironaxesandspearpoints,aswellas
somelocallymadeluxuryitemsforthewealthy.Alargevarietyoflocalproduce
wouldhavebeenexchanged.Besidesthestaplesofgrain,wine,andoliveoil,
producerswouldhavebarteredhoney,fruit,andcheeses;acoworgoat;acatchof
fish;oraloadoflumber.Aswithforeigntrade,theprimarymeansoftransportwas
bysea.Hesiod,forexample,assumesthatafarmerwillputpartofhissurplus
productioninaboatandsailafairdistanceforprofit.Goodswerealsohauledon

land,alongroughwagontracksorbysteepmuleandfootpathsthroughrugged
passes.Inthisway,localandregionaleconomieswereabletoproduceandto
distributebythemselvesallthatwasnecessarytosatisfythewantsandneedsof
ordinarypeople.
Farmers,craftsmen,sailors,shipbuildersandoutfitters,andcarterswereamong
thosewhofoundneweconomicopportunitiesinthesteadyincreaseofcommerce
andtradeintheeighthandseventhcenturies.Themainbeneficiaries,however,were
thebiglandholders,whocouldproducelargesurplusesforthemarketandcould
subsidizethecostsandbearthelossesoflongseavoyages.Forthesewealthy
families,costlyforeignanddomesticmanufacturescontinuedtobeemblemsof
status,whosefunctionwasalmostexclusivelytoimpressandtobegivenaway,just
asintheninthandearliercenturies.Goldcupsandsilverplates,bronzetripods,and
horsesweretheritualcoinageofelitesocialrelationshipsandwouldremainsoeven
aftertheintroductionofsilvercoinsaround600.
TheAlphabetandWriting
TheincreasedcontactswiththeEastwereresponsibleforthemostsignificant
culturalachievementofthelateDarkAge,theGreekalphabet.Greeksborrowed
lettersfromthePhoenicianalphabet,anorthernSemiticscript,torepresentthe
consonantsoundsofGreek.TheyusedotherPhoenicianletterstorepresentthe
vowelsounds,whichthePhoenicianalphabetdidnothave,andthuscreatedthefirst
trulyphoneticalphabet.BecausetheearliestmaterialevidencefortheGreekalphabet
comesfromtheeighthcentury,itisgenerallybelievedthatitwasdevelopedaround
800.ThereasonstheGreeksdecidedtohaveawritingsystematthistimeandnot
earlierarestilldebated.Someproposethatthealphabetwasadoptedfortheexpress
purposeofwritingdownepicpoetry,whereasothers
73
clingtotheolderexplanationthatitwasfirstusedforcommercialandother
utilitarianpurposes.Eithertheoryisplausible,althoughsofarnospecimenof
eighthcenturycommercialwritinghasbeenfound.
TheearliestknownexamplesofconnectedGreekwordsarebitsofepictypeverse
scratchedonvasesanddatedtothesecondhalfoftheeighthcentury.Thesegraffiti
donotprovethatthealphabetwasdesignedforpreservingoralpoetry,although
theydoshowthattheepicsofHomercouldhavebeenwrittendownataboutthe
sametimeastheircomposition.Whatevertheinitialmotive,oncewritingwas
establisheditwasusedtorecordnotonlypoetrybutmanyotherthingsbesides.The
earliestspecimenofthecivicuseofwritingisastoneinscriptionoflawsfromDreros
inCrete,carvedaround650BC.WritingspreadquicklythroughouttheGreek
speakingworld,notasonestandardalphabetbutasnumerouslocalscripts,with

variationsinletterformamongneighboringlocales.TheGreekalphabetoftwenty
fourletterswasahugeadvanceoverthecumbersomeLinearBsyllabicsystemof
eightysevensigns.Becauseeachletterrepresentedasinglespokensound,itwas
fairlysimpletolearntoreadandeventowriteGreek.Sincereadingandwriting
wereaccessibletoallandfairlyeasilylearned,literacycouldnotbecomean
instrumentofpowerandcontrolbytherulersoverthepeople,asitwasinEgyptand
othercontemporaryempires,whereliteracywasanarcaneskillconfinedtoanelite
groupofofficials,priests,andscribes.
TheimpactofliteracyonGreekculturaldevelopmentwasenormous.Manyofthe
achievementsforwhichtheGreeksaremostfamoushistory,drama,philosophy,
mathematics,science,medicine,law,andscholarshipcouldnothaveevolved
withoutwriting.LaterGreeksreverentlypreservedthewritingsofearlierGreeksand
heldconstantdialoguewiththemindsofthepast.Progresstowardgeneralliteracy,
however,wasslow.Greeceintheeighthandmuchoftheseventhcenturywas
almostascompletelyoralauralasithadbeenintheearlierDarkAge.Infact,onlya
smallpercentageofancientGreekswouldeverreadorwritetoanygreatextent.
OralitycoexistedwithliteracythroughoutGreekhistory;evenintheClassicaland
Hellenisticperiods,whenliteracywasmostwidespread,mostinformationpassed
frommouthtoear.
ArtandArchitecture
Developmentinartisticexpression,ofwhichpotteryisthebestexample,asusual,is
anotherindexofthecreativeenergyoftheLateGeometricperiod.Thestylistic
transitionfromMiddleGeometricpottery(c.850750)toLateGeometric(c.750700)
wassmooth,butclearlyrepresentsanewdirectioninvasepainting.Aswehave
seen,asidefromshowinganoccasionalhorseorabird,or,evenrarer,ahuman
figure,Greekvaseswereessentiallywithoutimagesfromtheeleventhtotheeighth
century.Picturesofanimalsandhumanssuddenlybecamefrequentafter800BC.
Themajordecorativeinnovation,however,wasthereappearance,afteranabsenceof
fourhundredyears,ofgroupscenesthattoldakindofstory,suchasbattles,
shipwrecks,funerals,andchariotprocessions.
74
a b c Figure2.4a.Examplesofgraffitioneighthcenturyvases.
Inscription(c)reads:IamthedrinkingcupofNestor,goodtodrinkfrom.Whoever
drinksthiscup,immediatelythedesirewillseizehimofbeautifulcrowned
Aphrodite.Thereadableportionofinscription(a)says:Hewho,ofallthedancers,
nowdancesmostgracefully[?willwinthispot?].Inscription(b)simplyidentifies
theowner:IamthecupofQoraqos.Figure2.4b.LateGeometricvase,c.740BC,
fromAthens,onwhichexample(a)wasinscribed.

75
InAtticpottery,whichhadlongbeenthestylesetter,thisdevelopmentoccurredjust
astheGeometricstylereachedapeakofcomplexity.Onamassiveamphorafrom
about750BC,commissionedasagravemarkerforawealthywoman,asceneofthe
womanlyinginstateoccupiestheprominentareaofthebellyofthemonumental
vase,whiletherestofthesurfaceiscoveredbyamasterfulcompositionofabstract
geometricdesigns.Thesilhouettefiguresofthecorpseandmournersarethemselves
geometricinexecution,asarethebandsofrepeating,identicaldeerandbirdsonthe
neck(seeFig.2.5).YetitiscleareveninthisbravuradisplayoftheGeometricstyle
thatthepictureisthefocalelement.Inevitably,staticgeometricshapesbecamemere
decorativebordersforthepictorialnarrative,whichsooncoveredmostofthepottery
surface.Astherepertoireofsubjectsandscenesexpanded,thefiguresofanimals,
humans,andobjectsbecameincreasinglymorenaturalistic.Anotherartistic
innovationwasthedepictionofscenesfromGreeklegends,paintedonvasesand
engravedonmetalwork.Thesescenesinauguratedtherichandlastingtraditionof
pictorialnarrativeinpaintingandsculpture.Theunrestrainedexuberance(ifnot
alwaysexcellence)ofthisnewartisticspiritisalsoevidentintheincreaseof
distinctiveregional,local,andevenindividualstyles,ascraftsmenfromallover
Greeceexperimentedwith,mixed,copied,adapted,andabandoned,inrapid
successionbothhomegrownandimportedstylesandtechniques.NearEastern
influenceonartappearsespeciallyprominentfromaround730or720BCandfor
aboutacenturythereafter.Liketheborrowingofthealphabet,theorientalizing
periodofGreekartexemplifiestheimportanceofNearEasternmodelsinthe
developmentofGreekculture.Asinthecaseofwriting,whattheGreekslearned
fromtheEasttheyincreasinglytransformedintoadistinctivelyHellenicexpression.
Themonumentaltemple,whichisthesignatureGreekarchitecturalform,emerged
intheeighthcentury.Theearliestknownexamplesfromaround800BCweresmall,
withmudbrickwalls,woodencolumns,andthatchedroofs,andlookedverymuch
likeregularhouses.ArectangulartempletoHeraontheislandofSamos,constructed
afewdecadeslater,wasthefirsttomakeacleardistinctionbetweendivineand
humanhouses.Althoughstillmadeofthesamematerialsasearliermodels,itwas
severaltimeslarger:100feetlongcomparedwith25feet.When,sometimelaterin
thecentury,awoodencolonnadeorperistylewasbuiltallaroundthelongbut
narrowshell,thebuildingassumedtheformoftheGreektempleasweknowit.By
700thereweredozensofmajorandminortemples,builtalongsimilarlines,inall
partsoftheGreekworld.
Theappearanceoflargetemplesshowsthatpeoplewantedtoandwereableto
spendtheirwealth,time,andlaboronprojectsthatgavehonortothewhole
community.InAthensatthistime,expensivevotiveofferingsplacedinthetemples
ofthegodsmostnotablybronzetripodsandcauldrons,figurines,andbronzedress

pinsgreatlyexceedtheamountofmetalwealthfoundinupperclassburials.Giving
tothecommunityratherthanexpressingfamilyprideinthetraditionalmannerwas
anewwayofconspicuousdisplaybytheelite;apatternwasestablishedthatwasto
holdthroughoutthelifeoftheGreekcitystate.
Anumberofthesanctuarieswerelocatedinthecountrysideawayfromthe
populationcenters.Manyseethisasasignofgrowingcivicunity,adeliberate
76
a bFigure2.5a.LargeLateGeometricgraveamphorafromtheDipylon
cemeteryatAthens.Figure2.5b.Thefuneralscenefromthesamevase.
77
Figure2.6.AsmallbronzestatuettefromthemideighthcenturyBC,depictinga
manandacentaurfighting;verypossiblyarepresentationofthemythofHeracles
andthecentaurNessus.
strengtheningofthereligiousbondsforthepurposeofmorefirmlyunitingthe
demos.Religiousprocessionsfromthecentraltowntotheruralsanctuaries
symbolicallyconnecteditsinhabitantswiththeinhabitantsoftheoutlyingvillages
andhamlets.Thetemplesatthebordersoftheterritoryalsoservedtostakeoutthe
territoryofthedemosagainstanyterritorialclaimsfromaneighboringdemos.
Thickbrickandstonedefensivewalls,anothermajorarchitecturalfeatureofGreek
towns,firstappearinGreekAsiaMinorandtheAegeanislands.OldSmyrna(later
Izmir)hadanimpressivecircuitwallbyaround850;Iasus,downthecoastinCaria,
waswalledbefore800.AnumberofCycladicislandsiteswerealsofortifiedinthe
ninthcentury.Onthemainland,however,theearliestcircuitwallsdatetoalittle
before700.Theincreasingnumbersofdefensivewallspossiblyindicatethatallout
warfarebetweencommunities,asopposedtoraidingexpeditions,wasgrowingmore
frequent,andalsoattesttothegrowingwealthandcommunalprideofthe
communities.
Panhellenism
Theeighthcenturyalsosawtheriseofreligioussanctuariesandfestivalsthatwere
notmerelylocalbutwerePanhellenic(pan=all),attractingworshippersfromall
overtheGreekworld.Panhellenicshrinesandfestivalscelebratedandreinforcedthe
ideathatGreekseverywherebelongedtoasinglecultural
78

groupsharingthesameheritage,language,customs,andreligion.Themostfamous
earlyPanhellenicsanctuarieswerethoseofZeusandHeraatOlympia,ofApolloand
ArtemisatDelos,andtheoracles(placesofdivineprophecy)attheshrinesofZeusat
DodonaandofApolloatDelphi.Allthesesites,aswellasothers,showevidenceof
intermittentcultactivityfromtheLateBronzeAgeon,buttheyemergedas
Panhelleniccentersonlyintheeighthcentury.Eventuallytheywouldbecomelarge
complexesoftemples,treasurehouses(forthedepositingofgifts),andholy
precincts.
TheworshiperswhocametothePanhellenicfestivalsparticipatedincommonrituals
andsacrificestothegods,andatsomesanctuariestheytookpartinathleticcontests
aswell.Thefirstandthemostprestigiousoftheseathleticgameswerethoseheld
everyfouryearsatthegreatfestivalofZeusatOlympia,aratherremotesitein
northwesternPeloponnesus.Thegameswereinaugurated,accordingtolaterGreek
computations,in776BC.Atfirst,OlympiaandtheOlympiangamesattracted
contestantsandvisitorsonlyfromthevicinity,butbytheendofthecenturycostly
dedicationswerebeingdepositedinthesanctuariesofZeusandHerabySpartans,
Athenians,Corinthians,andArgives.Bythesixthcentury,contestantsandspectators
wouldbedrawnfromallovertheGreekworld.
TheriseofPanhellenismcoincidedwithincreasedcontactwiththeEasternworld,
whichmadetheGreeksmoreconsciousoftheculturaldifferencesbetween
themselvesandnonGreeks.WhenHomerdescribestheCarians,alliesoftheTrojans,
hecallsthembarbarophnoi(strangespeaking),indicatingtheoddsoundofforeign
languagestoGreekears.Thisisthefirstoccurrenceofthewordbarbaros,whichthe
Greekslateremployedasthegeneraltermforforeigner.ContrastbetweenGreeks
andbarbarianswouldbemoststronglyexpressedintheearlyfifthcentury,when
theGreeksunitedtofightagainstthePersianempire.
TheHeroicRevival
CloselyrelatedtoPanhellenismwereactivities,atboththelocalandnationallevels,
thatcenteredaroundtherecoveryoftheworldoftheBronzeAgeancestors.Quite
suddenly,around750,Greekseverywherebegantoexpresstheirconnectiontothe
heroicpastinnewanddramaticways.Numerousancienttombs(mostlyMycenaean)
thathadbeenignoredthroughouttheDarkAgebegantoreceivevotiveofferings,an
indicationthattheiranonymousinhabitantswerenowworshipedasheroes.Other
kindsofherocultscameintobeingduringthelateeighthcentury.Theywere
celebratednotatgraves,butatnewshrinessetupinhonoroflegendaryheroic
figures,forexample,theprecinctssacredtoAgamemnonatMycenaeandto
MenelausandHelennearSparta.Theimpetusbehindherocultswasthebeliefthat
thegreatmenandwomenoftheHeroicAgehadpowerindeathtoprotectandto

helpthepeople.Likegods,theyweregivenanimalsacrificesandotherdivine
honors,thoughonasmallerscale.
WealthyGreeksofthelatereighthcenturyalsoexpressedanurgetoconnectwiththe
pastthroughheroicstyleburials,mostnotablyinAttica,Euboea,and
79
Cyprus.Theseburialssomewhatresemblethefuneralsofheroesinepicpoetry.Asin
thefuneralofPatroclus(theclosehetairosofAchilles)intheIliad,thecorpsewas
crematedandthebonesputinabronzeurn;weaponswereplacedinthegrave,and
occasionallysacrificedhorses.Alsoaroundthistimevasesdepictingeventsfromthe
HeroicAgebegintoturnupinthesegraves.Thereisadditionalevidencefrom
Athensthatwealthyfamilieshadbeguntogrouptheirgravesinenclosuresthatnot
onlyheldcontemporarygravesbutalsotookinMycenaeangraves,asiftoconvert
theinhabitantsoftheancientburialsintofamilyancestors.Allthissuggeststhatthe
leadingfamilieswereproclaimingdescentfromtheheroesofold.
***
Astheeleventhtotheeighthcenturiescomemoreclearlyintoview,itbecomes
increasinglyapparentthattheDarkAgewasthecradleofthecitystatesocietyand
culturethatwastofollow.ThebasicstructuresandinstitutionsoflaterGreeksociety
werefirmlyinplacewellbefore800BC.Andso,theemergenceofGreece,duringthe
eighthcentury,fromtheDarkAgeintotherenaisssanceoftheArchaicperiod,which
notsolongagowasseenasasuddenandrevolutionaryphenomenon,appearsnow
morelikearapidevolutioninresponsetorapidlychangingconditions.Theswift
transformationofthetraditionalchieftaingovernmentintothecitystategovernment
andtheturbulenthistoryoftheearlycitystatesarethesubjectsofthenextchapter.
TRANSLATIONS
Blanco,Walter.1992.TheHistories,fromHerodotus:TheHistories,WalterBlancoand
JenniferRoberts,eds.NewYork:W.W.Norton.
Lattimore,Richmond.1951.TheIliadofHomer.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.
Lattimore,Richmond.1965.TheOdysseyofHomer.NewYork:Harper&Row.
LattimorestranslationsarefaithfultotheoriginalGreek,andcapturethestyleand
rhythmoftheGreekepicinsimple,straightforwardEnglish.
SUGGESTEDREADINGS

Burkert,Walter.1985.GreekReligion.Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress.A
classichistoryofancientGreekreligionfromtheMinoanMycenaeanAgetothe
Hellenisticperiod.
Coldstream,J.N.1977.GeometricGreece.NewYork:St.MartinsPress.A
comprehensivepresentationandanalysisofthearchaeologicalevidencefrom900to
700BC.
Edwards,MarkW.1987.Homer,PoetoftheIliad.BaltimoreandLondon:Johns
HopkinsUniversityPress.Areliable,uptodategeneraltreatmentofHomericpoetry
andtheepicstyle,withcommentariesonselectedbooksoftheIliad.
80
Finley,MosesI.1978.TheWorldofOdysseus.2nded.NewYork:VikingPress.First
publishedin1954,thisbookrevolutionizedthestudyofDarkAgesocietyand
institutions.
Hurwit,JeffreyM.1985.TheArtandCultureofEarlyGreece,1100480B.C.Ithaca,N.Y.:
CornellUniverityPress,chaps.13.Ahighlyreadableandinsighfuldiscussionof
DarkAgeartinrelationtothechangingsocialscene.Chapters4to6arealso
recommendedreadingforartandcultureintheArchaicperiod.
Lord,AlbertBates.1991.EpicSingersandOralTradition.Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell
UniversityPress.Acollectionofarticlesandpapers(somenotpublishedbefore),
offeringanoverviewoforaltraditionalepicsongsandsingers,spanningthelong
careerofoneofthefoundersoforalformulaictheory.
Morris,IanandBarryPowell,eds.1997.ANewCompaniontoHomer.Leiden:Brill.A
valuablecollectionofthirtynewarticles,coveringallareasofHomericstudies,
literaryandhistorical,writtenbyspecialistsforanonspecialistaudience.
Snodgrass,A.M.1971.TheDarkAgeofGreece:AnArchaeologicalSurveyoftheEleventh
totheEighthCenturies.Edinburgh:UniversityofEdinburghPress.Remainsthe
standardtreatmentofthearchaeologicalevidenceforthewholeoftheDarkAge.
81
ARCHAICGREECE(c.700500BC)
TheseventhandsixthcenturiesbelongtotheperiodcalledtheArchaicAge(c.750
490BC).Duringthosetwohundredyearsthepaceofchangeanddevelopment
acceleratedrapidly,continuingandsurpassingtheprogressmadeintheeighth
centuryasGreeceemergedfromitsDarkAge.Onceratherneglectedbyhistoriansas

beingmerelythepreludetothegloriousandtragicfifthandfourthcenturiesthe
ClassicalperiodtheArchaicperiodisseennowasthedecisiveformativetimeofthe
intellectual,cultural,andpoliticalachievementsofGreecesGoldenAge.
Thecitystateformofgovernment,whichcameintobeingwiththedemographicand
economicchangesoftheeighthcentury,grewtomaturityduringtheseventhand
sixth.Asteadymovementofoverseascolonization,startinginthelatereighth
centuryandcontinuingintothesixth,spreadtheGreeklanguageandcultureacross
thelandsoftheMediterraneanandBlackseas.Trade,helpedbycolonization,
dispersedGreekgoodsfarbeyondthelimitsknowntotheBronzeAgetraders.
Literatureandartflourished;newgenresofartisticandintellectualexpressionwere
invented.ThegreatPanhellenicshrines,festivals,andoraclesgrewinimportance,
furthernourishingtheidealoftheculturalunityofallGreeksevenastheGreek
worldexpandedtofardistantshores.WithintheGreekcitystates,newideasbegan
toform,twoofwhichwouldshapethehistoryofthewesternworld:arationalview
oftheuniverse,whicheliminatedsupernaturalcausesfornaturaleventsand
replacedthemwithscientificexplanations,andtheconceptofdemocratic
government,inwhichallmemberswereequalunderthelawsandthelawswere
madebythepeopledirectlybymajorityrule.
TheArchaicperiodalsohaditsdarkside.Warsofonedemosagainstanother
becamemuchmorefrequent,andwarfareitselfbecamemuchmorelethal.Worse,
civilstrifewithinademosbecamecommonplace.Theleaders,withtheirarmed
followers,continuallyquarreledandfoughtamongstthemselves.Widening
economicinequalitycausedmuchhumanmiseryandproducedserioustensions
betweenthefewrichandthemanypoor,whichoccasionallyeruptedinactualclass
82
warfare.Politicalinstabilitygaverisetoanewtypeofleader,thetyrant,whose
rulershipinturnledtofurtherturmoil.Allinall,however,thegoodoutweighedthe
bad.Forallitsproblems,theArchaicperiodwasoneofgrowingconfidenceand
prosperity;byitsendtheGreekstateshadmadeprogresstowardsolvingtheir
internalproblemsandtheircitizenswerelivingtogetherinrelativeharmony.
SOURCESFORTHESEVENTHANDSIXTHCENTURIES
EventhoughweareseparatedfromtheArchaicAgeby2700years,wecan
apprehendwhatwashappeningallacrosstheGreekworldastheeighthcentury
renaissanceturnedintotheGreekmiracle,asithasbeencalled,oftheseventhand
sixthcenturies.Forthefirsttimewecanspeakofactualevents,withdatesand
names,andevenconnecteventsintoacoherenthistoricalnarrative.Thatispossible
becausebeginningintheseventhcenturytheGreeksproducedcopiousamountsof
textswrittenonpapyrus(thepaperofantiquity),whichwerelaboriouslycopied

andrecopiedbyhanduntiltheinventionoftheprintingpressinthefifteenthcentury
AD.
OnlyasmallfractionofwhattheancientGreekswrotehassurvivedthecenturiesof
selectionandchance.Thatasmuchsurvivedasitdid(enoughtofillseverallibrary
shelves)istheultimatetestimonyofthecontinuingvalueofGreekliteraturetothe
westernworld.ThewritingsoftheArchaicAgedidnotfareaswellastheliterature
ofthelaterperiods.OtherthantheworksofHomerandHesiod,onlybitsandpieces
ofthevolumesofpoetryandphilosophicaltreatisesfromtheseventhandsixth
centurieshavecomedowntous.Someofthefragmentsarepreservedasquotations
intheextantwritingsoflaterGreeks,whogreatlyadmiredthepoetsandthinkersof
theArchaicperiod.OtherfragmentscomefrompapyrioftheHellenisticandRoman
periodsluckilypreservedinthehotsandsofEgypt.Thoughpitifullyfew,the
preciousremnantsofArchaicliteratureprovidevaluableinsightsintocontemporary
lifeandthoughtduringtheseventhandsixthcenturies.
Mostofourinformationabouttheeventsoftheperiodisfoundintheworksofthe
laterhistorians,whohadsomeaccesstoearlierwritingsandrecords.Theywrote
manyyearslater,however,andtheiraccountsareoftenuntrustworthybecausemuch
oftheirknowledgewasbasedonorallytransmittedlegends.Publicandprivate
inscriptionscarvedonstoneandtheimagesandlettersoncoins,whichwerefirst
mintedinthesixthcenturyBC,supplementtheevidencegivenbytheancient
historians.Theamountofinscriptionalmaterial,however,issmallbeforethefifth
century.
ThearchaeologicalevidencefollowstheupwardtrajectorybegunintheGeometric
period.Thereisasizableincreaseinthenumberofmanufactureditemsfound,a
naturalresultofthegrowthinpopulationandwealth.Architecturalfindsarealso
muchmorenumerous.Moreover,becausethetemplesandothermonumental
buildingswerenowconstructedentirelyofstone,muchmorecan
83
belearnedfromtheirruins.Animportantnewsourceofevidenceissculpture:life
sizeandlargerfiguresinstoneandbronze.
BycomparisonwiththeClassicalperiod,theevidencefortheseventhandsixth
centuriesisingeneralrathermeager.Despitethelargegapsinourknowledge,
however,itispossibletoputtogetherareasonablyclearpictureofGreeksocietyand
cultureintheearlycitystates.
THEFORMATIONOFTHECITYSTATE(POLIS)

Thecitystateformofgovernmentcameintoexistenceduringtheeighthcentury.By
theearlyseventhcenturydozensofGreekcommunitiesallacrosstheGreekworld,
fromIoniaintheeasttoSicilyandsouthernItalyinthewest,hadformedthemselves
intocitystates.Thepolis,astheGreekscalledit,servedasthecharacteristicsocial
andpoliticalorganizationforGreeksuntilatleasttheRomanperiod.Asanideal,the
polishashadenormoussignificanceinthehistoryoflaternations.Theverywords
politicalandpoliticsarederiveddirectlyfrompolis.
Whatisacitystate?Asimplifieddefinitionis:ageographicalareacomprisingacity
anditsadjacentterritory,whichtogethermakeupasingle,selfgoverningpolitical
unit.TheessentialelementsofthecitystateswereinplaceduringthelaterDarkAge.
ThecapitalcitiesofwhatbecamecitystatesexistedallthroughtheDarkAge,and
mostofthemhadbeenthemajorcentersoftheirregionsduringtheMycenaean
period.Theterritorialcommunity,thedmos,appearsfullyevolvedintheHomeric
epics,andthereforetheunitaryconceptofthelandandthepeoplemustgoback
generationsbeforeHomer.Withinthedemostherewasacollectiveidentification
theIthacans,thePyliansandacommunalworshipofthesamegods.Thetwo
primarygovernmentalorgansofthecitystate,theassemblyofmenoffightingage
andthecouncilofelders,appearfirmlyestablishedintheHomericchiefdoms.All
thatwaslackingtomakethedmoscommunitiesof800BCintothepolisstatesof700
BCwerecertainnecessaryformalities:formalpoliticalunificationofthedemosand
thecreationofacentralgovernment.
PoliticalUnification(Synoecism)
Inallcitystates,fromancientMesopotamiatoRenaissanceEurope,thecapitalcityis
thefocalpointofthestate.TheoriginalmeaningoftheGreekwordpolis(plural
poleis),wastownorcity,andthatishowitisusedintheHomericepics.Tothe
Greeksofthecitystateperiod,however,thepoliscomprisednotonlythecapitalcity
ortown(polis)butitsadjacentterritoryaswell.Allthemembersofthatterritory,
boththosewholivedinthecapitalandthosewholivedinthecountryside,were
calledpolitai(membersofthepolis)asiftheyalllivedtogetherinthepolis(city).
LaterGreeksreferredtotheprocessofpoliticalunificationofstatesassynoikismos,
whichmaybelooselytranslatedascomingtolivetogether,ormorelit
84
erally,havingtheoikoitogether.Synoecism,tousetheanglicizedterm,wasthe
processbywhicheverytown,village,andhamletofademosacceptedasingle
politicalcenter.Whateverlocalautonomytheyhadformerlyenjoyed,whatever
freedomofactiontheyhadexercisedseparatefromthecapitalandtheother
settlements,wasgivenup.Moreover,theyidentifiedthemselvesbythenameofthe
capitalcity.Thus,allthosewholivedintheterritoryofAttica,ofwhichAthenswas

thecapitalcity,referredtothemselves(andwerereferredtobyothers)asthe
Athenians,eveniftheylived25milesfromthecityofAthens.
Synoecismtookdifferentforms,dependingonthesizeoftheterritory.Synoecismof
asmalldemosmadeupofasinglemaintownanditsadjacentplain,holdinga
coupleofsubsidiaryvillages,wasaverysimpleprocess.Inthosecases,polis(the
state)andpolis(thetown)werealmostidenticalentities.Forexample,thepolis(city
state)ofSicyonoccupiedasmallplainsregion(Sicyonia)ofabout140squaremiles,
whicheveninthefifthcenturycontainedonlyafewvillagesinadditiontothemain
towncalledSicyon.Becauseeveryonelivedwithinafewmilesofeveryoneelse,and
mostofthefewhundredfamiliesinthedemoswereinterrelated,drawingthem
togetherasasinglepoliticalunitwasmerelyamatterofmakingformaltheancient
tiesofkinshipandneighborlinessandpreciselydefiningtheterritorialboundariesof
thedemos.Mostoftheseveralhundredcitystatesthatcameintoexistenceduring
theArchaicperiodwereoftheSicyonvariety,asingletownanditssmallplain;the
majority,infact,wereevensmallerinterritorythanSicyon.
Synoecismoftheregionalterritories,thosethatcontainedseveralimportanttowns
andvillagesbesidesthecentraltown,wasamorecomplexprocessandisnotwell
understood.Scholarlyopinionisthattheunificationoftheregionalstateswasa
drawnoutdevelopment,beginningpossiblyintheninthcenturyandcrystallizing
betweenabout750and700.Archaeologyprovidesahintofhowreligionmayhave
beenusedtopromoteunitywithinregions.AswesawinChapter2,itisthoughtthat
duringtheeighthcenturytemplesandshrinestothegodsandheroesofaregional
demoswerebuiltinthecountrysidetoconnectthecentersymbolicallytothe
outlyingvillages;religiousprocessionsfromthemainpolistotheoutersanctuaries
wouldhavefosteredandstrengthenedthesenseofbeingasinglenation.
Insomeregions,unificationwasvoluntaryandpeaceful,asinMegarisunderthe
leadershipofMegaraandofCorinthiaunderCorinth.Thereisevidence,however,
thatinothermainlandregionsintimidationandevenforcewasusedtointegratethe
townsandvillagesintoasinglepolis.TheoriginalfourvillagesofSpartaabsorbed
thevillageofAmyclae,3milessouth,intotheunifiedSpartanpolisagainstitswill,
andreducedthemoredistantsettlementsofLaconiatoadependentstatus.
Synoecismwasalsoincompleteinsomeregions.Argos,forexample,neverfully
succeededinunifyingthewholeofthelargeregionofArgolis,andanumberof
small,separate,independentcitystatescontinuedtoexistintheplainsoutsideofthe
Argiveplain.EvenwithintheplainofArgositselfsomevillagesretainedagooddeal
oflocalautonomy.Otherregionswereneverunitedintoasinglepolis.Although
Thebeshadbeentheprincipalsettlementinthelarge
85

fertileregionofBoeotiasincetheEarlyBronzeAge,theThebanscontrolledonlytheir
localareaandhadtodealonmoreorlessequaltermswithtenotherdistrictpoleis.
Asthisbriefsketchshows,therewasnosinglemodelofsynoecism.Eachregion
experienceditsownkindofcitystatedevelopmentwhichwasdeterminedbylocal
factorsthatarehiddenfromus.Theimportantfactisthatbyaround700BCthe
permanentboundariesoftheGreekpoleiswereprettywellestablished.Ofcourse
adjustmentscontinuedtobemadehereandthereasmallpolisabsorbedbyalarger
neighboringpolisbutthepoliticalmapof700BCremainedmuchthesame
throughouttheArchaicperiodandbeyond.
THEETHNOS
ThehistoryofGreecebetween700and400BCwasprimarilythehistoryofcitystates,
fortheywerethemainmakersofGreekhistory.TherewerehugeareasofGreece,
however,thathadadifferentformofpoliticalorganization.TheGreeknamefor
theseregionswasethnos,variouslytranslatedastribe,nation,orpeople.An
ethnoswasaregionalterritoryandpeople(admos)withoutasingleurbancenterora
centralgovernmentorformalpoliticalunion.
ThecitystateGreekstendedtoregardtheethn(plural)aspoliticallyandculturally
backward.Infact,theethnoftheseventhandevensixthcenturieswereatastage
verymuchlikethatoftheregionaldmoiintheDarkAge.Eachethnoshadastrong
senseofbeingasinglepeopleoccupyingaspecificterritory.Thepeoplewereunited
inworshipofthegodsoftheethnos.Theyhadinstitutionsforreachingcommon
decisionsandforactingasaunit.Nosingletown,however,wastheofficialcapitalof
theethnos;and,asinHomericsociety,unitedactionoccurredinfrequently,mostlyin
situationsofcommondefenseagainstanoutsideenemy.Withinthisgeneral
description,however,theethnevariedconsiderably.Boeotia,forexample,wasa
singleethnicregionwithseparatesmallcitystates.Itdifferedfromthesynoecized
regionofAtticainonesignificantway:alltheinhabitantsofallthetownsand
villagesofAtticaconsideredthemselvesAthenians,whereasinBoeotiathey
identifiedthemselvesasThebans,orPlataeans,orOrchomeniansfirst,andonly
secondarilyasBoeotians.
WhatreallymatteredinancientGreecewascohesivemilitaryforce.TheAthenians
couldcallonthemanpowerof1000squaremiles,whereastheThebanshadonlythe
menwholivedinthecityofThebesanditsfewsquaremilesofadjoiningplainland.
TobemilitarilypowerfultheThebanshadtoformallianceswiththeirneighboring
poleis,whomightormightnotcontributetroopstosomemilitaryenterpriseorseeit
throughtototheend.TheethneofthePeloponnesusArcadia,Achaea,andElis
weresimilarlydividedintoseparate,smallpoleisandweresimilarlysecondrank
powersuntiltheyformedeffectivealliancesamongtheirconstituentcitystates.

ApurerformoftheethnosexistednorthofthePeloponnesus.Thoseregions
containednolargeurbancenters;thepopulationlivedmostlyinsmallvillages
86
spreadthinlyacrosstheterritory.Thedistrictswerenotsynoecizedintopoleis,but
rathereachvillagewasindependentandautonomous.Evenanethnosofthistype,
however,hadsomekindofcommunalgovernmentthroughwhichitcouldtake
concertedactionintimesofnationalcrisis.ThefifthcenturyhistorianThucydides
givesarevealingglimpseofhowwellalargeethnoscouldrespondasaunit.In426
BCtheAthenians,whowereagreatpoweratthetime,werecampaigningincentral
Greece.Theyweretoldthat,TheethnosoftheAetolianswasindeedlargeand
warlike,butastheylivedinunwalledvillageswhichwerewidelydispersed,and
werealsolightlyarmed,theycouldbeeasilycrushedbeforetheycouldgathertheir
forces(3.94.4;Blanco1998,adapted).Countingonthisfragmentation,theAthenians
plannedtoattackanddefeatthevillagesonebyone.Afewdaysintothecampaign,
however,Aetolianwarriorsassembledfromeverypartoftheterritoryanddrovethe
Atheniansoutwithheavylosses.
GOVERNMENTINTHEEARLYCITYSTATES
Thestepsthatledtotheestablishmentofacitystateweretheworkofthe
landowningaristocracythataroseintheeighthcentury.Politicalunioncouldnot
haveoccurredunlessthelocalbasileis,theleadersofthedistricts,towns,andvillages
ofthedemos,wishedit.Thesamesmallgroupbecametheplannersandarchitectsof
thenewcentralgovernments.Thegovernmentalstructuresoftheindividualcity
states,aswefirstglimpsethemintheearlyseventhcentury,differedinspecifics,yet
allfollowedasimilarpattern:(1)Theofficeofparamountbasileuswaseither
abolishedcompletelyorwasgreatlyreducedinpower.(2)Thegoverningfunctions
formerlyexercisedbythebasileusweredistributedamongseveralofficials.(3)The
importanceofthecouncilofaristocraticeldersincreased,whilethatoftheassembly
ofthepeopledecreased.Ofcourse,thesedecisionswerenotarrivedatinasingle
yearorevenasinglegeneration.Thesourcesmakeitclear,however,thattheprocess
ofdeterminingwhichvillagesanddistrictsweretobeincludedinthepolisandwhat
kindofgovernmentitwouldhavetooknomorethantwoorthreegenerations.
Foraunifiedpolistobestrongandtocompetesuccessfullyagainstotherunified
poleisithadtocreateamorepowerfulandmoreintrusivecentralgovernmentthanit
hadpossessedbeforeunification.Amorecomplexsystemoforganizationandsocial
controlwasanecessaryresponsetothenewconditionsofrapidlygrowing
populations,greaterexploitationofthelandandresources,increasingproductivity
andwealth,expandingtrade,andmorecomplicatedrelationshipswithneighboring
states.Especiallypressingwastheneedforwaystomobilizemanpowerand

resourcesefficientlyforwarfare,foraspopulationincreasedandlandbecame
scarcer,poleisfoughteachotheroverterritory,amoreseriousbusinessthantheraids
andcounterraidsforanimalsandbootythatcharacterizedwarintheDarkAge.
Firmcontrolfromthecenterwasthereforebothnecessaryandgoodforapolisasa
whole.
87
Thecentralcontrol,however,wasinthehandsofthelargelandownerswho,likeall
dominantgroupsinhumanhistory,werehighlymotivatedtopreservetheir
economicandpoliticalpower.Thekeydecisionmadebythebasileiswastoeliminate
thepositionoftheparamountbasileusandrulecollectively.Thiswasaneasymatter,
becausethebasileushadnopowerovertheotherchiefs.Itwasobvioustothe
collectivearistocraticfamilieswhysuchadrasticactionwasnecessary.
Ifabasileusweregivenformalheadshipovertheunitedpolishewouldbea
legitimatemonarchrulingoverastate,aleaderwithpower,notthetraditionalfirst
amongequals.Thepowerfulfamiliesoptedtoretaintheirindependentstatusby
makingacooperativearrangementtosubdividethespheresofauthority
administrative,military,religious,andjudicialamongmagistraciesthatwerenot
hereditaryandhadlimitedtermsofoffice.ThelaterGreekscalledthiskindof
governmentanoligarchy(oligoi=few).Therulingoligarchsreferredtothemselves
asaristoi,thebestmen;hencethetermaristocracy.Althoughthetermsoligarchia
(oligarchy)andaristokratia(aristocracy)donotoccurinliteratureorinscriptions
beforethefifthcentury,theideathatthefewbestwerethefittesttorulewas
certainlypromotedassiduouslybythewealthy,wellbornfamilieswhocontrolled
theArchaiccitystates.
Eachofthecitystatesdevelopeditsownsystemofmagistraciesaccordingtoitsown
needsandcircumstances.Largerstates,suchasAthens,requiredmoreofficers,while
smallcitystatesneededfew.Aspoleisgrewinpopulationandcomplexity,they
addedmoreofficials,withmorespecializedfunctions,suchastreasurersand
supervisorsofpublicworks.BytheendofthesixthcenturyinAthens,forexample,
therewereseveraldozenofficeholders;bytheendofthefifththenumberhadgrown
toaroundsevenhundred.Thenumberofmajormagistracies,however,remained
small.
Ingeneraltherewasnohierarchyamongthemajoroffices,althoughmanystatesdid
haveaprincipalofficialwhowasregardedasthechiefadministrator.The
commonestnamesforthechiefofficerwerearchon(e.g.,atAthensandelsewherein
centralGreece)andprytanis(e.g.,atCorinthandpoleisinIonia).Bothareverygeneral
titles:archn(likearchos)meanssimplyleaderandprytanismeanssomethinglike
presidingofficer.Amorespecificallynamedearlyofficer(e.g.,atAthensand

Megara)wasthepolemarchos(warleader).Manyothercitystates,especiallythe
smallerones,weregovernedbysmallboardsorcollegesofmagistrates,whodivided
thefunctionsofgovernmentamongthemwithoutstipulatingthespecificduties.In
moststates,bythemiddleoftheseventhcenturytermofofficewaslimitedtoa
singleyearandcouldnotbeheldagainuntilastipulatednumberofyearshad
passed.Thesemeasureshadthedualpurposeofcurbingthepowerofanysingle
magistrateandofdistributinghonorsamongthewholeofthearistocratic
community.
Thetruecenterofpowerinthegovernmentoftheearlycitystates,however,wasnot
themagistraciesandboardsbutthecouncil.IntheArchaicpoleisthecouncilhad
evenmorepowerthantheboulfinHomericsociety.Thememberswerenormally
recruitedfromthehighestmagistrates,whoenteredthecouncil
88
aftertheirtermsofoffice.Membershipinthecouncilmightbeforalongtermor
evenforlife.Thecouncilthushadanaturalsupremacyoverthearchonsandother
magistrateswhohadlimitedtermsandwouldhesitatetoopposetheaugustbodyof
prominentmenwhoserankstheywishedsomedaytojoin.Thearistocraticcouncil
metmorefrequentlythanintheprestateperiodandassumedforitselfthetaskof
makingpoliciesanddraftinglawsforthepolis.
Correspondingtotheincreasedpowerofthecouncil,thelimitedpowerofthe
assemblyofadultmalecitizenstoinfluencepolicywasfurtherreducedinthe
oligarchiccitystate.Somestatesexcludedthepoorestcitizensfrommembershipin
theassemblybyimposingapropertyqualification.Somerestrictedthenumberof
assemblymeetingsandthebusinesstobebroughtbeforeit,ortheycurtailedfree
discussionoftheissues.Thetotalsovereigntyofthearistocraticcouncil,however,
wasshortlived;astimewentontheinclusivenessandauthorityoftheassemblyto
decidepolicyincreased.Infact,beforetheendofthesixthcentury,eveninoligarchic
citystates,theassemblyhadgainedtheultimatedecisionmakingpower.
TheSurvivalofBasileisintheArchaicPeriod
AlthoughthepositionofparamountbasileusceasedtoexistinitstraditionalDark
Ageform,itsurvivedinotherformsthroughouttheArchaicandClassicalperiods.
Usually,thetitleofbasileuswasreservedforanannualmagistrateoramemberofa
boardofmagistrates.Theresponsibilitiesofthebasileusorboardofbasileisvaried
fromstatetostate.Insomestates,thechiefmagistrateborethetitleofbasileus;afew
appeartohavebeenmilitaryofficials,equivalenttothepolemarch.Thelarge
majority,however,wereinchargeofreligiousmattersandalsohadjudicialduties,
especiallyincaseshavingtodowithreligion,suchashomicides(whichpollutedthe
community).Thewidespreaddesignationofthetitlebasileusforreligiousofficials

signalshowgreatareverencewasstillattachedtothename;theGreeksfeltaneedto
keeptheveryimportantreligioussphereofpolislifeconnectedtothebasileisofold,
theancestralheroesofthedemos.
Therewereevenexceptionalcasesofstates,mostlyofDorianorigin,keepingalivea
formofthetraditionalchiefdom.InArgos,adynastyofhereditarybasileisretained
authorityintotheseventhcentury,resistingtheattemptsofthearistocratsto
establisholigarchicrule.Oneofthem,Pheidon,usinghispositionoftraditional
basileusasaspringboard,managedtomakehimselfintoatyrantwithabsolute
powers.
TheSpartansretainedthechiefsystemthelongest,thoughinauniqueform.Inthe
Spartansystemofgovernmentthereweretwohereditary,lifelongbasileiswhoruled
jointly,acustomthatcontinuedunbrokenuntilthethirdcenturyBC.Still,the
powersoftheSpartanbasileiswerefarfromabsolute.Theydidretainconsiderable
authorityasmilitarycommanders;buttocurbtheirpowertheSpartanschosean
annualboardoffivemagistrates,ephoroi(overseers),whosejobitwastomakesure
thatthebasileisruledlawfullyandtoprosecutethemiftheydidnot.Continuanceof
hereditarykingships,thoughseverelylimitedinpower,
89
isalsoattestedforseveralotherpoleis,someofwhichlasteduntilthefifthcentury
andbeyond.
Thepowerandauthorityofthebasileuswerealsoperpetuatedthroughsocalled
royalclans.TheBacchiadsofCorinthareagoodexample.AlegendaryCorinthian
basileusnamedBacchisfoundedanewlineofchiefscalledtheBacchiads,the
descendantsofBacchis.Accordingtothetradition,theBacchiadbasileisruledin
successionforseveralgenerationsuntil747BC,whenthelastofthemwaskilledby
hisownkinsmen.ThesecollectivelytookovertheleadershipofCorinth,retaining
thefamilynameBacchiads.TheBacchiads,saidtonumbermorethantwohundred,
choseoneamongthemeveryyeartobeprytanisanddistributedamongthemselves
otherofficesaswell.TheirassertionofcommondescentfromBacchiswasapure
fiction,butwasveryusefulasawayoflegitimizingtheircontrolofthegovernment.
Inactuality,theywereanarrowoligarchyofprominent,wealthyoikoi.Toensure
theirexclusivityasaclan,thefamiliesmarriedonlyamongthemselves.Theirrule
lastedthreegenerationsuntil657,whentheywereoverthrownbythetyrant
Cypselus.
Similarroyalclansappearedinmanyotherpoleis,especiallyintheeasternAegean.
Aroundthemideighthcentury,asmallgroupofaristocraticfamilieswhocalled
themselvesthePenthilidstookoverthegovernmentofMytilene,themainpolisof
Lesbos,andruledforaboutacentury.Theyderivedtheirnameandclaimtorule

fromPenthilus,grandsonofAgamemnonandsonofOrestes,themythicalfounder
ofMytilene.Inlikemanner,theIonianpolisofMiletuswasruledforatimebythe
Neleids,whoclaimeddescentfromNeleus,thefatherofNestorofPylos.Inseveral
othercitystatestherulingfamiliessimplyassignedthemselvesthegenericname,
theBasilids,thatis,thedescendantsofthebasileus.Alltheseroyalclans,which
appropriatedforthemselvestheauthorityandpowerofthebasileisonthebasisof
theirdirectdescentfromthem,weredeeplyresentedbytheotherwealthyfamilies.
Bythemiddleoftheseventhcenturymostofthemhadbeendisplaced,eitherbya
broaderoligarchyorbyatyrant.
THECOLONIZINGMOVEMENT
TheemergenceofthepolissysteminGreececoincidedwiththebeginningofan
extraordinaryemigrationofGreeksfromtheAegeanhomeland.Thisemigration
beganaboutthemiddleoftheeighthcenturyBcandcontinuedforovertwo
centuries.Whenitendedaround500BCtheGreekworldextendedfromeastern
SpaininthewesttoColchisintheeast.AswaspointedoutinChapter2,theprimary
causesofthisremarkableexpansionweretwofold:thesearchforsourcesofmetalto
satisfytheGreeksgrowingneedandthehopeofacquiringthelandrequiredtolive
thelifeofacitizeninthenewpoleis,asopportunitiesforlandathomedwindled.
Thedecisiontofoundacolonywasoneoftheearliestandmostdifficultpolitical
actionstakenbyapolis,andonethathelpeddetermineitsfutureidentity.
90
Figure3.1Greekcolonization:750500BC.
91
Amothercity(mtropolis)hadtochooseasiteforthecolony,obtaindivineapproval
forit,makeplansforthenewsettlement,andchooseitsoikists(founder).Moreover,
asthefoundationoathforCyrenereveals,thedecisiontofoundacolonyinvolved
thewholecommunityandwasbackedbycommunalsanctions.Foundingacolony
alsoindirectlydefinedametropoliscitizenbody,sincethosewhojoinedacolony
gaveuptheircitizenshipinthemothercity.
Document3.1FoundationOathofCyrene,Libya(lateseventhcenturyBC)
InscriptionfromCyrenecontainingtheoathswornbytheTheraeansandthe
colonistsofCyrene.
ResolvedbytheAssembly.SinceApollospontaneouslytoldBattusandthe
TheraeanstofoundacolonyinCyrene,theTheraeansdecidedtodispatchBattusas

thefounderofthecolonyandbasileus.TheTheraeansshallsailashiscomrades.They
shallsailonequalterms;andonesonshallbeenrolledfromeachfamily.Thosewho
sailshallbeadults,andanyfreemanfromtheTheraeanswhowishesmayalsosail.
Ifthecolonistssecurethesettlement,anycolonistwhosailslatertoLibyashallhave
ashareinthecitizenshipandhonors.Healsoshallreceivealotfromtheunassigned
land.Butiftheydonotmakethesettlementsecure,andtheTheraeanscannotcome
totheiraidandtheysuffertroublesforfiveyears,thecolonistsmayreturnwithout
feartoThera.TheymayreturntotheirownpropertyandbecomecitizensofThera.
Ifanyoneisunwillingtosailwhensentbythecity,lethimbesubjecttothedeath
penaltyandlethispropertybeconfiscated.Whoeverreceivesorprotectssucha
personwhetherafatherhissonorabrotherhisbrothershallsufferthesame
punishmentasthepersonwhorefusedtosail.Onthesetermsoathswereswornby
thoseremainingatTheraandthosesailingtofoundthecolony.Theyalsocursed
thosewhotransgressedtheseconditionsanddidnotabidebythem,boththose
settlinginLibyaandthosestayinghere.
Theyformedwaximagesandburnedthemwhiletheyutteredthesecurses,allof
themtogether,menandwomen,boysandgirls.Thepersonwhodoesnotabideby
theseoaths,buttransgresses,shallmeltandflowawayjustastheseimages,heand
hisdescendantsandhisproperty.Butmaytherebemanythingsandthosegoodones
tothosewhoabidebytheseoaths,boththosesailingtoLibyaandthoseremainingin
Thera,tothemselvesandtheirdescendants.
SupplementumEpigraphicumGraecum9.3;translatedbyStanleyM.Burstein.
92
Oncethedecisiontofoundacolonyhadbeenmade,itwastheoikistwhowas
responsibleforitssuccess.Homer(Odyssey6.710)clearlydescribedhistask:lead
thecoloniststotheirnewhome,layoutthecolonysdefenses,locatethesanctuaries
ofthegods,andassignhouseplotsandfarmlandtothesettlers.Iftheoikistfulfilled
hisdutieswisely,hewouldbecometherulerofanewpolisanditsguardianhero
afterhisdeath.Thecolonyitselfwouldremainlinkedtoitsmetropolisbybondsof
kinshipandcultsymbolizedbythefiretheoikistbroughtfromthemetropolis
hearthtokindlethehearthofthenewpolis.Sothatthecultsofthegodswouldbe
properlyobservedinthecolony,priestsandpriestessesalsomigratedfromthe
metropolis.Otherwise,however,thecolonywasanewandcompletelyindependent
polis,astheGreektermforacolony,apoikia,indicates:ahomeaway[fromtheirold
home]forthecolonists.
Reconstructionofthehistoryofthecolonizingmovementisdifficult.Theliterary
traditionconcerningGreekcolonizationisencumberedwithlegendsintendedto

connectvariouscoloniestotheHeroicAgeandtoestablishdivinesanctionfortheir
foundation.Strippedoftheselegendaryaccretions,theGreeksourcespreservelittle
morethanabareskeletonofdatesofcolonialfoundations,namesoffoundingcities,
and,sometimes,ofoikistsaswell.
Archaeologyhasmadeitpossibleforhistorianstoovercomethelimitationsofthe
writtensourcesbyconfirmingthegeneralchronologyofcolonialfoundations,
revealingthedetailsofcolonialcityplanning,andprovidingevidenceforrelations
betweenthecolonistsandtheirnonGreekneighborsandthetraderoutesthatlinked
thecoloniestotheGreekhomeland.Archaeologicalevidencealsoindicatesthatthe
colonizingmovementhadtwophases,eachlastingalittleoveracentury.Thefirst
beganaboutthemideighthcenturyBCandwasdirectedtoItalyandthewestern
Mediterranean;thesecondstartedaboutacenturylaterandwasconcentratedonthe
northAegeanandtheBlackSea.
ThepioneersinthecolonizationofItalywereEuboeansfromChalcisandEretria,the
samepeopleswhohadhelpedmaintaincontactbetweenGreeceandtheNearEast
duringtheDarkAge.FollowingroutesthatprobablyhadbeenblazedbyPhoenician
traders,theyfoundedtheirfirstsettlementontheislandofPithecusaeintheBayof
NaplesintheearlyeighthcenturyBC.Pithecusaeconformedtothepictureofan
idealcolonialsitedescribedintheOdyssey(9.116141):adesertedisland,with
meadows,wellwateredandsoft;thegrapevineswouldgrowthereendlessly;and
thereislevelplowland...andthesoilisdeepandrich.Thereisalsoaharborgiving
safeanchoragewithnoneedformooringcablesoranchorstones....Pithecusaewas
alsowelllocatedtoexploittheirondepositsonthenearbyislandofElbaandtotrade
withtheItalicpopulationsofthemainland.Thesettlementgrewrapidly,attracting
settlersnotonlyfromtheAegeanbutevenfromPhoenicia.TheEuboeansfollowed
uptheirsuccessatPithecusaewithadditionalsettlementsbothontheItalian
mainlandatCumae(757BC),nearmodernNaples,andinnortheasternSicily,where
theyfoundedNaxus(734)Leontini(729),Catana(729),andRhegium(712).
Meanwhile,ItalyandSicilyalsoattractedtheattentionoftheDorianpoleisofthe
Peloponnesus.Wrackedbytheproblemsofunequaldistributionoflandat
93
home,thesecitiessoughtoutsitesfortheircoloniesthathadgoodagricultural
potential.TheAchaeansmovedfirst,foundinginthelateeighthcenturySybarisand
CrotonontheinstepofItaly.Spartaquicklyfollowed,establishingitsonlycolony,
Taras(712BC)inthecorneroftheheeloftheItalianpeninsula.TheBacchiadrulers
ofCorinthalsosoughtasolutiontotheirinternalproblemsinthewest,founding
CorcyrainthesouthernAdriaticSea(c.734BC)and,mostimportantly,Syracuse(
733),whichwouldultimatelydominatethewholeofsoutheasternSicilyandplaya

majorroleinthestruggleforpowerinthecentralMediterraneanbetweenRomeand
Carthage.
GreekcolonialactivityintheMediterraneanwasnotlimitedtoItalyandSicily.Thera
foundedCyreneinLibyainthelateseventhcenturyBC(c.630),butitwasthefar
westthatofferedthegreatestpossibilities.AccordingtoHerodotus,Greeksfirst
learnedoftheopportunitiesofferedbythewesternMediterraneanwhenaSamian
merchantnamedColaeusreturnedfromthekingdomofTartessusinsouthwestern
Spainwithafabulouslyrichcargo.ItwasnotSamos,however,butthewest
AnatoliancityofPhocaeathattookadvantageofColaeusdiscovery,foundingabout
600BCMassilia(modernMarseilles)atthemouthoftheRhoneRiver.
Massiliaquicklyexploiteditssuperblocation,tradingwiththeCelticinhabitantsof
theupperRhonevalleyandestablishingaseriesoftradingpostsalongthe
northeasterncoastofSpain.Bytheearlysixthcentury,however,opportunitiesfor
furtherGreekexpansioninthecentralandwesternMediterraneanwere
disappearing.ThepowerfulPhoeniciancolonyofCarthageinmodernTunisia
probablyfoundedinthelateninthcenturyBCalsohadambitionsintheregionand
establisheditsowncolonialempireinwesternSicily,Corsica,Sardinia,andsouthern
Spain.WhentheCarthaginiansandtheirEtruscanalliesforcedthePhocaeansto
evacuatetheircolonyatAlaliaonCorsicainthemidsixthcenturyBC,Greek
colonizationinthecentralandwesternMediterraneancametoanend.
AscolonizingopportunitiesshrankintheMediterranean,Greeksturnedtothe
northeastfornewareastosettle.Attractedbytherichfishingandagriculturalwealth
oftheHellespontandBlackSearegion,variousIonianandAeolianstatesfounded
coloniesinthearea.ThemostactiveofthesewasMiletus,creditedbytheancient
sourceswithseventycolonies,thoughtheactualnumberwasprobablymuch
smaller.AmongMiletusnumerouscoloniesweresuchimportantcitiesasCyzicus(
675BC)neartheentranceoftheHellespont,Sinope(lateseventhcentury)onthe
northcoastofAnatolia,Olbia(c.550)atthemouthoftheBugRiverinsouthwestern
Ukraine,andPanticapaeum(c.600)intheCrimea.Megaraalsocolonizedinthisarea,
occupyingtheimportantsitesofByzantiumandChalcedononbothsidesofthe
DardanellesaswellasfoundingthecityofHeracleaPontica(560BC)innorthwest
AnatolianearoneofthereputedentrancestoHades.Becausetheyhadnorivalsin
thisarea,unlikeintheMediterraneanbasin,theGreekswereabletoestablishnew
coloniesthroughouttheArchaicandClassicalperiodsuntiltheBlackSeawasalmost
entirelyringedbyGreekpoleis.
Thecolonizingmovementisoftenviewedprimarilyasthestoryofthespreadof
Greeklifeandculture.Supportforsuchreconstructionsexistsintheancient
94

sources.ThenewpoleisproudlyproclaimedtheirGreeknessbybuilding
monumentaltemples,patronizingPanhellenicinstitutionssuchastheDelphicoracle
andtheOlympicgames,andeagerlytryingtokeepabreastofculturaldevelopments
intheAegean.TheearliestexamplesoftheGreekalphabetandhexameterversein
factcomefromPithecusae.Nevertheless,thecreationofnewpoleisisonlypartofthe
storyofGreekcolonization.
Everywherethesmallcolonialexpeditionssettled,theyencounteredbarbarians,the
nonGreekinhabitantsoftheshoresoftheMediterraneanandBlackseas.Afew
cities,suchasSyracuse,Byzantium,andHeracleaPontica,ultimatelysucceededin
expellingorenslavingtheirnonGreekneighbors.Theirlocalchroniclerslater
celebratedthesevictorieswithchauvinisticstoriesofhowGreekclevernessovercame
barbariansimplicity.Mostcolonies,however,werenotsofortunateandhadtofind
accommodationswiththeirnonGreekneighbors,tradingandintermarryingwith
them,andsometimesevensharingtheirterritory.Therewererisksonbothsides;
HerodotustellsatragicstoryofaScythiankingwhomarriedaGreekwomanand
becameadevoteeofDionysus,onlytobeassassinatedbyhisoutragedsubjects.More
often,however,asthediscoveryofGreekmanufacturesinsouthernFranceandthe
spreadoftheGreekalphabet,art,andcultsamongtheEtruscansindicate,the
coloniesbecamegatewaysthroughwhichthepeoplesofsouthernEuropeandthe
BlackSeaobtainedaccesstotheproductsandcultureoftheMediterranean.Norwas
theculturalexchangeallinonedirection,ascultssuchasthoseoftheThracian
goddessBendisandthedivinemusicianOrpheusspreadthroughouttheAegeanand
beyond.
ECONOMICANDSOCIALDIVISIONSINTHEEARLYPOLEIS
Thosewholefttheirhomestoemigrateabroadinthelateeighthcenturywerechiefly
luredbytheprospectoftheequallotoffarmland(klros)promisedtonewsettlers.
Thecolonizingmovementwasboththesignofinequalityinlandownershipin
Greeceandapartialremedy.Noteveryfamilycouldemigrate,however,and
meanwhileaspopulationcontinuedtogrowlandbecamescarcer.Theresultwasa
wideningofthesocialandeconomicdistancebetweenthetopfamiliesandtherestof
thepeople.
Therichlandownerscultivatedanimageofthemselvesasatruearistocracy,far
superiortoallthegroupsbelowthem.Theyclaimedexclusiveentitlementtothe
termhoiagathoi,thegood,purelyonthebasisoftheirbirthintoillustriousand
wealthyfamilies,andlabeledashoikakoi,thebad,thosewhowerenotbornintothe
landednobility.Thispresumptuousarrogancewasalargeleapfromthejustified
selfesteemofthewarriorchiefswhomthearistocratsboastedastheirancestors.For
Homericheroes,descentfromgreatwarriors,thoughamatterofpride,wasnot
automaticproofofpersonalexcellence,andtheydidnotdemandhonorsor

privilegesonthatbasis.Theirclaimstobecalledgood(agathos)andbest(aristos)
weremeasuredsolelybytheirperformanceaswarriorsandlead
95
ers.Inthesameway,thetermkakosalsoacquiredsocialconnotationsintheseventh
century.InHomerkakoshadmeantunskilledinwarcraftorcowardly;inthe
aristocraticlexiconitreferredtoanyonewhowasnotamemberoftheclosedgroup
ofthewealthyandwellborn.Similarly,theysignaledtheirseparatenessfromthe
restofthecommunitybynarrowingthetermdmosfromitsinclusiveusageasthe
wholepeopletomeanthemassesorthepoor,whomtheyalsoreferredto
disparaginglyashoipolloi,themany.
TheRich,thePoor,andtheMiddle
Thearroganceofthepowerfularistocratswasrootedintheirhereditarycontrolof
theland.Thegenerationsofaristocratichouseshadinheritedadisproportionate
shareofthetotalagriculturallandinthedemosandanevengreatershareofthe
goodland.Theybecameevenricherthroughimprovedfarmingtechniquesthat
increasedcropyieldsandthroughconcentrationoncashcrops,suchaswineand
oliveoil.Mostsignificantfortheirprofitswastheirabilitytoexploitthelaborofthe
poorestfarmerswhowereekingoutaprecariousexistenceonsmallplotsoflandor
onmarginalland.Someofthosepoorfamiliesrentedlandfromtherichas
sharecroppersinreturnforaportionoftheharvest,whileothersmortgagedtheir
landtotherichandwerecompelledtopayastipulatedamountofthecropsas
paymentonthedebt.Smallfarmersfelleasilyintodebt.Onebadyearmeant
borrowingnextyearsseedfromawealthyneighbor;arunofleanyearscouldputa
familysodeeplyintodebtthatitlostitsland.Wemayassumealsothatthenumber
ofthtesthosewhocontractedtoworkashiredhandsinreturnforfood,clothing,
andshelterincreasedconsiderably.Theattitudeofthelandowningclasstoward
thosewhomtheyexploitedcombinedcontempt,mistrust,anddislike.
Conjecturesaboutthesizeofthenobleclassdefinedasthosewhoselandholdings
providedthemaleisuredlifestylerangebetween12and20percentofthefamilies;
forthelowerclassthosewithinsufficientlandtosupportthemselvesestimatesare
ontheorderof20to30percent.(Ofcourse,thepercentageswouldhavevariedfrom
polistopolis.)Thesefiguresallowforatleast50percentofthefamiliestohavebeen
neitherrichnordependentupontherich.ThefourthcenturyphilosopherAristotlein
hisPoliticscallsthisgroupthemiddle(hoimesoi),theportionofthepolisthatwas
betweentheveryrichandtheverypoor,andpossessedamoderateamountof
wealth.
Thesethreedivisionswerenotmonolithic,ofcourse;withineachtherewasa
gradationofwealthandsocialrank.Thesmallnumberofaristocratichouseholds

wasdominatedbyasmallernumberoffamiliesthatwerepreeminentbecauseof
theirnoblerbloodlinesandgreaterwealth:anaristocracywithinanaristocracy.
Moreover,thehierarchywasnaturallysubjecttochange;onefamilymightriseinto
theranksoftheuppernobilitywhileanothermightdropdownintothelesser
nobilty.Nevertheless,thepropertiedclassasawholeremainedclearlymarkedoff
fromthegroupsbelowthem.Theagathoiprotectedandprotractedtheireconomic
andsocialexclusivenessbymarryingonlywithinthegroup.Theidealwasto
maintainclasssolidarityandatleastthefacadeofequalityamongthefamilies.
96
Withinthelowestgroup,gradationswouldhavebeenonlyinthedegreeof
abjectness.Thechancesforeconomicbettermentforpoorfarmerswereslight.The
increaseintrade,whichrosesteadilyintheArchaicperiod,offeredsome
opportunitiesforemployment,butonlyassailorsandinotherlowwageand
lowstatusoccupations.Andtheskilledcraftsweremostlyclosedtothepoorbecause
craftswerefamilyaffairsandfewapprenticeshipswereavailabletopooroutsiders.
Itwasthemiddlegroupthathadthegreatesteconomicandsocialgradation.Some
nonnobleoikoisharedintherisingprosperityoftheArchaicAgeandwerefairly
welloff;attheotherendofthescalewerethosebarelykeepingoutofdebt.The
wealthdifferences,andthereforethesocialdifferences,betweentheextremeswere
largeenoughsothatthetopdidnotmakemarriageswiththebottom.Accordingly,
thewholegroupofindependentfarmersandcraftsmenwasnotconsciousofitselfas
aclasswithspecificclassinterestsasweretherichlandowners.Upwardmobility,
thoughnotimpossible,wasnoteasy.Aristocraciesresistassaultsontheir
exclusiveness;yet,ifacommonerfamilybecamewealthyenough,itcouldmarryinto
thenobility.ThesixthcenturyaristocraticpoetTheogniscomplainsthatalthough
mentakepainstomaketheiranimalswellbornbycarefulbreeding,agoodman
willnothesitatetomarrythedaughterofakakosman,ifshebringswithhera
gooddowry.Wealth,hesays,corruptsalineage(Theognidea183192).Downward
mobility,ontheotherhand,wasmuchmorecommon,astheprecariousfarmers
slippedintodependence.Theerosionoftheindependentfarmergroupinthe
seventhcenturybecameaseriousproblemwithinthecitystates.
Citizenship
Althoughallthefamiliesofthethreeeconomicgroupswerecitizens,theywerefar
fromequalintheirrightsascitizensintheearlypoleis.Citizenship,whichthelater
Greeksdefinedashavingashareinthepubliclifeofthepolis,wasperceivedasa
gradedstatus,fixedtoapersonssocialandeconomicconditionaswellastogender.
Whilefemalecitizenshadimportantrolesinthereligiousworshipofthecommunity,
theywerecompletelybarredfromparticipationinpolitical,judicial,andmilitary

affairs.Thesewereexclusivelythedomainofadult(overage18)malecitizens.
Amongthemen,theshareofcivicresponsibilitiesandrightstovoteandspeakin
theassembly,holdoffice,serveasjudges,fightinthearmywasdividedunequally
alongmainlyeconomiclines.Intheearlycitystates,aswehaveseen,onlytherich
andwellbornpossessedthefullrangeofcitizenprivileges.Nonnoblecitizensof
moderatemeanswerebarredfromholdingoffice,andthepoorestcitizenshadno
voteintheassembly.ThepoliticalhistoryoftheArchaicperiodisthestruggleofthe
middleandlowerclassestogainanequalshareinthegovernanceoftheirpoleis.Full
participation,however,wouldbeachievedonlyinthedemocraticstates;inoligarchic
statesthepoorestmemberswouldremainsecondclasscitizens.
Besideswomen,therewereothercategoriesoffreepersonslivinginapolisterritory
thatweredeniedcitizenrights,chieflyresidentaliensandexslaves.Andinsome
states(mainlyDoric),wholevillagesandtownswereregardedas
97
nonmembersofthedemos,andtheirmembersweregiventhestatusofhalfcitizens.
Wewillhavemoretosayabouttheseperioikoi(dwellersroundabout)inthenext
chapter.Byfarthelargestgroupsofrightlessinhabitants,however,wereslavesand
semislaves.
SlavesandSerfs
Duringtheseventhcenturytherewassomeincreaseinthenumberofchattelslaves
(personscapturedorboughtandlegallyclassedasproperty),butforthemostpart
richlandlordsusedthelaboroffarmerswhowereindebtorotherwiseobligatedto
them,whichwasinmanyrespectseconomicallybetterforthelandlordsthan
keepingmultitudesofslaves.Therealupsurgeinslaveholdingcameinthesixth
centurywhenpoliticalreformsandmeasuresinthecitystateslimitedorabolished
debtbondage,forcingtherichtouseslavelaborontheirlands.
TheSpartanhelotsprovideanexampleofanothercategoryofagriculturallaborers
inGreece,whosestatuswascharacterizedasbetweenfreepersonsandslaves.The
helotsweretheinhabitantsofpartsofLaconiaandmostofMesseniawhowere
conqueredbytheSpartansinwarandthenmadetoworkfortheSpartancitizensas
serfsonwhathadbeentheirownland.(TheimportanceofthehelotstotheSpartan
wayoflifewillbediscussedinthenextchapter.)Similarserflikegroupsexistedin
otherGreekstates,especiallyintheareaswheretheDoricdialectwasspoken.The
originsoftheseenserfedpeoplesisveryobscure.Onetheoryisthattheywerethe
peopledwellinginthelandsthatweretakenoverbytheDorianimmigrantsinthe
earlyDarkAge.Becausetheywereethnicallydifferentfromthenewcomers,they
couldbetreatedasaninferiorsubclass,permanentlystigmatizedasother.They
werecompelledtoworkthelandassharecroppersandprovideotherlabor

(includingsomemilitaryservice),inreturnforwhichtheyweregrantedcertain
minimalprotections,suchastherighttomarryandraiseafamily,andtheguarantee
thattheywouldnotbeexpelledfromthelandtheyfarmed.
Thessalyalsohadahugepopulationofunfreeagriculturalworkerscalledthe
toilers,and,aswesawearlier,afewofthecolonialcitystatesinthewestand
aroundtheBlackSeareducedthenearbynativepopulationstoforcedlabor.Itisnot
certain,however,whetherotherimpoverishedandexploitedgroupsthatwearetold
ofweresubjugatedserfsorjustthepoorestclassofcitizens.Thattheyweresocially
andeconomicallyinferior,however,iscertainfromtheslangtermsforthem:the
nakedones(Argos),dustyfeet(Epidaurus),wearersofsheepskinsandclub
carriers(Sicyon),wearersofdogskinhelmets(Corinth).
ResentmentfromBelowandtheBeginningsofSocialChange
Intheseventhcenturyalltheeconomicgroupsbelowthetightlyclosedcircleofself
styledagathoihadreasontoresenttheirpowerandarrogance.Thefamiliesatthe
bottomoftheeconomicladder,boththedependentoikoiandthoseonthe
98
brinkofimpoverishmentanddebt,hadthemostreasonsforhatingtherich.They
werenotonlystrugglingtomakeendsmeet,theyalsohadtoendurethestigma(or
thethreat)ofworkingforothers,aconditionGreeksequatedwithlossoffreedom,
thatis,slavery.Thesloganredistributionofthelandbecametherallyingcryofthe
havenotsthroughoutGreeceintheArchaicperiod.
Theeconomicallysecurefamiliesthosethatproducedenoughtoliveonandthose
producingenoughandsomeextraalsohadcauseforresentment,eventhoughthey
werenotdirectlyexploited.Thebestfarmlandwasheldbyaristocratichouseholds,
whoweresuccessfulinkeepingitintheirgroup.Mostoftheremainingdecent
farmlandwasalsoalreadytaken.Theiralternativesweretoemigrateabroad,which
manydid,ortoseekmarginallandfarfromtheirvillages.Yet,tomakemarginal
landproductiverequiredextratraveltime,labor,andequipment,resourcesthat
weremuchmoreavailabletotherichoikoi.Themiddlegroupalsochafedatbeing
shutoutofpositionsofpowerandprestigebytheoligarchyslockonthe
magistracies,boards,andparticularlythecouncil,wherethepoliticaldecisionswere
formulated.Thewellofffarmerswerejustasliabletobecheatedinthelawcourtsas
thepooreronesandwerejustashelplessagainstcrookeddecisions.Inthe
assembly,theoneorganofgovernmenttowhichtheywereadmitted,thepeoples
voicecarriedlittleweightagainsttheconcentratedpoweroftherich.
Yet,inspiteofthestrengthoftherulingoligarchsandtheapparentweaknessofthe
restofthedemos,theabsolutedominationbytheformerwasdestinedtobeshort

lived.Bytheearlysixthcentury,oligarchicalrulershiphadbroadenedtoinclude
numerousfamiliesoutsidetheexclusiveclubofhereditaryagathoi,andinsome
statesevenbroadergovernmentswereemergingthatwouldeventuallygivepolitical
powertothemassofpeople,includingthepoor.Thekeyelementintheprotest
againstaristocraticexcesswasthemiddlegroupofindependentfarmers,overwhom
theoligarchshadtheleastcontrol.Wearefortunatetohaveaveryearlyspokesman
forthisgroup,Hesiod,whospeakstousaboutlifeandsocietyintheemergingpolis
fromthepointofviewoftheordinarycitizen.
HESIOD:THEVIEWFROMBELOW
InadditiontotheTheogony,Hesiodiscreditedwithanotherlongepicpoem(828
lines)aboutfarming,calledWorksandDays.UnliketheHomericepics,whichwere
setinadistantAgeofHeroesandtoldofthetriumphsandtragediesofgreatwarrior
chiefs,theWorksandDayswassetinthepresentandtoldaboutordinarypeopleand
theirordinarylives.IntheIliadandOdysseycommonfolkarevisibleonlyaspartof
thesocialbackground.Theyaregivencollectiverolesasthemassofsoldiersor
citizensintheassembliesortheyappearinvignettesaboutfarmers,housewives,
shepherds,andcraftsmen.TheseHesiodputsintheforeground.
HesiodalsodiffersfromHomerandtheotherepicpoetsinthathepurportstobe
tellingofhisownexperiences:I,Hesiod.Manyscholarsmaintainthatthe
99
poethasadoptedapersonaorpoeticcharacterandthatthedetailsheprovidesabout
hisownlifearefictitious.WhetherHesiodwasarealpersonandwasgivinghis
ownautobiographymatterslittle.Noonedoubtsthathisaccountofrurallifeinthe
earlyArchaicperiodisaccurate.
HesiodtellsusthatheandhisbrotherPerseslivedinthesmallBoeotianvillageof
Askra(partofthepolisofThespiae3milesaway),andwhentheirfatherdieda
disputearoseoverthedivisionofthekleros.PersesdefraudedHesiodofaportionof
theinheritancebybribingthejudges(basileis).Afterthejudgment,Hesiodintimates,
Persesbecamealoaferandaspendthriftandreducedhimselftosuchpovertythathe
founditnecessarytogotohisbrotherforhelp.Whetherthisistheliteraltruthora
fiction,suchfamilysituationsmusthavebeencommon.
Thequarrelprovidesthepretextforthepoemsformasermontohiserringbrother.
Sermonizingpoetry,sodifferentfromthatoftheHomericnarrative,wasclearly
influencedbytheancientgenreofNearEasternwisdomliterature,whichconsisted
ofexhortations,instructions,andadmonitionsaddressedtoasonorotherrelative,or
eventoaking,andwasspicedwithstoriesandproverbsaboutrightandwrong.
ThoughPerseswasostensiblytheonewhomHesiodwasadvising,therealaudience

wasthewholegrouptowhichheandPersesbelonged,namelytheupperlevelofthe
independentfarmers.Atotherpointsinthepoem,however,hespeaksontheir
behalfanddirectshissermonizingtotherulinggroup,whomhecallsbasileis.This
mighthavebeentheiractualtitleasaboardofmagistratesorjudgesinthecitystate
ofThespiae,butitismorelikelythatHesiodwasusingtheterminthegenericepic
senseoftheleadersofanycommunity.
Hesiodaddressesthebasileisverysternly,notatalldeferentially.Hecallsthem
bribeswallowingbasileisandaccusesthemstraightoutofhabituallyrendering
theirverdictswithcrookedjudgments.HetellsthemthatZeushimselfiswatching
overhisdaughter,Dike,Justice,andavengesunjustactsagainsthercommittedby
thoseinpower.Thus,thebasiccivicmoralthatjusticethroughlawisthefoundation
ofgoodgovernment,appearsalreadyfullyformedinHesiod.
Document3.2Hesiodlecturesthearistocrats.
Basileis,givethisverdictnolittlethought,fortheimmortalsareeverpresentamong
men,andtheyseethosewhowithcrookedverdictsspurndivineretributionand
grinddownoneanotherslives.UponthisearththatnurturesmanyZeuscanlevy
thirtythousanddeathlessguardiansofmortalmen,whokeepawatchfuleyeover
verdictsandcruelactsastheyrovethewholeearth,clothedinmist.
100
JusticeisamaidenandadaughterofZeus;
thegodsofOlymposrespecthernobletitle,
andwhenevermenmistreatherthroughfalsecharges
sherushestositatthefeetofZeusKronion
andshedenouncesthedesignsofmenwhoarenotjust,
sothatthepeoplepayfortherecklessdeedsandevilplans
ofbasileiswhoseslantedwordstwistherstraightpath.
Keephercommands,giftdevouringbasileis,andlet
verdictsbestraight;yes,layyourcrookedwaysaside!
Hethatwrongsanothermanwrongs,aboveall,himself,
andevilschemesbringmoreharmonthosewhoplotthem.
TheeyeofZeusseesall,noticesall;
itseesthis,too,ifitwishes,andknowsexactly
whatsortofhostthispolisistojustice.
Asmattersstand,mayneitherInormyson
bejustmeninthisworld,becauseitisabadthing
tobejustifwrongdoerswinthecourtdecisions.
ButIdonotbelieveyetthatZeusswisdomwillallowthis.

WorksandDays248272;translatedbyApostolosN.Athanassakis,Hesiod.Baltimoreand
London:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1983,p.73(adapted).
Themoralistictonepervadestheentirepoem.Hesiodhasawholelitanyofproverbial
dosanddontsthatwecouldfindinanypeasantsocietyintheworld.Hecounselsa
strictreciprocityinalldealings.Whenyouborrowfromaneighbor,hesays,pay
backfairly,thesameamount,ormoreifyoucan,sothatwhenyouneedsomething
lateryoucancountonhim(349351).
AtthecoreofHesiodsmoralprogramistheethicofwork,arduousmanuallabor:
Throughworkmengrowwealthyandrichinflocks,
andbyworkingtheybecomemuchdearertothegods.
Workisnodisgrace;idlenessisthedisgrace.
Andifyouwork,theidlemanwillsoonenvyyou
asyougrowrich,becausefameandrenownfollowwealth.
(WorksandDays308313)
Hesiodisassertingthatthroughworktheordinaryfarmermaywinthethreeprizes
thatintheHomericepicscouldonlybeattainedbyheroes:wealth,thespecialfavor
ofthegods,andglory.Thusunremittingtoilinthefarmfieldsbecomesavirtue
equivalenttogreatdeedsonthebattlefields.Ofcourse,theprizesarepareddownto
suitthehumblelifeofaruralvillage.ToHesiodandhisneighborswealthmeant
havingtheirgranariesfullofthesustenanceoflifeatharvesttimeandnothaving
toborrow;renownwasbeingadmiredandrespectedbyallthefolkinthevillage.
Thispragmaticandnonaristocraticsystemofvalues,
101
themottoofwhichwasworkwithworkuponwork,canbedetectedthroughout
theArchaicperiod.
Asasocialdocumentofthepeasantfarmersvalues,theWorksandDaysalsoallows
ustoappreciateclassdifferencesinoutlooktowardinstitutionssuchasmarriage.
Amongtheupperclass,marriagewasprimarilyameansofestablishingalliancesand
enhancingfamilyprestige.Noblefamiliesoftensoughtadvantageousmatches
outsideoftheirpolis,and,asinHomer,suitorscompetedagainstoneanotherwith
expensivegiftsandshowsofmanlinessinathleticcontests.Aristocraticwomen,
thoughtheylivedhighlycircumscribedlives,hadahighstatusandweretreated
withgreatrespectbythemen.Thedifferent,muchnarrowerview,ofthefarmerclass
showsthroughinHesiodsadviceonmarriage:

Marryavirginsothatyoucanteachherproperhabits,
andespeciallymarryonewholivesnearyou;
andcheckallaroundsothatyourmarriagewillnotbeajoke
toyourneighbors,fornothingisbetterforamanthanagoodwife
andnothingmorehorriblethanabadone....
(WorksandDays699703)
Prestige,thoughjustasimportantasinanaristocraticmarriage,ishereconfinedto
thevillageandexpressedinnegativeterms.Itisnotawifewhowillbringhim
advantageousconnectionsthatthefarmerseeks,butonewhowillnotcausehimto
loserespectifsheshouldturnouttobeagluttonorlazyorunfaithfultypicalfaults
thatHesiodattributestowomen.
ThemisogynyexpressedinHesiodwasacommonattitudeduringtheArchaic
periodandcontinuedthroughoutGreekantiquity.Thebestknownillustrationof
thiswayofthinkingisthemythofPandora,thefirstwoman,asitistoldinboththe
Theogony(571612)andtheWorksandDays(60105).Zeus,Hesiodsays,commanded
thisbeautifuleviltobecreatedasapunishmentforthecrimeofPrometheus(one
oftheTitans)whostolefirefromthegodsandgaveittohumans.Pandoraopened
thelidofajarcontainingalltheplaguesanddiseasesoftheworldandletthemout.
AllwomankindinheritedPandorasshamelessmindanddeceitfulnature,herlies
andcoaxingwords.Women,thepoetsays,liveoffmenlikethedronesamongthe
bees.Donotletawomanwigglingherbehinddeceiveyouwithherwheedling
words.Sheisafteryourgranary.Themanwhotrustsawomantruststhieves(
WorksandDays373375).
ThemembersofHesiodseconomicclassresembledthewealthyclassinonerespect:
theyexploitedthelaborofothers.Thedifferencewasthattheordinaryfarmerhad
onlyafewworkersandlaboredalongsidethem.Hesiodtakesforgrantedthatthe
farmersheisaddressingcanaffordtoownatleastoneslavewomanorman,takeon
ahiredhand(thes),andemploydayworkersatbusytimes.Thefarmerkeepshiseye
onthebottomline.Thedaysfoodforahiredplowmaniscarefullymeasuredout
justenoughtokeepuphisenergylevel.Headviseshiringathesthathasnooikos
(hewillworkcheaper)andachildlessfemaleworker(aworkerwithachildather
breastisabother).
102
Howevermuchherailedagainstthewealthyandpowerful,Hesiod,then,wasnota
championoftheoppressed,assomehistorianshavecalledhim.Ratherhiswasthe
voiceofmiddleclassindignation.Underpinningallthathesaysisthefirmbeliefthat
Zeusandtheothergodswilllookfavorablyonthosewhoarepious,hardworking,
andrighteousandwillpunishintheendthosewhoarenot.Ahundredyearslaterin

Athensanotherthunderousvoicewouldberaisedagainsttheevilgreedandviolent
actionsofthearistocratsthistimenotfrombelowbutfromamemberofthe
aristocracy,thestatesmanSolon,whosereformswouldpavethewayforAthenian
democracy.
THEHOPLITEARMY
WarfaretookonadifferentcharacterintheArchaicperiod.Betweenabout725and
650theGreeksmademajorchangesinmilitaryequipmentandtactics.Henceforthall
Greekbattleswerefoughtbyheavilyarmoredfootsoldierscalledhoplites,arranged
inatightlypackedformationcalledthephalanx.Thephalanx,manynowbelieve,
evolvedfromanearlierloosertypeofmassformation.Inthisprotophalanx,asitis
sometimescalled,thefightingmenweregroupedinregularunitsarrangedin
straightrowsorranks.TheprotophalanxisdepictedintheIliad,thoughfordramatic
effectthepoetconcentratesonencountersbetweenindividualwarriorheroes,largely
ignoringthemassofsoldierswhofoughtaroundthem.Thiscloudsour
understandingoftheactualdeploymentoftheformationinbattle.Itappears,
however,thatthehostileranksinHomermoveintospearrange,hurltheirpairof
shortthrowingspears,andthenfighthandtohandwiththeirlongswords.
Asthephalanxevolved,itbecameprogressivelymorecompact,withthesoldiers
linedupalmostshouldertoshoulderandeachrankalmosttreadingontheheelsof
theoneinfrontofit.Phalanxfightingwassimpleintheextreme:thetwoclose
packedphalanxeschargedatoneanotherandcollided.Themoreranksthemore
effectivethecharge.Initsdevelopedform(by650atthelatest),thephalanxwas
normallyeightrowsdeep.Weaponsandarmorevolvedintandemwiththecompact
phalanx,tomakeitmoreeffective.Thehoplitesmainweaponwashislongheavy
spear,whichheusedasathrustingweapon.Aftertheinitialcollisionwhenthere
wasnoroomtojabwiththespear,thehopliteusedhissecondaryweapon,ashort
slashingsword.Inahoplitebattlethesoldiersneededbetterprotectionthantheyhad
hadearlier.Helmets,upperbodyarmor(breastplates),andshinandkneeprotectors
(greaves),allofwhichhadbeenusedinearlierwarfare,wereredesignedtobe
thickerandstronger(bronzereplacedothermaterials,suchaspaddedlinen)andto
coverlargerareasofthebody.
Themostinnovativeitemofequipmentwasanewtypeofshieldcalledthehoplon,
afterwhichthehoplitewasnamed.Designedspecificallyforthephalanxformation,
itwasround,madeofwoodcoveredwithathinsheetofbronze.Itwasthehoplon
thatmadethephalanxaneffectivefightingforce.Largerthanallpreviousround
shields(about3feetindiameter),itwasheldbyinsertingtheleft
103

armthroughacentralbandandgrippingastrapattherim.Thehoplonwaslarge
enoughtocoverthemanontheleft,allowinghoplitestofightshouldertoshoulder
withhalfoftheirbodyprotectedbythenextmansshield.Seenfromthefront,a
phalanxpresentednearlyasolidwallofshields,helmetedheads,andspears.
Ahoplitebattlewasaferociousaffair.Atasignalfromatrumpet,thephalanx
advancedatafastwalk,sometimesatatrot;whentheycameclose,thefrontranks
raisedtheirspears,stabbingoverhandattheenemy,aimingatvulnerablespots
unprotectedbyarmor.Meanwhile,theranksbehindliterallyshovedagainstthosein
frontthemaneuverwascalledthepushingusingtheirweighttobreakthe
enemysranks.Enormouscouragewasrequiredofeverysinglewarrior,forsuccess
dependedoneverymanholdinghisplaceintheformation.Tofleethefightbrought
thecontemptofthewholedemos;thusmenasarulestoodtheirground,bitingtheir
lipwiththeirteeth,astheSpartanpoetTyrtaeus(c.650BC)says.
Theconditionsofhoplitebattlewereawful.Theequipmentweighedabout70
pounds,almosthalftheweightofanaverageman.Itwasunbearablyhotinsidethe
armor;visionwasrestrictedbythedustandthehelmet;thenoisewasdeafening.
Everyonewasspatteredwithblood;woundedmenweretrampledunderfoot.
Tyrtaeusdescribesanoldhoplitebreathingouthisbravespiritinthedust,holding
hisbloodygenitalsinhishands.Thebattleswerefairlybrief,however,seldommore
thananhour.Casualtieswererelativelylightforthelosersaswellasthevictors,
seldomover15percent.Oncetheenemybrokeranksandfled,
Figure3.2.Theearliestdepictionofahoplitebattle;fromaCorinthianvase(c.640
BC).
104
therewasnotmuchpursuit,sothatmassacresofthedefeatedarmywererare.
Moreover,campaignswereshort;usually,asinglesetbattleendedthefightingfor
thesummer.Bothsidesburiedtheirdeadandwentbackhometoworktheirlandsor
practicetheircrafts,nottodontheirarmoruntilthepolisneededthemagain.
Notallcitizensfoughtinthephalanx,however.Becausehopliteshadtofurnishtheir
ownarmsandarmor,whichwerefairlyexpensive,thepoorestmenwere
disqualifiedandservedinsteadaslightarmedtroops.Modernestimatesofthose
whodidqualifyvaryconsiderably.Giventheimportanceofthephalanxtothe
survivalofthepolis,andtakingintoconsiderationthatcapturedarmorwouldbe
distributedandthatitemsofequipmentwouldbedonated,areasonableestimateis
thatatleasthalfofthebroadgroupofmesoiwereabletoserve.Thus60percentor
moreofatypicalhoplitearmywouldhavecomefromthenonaristocraticfamiliesof
thepolis.

TheHopliteArmyandthePolis
Itisinthehoplitearmythatwemostclearlyobservethepolisideologythatthe
citizenistheslaveofthecommongood.ThepoemsofTyrtaeusofSpartaand
CallinusofEphesus,bothfromaroundthemidseventhcentury,revealashiftin
valuesfromtheindividualtothepolis.AlthoughHomericwarriorsfaceddeath
willinglyasthepriceoftheirglory,theyneverthelesssawitasanunmitigatedevil.
InTyrtaeus,dyinginbattlehadacquiredapositivevalue.Itisanoblethingfora
goodmantodie,fallingamongthefrontranks,fightingforhisfatherland,hetells
hisfellowSpartans,andagain,Makelifeyourenemy,andtheblackspiritsofdeath
dearastheraysofthesun.Braveryinbattlewasstillthehighestvirtue,butittoo
hadbecomeacooperativevaluenottheheroicsofindividualchampionsbutsimply
keepingyourplaceinthephalanx.
Thisisthecommongood,forthepolisandthewholedmos,
whenamanstandsfirminthefrontranks
withoutflinchingandputsdisgracefulflightcompletelyfromhismind,
makinghissoulandspiritendure
andwithhiswordsencouragesthemanstationednexttohim.
(Tyrtaeusfr.12.1519West)
Similarly,honor,glory,andfamearesoughtjustaseagerlybythecitizensoldieras
theywerebytheHomerichero,butthesecouldbeearnedonlyinservicetothepolis.
Distinctionsofwealthandbirthvanishintheranksofthephalanx.Thus,Callinus
says,thoughamanmayhaveimmortalgodsashisancestors,heisdespisedbythe
demosifhefleesthethudofspears,whilethestoutheartedmanwhodiesinbattle
ismournedbyboththegreatandthesmall;indeathheismissedbythewhole
peopleandinlifeheistreatedasademigod(i.e.,asanepichero).Tyrtaeus,too,
showshowthehopliteidealwaserodingtheHomeric
105
notionsofexcellencethatthearistocratslaidclaimtoasproofoftheirexclusive
worth.Intheelegycitedabove,helistsallthethingsthattheagathoivaluedskillin
athletics,strengthandbeauty,greatwealth,politicalpower,eloquenceinspeaking
andsaysthathewouldnotevenmentioninhispoemsamanthathadeverykindof
fameexceptafightingspirit.
Therealityofstrictequalityintheranks,wherearistocratsandnonaristocratsfought
sidebyside,wasmakingitincreasinglydifficultfortheagathoitomaintaintheir
exclusivityandtheirholdonpoliticalpower.AlreadyinHesiodandTyrtaeuswesee
theconcomitantgrowthofanantielitistideologythatchallengedelitistpretensionsof

naturalsuperiorityandsubstitutedthelevelingnotionthatnonaristocratswereequal
toaristocratsoffthefieldofbattleaswellason.ThroughouttheArchaicand
Classicalperiodsthenonaristocratichopliteswouldplayakeyroleasthe
independentvariableinthepowerrelationswithinthecitystate.
Thisclass,comprisingfairlywellofffarmersandcraftsmen,wasthepivotalgroupin
determiningwhereapolisstoodonthecontinuumfromnarrowoligarchiestofull
democracies.Iftheywerecontentwithanunevendistributionofpowerandagreed
toorabettedtheexploitationoftheweak,oligarchicalregimesreignedsecure.If,on
theotherhand,theyopposedthestatusquoandsympathizedwiththebottomhalf
ofthecitizenry,thebalanceofpowershiftedfromtheelitetothemass.Becausethe
wellofffarmerstendedtowardconservatism,mostGreekpoleisintheArchaicand
Classicalperiodsweremoderatelyoligarchical,grantingcitizenrightsinaccordance
witheconomicstatus.Butinthosecitystateswheretheupperlevelofthemiddle
groupcamedownfirmlyonthesideofthepoor,therewascompletelegaland
politicalequalitybetweentheclasses.Therapidswingsfromoligarchytodemocracy
(andviceversa)thatoccurredsofrequentlyinthehistoryofapolisarebest
explainedbytheshiftsinattitudeofthenonaristocratichoplites.Theyalsoplayeda
majorroleinthepoliticalphenomenontheGreekscalledtyranny(tyrannis).
THEARCHAICAGETYRANTS
Hardlyhadthearistocratsridthemselvesofthepositionofbasileuswhenanewtype
ofonemanrulearoseintheformofthetyrannos(tyrant).Betweenabout670and500
BCagreatnumberofcitystatesthroughouttheGreekworldwentthroughaphase
oftyranny.ThewordstyrannosandtyranniswereborrowedintotheGreeklanguage
(perhapsfromLydiainAsiaMinor)todescribeaformofgovernmentforwhichthe
Greekshadnoword:rulebyamanwhoseizescontrolofthestatebyacoupand
governsillegally.TheArchaicAgetyrantwaswhatwecalltodayadictatoror
strongman.Atfirstthewordtyrannoshadnorealnegativeconnotation.Iteventually
cametomeanawickedandoppressivedespot,inpartbecauseofpropagandaspread
bythearistocrats,whonaturallyhatedthemenwhohadoverthrowntheirregimes,
butalsobecauselatergenerationsperceivedthatdictatorialrulebyonemannot
accountabletothedemosthreatened
106
thefreedomofall.Yetthereareampleindicationsthatthenonaristocratic
contemporariesoftheearlytyrantsviewedtheminamorefavorablelight.
Unfortunately,onlyafewofthedozensoftyrantswhograbbedpowerintheirpoleis
areknowninanydetail.Still,wecanseeageneralpatternintheirriseandfall.
Tyrannieswereshortlived.Althoughallthetyrantstriedtoformdynastiesby
passingontheirruletotheirsons,notyrannylastedmorethanthreegenerationsand

mostcollapsedafteroneortwo.Despitearistocratichatepropagandathatdescribed
sometyrantsaslowborn,itappearsthatallweremembersofthearistocracy.For
example,PheidonofArgoswasthehereditarybasileusbeforeheturnedhimselfinto
atyrannos.Notalltyrants,however,werefromthetoprankedfamilies.Cypselusof
Corinth,forinstance(c.657627),wasmarginalizedwithintheroyalclanofthe
Bacchiads,becausehismother,aBacchiad,hadmarriedoutsidetheclan.
Inadditiontotheirmembershipintheelite,wouldbetyrantsweredistinguishedin
theirpoleisfortheirindividualachievements.Cypselus,priortobecomingatyrant,
hadheldthepostofpolemarch(militarycommander).OrthagorasofSicyon(mid
seventhcentury)hadalsobeenpolemarchandhadcompiledanoutstandingbattle
record.CylonofAthens,whoseattemptedcoupin632failed,hadwonfameasa
victorintheOlympicgames.
Viciousinfightingamongthearistocraticfamiliesinthepolisforhonorand
precedencewasamajorfactorcontributingtotheemergenceofthetyrants.Rivalry
amongthearistocrats,thoughitwaschanneledtosomeextentintocompetitionfor
officesandcontrolwithinthecouncil,wasparticularlynastyintheseventhandsixth
centuriesbecausethestrugglesforpowerwerewagedamongclans(genos;plural
gen).Liketheroyalclan,anaristocraticgenosthewordmeantessentiallya
lineagewascomposedofapreeminentfamilythatextendedtheumbrellaoffictive
kinshipoverlessprestigiousnobleoikoi,whosememberssupportedtheleader
familyinitspoliticalambitions.Disputesamongthesefactionsgangsofhotheaded
youngaristocratsfrequentlyeruptedinboutsofviolenceandbloodshed.
TheGreekscalledformalconflictbetweengroupswithinthecitystatestasis(taking
astand).OppositionofthissortwasintegraltotheGreekpoliticalprocessofevery
period.ThestasisbetweenaristocraticfactionsintheArchaicperiod,however,was
muchmorefrequentlyviolentthanafterward(whenthepowerofthegenehad
declined),andwashighlydisruptiveofthesociety.Worse,becausemembershipina
genoswashereditary,thiskindofcivilwarcouldkeepflaringupforgenerations.
Theinterventionofastrongmanwhocouldstop,oratleastcheck,thefeudsofthe
noblefamilies,thoughanathematothenobles,waswelcometotherestofthepeople.
Toclimbtopowertheserenegadearistocrats,assomecallthem,neededresources
andmanpower.Onepotentialsourcewasdisaffectedaristocratswithinthepoliswho
werefrozenoutoftherulingcircle.Thisbandoffollowersmightbesupplemented
byamercenaryforcefromoutsidethepolis.Suchaidwassometimessuppliedbya
friendlytyrant(forhisabortivecoup,Cylonreceivedsometroopsfromhisfatherin
lawTheagenes,tyrantofMegara),or,inthecase
107

ofmanyoftheIoniantyrantsinthelatesixthcentury,bythePersianempire.The
bestknowntyrant,PeisistratusofAthens(whomadethreeattemptsbefore
succeeding),availedhimselfofavarietyofresources,includinglocalbodyguards,
mercenaries,andtroopsdonatedbypowerfuloutsiders.Hisstorywillbetoldat
greaterlengthinChapter5.
Notyrant,however,nomatterwhathisresources,couldhavesucceededwithout
supportofthecitizensthemselves,particularlythefarmerhoplites.Thereisno
evidencethatanytyrantcametopowerattheheadofahoplitearmy,butsuchactive
interventionwouldnothavebeennecessary.Anoligarchycouldnothavebeen
overthrownifithadtheloyaltyofthenonaristocratichoplites,whereasallthata
wouldbetyrantneededwastheirpassiverefusaltodefendthenobles.Amongthe
manyreasonsforthehoplitesdisaffectionwitholigarchicalrule,nottheleastwas
thattheincessantinfightingamongthearistocraticfamilieswasharmfultothegood
orderofthestate.Asforthelowestcitizens,theynaturallywouldhavebeenvery
supportiveofacoupagainstthegroupthatwasexploitingthem.
Thatthetyrantswereviewedaschampionsofthedemosagainsttheoligarchswas
thejudgmentofallthelaterwriters.Aristotleinthefourthcenturyputitconcisely:
Atyrantissetupfromamongthedemosandthemultitudetoopposethenotablesso
thatthepeoplemaysuffernoinjusticefromthem.Thisisclearfromthefactsof
history.Foralmostallthetyrantshavearisenfrombeingleadersofthepeople
[dmaggoi;hencedemagogue],sotospeak,havinggainedtheirconfidenceby
slanderingthenotables.
(Politics1310b1217;Rackham1977,adapted)
Theseizureofpowerwasoftenfollowedbyviolenceagainsttherich.Cypseluskilled
orbanishedmanyoftheBacchiadaristocratsandconfiscatedtheirlands
(presumablysomeofitwenttopoorerCorinthians),andothertyrantsdidthesame.
Tyrantsmadelawstolimitaristocraticpowerandprivilege,includingsumptuary
laws,whichcurbedaristocraticluxuryandostentation.Theyalsoprotectedthe
existinginstitutions;AristotlesaidoftheOrthagoriddynastyofSicyonthatinmany
waystheywereslavestothelaws.
Undertyranny,manypoleisthrivedandreachednewheights.Extensivebuilding
andimprovementprojectsstonetemplesandothermajorbuildings,harborsand
fortifications,andurbanamenitieslikethewatersupply,streets,anddrainage
systemsturnedthecapitaltownsintorealcities(andalsogaveworktopoor
citizens).
Moreover,trade,commerce,andcraftswereencouragedandsupportedunderthe
tyrants.Pheidon,forexample,standardizedweightsandmeasuresforthe

Peloponnesus,anenormouslyimportantadvanceinthecommercialeconomyofthe
area.AndCypselussonandsuccessor,Periander,builtastonetrackwayacrossthe
narrowIsthmusofCorinth(whereacanalrunstoday)allowingshipsandcargoesto
behauledbetweentheSaronicandCorinthiangulfs.(Itwasstillinuseaslateas883
AD.)Tyrantsalsoinstitutednewreligiouscultsandfestivals
108
thatcelebratedandstrengthenedtheunityofthepolis,andtheysupportedall
culturalactivities,competingtoattractthebestartists,architects,poets,andthinkers
inGreecetostayattheircity.
Thesonsofdictatorsareseldomassuccessfulastheirfathers.TheArchaictyrants
hadgainedpopularsupportfortheirtakeoverbecauseoftheirpersonalcharisma
andachievements.Theirsons,however,wereheirstoanonexistentoffice,andso
wereextremelyvulnerable.Afewsucceededontheirownmerits,butmostfound
themselvesresortingtoincreasinglytyrannicalmeasurestorepressopposition,
whichnaturallyexacerbatedresentmentagainstthem.Tyrantswereoverthrown,and
theyandtheirfamilieswereexiledorkilled.Usually,thearistocratswhohadbeen
banishedbythetyrantsreturnedandreestablishedanoligarchy.Aristocraticrule
wasneverthesame,however,afteratyranny.Thefarmerhopliteswerenolonger
willingmerelytovotefortheirleaderswithoutbeingabletoholdthemaccountable.
Norcouldthenoblesnowrefusetheirinclusionintheprocessofpublicdecisons,or
takeawayfromthepoorthebenefitsthatthetyrantshadbestowedonthemtomake
theirliveseasier.
ARTANDARCHITECTURE
ManyhistoriansofarthavemaintainedthatArchaicartwassuperioreventothatof
theClassicalperiod.Thereisnodoubtatanyratethatinartaswellasinliterature,
philosophy,andscienceArchaicGreeceexperiencedaburstofcreativeenergy
unsurpassedinanycomparabletimeperiodoftheancientworld.
BuildingontheachievementsoftheLateGeometricperiod,thecraftsmenofthe
seventhandsixthcenturiesattainednewheightsofexcellenceinalltheformsof
visualart.Withthedevelopmentofthecitystate,differencesinstylebetweenthe
variouspoleisbecamemoredistinct.Thisismostevidentinthepottery,which
continuesintheArchaicperiodtobethemostamplesourceformeasuringartistic
evolution.Theorientalizingtendenciesoftheeighthcenturyreachedapeakinthe
seventh,withavarietyofnewmotifsborrowedfromtheNearEastfloraldesigns
andfriezesofrealandfantasticanimalsreplacingtheearliergeometricpatterns.The
Corinthianswerethemostreceptivetotheseinfluencesandproducedavery
distinctivetypeofpottery.

UndertheleadershipofthetyrantCypselus(c.657627),Corinthemergedasthe
leadingcommercialcenterofGreeceanddominatedthetradeinfinelypainted
pottery.Corinthianpottersspecializedinexquisitelydecoratedperfumeflasks,2to3
incheshigh,whichtheyfilledwithscentedoliveoilandexportedinhugequantities
throughouttheGreekworld.Theyinventedanewtechniquecalledblackfigure,
whichpermittedthemtorenderminutedetails.Theartistfirstpaintedablack
silhouetteonthereddishclay,andthenwithasharppointhecutintheanatomical
anddecorativedetails,sometimesfillingtheseinwithredorwhitepaint.Corinthian
blackfigurewasenormouslypopular,butasoftenhappens,successledtomass
productionandinferiorvases,onwhichtheirfamousanimalmotifswere
monotonouslyandcarelesslyrepeated.
109
SoonAthenianpottersmasteredCorinthiantechniques,andby550Athenianblack
figurepottery,featuringavarietyofnewandlargervessels,haddrivenCorinthian
vasesfromtheexportmarket.Around530theAtheniansinturninventedanewstyle
calledredfigure,whichreversedtheblackfiguretechnique.Here,theartistfirst
drewoutlinesandthenpaintedthebackgoundblack,keepingtheoutlineinthe
reddishcoloroftheclayitself.Hethenpaintedthedetailsinblackwithafinebrush.
Thisallowedamoresubtleandrefinedrenderingofdetailthantheincisedblack
figuretechnique.
Seventhandsixthcenturyvasepaintingsmostcommonlydepictedepisodesfrom
mythologyandtheheroicsagas.Inthelatersixthcenturyimagesfromcontemporary
lifewereadded,mostofwhichfocusedontheactivitiesofyoungupperclassmales.
Typicallyportrayedwereathletics,horsemanship,anddrinkingparties(very
rowdy),aswellasschoolscenes,musiclessons,andhomosexualwooing.Womenare
representedlessoftenthanmen.Theyappeareitherasservantsandflutegirlsoras
welldressedupperclasswomenaccompaniedbytheirfemaleslavesinadomestic
setting.TheArchaicpotterswereproudoftheirwork,frequentlysigningtheirvases
(Aristonothosmademe)andoccasionallyincludingataunttoarivalpotter.
Vasepaintinggivesussomeideaofamajorartisticgenre,largescalerepresentations
ofmythologicalandpatrioticsubjectspaintedontemplesandother
Figure3.3a.TwosidesofanAthenianamphora(c.525520BC)decoratedin
boththeredfigureandtheblackfiguretechnique.
110

Figure3.3b.Asymposion(drinkingparty)sceneonanAthenianredfigurecalyx
krater(mixingbowlforwineandwater),showingamanandayouthrecliningona
couch,andaflutegirl.
publicbuildings.Thoughthepaintingsarealmostentirelylosttous,theartistswho
paintedthemwererenownedbeyondtheirpoleisandtheirnameswerestill
rememberedcenturieslater.
TheartisticgenreforwhichtheancientGreeksweremostfamouswasmonumental
(lifesizeorlarger)marbleandbronzesculpture.Thiswasaninnovationofthe
Archaicperiod.Largebronzestatueswerefirstproducedinthesixthcenturybutdid
notbecamecommonuntilthefifth,afterwhichtheyfaroutnumberedthosemadeof
marbleandotherstone.Thefirstlargemarblestatuesappeararound650.Egyptwas
thesourcebothofinspirationandtechnique.
TheGreekstatueswereoftwotypes,anakedkouros(youngmale)andaclothed
female(kor,youngmaiden).ThroughouttheArchaicperiodthefiguresretained
theoriginalrigidEgyptianstance,armspressedagainstthesides,onefootstepping
forward,butastimewentontheybecameincreasinglylessblocklike.Byabout500,
thekouroi(plural)hadcometoresemblerealyouths,withpreciselydefined
anatomicaldetailsandaccuratebodilyproportions.Thekorai(plural)hadalso
becomemorenaturallooking.Thebodyunderneaththedraperywasmoreclearly
indicatedandthefacialfeaturesmoredistinctlyfemale.Inbothtypesofstatues
Archaicelementswerestillnotable,suchastheblissfularchaicsmileandthehighly
conventionalizedtreatmentofthehair,yetthestatuesclearlyanticipatetheClassical
idealofthehumanform.Thekouroiandkoraiweresetupbywealthyfamilieseither
asgravemonumentsorasofferingstothesanctuaryofagodorgoddess.Because
theynormallyboreaninscriptionwiththededicatorsname,theywerehighlypublic
advertisementsofthefamilysstatusinthecommunity.
111
Figure3.4StatueofanEgyptiannobleman(earlyseventhcentury).
Figure3.5ColossalmarblekourosfromAttica(c.600BC).Thestatueimitatesthe
stylizedstanceofEgyptiansculpture.
AnothertypeofArchaicsculpturewasreliefsdepictingmythologicalscenes,carved
onthetriangularpedimentsandalongtheentablaturesoflatesixthcenturytemples.
Reliefsculpturewasincreasinglysuccessfulatshowingfiguresinmovementand
action.Bycontrast,thestylizedfreestandingkouroiandkoraimusthaveappeared
ratheroldfashionedbytheendofthecentury.

112
Inarchitecture,thetemplecontinuedtobethemainfocus.Thesmall,modest
prototypesoftheearlyeighthcentury,aswehaveseen,hadachievedmonumental
dimensionsbyitsend.Butthebigstepoccurredaroundthemiddleoftheseventh,
whenlimestoneandmarblereplacedmudbrickandwood.Again,theGreek
builderslearnedfromtheEgyptianstheskillsofquarrying,transporting,positioning,
anddressinghugestoneblocks.Thetempleplan,however,wasacontinuationofthe
GreekGeometricmodel,andmostofthearchitecturalfeaturessuchasthelow
pitchedroofcoveredwithterrracottatiles(replacingthe
Figure3.6.Thismarblekouros(c.510500BC),wassetatopthegraveof
AristodikosinAttica;itshowsthegrowthofnaturalisminsculpture.
Figure3.7.LateArchaickorfromtheacropolisofAthens(c.490),dedicatedby
Euthydikos.
113
Figure3.8.ReliefsculpturefromtheSiphnianTreasuryatDelphi(c.530525)
depictingtheBattleoftheGodsandtheGiants.ApolloandArtemisarestridinginto
battle(left)againsttheGiants(equippedascontemporaryhoplites).
oldthatchedroof)werepurelyGreek.Bytheearlysixthcenturythetwomaintypes
orordersofcolumns,theDoricandtheIonic,werewellestablished.Greektemples
lookedmuchastheywouldforthenextfivehundredyearsbuttheextantstructures
aresomewhatdeceptive.PortionsoftheGreektemplesandtheirsculpturedreliefs,
aswellasstandingmarblestatues,wereactuallypaintedinstrongbrightcolors,
presentinganimpressionquiteunlikethatgivenbythebare,gleamingstonewe
observetoday.
Duringthesixthcenturyothercarefullybuiltpermanentstructuresappearedinthe
maincities.Mostofthesewerebuiltinandaroundtheagora,thegatheringplace,a
largeopenspaceatornearthecenterofthecity.TheDarkAgeagorahadbeenonly
theplacewheretheassemblymet;intheArchaicperioditbecamethemarketplace
andpublicspaceofthecityandthereforeofthewholecitystate.Everyonegathered
theretobarter,exchangenewsandgossip,orconductofficialbusiness.Byabout500
BCtheagoracontainedoneormoreopencollonadedpassagewayscalledstoas,
whichprovidedshadeandshelterandspace
114

formarketstalls.Enhancingitsdignityandimportancewereofficialbuildingssuch
asthecouncilhouseandoffices.Sanctuaries,fountainhouses,andpublic
monumentsalsogracedtheagora.Inadditiontotheagora,Archaicpoleiscontained
openspaces,withspecifiedfunctions:thegymnasion,wheremenexercised,andthe
palaistra,awrestlingground.
Theagoraandotherpublicspaceswouldnotreceivenumerousorsplendidpublic
buildingsuntilthefifthandfourthcenturies.Nevertheless,byabout550allthe
capitalpoleis(exceptSparta)meritedthetitleoftrueurbancenters.Anaerialviewof
CorinthorAthensoranyothermajorcenterwouldhaverevealed
Figure3.9PlanoftheAthenianagoraasitlookedattheendoftheArchaicperiod
(c.500BC),showingtheearliestpublicbuildings(afterJ.Travlos1974).
115
denseconcentrationofbuildings,mostofthemprivatehouses,connectedinblocks
alongnarrowstreets,brokenupbypatchesofgardenplots.Thehouseswerelarger
thanthoseoftheDarkAgethreeorfourroomsratherthanoneortwobutstill
quitemodest.Eventhehomesandfurnishingsoftheelites,includingthetyrants,
remainedunpretentiousthroughouttheArchaicandmostoftheClassicalperiod.
Themodestyofprivatehomesandtherelativemodestyevenofsecularcivic
buildingsunderscoresthebasicfactthateffortstowardarchitecturalandsculptural
distinctioninancientGreeceweredirectedprimarilytowardsanctuaries:thegods
receivedthelionsshareofacitystatessurpluswealth,bothathomeandinthe
panhellenicsanctuaries.
LYRICPOETRY
Inliteraryexpression,aswell,theArchaicperiodwasoneofinnovation.Archaic
poetryismarkedlydifferentfromthepoetryofHomerandHesiod.Manypoetsdid
continuetocomposelengthyepicnarratives(thesocalledEpicCycleofheroicsagas
andtheHomerichymnsdescribedinChapter2areexamples).Butthemostoriginal
ArchaicpoetschosenottofollowinthegiantfootstepsofHomer,alreadycanonized
asthesupremepoetofalltimebytheearlyseventhcentury.Theyturnedtheir
talentsinsteadtoothergenresofpoetry,whichwelumptogetherundertherubricof
lyricpoetry.
Therootsoflyricpoetryextendfarbackintimetofolksongscreatedforspecific
occasionssuchasharvests,weddings,funerals,andcomingofagerituals,orto
hymns,fables,drinkingsongs,andlovesongseverything,inotherwords,that
pertainedtocommunalandprivatelife.Withtheadventofliteracysuchpoems

couldbepreservedandcirculated;poetscouldattainnotmerelylocalbut
Panhellenicfame,bycompetingwiththeirmorecarefullycraftedsongscomposed
andpolishedinwriting.
Eachoftheseveralgenrescommonlygroupedunderthenamelyrichaditsown
metricalpattern,subjectmatter,occasion,tone(elevatedandseriousorlowand
scurrilous),andmusicalaccompaniment.Likeepicpoetry,lyricpoetrywassong
andwaspresentedinperformance.Sometypeswereaccompaniedbythelyre(lyra;
hencethenamelyric),othersbyaflutelikeinstrument.Andsomeweresimply
recitedorchantedwithoutmusicalaccompaniment.
Amajordistinctionwasmadebetweensolosongsandsongsperformedbyachorus
ofyoungmenorwomen,whosanganddancedtothemusicofthelyre.Choral
poetryandsomekindsofsolopoetrywerepresentedbeforelargepublicaudiences
atfestivals,whereasotherswereperformedinsmallprivategatherings,usuallya
drinkingparty(symposion).UnliketheArchaicepics,whichoftenrantosixorseven
thousandlines,lyricpoemswereshortfromafewlinestoseveralhundredlines(in
thecaseofchoralsongs).
116
Mostlyricpoetrywaspersonal,sometimesextremelyso,insubjectandtone.The
poetssangaboutdrinking,friendsandenemies,sexuallove,oldageanddeath,
politics,war,andmorality.Thepoetstonecouldvaryfromlightheartedtobitterto
contemplative.AswesawearlierwithHesiod,personalneednotmean
autobiographical.YetthelyricpoetswentfarbeyondHesiodinrevealingtheirown
(ortheirpersonas)emotionalandmentalstates.Theythereforenotonlygiveusrare
insightsintofeelingsaboutprivatemattersbutalso,becauseprivatelifeandpolislife
weresocloselyintertwined,theyreflectsentimentsandattitudesabouttheirsociety.
Further,thepoetrypresents(fromastrictlymalepointofview)thesocialattitudesof
boththeeliteandthemiddlestrata.Althoughwehavefragmentsfromabouttwo
dozenlyricpoetsofthisperiod,wecansampleonlyafewofthemhere.Threemajor
lyricpoets,Simonides,Bacchylides,andPindar,whosecareersweremainlyinthe
fifthcentury,willbediscussedinChapter6.
SomeLyricPoetsandTheirSocialAttitudes
ArchilochusofParos(earlyseventhcentury)wasparticularlyknownforhismordant
wit,whichheoftendirectedagainsttheoldheroicideal.Accordingtotradition,
Archilochuswasthesonofanoblemanandaslavemother.Likeotherlyricpoets,his
voiceishighlypersonalandpassionate.Hispoemsareaboutdrinkingand
carousing,hissexualadventures,thepainoflosingcomradesinshipwrecks,hatred
ofhisenemies,theuncertaintiesoflifeinalternatingtonesoftendernessand
cruelty,deepseriousnessandobscenelevity.Hestresseshistwofoldrole:soldierof

fortuneaswellasinspiredpoet.Iamthesquireofthelordofwar,Enyalios[another
nameforAres],andIunderstandthelovelygiftoftheMuses(fr.1West).And
again,Inmyspearismykneadedbarleybread,inmyspearmyIsmarianwine.I
drinkleaningonmyspear(fr.2West).
WhereTyrtaeusandCallinustransvaluetheepicheroicconventions,Archilochus
pokesfunatthem.TheSpartansfoundthefollowingmockcomplaintsooutrageous
thattheyforbadetherecitationofArchilochuspoetryatSparta.
Well,someThracianisenjoyingtheshieldwhichIleftI
didntwantto,anditwasaperfectlygoodonebesideabush.
ButIsavedmyself.WhatdoIcareaboutthatshield?
Tohellwithit;Illgetanotheronejustasgood.
(fr.5West)
ThisisnottheboastofaHomerichero.Theironyandthehumorlieinthe
incongruitybetweenthepoetscynicalstanceandtheHomericideal.Archilochus
alsouseshumortopuncturethepretentiousnessofthearistocraticequationof
physicalbeautyandmanlyexcellence.
117
Idontlikeageneralwhoisbigandwalkswithaswagger,
orwhogloriesinhiscurlyhairandshavesoffhismoustache.
Givemeamanwhoslittle,bandylegged,
feetfirmontheground,fullofheart.
(fr.114West)
Theostentatiousdisplayofluxurybythearistocratswasanotherthingthatmetwith
thecensureofpoetswhoreflectedthesentimentsoftheordinaryyeomanfarmers.
Forexample,theIonianphilosophicalpoetXenophanes(c.550BC)criticizedthe
upperclassofhisnativeColophonwhowenttotheassemblyintheirallpurple
cloaks,gloryingintheirwelldressedlonghair,drenchedwiththeperfumeof
elaboratescents(fr.3West).Anearliercontemporary,AsiusofSamos,registered
similardispleasureattheeliteswhosweptintotheprecinctofHeraintheirsnow
whiterobes,theirlonghairtiedupingoldenclaspsandfancybraceletsontheir
arms.
Atthesametimeasitdeploresostentation,thepopularpoetrypromotesthepractical
wisdomandcommonsensevaluesheldbytheordinarycitizenofmoderatemeans.A
collectionofhomespunmaximsfromthefirsthalfofthesixthcentury,attributedto
PhocylidesofMiletus,ismadeupofsayingssuchas,Manythingsarebestinthe

middle;Iwanttobemiddle(mesos)inthepolis;andWhatgoodisnoblebirthfor
thosewholackgraceinwordsandcounsel?Inasimilarvein,Xenophanesdevalues
thearistocraticpursuitofhonorandprestigethroughathleticcompetition(onlythe
wealthycouldaffordtocompete),assertingthatitissmalljoyforthepoliswhen
athleteswinattheOlympicgames,forthesethingsdonotfattenthetreasuryofthe
polis(fr.2West).
PerhapsthemostcolorfulrepresentativeofthenoneliteperspectivewasHipponaxof
Ephesus(sixthcentury),whoadoptedthepersonaofanurbanhustler,alwaysbroke
andengagingindrunkenbrawlsandescapades.Hipponaxwroteinavernacularfull
ofstreetslangandobscenity,savagelylampooninghisenemiesandmakingfunof
himselfandhispoverty.Ploutos(thegodofwealth),hesays,nevercametomy
houseforhesquiteblindandsaidtome,Hipponax,Imgivingyouthirtyminas
ofsilver,andlotselsebesides.No,hestoofeeblewitted(fr.36West).
Otherpoetspresenttheworldfromanelitistperspective.Theirpoemsaredirectedto
anaudiencethathadwealthandleisure.Mostofthispoetrywascomposed
specificallyforrecitationatsymposia,maledrinkingparties,whichwerean
exclusivelyaristocraticformofentertainment.Symposiasticpoetry,asitiscalled,
coveredarangeofsubjects,fromthelofty(patrioticsongsandretellingsofancient
myths)totheplayful(riddlesandjokes).Partisanpoliticswasafavoritetopic.The
commonestthemes,however,werepersonalmusingsonthepleasuresofwineand
love(bothheterosexualandhomosexual)andthesadnecessitythatthesejoysmust
fadewitholdage.
TypicalisthisshortpoembytheseventhcenturyIonianpoetMimnermus(from
SmyrnaorColophon).
118
WhatlifeisthereapartfromGoldenAphrodite?
Whatjoycantherebe?MayIdiewhenI
Nolongercareforsecretloveandtendergifts
andbed,thealluringblossomsofyouthformen
andwomentoo.Andwhenmiserableoldage
comesonthatmakesamanbothuglyanduseless,
thentroublesomeworriesforeverwearandtearathiswits,
norcanheenjoythesightofthesunsrays.
Boysfindhimhateful,womencontemptible.
Sosorrowfulathinghasthegodmadeoldage.
(fr.1West;Fowler1992,adapted)

AnotherIonianpoetwasAnacreonofTeos(midsixthcentury),whowasinvitedto
SamosbythetyrantPolycrates,andafterPolycratesmurderjoinedthecourtofthe
PeisistratidtyrantsofAthens.Theconsummatearistocraticcourtpoet,he
particularlycelebratesthepleasuresofwineandlove.ForAnacreonthesearethe
propertopicsforsymposia,notthewornthemesofwarandbloodshed:
Idontlikethemanwho,whiledrinkingwinebesidesthefullmixingbowl,
talksaboutquarrelsandwarfarewithitstears,
butratheronewhominglestheMusesandAphroditessplendidgifts
togetherandsokeepsthecharmsoffestivityinmind.
(Elegy2;Miller1996)
SimilarinstyleandtonetoAnacreonwashiscontemporaryIbycus,fromRhegiumin
Italy,whoalsospentyearsatPolycratescourt.SomeofIbycuspoemsarelong
choralnarrativesinlyricmeters,ontraditionalepicandmythologicalthemes.Most
ofhisextantwork,however,ishomoeroticpoetry,fullofsensuousimagery.Inone
poem,Eros(Love)comeslikethenorthwindfromThrace,andwithparching
madness,darkandfearless,shakesmetothebottomofmyheartwithhismight(fr.
286Page).Inanotherpoem,onfallinginloveagain,hecompareshimselftoanold
championracehorsethatunwillinglydragshischariottothecontest(fr.386Page).
Mytilene,thedominantpolisofLesbos,producedtwoprominentpoets,Sapphoand
Alcaeus,attheendoftheseventhcentury.Bothwerefromleadingaristocratic
families.SapphoistheonlyknownwomanpoetfromtheArchaicperiod,infact,one
ofthefewinallancientGreekliterature(womenwerenotencouragedtowrite).Her
poetrywasgreatlyadmiredthroughoutantiquityshewashailedasthetenth
Muse.Unfortunately,verylittleofSapphospoetryhassurvived.Mostofwhatwe
haveissolosongs,highlypersonalintone,whosemainthemeiseroticlovebetween
women.ItappearsthatSapphowastheleaderofacloseknitcircleofyoungupper
classwomeninLesbos(hencethenineteenthcenturyeuphemismlesbian),who
sharedtheirlivesforabriefperiodbefore
119
marriage.Sapphoalsowroteweddingssongs(epithalamia)performedbychoruses
ofyounggirls.
Document3.3Ninebooks(i.e.,papyrusrolls)ofSapphospoetrywerecollectedin
theAlexandrianperiod,ofwhichonlyonecompletepoemsurvives,alongwith
severalsubstantialportionsofpoemsandanumberofveryshortfragments.Hereis
aselectionofshorterfragments.

Isimplywishtodie.
Weepingsheleftme
andsaidthistoo:
Wevesufferedterribly
SapphoIleaveyouagainstmywill.
Ianswered,gohappily
andrememberme,
youknowhowwecaredforyou,
ifnot,letmeremindyou
...thelovelytimesweshared...(fr.94LP)
Ihaveabeautifulchild,herform
likeagoldenflower,belovedKleis,
whomIwouldnottradeforallofLydia
orlovely....(fr.132LP)
EveningStarwhogatherseverything
shiningdawnscattered
youbringthesheepandthegoats,
youbringthechildbacktoitsmother.(fr.104LP)
Thesweetapplereddensonahighbranch
highuponhighest,missedbytheapplepickers:
no,theydidntmiss,somuchascouldnttouch.(fr.105LP)
IlovedyouAtthisoncelongago...
Youseemedtomeasmallchildandwithoutcharm.(fr.49LP)
Atthis,foryouthethoughtofmehasbecomehateful,
andyouflyofftoAndromeda.(fr.131LP)
TranslatedbyDianeJ.Rayor,SapphosLyre.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,
1991,pp.60,72,74,68.
AllthenoblefamiliesofLesbos,duringthelifetimesofSapphoandAlcaeus,were
embroiledinviciouspowerstruggles.ItwouldhavebeenunthinkableforSappho,a
woman,towriteofthisstasisinherpolis.Alcaeus,however,putsusinthecenterof
thecomplicatedintrigues,thepoliticaldealsandbetrayals,andthepartisanhatreds
andviolence,whichherelatesingreatdetail.Alcaeus
120
venomwasdirectedprimarilyatanotheraristocratnamedPittacus,abitterenemy
whohadbeenaformerally.Predictably,AlcaeuslevelsatPittacustheworstinsults

anaristocratcouldmuster:baseborn(kakopatrids;literallysonofakakosfather)
andtyrant(hehadbeenelectedbythepeopletoserveasatemporarydictatorto
endtheincessantaristocraticfeuding).Alcaeusisbestknownforthisinvective
poetry,buttheothersymposiasticthemessuchaslove,legend,andwineoccupied
hisversesjustasmuch.Indeed,hestressesthatlove,wine,andthepleasuresofthe
drinkingpartyofferedhimandhiscompanionswelcomereposefromfactionalstrife.
ThefourteenhundredlinesofpoetrythathavebeenattributedtoTheognisof
Megara(c.550BC)areprobablyalatercompilationofpoemswrittenbymany
differentauthors,datingfromthelateseventhtotheearlyfifthcentury.This
anthology,calledtheTheognidea,includestheusualaristocraticthemes;butitgoes
furtherinrevealingtheclassprejudicesandantagonismsoftheelitetowardthe
lowerclasses.Thecollectionreadslikeamoralhandbookforaristocrats,praisingthe
valuesofthewellbornagathoiandvilifyingthebasebornkakoi,whoare
representedasincapableofanysortofexcellence.Thisintensifiedcontemptisthe
reactionofafrustratedaristocracy,whorealizedthattheywerelosingtheirstatus
andprivilegewhileasignificantnumberofnonelitesweremakingeconomicand
politicalgains.
Conveyedagainandagaininversessuchasthese(addressedtotheyoungloverof
Theognis)isasenseofhelplessnessmingledwithbitterresentmentatthe
intolerablereversalofstation:
Cyrnus,thosewhowereagathoioncearenowkakoi,andthosewhowerekakoibefore
arenowagathoi.Whocouldbearseeingthis,theagathoidishonoredandthekakoi
gettinghonor?
(Theognidea11091112)
Althougharistocratswouldcontinuetoproclaimtheirinnatesuperiority,the
movementtowardpoliticallevelingthathadbegunintheseventhcenturywas
essentiallycompletedbytheearlydecadesofthefifth.
PHILOSOPHYANDSCIENCE
Likelyricpoetry,philosophy(literallytheloveofwisdom)arosewiththe
awakeningoftheGreekworldintheArchaicperiod.TheearliestGreek
philosophers,someofwhomwerethefirsttowriteinprose,arecalledthe
PresocraticstodistinguishthemfromthedisciplesofSocrateswholivedinAthensin
theClassicalperiod.ThePresocraticsarealsoclearlydifferentiatedfromtheSocratics
inthattheformerconcentratedtheirattentiononthestructureanddevelopmentof
thephysicaluniversewhilethelatterweremoreinterestedinethics,intherole
humanbeingsplayinrelationshiptooneanotherandtothelargersociety.

121
Cosmos:TheVisibleSky
Becausetheydidnothavetelescopes,theGreeksknewonlythestarsandthefive
planetstheycouldseewiththenakedeye.Buttheyweremuchmorefamiliarwith
thenightskythanmostcitydwellersarenowadays.Sincetherewerenostreetlights,
smog,ortallbuildings,theirnightswerefilledwithstars.Theynamedtheplanets
andconstellationsaftertheirgodsandcharactersintheirmyths,likeOrionthe
hunterandthegirlshepursuedandnevercaught,thePleiades.IntheWorksand
DaysHesiodsagriculturalcalendarisaddressedtofarmerswholearnedwhenitwas
timetoperformtheirseasonalchoresbythepositionoftheconstellations.When
Greekssailed,theyplottedtheirlocationbythepositionofcelestialobjects.
IntheArchaicperiod,colonization,travel,andthedevelopmentoftradeand
commercespurredthegrowthofastronomicalthinking.Contactwithother
civilizationsinAsia,especiallyBabylonia,whereastronomicalrecordsofphenomena
suchaseclipseshadbeenkeptforcenturiesfromasearlyas1600BC,showedthere
wassomeregularityandpredictabilityinthemovementsofthestarsandplanets.
TheSearchforOrigins
UnliketheBabylonianrecordkeepers,earlyGreekastronomerstriedtofind
explanationsforthecelestialmotions.Theyattemptedtodevelopscientificmodels
thatnotonlywouldexplainwhathadbeenobservedbutwouldpredictfuture
observations.Thenasnow,thesamescientistswhowereinterestedinunderstanding
theuniversesearchedforitsorigins.Thenasnow,thesearchoftentookasitsfirst
axiomthatatthebeginningtherewasonlyonesubstance,orveryfew,outofwhich
allmatterevolved.
TheearliestGreekscientistsweknowoflivedinMiletusinthesixthcentury.Their
thoughtshavebeentransmittedtousbecausetheywerequotedbylaterGreek
philosophersandscientistssuchasAristotle.TheMilesianswerethefirsttoabandon
supernaturalorreligiousexplanationsfornaturalphenomenaandinsteadtoseek
purelyphysicalcauses.Thales,traditionallythefirstofthethreegreatMilesians,was
abletopredictasolareclipseandthesolstices,therebydemonstratingthat
occultationofthesunandthelengthofdayswerenotdeterminedbydivinewhim.
Healsobelievedthatthesingleoriginofmatterwaswater(foritcouldbe
transformedintobothgasandsolidforms),andthattheearthwasflatandfloatedon
water.Incontrast,hisfellowMilesian,Anaximander,calledtheoriginalprinciple
TheBoundless,orTheIndefinite;thislimitlessentitycontainedallmatter,
includingsuchoppositesaswetanddryandcoldandhot.Hepostulatedthatthe
earliestcreaturesarosefromslimewarmedbythesunsheat,andhewasalsothe
firstGreektodrawageographicalmap.AnotherMilesian,Anaximenes,thoughtthat

everythinghadevolvedfromair:itbecamefirewhenitwasrarefied,couldchangeto
windandcloud,andwhencondensedwastransformedintosolidsubstances.Like
Thales,Anaximenesbelievedthattheearthwasflat,buthethoughtthatitfloatedon
air.
122
Pythagoras,oneofthemostinfluentialcosmologists,isfamiliartousbecauseofhis
discoveryofthetheoremthatbearshisname.HewasborninSamos,butleftaround
531BCbecauseofthetyrannyofPolycrates.PythagorassettledinsouthernItalyand
livedwithagroupofdisciples.TheoriginalPythagoreansandtheirsuccessors
followedstrictrulesintheirdailylives.WomenwereincludedinthePythagorean
communitiesandwereimbuedwiththephilosophicaldoctrinesthatregulatedthe
conductofdailylife.Forexample,thePythagoreansobservedmanyfoodtaboos.
Theywerestrictvegetarians,fortheybelievedintransmigrationofthesoul.
Nevertheless,theywereinterestedinworldlymatterslikepoliticsandgeometry.
Geometry(literallytakingthemeasureoftheearth)wasatheoreticalandpractical
scienceofspecialimportanceintheancientworldwherelandwasthemostvaluable
commodity:thefoundingofnewcitiesincludedthecarefulmeasurementofland
intoplotsofequalsizeanditsdistributiontocolonists.
Pythagorasbelievedthatarithmeticalsoheldthekeytounderstandingtheuniverse.
Hepostulatedthattheearthwasasphereinthecenterofaseriesofhollowspheres.
Thestarswerefixedontheoutersphericalshell,andtheplanetsonsmallershells
within.Eachdaythestellarsphererotatedfromeasttowestwhiletheplanetary
spheresrotatedfromwesttoeastatvariousrates.Theirmovementcreatedasound,
butsincethesoundisalwayswithus,weareunabletohearit.ThePythagorean
theoryofthemusicalharmonyoftheheavenlyspheresisanexampleofanattempt
tofind,oreventoimpose,anaestheticallypleasingmathematicalexplanationforthe
movementofcelestialbodies.MorethanacenturylaterPlato,whowasmuch
influencedbyPythagoreanism,alsosoughttoexplaintheuniverseintermsof
arithmeticalabstractionsandassertedthatallcelestialbodiesmoveatthesamerate
inacircularpath.
Document3.4
Mortalsmadetheirgods,andfurnishedthem
withtheirownbody,voice,andgarments.
Ifahorseorlionoraslowox
hadagilehandsforpaintandsculpture,
thehorsewouldmakehisgodahorse,
theoxwouldsculptanox.

Ourgodshaveflatnosesandblackskins
saytheEthiopians.TheThracianssay
ourgodshaveredhairandhazeleyes.
Xenophanesfr.1214Diehl;translatedbyWillisBarnstone,GreekLyricPoetry.New
York:Schocken,1972,p.131adapted.
123
LikePythagoras,XenophanesofColophon(c.550BC)movedfromtheeastern
MediterraneantoMagnaGraeciawherehetraveledaboutasanexile.Fragmentsof
hispoemscriticizingconventionalreligiousandethicalbeliefsareextant.
Xenophanesideasaboutthedevelopmentofthecosmoswerebasedonpersonal
observation.Forexample,whenhenoticedfossilimprintsofmarinelifeandseaweed
inthreedifferentlocationsinland,hetheorizedthattheywereproducedlongago
whentheearthwascoveredwiththemudproducedbyamixtureofseawaterand
earth.AnimportantcharacteristicofearlyGreekscienceisthatideascirculated
widelythroughthewritingofbooks.Becausethecitystateswerenontheocratic,the
earlyphilosopherscouldfreelycriticizeeachotherstheories.Heraclitus,wholived
inEphesusinthesecondhalfofthesixthcentury,wasafiercecriticofPythagoras
andXenophanes.RejectingPythagorasworldviewthatemphasizedregularityand
order,Heraclitusmaintainedthateverythingwasconstantlychanginglikeariver:
youcannotstepintothesamerivertwice.Theworldconsistsnotofoneormore
materialsubstancesbutofprocessesgovernedbyaprincipleHeraclituscallslogos:
arationalprincipleorstatementthatpeoplemustunderstandinordertounderstand
theworldinwhichtheylive.Theworldisnotwhatitappearstobe.Thesameidea
wasatthecoreofParmenidesphilosophy.HelivedintheGreekcolonyEleain
southernItalyandwroteapoeminwhichhetriedtoanalyzewhatitmeanstosay
thatsomethingisorexists.AccordingtoParmenides,allyoucansayandthinkis
thatbeingexistsbutthatnonbeingdoesnotexist.Changeislogicallyimpossible
becauseifsomethingchangesitisnolongerthesameanddoesnotexist.Fortherest
ofantiquityGreekphilosophystruggledwiththesequestions:Whatdowemean
whenwesaythatsomethingexists,andwhatistherelationshipbetweentheworld
asweexperienceitandwhatitreallyis?
SomeofthespeculationsofthePresocraticsappeartobeuncannilyconsistentwith
thehypothesesofmoderncosmology.Aswenowadayssearchdistantplanetsfor
signsoflifeasweknowitanddeludeourselvesthatearthisthecenterofour
galaxywhenweviewthepageantofthestarsoverhead,wecanbetterunderstand
theanthropocentricandgeocentricarroganceoftheGreeksandappreciatethese
earlyscientistswhohadnotoolsforexplorationexcepttheirownintelligence.
RELATIONSBETWEENSTATES

Withtheemergenceofthecitystate,theexternalproblemofcoexistencebecame
muchmorecomplicatedanddifficultthanithadbeenintheprestateperiod.Despite
manygapsinthehistoricalrecord,itisevidentthatperiodicwarfarebetween
neighboringstateswascommoneverywhereduringtheseventhandsixthcenturies.
Asweshallsee,solutionsweresoughttoalleviatethetensionsamongstates,and
thesewerepartiallysuccessful.
Therewereseveralreasonsfortheheightenedtensions.Asstatesbegantorunoutof
unoccupiedland,theyattemptedtoextendtheirboundaries.Thiscauseddisputes,
usuallyoverborderlandsthathadnotrequiredstrictdefinitionwhenpopulations
werestillsmall.Moreover,existingtensionsbetweenpoleisinthe
124
motherlandwereextendedtotheircoloniesandwerecomplicatedbyincreasing
tradingcompetition.Asaresult,enmitieswereformedbetweencitystateshundreds
ofmilesapart.Relationswereapttobefurtherstrainedbecauseofthetransferenceto
thecoloniesofancientantagonismsbetweenlargeethniclinguisticgroupings,
especiallytheIoniansandDorians.LegendarygrievancesgoingbacktotheHeroic
Agefrequentlyprovidedconvenientpretextsforstartingaquarrel.
Onthemainland,wheretheimpactoflandscarcitywasfeltfirst,territorialwars
beganasearlyasthelateeighthcentury.Atthattime,ChalcisandEretriainEuboea
foughtoverpossessionoftherichLelantosRiverplainthatlaybetweenthem.Inthe
LelantineWar,asitiscalled,bothsidesweresaidtohavehadalliesfrommuch
furtheraway,apossibleindicationthatitinvolvedrivalcolonialnetworks.
HowcomplexinterstaterelationscouldbeismostclearlyseeninthePeloponnesus,
whichcontainedthreeofthemajorGreekcitystatesSparta,Argos,andCorinth.
AftertheirconquestofMesseniainthelateeighthcentury,theSpartansturnedtheir
attentiontotheirotherneighbors,theethnosofArcadiaandthepolisofArgos.In
Arcadiatheyhadlittlesuccess;inArgostheydidgainterritorybutagainstfierce
resistance.TheywerebadlybeatenbytheArgives,underthecommandofPheidon,
inabattleatHysiaeintheArgolisin669.(IthasbeensuggestedthattheArgive
victoryencouragedtherevoltofthehelotizedMesseniansintheSecondMessenian
War.)TheArgivesinthemeantimeweretryingtoexpandtheirownlandholdings
andinfluencewithinthePeloponnesus,particularlyintheCorinthiansphere;the
CorinthiansweredoingthesametotheirsmallerneighborstatesofMegaraand
Sicyon.Thetwomostpowerfulstates,ArgosandSparta,continuedtofightover
territoryuntil547,whenSpartamadeitslastbiglandgainatArgosexpense,alarge
disputedborderareaeastoftheParnonrange.ThereafterSpartanpolicywasto
foregoconquestandusediplomacyandalliancesasameansofkeepingtheir
acknowledgedsupremacyinthePeloponnesus.

DiplomacyandAlliances
ItwasonlyinthesixthcenturythatGreekstatesbeganinearnesttoestablishformal
mechanismsdesignedtoavoidwarandpromotecooperationandunderstanding
amongthemselves.Almostallofthesecooperativeinstitutionshadhadtheirgenesis
intheprestateperiod,buttheywererefinedandregularizedduringthelaterArchaic
Age.
Atthesametimethatformalmeanswerebeinginstituted,diplomaticrelationswere
stillbeingconductedmuchastheyhadbeenintheDarkAge,throughpersonal
relationshipsamongtheleadingmen.Thiswasespeciallysointhetyrannies.Tyrants
conductedforeignpolicyassovereigns,makingpactsoffriendshipormarriage
allianceswithothertyrantsorwiththetoparistocrats.Forexample,Periander(c.
627587),whosucceededhisfatherCypselusastyrantofCorinth,developeda
politicalfriendshipwithThrasybulus,tyrantofMiletus,which
125
endedanoldenmitybetweenthetwopoleisgoingbacktotheLelantineWar.Their
pactaidedCorinthiantradersinEgyptandtheBlackSeaandMilesiantradersinthe
West.PerianderwasalsoaskedbyAthensandMytilenetoarbitrateadisputeover
controlofSigeum,animportantwaystationontheroutetotheBlackSea.
Personaldiplomacybecameinstitutionalizedintheformofproxeny,wherebya
residentofonecitystateactedasasemiofficialrepresentativeoftheinterestsof
another.ProxenywasaformalizedversionoftheDarkAgeinstitutionofguest
friendship(xenia),observedinHomer.AswesawinChapter2,whenAgamemnon
andMenelauscametoIthacatorecruitOdysseusandhisfollowersfortheTrojan
War,theystayedatthehouseoftheirxenos,orguestfriend,atIthacawhilethey
conductedtheirembassy.IntheArchaicversion,whenanAthenian,say,cameto
Corinthonsomepublicorprivatebusiness,theproxenosoftheAtheniansatCorinth
wouldaidhiminhismission.
Temporarymilitaryalliancesbetweencommunities,bothoffensiveanddefensive,
wereasoldaswar.IntheArchaicperiodtheybecamemoreformalandlonger
lasting.Statesbegantomakewrittentreaties,pledgingfriendshipandnonaggression
forastipulatedtime.Theearliestformalpactweknowofisonaninscriptiondating
toaround550,betweenthepolisofSybarisinsouthernItaly,itsallies,andanother
polis.Itreads:TheSybaritesandtheiralliesandtheSerdaioimadeanagreementfor
friendship,faithfulandwithoutguile,forever.Guarantors,Zeus,Apollo,andthe
othergods,andthepolisofPoseidonia(MeiggsandLewis,1989,p.10).
Therealsocameintoexistenceseveraltypesofmultistatealliancesorleagues.One
wastheamphictyonyorassociationsofneighbors,inwhichseveralindependent

citystatescooperatedtomaintainandprotectacommonsanctuaryofagod.These
associationsmayhavegonefarbackintime,althoughweknowofthemonlyfrom
thesixthcenturyon,whentheyhadtakenonamorepoliticalcharacterthanmerely
protectingthecommonsanctuary.Althoughanamphictyonydidnotpreventits
membersfromwarringagainstoneanother,atleastitmitigatedhostility.Member
statesmightpledge,forexample,nottodestroyeachotherscitiesorcutofftheir
watersupply.
Itwasalsointhesixthcenturythatethnbegantoformlooseunionsoftheirseparate
townsandvillagesforthepurposesofforeignrelationsandwarfare.Thesediffered
fromtheamphictyoniesinthattheyhadanoverarchinggoverningbodyfor
coordinatingcommunalaction.Nevertheless,theauthorityofcentralgovernments
overtheindependententitieswouldremainrelativelyfeebleuntilthecreationinthe
fourthcenturyoftruefederalstates.
OneofthemostsuccessfulfederationsintheArchaicperiodwasthatoftheethnosof
Thessaly.Asearlyastheseventhcenturythisvast,richnorthernregionwasloosely
unitedformilitaryactionundertheheadshipofawarleader,calledeitherarchon
(leader)ortagos(militarycommander).Thessalianunityallowedthemtobecome
themajorpowerofnorthernGreeceforaperiodoftimeinthesixthcentury,untilthe
confederacywasweakenedbyquarrelsamongthelocalchiefs.Theethnosofthe
Phocians,underpressurefromtheunifiedThes
126
salians,quicklydevelopedafederalunionoftheirowninthesixthcentury,complete
withtheirownfederationcoinageandarmy.Similarly,theneedforsomeunity
againstbothThessalianandAthenianpressureatthistimepromptedtherivalpoleis
ofBoeotiatoformaconfederacyundertheleadershipofThebes.ThisearlyBoeotian
league,too,provedfractiousandunstable,becauseofoppositionbytheothercity
statestoThebanhegemony.
Themidsixthcenturyalsosawthefirstofthemegaalliances,thePeloponnesian
LeaguecreatedbySparta.Thehistoryofthefifthcenturywouldbeshapedbythe
rivalryandthenthehatredbetweentheSpartansandtheAthenians.Theywould
conducttheirwarsanddiplomaticskirmishesasthehegemonsoftwohugealliances,
thePeloponnesianandDelianleaguesrespectively,whichtogethercomprisedmost
oftheGreekworld.
PANHELLENICINSTITUTIONS
Theeasewithwhichpoets,thinkers,artists,andideasmovedfromcitytocityacross
thewideexpanseofGreekoccupationisatokenofhowculturallyunifiedtheGreek

worldwasevenasitremainedpoliticallydivided.ThePanhellenicgatheringsplayed
amostimportantroleinshapingtheconceptoftheculturalunityofallGreeks.
AllthePanhellenicsanctuariesincreasedgreatlyinpopularityandprestigeinthe
seventhandsixthcenturies.Evergreaternumbersofpeoplecametoworship,
consultoracles,andparticipateinorattendmusicalandathleticcompetitions.The
twobiggestattractionswerethesanctuariesofZeusatOlympiaandofApolloat
Delphi.Bytheendoftheseventhcentury,thequadrennialgamesinhonorofZeus
weredrawingspectatorsandcontestantstoOlympiafromtheentireGreekworld.
ShortlythereafterthreenewPanhellenicgameswereinstitutedatothersanctuaries:
thePythiangamesforApolloatDelphi(582BC),theIsthmiangamesforPoseidon
nearCorinth(581),andtheNemeangamesforZeusatArgos(573).Thenewgames
wereintegratedintothefouryearOlympiadsoastoformanathleticcircuit
(periodos).Thefestivalswerestaggeredsothattherewouldbeonemajorgame
everyyear,twoinalternateyears,withtheOlympicsremainingthepremierevent.
WellbeforetheinaugurationofthePythiangames,theoracleofApolloatDelphi
wasfarfamed,drawingbothGreeksandnonGreeksfromalloverthe
Mediterraneanworld.Forafairlyheftycostinobligatorysacrificesanindividual
couldconsultApolloforadviceonpersonalmatters(marriage,careers,voyages,
divinefavor,etc.).Citystatesalsoconsultedthegod,seekinghisguidanceand
sanctiononimportantquestionssuchascolonizing,religion,andlaws.Apollos
answerscamethroughapriestess,calledthePythia,whobecamepossessedbythe
godandinatranceutteredthemessagesshereceivedfromApollo.Thesewereput
intocoherent(thoughfrequentlyambiguous)formbyinterpreters(prophtai),who
gavetheirresponsesinhexameterverse.Becausesomanytyrants,foreignkings,and
aristocraticleadersconsultedtheoracle,thesanctuarybecameastorehouseof
informationaboutpoliticalconditionsinthewideworld.
127
ThePanhelleniccontestsandritualsfosteredtheideaofGreekness,ofsharingthe
samelanguage,religion,customs,andvalues.Indeed,theyhadtheavowedpurpose
ofknittingtogethertheGreeksinpeacefulcelebration.DuringtheOlympicgames,
forexample,asacredtrucebanningwarthroughouttheGreekworldwasdeclared
forthemonthinwhichthegameswereheld.Ontheotherhand,theathleticcontests,
theagnes(fromwhichwederiveagonisticandantagonist)wereviewedas
competitionsnotonlybetweenindividualsbutalsobetweenstates,muchastheyare
today.Thesacredprecinctsthemselvesbecameplacesforpoleistoboastoftheir
wealthandachievementswithdedicationsofstatuesandcostlystoneandmarble
treasuriesincommemorationofcontestwinnersorofmilitaryvictoriesbythe
polis.

Therewerenoteamevents,onlyindividualcontests.Thus,thegameskeptalivethe
ancientidealoftheindividualhero:tobedeclaredbest(aristos)bygainingvictory
overaworthyopponent.ThecontentandspiritofthePanhellenicgameshad
changedlittlefromthegamesdescribedintheIliad.Theeventsstilltestedspeed,
strength,dexterity,andendurance,preciselythequalitiesdesiredinaHomeric
warrior.
Oftheseveralfootracesthemostprestigiouswastheshortsprint,calledthestade
(stadion,hencestadium)adistanceofabout210yards;atOlympiathewinnerofthe
staderacewaslistedfirstinthesummaryofallvictors.Attheendofthesixth
centuryanewracerunbycontestantsinfullarmorwasinaugurated,inrecognition
ofhoplitefighting.Otherstandardeventsatthegameswerewrestling,boxing,and
thepankration,aviciouscombinationofboxingandwrestlingwithnoholdsbarred
exceptbitingandeyegouging.Therewasalsoatrackandfieldevent,thepentathlon,
combiningfivecontests:thestade,javelinanddiscusthrows,thelongjump,and
wrestling.Inadditiontherewereequestrianevents,themostspectacularofwhich
wasthefourhorsechariotrace,acontestdatingbacktotheLateBronzeAge.The
winnerofthechariotracesandthehorseraceswasnotthecharioteerorthejockey
butthewealthyhorseowner.
Separatesetsofcontestswereheldforboys(underage20)andformen.Womendid
notcompeteatthemajorgames,norprobablyweretheypermittedtoattendas
spectators,althoughlateratOlympiatherewasastaderaceforgirlsinhonorof
Hera.Theprizeswerejusttokensofglory,wreathsoffoliage:atOlympiaolive
leaves,atPythialaurel,atNemeawildcelery,andatIsthmiapine.(Muchmore
substantialprizeswereofferedattheseverallessprestigiousPanhellenicgamesthat
sprangupduringthesixthcenturyatAthens,Thebes,andelsewhere.)Ontheir
returnhome,however,victorsreapedlavishrewards:triumphalprocessions,civic
honors,statues,andevenprizesofmoney.AtthePythiangamesandanumberof
otherfestivalstherewerealsocompetitionsandprizesinchoralandsolopoetryand
inmusicalperformances.
***
AtthebeginningoftheArchaicperiod(c.750BC)theGreekswerestillarelatively
isolatedandeconomicallybackwardpeople,organizedpoliticallyintolowlevel
chiefdoms.Bythelatesixthcenturytheyhadaculturallyadvancedstate
128
societythatspreadacrosstheentireMediterraneanzoneandweremajorplayersin
thecomplexinternationalmarketeconomy.

ThesupremepoliticalachievementoftheArchaicAgeGreekswasthepolis,whichin
thecourseoftheperiodevolvedfromnarrowoligarchytotyrannytoamorebroadly
basedpolityinwhichthemajorityofitsmembersparticipatedinitsgovernance.
Becausethepeopleandnotjusttheelitehadastakeinthepolis,thesenseofloyalty
anddedicationtothecommonalityofcitizens,asAristotlecalledthepolis,was
profound.ItwasthispoliscitizenbondthatmadetheGreekcitystateunlikeany
otherformofstateintheancientworld.Thisfierceloyaltytranslatedintoadeep
convictionthatnopersonsfromoutsidethestatecouldbeallowedtoviolateits
independence.
Civicpridewasthecementofthecitystateandwaslargelyresponsibleforthe
culturalfloweringoftheArchaicperiod.TheGreekspassionforautarchy,however,
wasapermanentlydivisiveforce,whichinthesecondhalfofthefifthcenturywould
causethepoleistoexhaustthemselvesinthegreatPeloponnesianWarbetweenthe
SpartansandtheAtheniansandtheirallies.Thatwouldbethestartoftheslow
declineofthepolisasanautonomouspoliticalunit.Butatthebeginningofthefifth
century,theGreekstateswereattheheightoftheirpridefulindependenceandhad
noinklingthattheirunyieldingselfinterestwoulddrivethemintosuchacalamitous
war.
Yet,inaseemingparadox,thegrowingawarenessduringtheArchaicperiodofa
sharedGreekness(whatthehistorianHerodotuscalledtohellnikon,theGreek
thing)alsogaverisetoastrongculturalidentityandsenseofkinship.Theshining
momentofPanhellenicsolidaritywouldcomeintheearlyfifthcenturywhenthe
Greekpoleissubordinatedtheirindividualloyaltiestouniteagainsttheattemptsof
thePersianempiretoconquerGreece.InthePersianwars(490479)theGreeks
wouldequatethefreedomoftheirindividualcitystateswiththefreedomofthe
GreeksagainsttheslaveryofthePersiantyrant.
TheglowofPanhellenicunitywouldsoonfade,however,andforthenextcentury
andahalfthepoleisandethneofGreecewouldcontinueintheiroldways,despitea
growingrealizationamongmanyobserversthatwarsofGreeksagainstGreekswere
tantamounttocivilwarwithinacitystate.Formostofthatperioddiplomaticand
militaryactivitywouldcenteronthetwogreatpowersofSpartaandAthens.
TRANSLATIONS
Barnstone,Willis.1972.GreekLyricPoetry.NewYork:Schocken.
Blanco,Walter.1998.ThePeloponnesianWar,fromThucydides:ThePeloponnesianWar,
WalterBlancoandJenniferRoberts,eds.NewYork:W.W.Norton.
Fowler,BarbaraHughes.1992.ArchaicGreekPoetry.Madison:Universityof
WisconsinPress.

129
Meiggs,RussellandDavidLewis.1989.ASelectionofGreekHistoricalInscriptionstothe
EndoftheFifthCenturyBC.Oxford:ClarendonPress.
Miller,AndrewM.1996.GreekLyric.Indianapolis:Hackett.
Rackham,H.1977.Aristotle:Politics.LoebClassicalLibrary.Cambridge,Mass.and
London:HarvardUniversityPress.
SUGGESTEDREADINGS
Andrewes,A.1956.TheGreekTyrants.NewYork:Harper&Row.Thoughwritten
morethanagenerationago,itremainsthebestintroductiontothetyrannoi.
Boardman,John.1974.AthenianBlackFigureVases.London:OxfordUniversityPress.
Boardman,John.1975.AthenianRedFigureVases:TheArchaicPeriod.London:Oxford
UniversityPress.
Boardman,John.1978.GreekSculpture:TheArchaicPeriod.London:OxfordUniversity
Press.ThesethreevolumesmakeupavaluablesetofhandbooksonGreekartofthe
Archaicperiod,lavishlyillustrated,withconciseandinformativecommentary.
Easterling,P.E.andB.M.W.Knox(eds.).1985.TheCambridgeHistoryofClassical
Literature.VolumeI,Part1:EarlyGreekPoetry.Cambridge,Eng.:Cambridge
UniversityPress.UptodatearticlesonHesiodandthelyricpoets,withabundant
bibliography.
Hanson,VictorDavis.1995.TheOtherGreeks:TheFamilyFarmandtheAgrarianRootsof
WesternCivilization.NewYork:TheFreePress.Awideranging,meticulously
detailedstudyoftheyeomanfarmerhopliteandhisroleintheformationofthe
citystate.
Mitchell,LynetteG.andP.J.Rhodes(eds.).1997.TheDevelopmentofthePolisin
ArchaicGreece.LondonandNewYork:Routledge.Anuptodatecollectionofarticles
onvariousaspectsofthedevelopmentoftheGreekcitystate.
Snodgrass,Anthony.1980.ArchaicGreece.TheAgeofExperiment.BerkeleyandLos
Angeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.ThefirstmajorbookonArchaicGreece
writtenbyanarchaeologist,andanimportantreappraisaloftheimportanceofthe
ArchaicperiodtoGreekhistory.
Staff,ChesterG.1977.TheEconomicandSocialGrowthofEarlyGreece:800500B.C.
NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.Acomprehensivestudyoftheeconomicand

socialevolutionoftheGreekcitystatesintheArchaicperiod,whichpaysspecial
attentiontotheclassdivisionsandtensionsofthetimes.
Tandy,DavidW.andWalterC.Neale(eds.).1996.HesiodsWorksandDays.A
TranslationandCommentaryfortheSocialSciences.BerkeleyandLosAngeles:
UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Aspecializedcommentaryincorporatingthe
perspectivesofsociologists,anthropologists,andsocialeconomists.
130
4
SPARTA
Admiredinpeaceanddreadedinwar,formuchoftheArchaicandClassicalperiods
SpartawasthemostpowerfulcityintheGreekworld.Itwasalsodifferentfrom
otherpoleis.Tobesure,theSpartanssharedmanybasicinstitutionswithother
Greeks:theirsocietywaspatriarchalandpolytheistic,servilelaborplayedakeyrole,
andagricultureformedthebasisoftheeconomy.AselsewhereinGreece,lawwas
reveredandmartialvalorprized.Nonetheless,Spartawasuniqueinmanyimportant
ways.NootherGreekstateeverdefineditsgoalsasclearlyasSpartaorexpendedso
mucheffortintryingtoattainthem.Whiletheintrusionofthestateintothelivesof
individualswassubstantialinallGreekstates,nostatesurpassedSpartainthe
invasiveroleitplayedinthedailylivesofitscitizens.Spartanstookenormouspride
intheirpolis,andotherGreekswereimpressedbytherigorouspatriotismand
selflessnesstheSpartansystementailed.TheSpartansextremedenialof
individualityfosteredapowerfulsenseofbelongingthatotherGreeksenvied,and
Spartacontinuestocastaneeriespelloverhistorians,philosophers,andpolitical
scientistseveninanagethattendstorecoilfromtotalitarianism.
SOURCESFORSPARTANHISTORYANDINSTITUTIONS
DespitetheinteresttheSpartanssparkedintheircontemporaries,itissurprisingly
difficulttowritethehistoryofSpartaAndofitssurroundingterritory,Laconia.The
problemisnotlackofsources.Thoughunfortunatelyallthesourcesconcentrateon
upperclassandroyalSpartiatesandprovidelittleinformationaboutthemajorityof
thepopulationoftheterritoryofLaconiatheservilemassesknownashelotsandthe
largedisfranchisedfreeclassknownasperioikoistillthevolumeofancientwriting
onSpartaislarge.InthecourseoftheirnarrativesonGreekhistory,thetwogreatest
Greekhistorians,HerodotusandThucydides,revealagreatdealaboutSpartan
history,butthebulkofourinfor
131

mationcomesfromtwoauthorswhowroteworksfocusingspecificallyonArchaic
andClassicalSparta:XenophonandPlutarch.
XenophonwasborninAthensaround430BC,andheknewtheSpartansatfirst
hand.WithotheryoungmenXenophonleftGreecein401toserveasamercenaryin
thearmyofCyrustheYounger,pretendertothePersianthrone.Inthecourseofthis
expeditionandsubsequentcampaignsinAsiahebecameacquaintedwithmany
SpartansincludingthekingAgesilausII,whomhecamegreatlytoadmire.Inthelate
390s,withAthensandSpartaatwar,XenophonwasexiledbytheAtheniansfor
havingfavoredtheSpartans.RelocatinginthePeloponnesus,hewroteatreatise
calledtheSpartanConstitution.SinceXenophonwasaneyewitnessandknewmany
leadingSpartanspersonally,hisworkisourbestsourceforSpartansocial,political,
andmilitaryinstitutions,althoughhisadmirationofSpartaninstitutionsasthey
weresaidtohavebeenbeforehistimemayhaveinfluencedhisaccount.
AsimilarenthusiasmmarksthewritingsofPlutarch,wholivedfrom46to120AD,a
thousandyearsaftertheearliesteventsatSpartathathedescribes.HewasaGreek
livinginaRomanworld,sincebyhisdayhisnativeBoeotiahadbeenincorporated
intotheRomanempire.PlutarchswritingsonSparta,morethanthoseofanyother
ancientauthor,haveshapedlaterviewsofSparta,butPlutarchwasabiographerand
aphilosopherofethics,notahistorian.HisworksonSpartaincludefivebiographies:
thelivesofLycurgus,Lysander,Agesilaus,Agis,andCleomenes(thelattertwo
combinedinasingleessay).TheSayingsofSpartansandtheSayingsofSpartanWomen
arealsoincludedamongPlutarchsworks.Despitethecenturiesthatseparatedhim
fromthepeoplehedepicted,PlutarchsworkisofvaluesincehevisitedSpartaand
alsoreadbooksthatarenowlostorsurviveonlyinfragments.Althoughhiswritings
containlargequantitiesofinformation,Plutarchwasinfluencedbyhistorieswritten
afterthedeclineofSpartaandmarkedbynostalgiaforahappierpast,realor
imagined.
Theproblem,therefore,isnotsomuchthequantityofinformationaboutSpartaas
thefactthatoursourcesaretaintedbytheiracceptanceofanidealizedimageof
SpartathathistorianscalltheSpartanmirage.ThisideaofSpartawasavisionofan
egalitarianandorderlysocietycharacterizedbyselflesspatriotism,superhuman
tolerancefordeprivation,andboundlesscourageinbattle.(Suchpropaganda,which
hadanimportantcoreoftruth,alsowonSpartaapositionofleadershipamongthe
Greeks.)AsSpartansdidnotwritehistoricalliteraturebeforetheHellenisticperiod,
thisviewofSpartaninvincibilitymusthavebeendisseminatedorallyatfirstandin
literaturewrittenbynonSpartans.EvenSpartaslawswerepreservedinmemory
ratherthancommittedtowriting.Exceptforsomefragmentarylyricversebythe
seventhcenturypoetsAlcmanandTyrtaeus,ourliteraryevidenceforSpartawas
createdbyoutsiderswhowrotewellaftermanyoftheeventstheydescribedand
whoseworkwastosomeextentshapedbytheirenormousadmirationforSparta.In

manywaysthefictionsthatsurroundedtheSpartansareasinterestingasthereality
theysoughttorepresent,butthoughfictionandrealityaredifficulttoseparate,they
shouldnotbeconfused.
132
Unfortunately,archaeologicalevidencehasonlylimitedabilitytoremedythe
deficienciesofourwrittensources.Incommentingontheneedforhistoriansnotto
bedeceivedbysuperficialimpressions,theAthenianhistorianThucydidesobserved
that:
If,forexample,Spartaweretobedesertedandonlythetemplesandthefoundations
ofthebuildingsremained,Iimaginethatpeopleinthedistantfuturewouldseriously
doubtthatSpartaspowereverapproacheditsfame....TheSpartansnever
developedonemetropolitanareaorbuiltlavishtemplesandbuildingsbutratherlive
inscatteredsettlementsintheoldfashionedGreekway.
(Thuc.1.10;Blanco1998)
ThecalculatedausterityofSpartanlifemeantthatdomesticdwellingswere
extremelysimple,evenbyGreekstandards.Thisisbadnewsforarchaeologists.
Furthermore,modernSpartahasnotbeenthesubjectofextensiveexcavationashas
Athens,wheretheeffortsofscholarsaswellashaphazardfindsduetothe
constructionofsubwaysandtheexpansionofthecapitalcityofGreecehaveledto
majordiscoveries.InSparta,publicconstructionwaslimitedtoafewgovernment
buildings,gymnasiums,andtemples,andforourknowledgeofmostoftheseweare
currentlydependentlessonexcavationsthanonthedescriptionsofPausanias,who
wroteaguidetoGreeceinthesecondcenturyAD.Inscriptionsconcerningpublicor
privatemattersarelikewisescarce.Eventombstones,whichareubiquitousinthe
restoftheGreekworld,arerare;atSpartaonlymenwhohaddiedinbattleor
womenwhohaddiedinchildbirthwerepermittedtohaveinscribedepitaphs.
Becauselavishgraveofferingswerealsoforbidden,archaeologistshavenot
unearthedthequantitiesofpottery,mirrors,weapons,andpersonalitemsthathave
beendiscoveredinotherpartsoftheGreekworldandexploitedinhistorical
research.Theonlyexceptionisalargenumberofvotiveofferingsmadeofclay,
amber,lead,bronze,gold,silver,andivorydatingfromasearlyastheearlyseventh
centuryandcontinuingthroughRomantimes.Thesehavebeenfoundatthesiteof
thetempleofArtemisOrthia(UprightorProtectoroftheorderingofthelife
cycle).Understandably,theserichfindsfromtheearliestperiodofthesanctuaryare
importantfortheevaluationofSpartanculture,fortheyproveconclusivelythatin
theearlyArchaicperiodtheSpartanswereonaparartisticallyandcommercially
withtheirneighborstatesinthePeloponnesus.Itwasonlylater,inthecourseofthe

sixthcentury,thatthefamedSpartanausteritymadeartandothercultural
refinementsaverylowpriority.
ThenumberofofferingstoArtemiswasenormous:over100,000separateitemshave
beenrecovered.Thismaterialrecordiswitnesstothecentralroleofhercultin
religiousandciviclife.RitualceremoniesenactedintheprecinctofArtemisOrthia
appeartohaverevolvedaroundthepassageofSpartanmenandwomenthroughthe
keystagesoftheirlives.Chorusesofgirlssanganddancedatthepresentationofa
newrobeforthestatueofArtemis,anoccasionthatprobablyalsocelebratedthe
passageoftheiragegroupfromgirlhoodtowomanhood.Plaquesdepictingtextiles
maylikewisehavebeendedicatedatthetimewhen
133
womenpassedfromonelifestagetoanother.Therewerealsodedicationsto
Eileithyia,thespiritofchildbirthandprotectorofyoungboysandgirls.Themany
leadfigurinesofhoplitesoldiersprobablymarkedthegraduationofyoungmento
thestatusofwarriors.
THEDARKAGEANDTHEARCHAICPERIOD
Despitealltheseobstacles,painstakingresearchthroughoutthepasttwocenturies
hasmadeitpossibletotracethebroadoutlinesofSpartanhistory.Laconiawasan
importantcenterintheBronzeAge.Archaeologicalevidenceindicatesthattherewas
alargesettlementatTherapneeastoftheEurotas,withshrinestoKingMenelausand
hiswifeHelen.LikemuchoftherestofGreece,Laconiaexperiencedasharpdropin
populationattheendoftheMycenaeanperiod.Mostofthesettlementsthathad
beeninhabitedduringthesecondmillenniumBCwereabandoned,andthe
popularityofcattleandsheepfigurinesasdedicationsinsanctuariesintheregion
suggestthatstockraisingbecameamainstayofthelocaleconomy.Sometimeinthe
tenthcenturyBCDoriannewcomersenteredtheterritory.BytheeighthcenturyBC
trendssimilartothosedocumentedelsewhereinGreecehadbeguntoappearin
Laconiaaswell.Newvillageswerefoundedaspopulationgraduallyincreased,and
fourofthosevillagesneartheEurotasRiverinthecenteroftheLaconianplain
unitedtoformthecityofSparta.EarlyintheeighthcenturythetownofAmyclae,3
milesfromtheoriginalfourvillages,wasaddedtothecity.ThustheSpartanpolis
wasthecitycenterplustheterritoryoftheplain.Increasedcontactswiththerestof
GreecewerereflectedintheemergenceofadistinctiveSpartanversionofgeometric
art.
LikeotherearlyGreekpoleis,Sparta(orLacedaemon,asitwasoftencalledin
antiquity)begantoexperiencedifficultiesinsatisfyingitsneedsfromitsown
territory.Spartawaslocatedinland,withthenearestport,Gythium,27milestothe
south.Thisatypicallocationencouragedthecitytoseekanovelsolutiontotheneed

forlandtofeedagrowingpopulation,asolutionthatwoulddeterminethecourseof
futureSpartandevelopment.UnlikeotherArchaicGreekcities,whichrepeatedly
foundedcoloniesoverseasinanefforttoalleviatethepressureonresourcescaused
bypopulationexpansion,theSpartansfoundedonlyonecolony,Tarasinsouthern
Italy.Insteadoflookingabroadforasolutiontotheirdifficulties,theSpartanssought
amilitaryanswertotheirproblemthroughconquestoftheirneighbors,andbythe
endoftheeighthcentury,theyhadgainedcontrolofthewholeoftheLaconianplain.
Thedetailsofhowthiswasaccomplishedarelost,buttheresultscanbedetectedin
thesocialstructureofhistoricalSparta.
HelotsandtheSocialHierarchy
Spartaprimarilyneededtosupportitspopulation.Consequently,toensurecontrol
oftheLaconianplain,itsinhabitantswerereducedtothestatusofhelots,hereditary
subjectsoftheSpartanstate.Therestoftheinhabitantsof
134
Figure4.1.Peloponnesus.
Laconia,whooccupiedtheareasurroundingthecityofSparta,becameperioikoi
(thosewhodwellaround[Sparta],orneighbors).Littlewaswrittenaboutthem
inantiquity.Unlikethehelots,whowereinessenceslaves,theperioikoiremained
free.DespitethefactthattheywereobligatedtoserveintheSpartanarmyintheir
ownunitsunderaSpartancommander,anddidsoinlargenumbers,theywerenot
permittedtoparticipateintheSpartangovernment.Theydidenjoysomelocal
autonomy,however,andinmanywayslivedlikethemajorityofGreekswhowere
notSpartans,workingasfarmers,craftsmen,andmerchants.Thus,despitetheir
name,whichimpliesthattheperi
135
oikoiwereperipheral,theyconstitutedanessentialpartoftheSpartaneconomic
system.
SuccessonlywhettedSpartasappetiteforexpansion,andthisexpansioninturn
increasedtheinstitutionofhelotrysignificantly.Asaresult,earlyintheconquestof
neighboringregionsthehelotsoutnumberedSpartancitizensbyaratiothatmay
havebeenatleastashighasseventoone.Thisphenomenonwouldplayadramatic
roleintheevolutionoftheSpartanwayoflife.AsaresultoftheconquestofLaconia,
thewesternreachesofSpartanterritoryabuttedonthoseofanotheremergingDorian
state,Messenia.DoriansolidarityprovedtobeanidealinvokedbytheSpartansonly
whenitsuitedtheirinterests.TheSpartanscovetedthefertileMessenianlowlands,

andatsometimeinthethirdquarteroftheeighthcenturytheyinvadedMessenia,
beginningwhatmodernhistorianscalltheFirstMessenianWar.Thefighting
centeredaroundtheformidablenaturalfortressofMountIthomeinnorthern
Messenia.Thedetailsofthewaritselfarelost.Tradition,however,madethewarlast
twentyyearsandplaceditsconclusionabout720BC.Thisdatingiscorroboratedby
thedisappearanceofMesseniansfromtheOlympicvictorlistaboutthattime.Ifthe
courseoftheFirstMessenianWarisunclear,itsresultsarenot:Messeniabecame
subjecttoSparta.LiketheLaconians,someoftheMesseniansbecameperioikoi,but
mostbecamehelots,boundtotheirlandandobligedtoworkitfortheirSpartan
masterswithnoconsolationbutthepromisethattheywouldnotbesoldoutof
Messenia.TheSpartanpoetTyrtaeusgloatinglydescribedthemasburdenedlike
asses,bringingtotheirmastersunderharshcompulsiononehalf...ofthefruitsof
theland(fr.6West).
TheconquestofLaconiaandMesseniamadeSpartaoneofthelargestofallArchaic
Greekstates,controllinganempireofover3000squaremiles(aboutthreetimesthe
sizeoftheAthenianstate).ComparedwithAthensSpartawasneverdensely
populated,andsomecentersofhabitationwerequiteremote.Spartawasalsooneof
thericheststates.SpartanpotteryandmetalworkwereamongthefinestinGreece.
ThebeautyofSpartanwomenwaswidelycelebrated,andSpartasfemalechoruses
werefamous.AvividimpressionofthewealthandeleganceofSpartanlifeis
providedbyafewsurvivingfragmentsoftheworksoftheseventhcenturyBCpoet
Alcman,whosehymns,writtenforchorusesofunmarriedSpartangirlstosingon
ceremonialoccasions,mentionluxuryitemsincludingracehorses,purpletextiles,
andgoldjewelryintheshapeofserpents.
...
Forallthepurpledyewehave
wonthelpatall,
noradazzlingserpent
allofgold,norLydiancap,thepride
oftenderglancinggirls,
noreventhelocksofNanno,
norgodlikeAreta,
norThylakis,norKleesithera,
136
andnolongercomingtoAinesimbrotashousewillyousay:
ifonlyAstaphisweremine,
orPhilyllawouldlookmyway,
orDemareta,orlovelyVianthemis
butHagesichorawearsmeoutwithdesire.

(fr.1.6578Alcman;BingandCohen1991)
Spartanprosperity,however,restedoninsecurefoundations.Intheimmediate
aftermathoftheFirstMessenianWar,thoughcivilunrestwasprobablyaserious
probleminthelateeighthandearlyseventhcenturies,civilwaroverthedivisionof
theconqueredterritorywasavoidedbyexilingthedissidents,whofoundedSpartas
onlycolony,Taras.ThegrowingdesperationoftheMessenianswasamoreserious
threat.Greekpoliticaltheoristsconsidereditamistaketoenslavepeopleintheirown
hometerritory,especiallywhentheenslavedsignificantlyoutnumberedtheir
masters,astheMesseniansdidtheSpartans.Notsurprisingly,theMessenians
rebelledinthewakeofamajorSpartanmilitarydefeatbytheArgivesattheBattleof
Hysiaeintheearly660sBC.
AsistrueoftheFirstMessenianWar,littleisknownofthedetailsoftheSecond
MessenianWar.ThepoemsTyrtaeuswrotecelebratingSpartancourageinthewar
becameSpartasclassics:
Hereisamanwhoproveshimselftobevaliantinwar.
Withasuddenrushheturnstoflighttheruggedbattalions
oftheenemy,andsustainsthebeatingwavesofassault.
Andhewhosofallsamongthechampionsandloseshissweetlife,
soblessingwithhonorhiscity,hisfather,andallhispeople,
withwoundsinhischest,wherethespearthathewasfacinghas
transfixed
thatmassiveguardofhisshield,andgonethroughhisbreastplate
aswell,
why,suchamanislamentedalikebytheyoungandtheelders,
andallhiscitygoesintomourningandgrievesforhisloss.
(Tyrtaeusfr.9Diehl;Lattimore1960)
IntheendSpartaprevailed,andthesurvivingMessenianrebelswereexiledtoSicily.
TheretheyeventuallygainedcontrolofthecityofZancle,whichtheyrenamed
Messene.AsfortherestoftheMessenians,theyhadnochoicebuttoresign
themselvestotherigorsoftheirformerhelotstatus.
TheSecondMessenianWarhadbeenaterrifyingrevelationofthepotentialrisksof
thehelotsystem,andthepossibilityofarepetitionhauntedtheimaginationsof
Spartansandtheirenemies.Onecertainwayofavoidingsuchacatastrophe,
abandoningMessenia,wasunthinkable.Consequently,theSpartanswereforcedto
findanotherwaytopreservetheirdominationovertheirhelotsandtheprosperityit
brought.Thesolutiontheyfoundwasdrastic,anditsimplementationgradually
transformedSpartaandeventuallycreatedtheuniqueregimentedsocietyknownto
usfromtheClassicalsources.Simplystated,the

137
Spartansrealizedthatifallpotentialhoplitescouldbemobilizedandtrainedtothe
highestdegreeofskillpossible,Spartawouldenjoyanoverwhelmingmilitary
advantageoveritshelotsandotherenemies.ThereforetheSpartansreformedtheir
institutionswithaviewtowardachievingtwogoals:freeingmalecitizensofthefive
villagesthatconstitutedthepolisofSpartafromallbutmilitaryobligations,and
socializingthemtoaccepttheextraordinaryregimentationanddisciplinerequiredof
aSpartansoldier.UntilthefourthcenturyandtheHellenisticperiod,theSpartans
weretheonlyrealprofessionalsoldiers.Ineffecttheywagedaperpetualwaragainst
thehelotsandwereconsequentlyalwayspreparedtoengageinotheractsof
aggressionwhennecessary.
THESPARTANSYSTEM
LittleisknownabouttheactualdevelopmentoftheSpartansystem.Greekhistorians
followedSpartantraditionandascribeditscreationtoLycurgus,ashadowyfigure
whomayormaynotreallyhavelived.ThucydidesdatesLycurgusreformstothe
endoftheninthcenturyBC;otherGreekhistoriansplacehimasearlyasthetenth.In
thatcase,hewouldhavelivedbeforetheconquestofMesseniaandhisreformscould
nothavebeenanattempttodealwiththeproblemsthataroseintheeighthand
seventhcenturies.Scholarstodayareagreedthatmanyoftheinstitutionswhose
creationGreekscreditedtoLycurgus,suchasmensdininggroups,organizationof
thepopulationbyagecohorts,andtheuseofironmoney,had,infact,onceexistedin
otherGreekcommunities.TheysurvivedatSpartabecausetheirplaceinSpartanlife
hadbeenredefinedtoaidintheproductionoftheidealSpartanhoplite.
Howeverthisevolutionoccurred,theevidenceindicatesthatthemainfeaturesofthe
SpartansystemwereinplacebytheendoftheseventhortheearlysixthcenturyBC.
AccordingtoPlutarch,Lycurgusfoundthemodelformanyofthesefeatureswhen
hevisitedCrete.TheGreatRhetra(Statement),saidtohavebeengiventoLycurgus
bytheDelphicoracle,wasinexistenceearlyintheArchaicperiod,perhapsbythe
eighthorthebeginningoftheseventhcentury.ThisRhetraatleastaspreservedin
Plutarchdealsonlywithmilitaryandpoliticalissues,suchasthemeetingsand
sovereigntyofthecitizensassembly.TheRhetraincludesthefollowingprovisions:
AfterdedicatingatempletoZeus...andAthenaformingphylai[tribes]andcreating
obai[divisionsrelatingtothedistinctionbetweenthefivevillages],andinstitutinga
Gerousiaofthirtyincludingthekings,thenholdanApellafromtimetotime.Thus
bringinandsetaside[proposals].Thepeoplearetohavetherighttorespond,and
power....Butifthepeoplespeakcrookedly,theeldersandkingsaretobesetters
aside.

TheSpartanregimemaybecalledtotalitarian,forittouchedonalmosteveryaspect
oflife,includingthoseweinmodernwesternsocietyconsiderprivate:how
138
towearourhair,thechoiceofwhetherandwhentomarry,theconditionsof
conjugalintercourse,andthedecisionwhethertorearachild.
TheEducationandUpbringingofBoys
AsthepoetryofTyrtaeusmadePlain,theSpartanidealforamanwastobeskilled
andcourageousinbattle,neithertorunawaynorsurrenderbuttostandhisground
andgiveuphislifeforhiscity.Trainingwasdesignedtoproducemenwho
conformedtothispatternalone.TheSpartanwasliableformilitaryservicetotheage
of60andneededtostayfit;henceheneverwastrainedforanyotherprofessionor
wayoflife.Theeducationalsystem,likemuchelsethatwasuniquetoSparta,
receivedlegitimacyfromtheinsistencethatitwascreatedbyLycurgus.
Theprocessofcreatinginvinciblewarriorsbeganatbirth,forthestatetookupon
itselftherighttodetermineanewbabysviability.WhereasotherGreekpoleisleft
thechoicetothefather,atSpartaofficialsappointedbythegovernmentexamined
thenewborns.Thevitalityofmaleinfantsandtheirpotentialassoldiersdetermined
whethertheywouldberaised,orabandonedinaplacenearMountTaygetus
designatedforthatpurpose.(Femalebabies,apparently,werenotsubjectedto
officialscrutiny,fortheirphysicalprowessdidnotdirectlyaffecttheoutcomeof
battles.)Fathersdidnotdecidehowtoraisetheirsons.Rather,allboysreceivedthe
sameeducationunderstatesupervision.EducationinSparta,aselsewhere,was
organizedbyagegroups:children,boys,youths(ephebes),youngmen,andadults.
Fromtheageof7,boyslefthometobetrainedingroupscalledherdsaccordingto
principlesdesignedtoencourageconformity,obedience,groupsolidarity,and
militaryskills.
Theemphasisintheboyseducationwasnotonreading,writing,andtheliberalarts,
butratheronpracticingtoendurehardshipsandtofendforthemselvesaswouldbe
necessarywhentheybecamehoplitesoldiers.Totoughentheirfeet,theywent
barefoot,andtheyoftenwentnakedaswell.Whentheywere12,theirhairwascut
short.Theyneverworeatunicandwereeachallocatedonlyonecloakyearlytowear
inallkindsofweather.UnliketherestoftheGreeks,whomadewaronlyinthe
summer,theSpartanswereperpetuallyatwarwiththehelotsandthereforeneeded
tobepreparedtofightyearround.Magistratescalledephors(overseers)inspected
theboysdailyandexaminedtheminthenudeeverytendays.Theboyssleptin
groupsonroughmatsthattheyhadmadethemselves.Todevelopcunningandself
reliance,theywereencouragedtosupplementtheirfoodrationsbystealing.
Whippingawaitedanyonewhorevealedhislackofskillbygettingcaught.

TheharshtougheningprocesswasrituallyenactedatthealtarofArtemisOrthia
everyyear.Onegroupofyouthswouldtrytostealcheeseofftheoutdooraltarwhich
wasdefendedbyagroupofolderyouthswithwhips;bloodwassupposedto
splatteronthealtar.Itisasadironyofhistorythatwhatbeganasasolemntestof
manliness,witnessedonlybythegoddessandthecommunity,attractedtouristsin
Romantimes.TheshowwassopopularthatinthethirdcenturyADastonetheater
wasbuiltinthesacredprecinct.Sightseerscouldviewthe
139
spectacleofSpartanyouthsexhibitingtheirlegendaryenduranceofpainwithout
flinchingorcryingoutastheywerebrutallyflogged,sometimestodeath,infrontof
thealtar,eggedonbythepriestessofArtemisholdingastatueofthegoddess.Inold
Sparta,competitionwasalsoencouragedintheformofathleticcontestsandother
publicdisplaysofprowess,butaspiritofcooperationwasconsideredessentialas
well,anditwasinstilledbyforminggroupsofboysandcreatingrivalriesbetween
them.
Thesegroupactivitiesservedtoidentifythemosttalentedamongtheyouthsandto
preparethemtobecomeleadersinthearmy.Fromtheagesof14to20theephebes
performedtheirpreliminarymilitaryservice.At20theygrewtheirhairlong(unlike
meninotherpartsoftheGreekworld)andshavedthemselvesinthedistinctive
Spartanstylealongbeardandnomoustache.Betweenages20and30theywere
permittedtomarrybuthadtocontinuetolivewiththeirarmygroupsuntiltheage
of30.
Acceptanceintoasyssition(dininggroup,messes)wasanessentialstagein
reachingadulthood.TheSpartanmanatehismealswithaboutfifteenmembersof
hisarmygroup,anexperiencethatfosteredtheloyalty,solidarity,and
cooperativenessessentialtosuccessfulhoplitewarfare.Eachmemberofthesyssition
wasobligedtocontributeafixedquantityoffoodanddrink,butthewealthier
soldierscouldsupplementthemenubyprovidingsuchitemsasbettergrainthan
wasrequired,ormeatfromanimalstheyhadhuntedorsacrificed.TheSpartanideal
ofausteritydictatedthatthecuisinebenutritiousandservedinportionsthatwere
adequatebuthardlygenerous.Insomecases,smallportionsmayhavebeena
blessing.Thestapleofthecommonmessappearstohavebeenadishknownasblack
broth.Composedofporkcookedinbloodandseasonedwithvinegarandsalt,black
brothwasapparentlyanacquiredtaste,andthefewforeignerswhomadetheirway
toSpartawererepelledbyit.
Figure4.2.LaconianRider.Cupdepictingrideronhorseback,waterbirds,anda
wingeddemonorfigureofVictory.

140
Thesyssitia(plural)wereinsomewaysanalogoustothesymposia(drinkingparties)
enjoyedbyGreekselsewhere,butthefactthattheSpartanwaspurposelyschooledto
drinkinmoderationpointstoanimportantdifference.ThoughGreeksusuallymixed
theirwinewithwater,helotswerebroughtinandforcedtoconsumeundilutedwine
andtoperformvulgarandridiculoussongsanddances.YoungSpartans,whowere
invitedtothesyssitiaaspartoftheireducation,wereencouragedtolaughatthe
spectacleofthedrunkenhelots.Thelessonwasadoubleone:fromthisexperience
youthswereexpectedtolearnbothtobewaryofdrinkingtoexcessforinebriation
couldleadtodeathinconditionsofperpetualwarfareandtoviewthehelotsas
patheticcreatures,patentlyinferiortotheSpartansoldiery.Inthiswaytheolder
Spartansreinforcedtheyoungintheirsenseofayawninggulfbetweenthemselves
andthehelots,andheadedoffanyqualmsabouttreatinghelotsassubhuman.
Inevitably,thesuccessrateinforgingsoldiersaccordingtotheprescribedmoldwas
lessthan100percent.Thoughtheharshtreatmentofthoseperceivedascowards
discouragedfailure,thesystemdidnotworkoneveryone,andsomeboysfailedto
developasexpected.Sincemartialvalorofferedthesolepathtothehonorand
respectofonespeers,lifewaswretchedforboyswhowereunabletocopewiththe
rigorsofmilitarylife.Whencowardswereidentifiedtheywerestigmatizedand
calledtremblers.Theirridiculousappearanceannouncedtheirdisgrace:theywere
obligedtowearcloakswithcoloredpatchesandtoshaveonlyhalftheirbeards.
Mockedandhumiliatedinpublic,theyweredespisedevenbytheirownkinsmen,
whomtheywerebelievedtohavedishonored.Theycouldnotholdpublicoffice,nor
wasitlikelythatawomanwouldbegiventotheminmarriageorthatanyonewould
marrytheirsisters.
BecomingaSpartanWoman
Spartasmilitaryethoshadimplicationsforfemalesaswellasmales.Justasboys
werebroughtuptobecomebravefighters,girlswereraisedtobearstalwartsoldiers
tobe.SpartansweretheonlyGreekwomenwhoseupbringingwasprescribedbythe
stateandwhowereeducatedatstateexpense.UnlikeotherGreekfemales,who
spentmostoftheirtimeindoorsandwereregularlygivenlessfoodthanmen,
Spartanfemalesexercisedoutsideandwerewellnourished.Childbearingwastheir
onlysocialobligation.Though,likeallGreekwomen,theydidknowhowtoweave,
likeSpartanmentheywerefreefromtheobligationtoengageinanyformof
domesticormoneymakinglabor.
SpecificlinesofdevelopmentwereprescribedforSpartangirlsmuchastheywere
forboys.Theeducationalsystemforgirlswasalsoorganizedaccordingtoage
classes.Weareawareoffewerstagesthanmarkedthecorrespondingsystemwe

havedescribedforboys;perhapstherereallywerefeweror,asisusuallythecasein
thestudyofancienthistory,perhapswesimplyhavelessinformationaboutfemale
activities.Girlsweredividedintothecategoriesofchildren,young
141
Figure4.3.BronzestatuetteofaseminudeSpartangirlrunning,wearingaracing
dress(c.500BC).
girls,maidenswhohadreachedpuberty,andmarriedwomen.Hairstyles
distinguishedmaidensfromthenewlymarriedwomen,forthelatter(unlikeadult
womeninotherpartsoftheGreekworld)woretheirhairshort.Aswithsomuchelse
intheirwayoflife,SpartansascribedthecustomaryupbringingofSpartangirlsto
Lycurgus:
Document4.1ExcerptfromPlutarchsLifeofLygurgusPlutarchsadmirationfor
Spartaisrevealedinhisaccountoftheinstitutionstraditionallyassociatedwith
Lycurgus.
Firsthetoughenedthegirlsphysicallybymakingthemrunandwrestleandthrow
thediscusandjavelin.Therebytheirchildreninembryowouldmakeastrongstartin
strongbodiesandwoulddevelopbetter,whilethewomenthemselveswouldalso
beartheirpregnancieswithvigorandwouldmeetthechallengeofchildbirthina
successful,relaxedway.Hedidawaywithprudery,shelteredupbringing,and
effeminacyofanykind.Hemadeyounggirlsnolessthanyoungmengrowusedto
walkingnudeinprocessions,aswellastodancingandsingingatcertainfestivals
withtheyoungmenpresentandlookingon.Onsomeoccasionsthegirlswould
makefunofeachoftheyoungmen,helpfullycriticizingtheirmistakes.Onother
occasionstheywouldrehearseinsongthepraiseswhichtheyhadcomposedabout
thosemeritingthem,sothattheyfilledtheyoungsterswithagreatsenseofambition
andrivalry....
142
Therewasnothingdisreputableaboutthegirlsnudity.Itwasaltogethermodest,and
therewasnohintofimmorality.Insteaditencouragedsimplehabitsandan
enthusiasmforphysicalfitness,aswellasgivingthefemalesexatasteofmasculine
gallantry,sinceittoowasgrantedequalparticipationinbothexcellenceand
ambition.Asaresultthewomencametotalkaswellastothinkinthewaythat
LeonidaswifeGorgoissaidtohavedone.Forwhensomewoman,evidentlya
foreigner,saidtoherYouLaconianwomenaretheonlyoneswhocanrulemen,
sherepliedThatisbecausewearetheonlyoneswhogivebirthtomen.

1415;translatedbyR.TalbertPlutarchonSparta.NewYork:Penguin,1988,pp.2426.
Asisthecaseinmanywarlikesocieties,theperpetualabsenceofmenonmilitary
dutycreatedadivisionoflaborinwhichwomenmanageddomesticaffairs.Aristotle,
writinginthefourthcenturyBCandconsideringsomefourhundredyearsof
Spartanhistory,complainedthatforthisreasonSpartanwomenenjoyedaltogether
toomuchfreedom,power,andprestige.TheconstitutionofLycurgus,hebelieved,
wasflawedfromthestartbecauseonlymenconformedtoit,whilewomenescaped
itsregulations.HewasconvincedthatSpartanwomenindulgedineverykindof
luxuryandintemperance,promotinggreedandanattendantdegenerationofthe
Spartanidealofequalityamongmalecitizens.HealsomaintainedthattheSpartans
freedomtobequeaththeirlandastheywishedandthesizeofdowriesledtotwo
fifthsofthelandinhisowntimehavingfallenintothehandsofwomen;thetruthof
thisstatisticisimpossibletodetermine.YetitdoesseemtobethecasethatSpartan
daughtersreceivedasdowriesonehalftheamountoftheirparentspropertythat
theirbrothersreceivedasinheritance.(Incontrast,atAthensdaughtersreceived
approximatelyonesixththeamountthattheirbrothersinherited.)YetAristotleno
doubtexaggerateswhenhecomplainsthatSpartawasruledbywomen,fortheyhad
noshareinthegovernment.Clearly,however,theirownershipandcontrolof
propertygaveSpartanwomenfarmoreauthoritythantheircounterpartsintherest
ofGreece.
SinceAristotlesstrongconvictionsabouttheneedformentocontrolwomenplainly
playedaroleinshapinghisperceptionsofSpartansociety,itishardtoknowjust
whattomakeofhiscomplaints.Itisdifficulttoevaluatethestatusofwomenin
antiquity,especiallyinthecaseofSparta.Opinionsvaryaccordingtowhetherone
believesthatSpartanwomenenjoyedagoodlifewithinatotalitarian,militaristic
state.
SexandMarriage
AselsewhereinGreece,marriagesinSpartamightormightnotentailaclose
emotionalattachmentbetweenhusbandandwife.TheSpartanrequirementthat
marriedmencontinuetoliveinbarracksuntiltheageof30meantthatyoung
couplesdidnotlivetogethereveninpeacetime.
143
Nevertheless,heterosexualintercourseinmarriagewasessentialtotheproductionof
Spartanwarriorcitizens.Sincewomenmarriedatabouttheageof18andmenbefore
theageof30,SpartanspouseswerecloserinagethantheircounterpartsatAthens,
whereitwascommonfora14yearoldgirltomarrya30yearoldman.Plutarch
mentionsthatSpartanmenwerereluctanttomarryandthatthestateprovided

incentivesformarriageandtheproductionofchildren.Anarrayofuniquewedding
customsareattributedtotheSpartans,includingmarriagebycapture.
Document4.2ExcerptfromPlutarchsLifeofLycurgusIfwearetobelievePlutarch,
Spartanmarriagesoftentookonastrikinglyclandestinecharacterthatseemsbizarre
bymodernstandardsandthatplainlystrucktheancientsasworthyofcomment.
Thecustom,hewrites,
wastocapturewomenformarriagenotwhentheywereslightorimmature,but
whentheywereintheirprimeandripeforit.Thesocalledbridesmaidtookcharge
ofthecapturedgirl.Shefirstshavedherhairtothescalp,thendressedherinamans
cloakandsandals,andlaidherdownaloneonamattressinthedark.The
bridegroomwhowasnotdrunkandthusnotimpotent,butwassoberasalways
firsthaddinnerinthemesses,thenwouldslipin,undoherbelt,liftherandcarryher
tothebed.Afterspendingonlyashorttimewithher,hewoulddepartdiscreetlyso
astosleepwhereverheusuallydidalongwiththeotheryoungmen.Andthis
continuedtobehispracticethereafter:whilespendingthedayswithhis
contemporaries,andgoingtosleepwiththem,hewouldwarilyvisithisbridein
secret,ashamedandapprehensiveincasesomeoneinthehousemightnoticehim.
Hisbrideatthesametimedevisedschemesandhelpedplanhowtheymightmeet
eachotherunobservedatsuitablemoments.Itwasnotjustforashortperiodthat
youngmenwoulddothis,butforlongenoughthatsomemightevenhavechildren
beforetheysawtheirownwivesindaylight.Suchintercoursewasnotonlyan
exerciseinselfcontrolandmoderation,butalsomeantthatpartnerswerefertile
physically,alwaysfreshforlove,andreadyforintercourseratherthanbeingsated
andpalefromunrestrictedsexualactivity.Moreoversomelingeringglowofdesire
andaffectionwasalwaysleftinboth....
1415;translatedbyR.Talbert,PlutarchonSparta.NewYork:Penguin,1988,pp.2426
(adapted).
Inadditiontothesecretmarriage,otherreportedcustomsincludetherandom
selectionofspousesbycohortsofpotentialbridesandbridegroomsgropinginadark
room.Inasystemofaristocraticendogamy(i.e.,marriagewithinthegroup),
144
thehaphazardselectionofspousesisasymptomofequality,foronespouseisas
goodasthenext.Sincethesolepurposeofmarriageisreproduction,thesecret,or
trial,marriagepermitsthecoupletofindotherspousesiftheirunionprovestobe
infertile.Ifthesecustomswereeverpracticed,theyapparentlyhaddiedoutbythe
Classicalperiod.TheabsenceofadulteryatSparta,however,continuedtoevoke
commentamongnonSpartans.Xenophonalsomentionsacombinationofpractices

thatsatisfiedboththeprivatedesiresofindividualwomenandmenaswellasthe
stateseugenicgoalsandinsatiableneedforcitizens:
Itmighthappen,however,thatanoldmanhadayoungwife;andhe[i.e.,Lycurgus]
observedthatoldmenkeepaveryjealouswatchovertheiryoungwives.Tomeet
thesecasesheinstitutedanentirelydifferentsystembyrequiringtheelderly
husbandtointroduceintohishousesomemanwhosephysicalandmoralqualities
headmired,inordertobegetchildren.Ontheotherhand,incaseamandidnot
wanttocohabitwithhiswifeandneverthelessdesiredchildrenofwhomhecouldbe
proud,hemadeitlawfulforhimtochooseawomanwhowasthemotherofafine
familyandofhighbirth,andifheobtainedherhusbandsconsent,tomakeherthe
motherofhischildren.
Hegavehissanctiontomanysimilararrangements.Forthewiveswanttotake
chargeoftwohouseholds,andthehusbandswanttogetbrothersfortheirsons,
brotherswhoaremembersofthefamilyandshareinitsinfluence,butclaimnopart
oftheproperty.
(Xenophon,SpartanConstitution1.710;Marchant1971,adapted)
HomosexualityandPederasty
AncientGreekslackedthebinarydivisionmodernsocietytendstoimposebetween
peoplewhoareconsideredhomosexualandthosewhoareviewedasheterosexual,
andsamesexeroticrelationshipsdidnotprecludetheirparticipantsenteringinto
heterosexualmarriages,withwhichthehomosexualrelationshipwouldoftenexist
simultaneously.Ancienthomosexualitydiffersfromthemodernversioninseveral
respects.Theoriginsofmanysamesexrelationshipslayintheeducationalsystem.
Eroticrelationshipsbetweenmembersofthesamesexwereconsideredpotentially
educationalforbothwomenandmenaslongastheelementofphysicalattraction
wasnotprimary.SinglesexeducationwasthenormintheGreekworld,andolder
menandwomenoftenfunctionedasteachersorinformalguidestoyounger
membersofsociety.Thedisapprovalthatattachestodaytoromanticconnections
betweenteachersandstudentsorbetweenoldandyoungwouldhavepuzzledthe
ancientGreeks,whoviewedtheeroticelementintheteacherpupilrelationshipasa
constructivebuildingblockintheeducationandupbringingoftheyoung.The
attractionofteacherstotheiryouthful,beautifulpupilswasconsideredtohavesocial
utility,encouragingtheenamoredteachertoworkhardateducatingthestudent,
whointurnwasofferedaninspiringrolemodelinanolder,wiser,more
accomplishedsuitor.Thepupilsinquestionweregenerallyinearlyadolescence.
Theiragewouldcausethemtodaytobeconsideredchildrenandhenceentirelyunfit
fortheeroticattentionofadults,buttheGreekssawthingsdifferently.Thispattern
ofsamesexrelation

145
shipswasevidentnotonlyinthecontextofeducationbutinlifeasawhole.How
muchphysicalsexualactivityactuallywasinvolvedisunclear,sincemanyGreek
intellectualswholeftwrittenrecordsofsocialcustomstendedtobeembarrassed
aboutsexandwereeagertostressthecerebralelementinsamesexromantic
connections.Xenophon,whilemakingplainthefrequencyofhomosexual
relationshipswithaphysicaldimension,insistedthatthiswasnotacceptedinSparta.
IthinkIoughttosaysomethingaboutlovingboys,hewrote,
sincethisalsohasabearingoneducation.InotherGreekstatesmanandboylive
togetherlikemarriedpeople;elsewheretheybecomeintimatewithyouthsbygiving
themgifts.Some,ontheotherhand,entirelyforbidsuitorstotalkwithboys.The
customsinstitutedbyLycurgusweretheoppositeofallthese.Ifsomeone,being
himselfanhonestman,admiredaboyssoulandtriedtomakehimablameless
friendandtoassociatewithhim,heapproved,andbelievedintheexcellenceofthis
kindofeducation.Butifitwasclearthattheattractionlayintheboysbody,he
consideredthismostshameful.Thushecausedloverstoabstainfromsexual
intercoursewithboysnolessthanparentsabstainfromtheirchildrenandbrothers
fromtheirsisters.Iamnotsurprised,however,thatsomepeoplerefusetobelieve
this.Forinmanystatesthelawsdonotopposedesireforboys.
(Xenophon,SpartanConstitution2.1213;Marchant1971)
Weknowlessaboutthehomoeroticbondsbetweenwomen,butPlutarchinhisLifeof
Lycurgusreportedthatsexualrelationshipsofthistypeweresohighlyvaluedthat
respectablewomenwouldinfacthaveloveaffairswithunmarriedgirls,andthe
eroticelementinthesongsoffemalechoruses(likethepoemofAlcmanquoted
above),isnothidden.
Formalesandfemalesalike,liaisonswithmembersofthesamesexprovidedmuch
ofthecompanionship,sexualpleasure,andsenseofspiritualwellbeingthatmany
peopleinmodernWesternsocietynowadaysassociatewithmarriage.
Homosexualitywasintegratedintothesystem.Theidealizedmodelofthesamesex
relationshipinvolvedanolderpersonandanadolescentandconsequentlywastime
limited.Withboysitwasconsideredinappropriatetocontinuetherelationshipafter
theteenagersbeardbegantogrow.Nevertheless,somerelationshipsdiddevelop
betweencompanionsofthesameageandendurethroughoutlife.
DEMOGRAPHYANDTHESPARTANECONOMY
BytheirconquestsofLaconiaandMessenia,theSpartanscreatedasituationwhere
theyneverconstitutedmorethanasmallfractionperhapsatwentiethofthetotal
populationoftheirterritory.Hence,asisoftenthecasewithrulingaristocracies,their

numberswereneverdeemedtobesufficient.Furthermore,unlikeotherGreekstates,
attheverystartthelackoftradeandcolonizationlimitedthegrowthofSpartas
population,forithadnocoloniestowhichitmightsome
146
timeinthefutureexportapopulationthatcouldnolongerbesupportedathome.
XenophobiaalsorestrictedSpartasnumbers.UnliketheAthenians,forexample,at
notimedidSpartansmarryforeigners,nordidtheyrecruitlargenumbersofnew
citizensofnonSpartanorigin,thoughthedesperationoccasionedbythelongwar
withAthensduringthefifthcenturyknownasthePeloponnesianWardidmove
themtotakesomeexceptionalmeasures.Inthisemergency,theyallowedsomenon
SpartiateboyslivinginSpartatobetrainedforserviceintheSpartanarmy,freed
somehelotsformilitaryservice,andappointedperioikoitosomepositionsof
command.Someofthesepracticescontinuedaftertheendofthewarandintothe
Hellenisticperiodwhenthepopulationproblemwasevenmoreacute.
SpartasShrinkingPopulation
TheSpartanlifestyleexacerbatedthepopulationdecline.SpartawastheonlyGreek
stateinwhichmaleinfanticidewasinstitutionalized.Moreover,manydeathscanbe
explainedbytheSpartansoldiersobligationtostandhisgroundandgivehislifefor
hiscountry,ratherthansurrenderwhenhissituationwaspatentlyhopeless.This
idealwasreinforcedbypeerpressure,epitomizedbystatementsattributedto
Spartanwomensuchasthatofthemotherwhotoldhersonasshehandedhimhis
shieldtocomehomeeitherwiththisoronthis.(Spartansoldierswhowerenot
buriedonthebattlefieldwerecarriedhomeontheirshields.)
ThereductioninthenumberofSpartanswasgradual.Inadditiontothehighrateof
infantandjuvenilemortalityfoundthroughouttheancientworld,theSpartan
problemwasaggravatedbytheirunusualmarriagepractices.Womenmarriedonly
severalyearsaftertheybecamefertile;opportunitiesforconjugalintercoursewere
limited;husbandswerecontinuouslyabsentatwarorsleepingwiththeirarmy
groupswhenwiveswereintheirpeakchildbearingyears;andbothsexesengagedin
acertainamountofhomosexual,nonprocreativesex.Asiftheseobstaclesto
maintainingthepopulationwerenotsufficient,somewomenalsodeclinedtobear
children.Therisksofmaternitywereconsideredequaltothosesoldiersfacedonthe
battlefield:aswehavesaid,theonlySpartanswhoearnedthedistinctionofhaving
theirnamesinscribedontombstoneswerethosewhohaddiedinchildbirthorin
battle.Spartans,likeotherGreekwomen,probablyhadaccesstocontraceptives
includingtheuseofherbs,douchesofvinegarorwater,andmechanicalbarriers
madeofwadsofwoolsoakedinhoneyoroliveoil.Controloverfertilityisoften
indicativeofhighstatusforwomen,andAristotlemayhavebeencorrectin

contendingthatSpartanwomencontrolleddomesticmatters,managinghouseholds
thatconstitutedasignificantportionofthefamilysfortune.Spartaspopulation
problemwasalsoacceleratedattimesbynaturaldisaster,economicproblems,and
theemigrationofmen.TherewereninethousandmaleSpartansintheArchaic
period.In479therewereeightthousandmalecitizens,fivethousandofwhom
servedatthebattleofPlataea.There,accordingto
147
Herodotus,eachSpartanhoplitewasaccompaniedbysevenhelotswhoservedas
lightarmedforcesandperformedthemenialjobs.Thoughthesefiguresareprobably
notexact,theydogiveanideaoftheproportionofSpartanstohelotsnthearmy.In
464adevastatingearthquakekilledmanySpartans.Theentirecohortofephebeswas
amongthefatalities.Earlyinthefourthcenturyanunknownnumberofmenleft
SpartatoserveasmercenariesinAsiaMinor;someneverreturned.In371
approximatelysevenhundredSpartansfoughtagainstThebesatLeuctra,andof
thesefourhundredperished.In330AristotlereckonedthenumberofSpartansat
onethousand.By244therewerenomorethansevenhundred.ByRomantimesvery
fewSpartanswerelefttoperformtheirhoaryritualsandtestsofendurancefor
tourists.WehavenoinformationeitherontheabsolutenumberoffemaleSpartansor
ontheirnumbersrelativetothenumberofmales.
HelotsandtheSpartanSystem
TheSpartaneconomicsystemwasdesignedtoenablecitizenstodevotealltheirtime
andenergytothedefenseandwelfareofthepolis.Thestatesawtoitthatthey
alwayshadeverythingtheyneededasmeasuredbyastandardofausterity,not
luxury.Thoughtheperioikoi,whoconductedbusinesswiththerestoftheGreek
world,usedsilverandgoldcoins,Spartansthemselveswerepermittedtouseonly
ironmoney:thesesmallbarsorspitsmadeofironhadoriginallybeenused
throughoutGreecebeforetheinventionofcoinage.TheSpartansusedironuntilthe
endofthefifthcentury,whentherewasavastinfluxofgoldandsilveraftertheir
victoryinthePeloponnesianWar.
Thegoalformenwaseconomicequality,whichwas,inreality,aminimumincome
forallthatwouldallowthemtofollowtheSpartanwayoflife.TheSpartansreferred
tothemselvesashomoioi(Peers,ormenofequalstatus).Asweshallseebelow,
however,economicequalitywasanillusoryideal.WhenMesseniawasconquered,
theterritorywasdividedupintoninethousandequalkleroi(Portions).Atbirth,
eachboywasallocatedashareofthislandbythestate,andagrouporfamilyof
helotscamewiththeland.Theinstitutionofhelotrywasinextricablytiedupwiththe
Spartansystem,essentialasitwastoreleasingSpartanmenandwomenfromthe
needtoproduceorpurchasetheirownfood.

Theownerofeachkleroswasentitledtoreceiveaspecifiedamountofproduce
annuallyfromthehelotswhoworkedit.Thehelotsburdenseemstohavevaried
overthecenturies.Tyrtaeusdescribesthemassharecroppers,forcedtogivetheir
mastershalftheiryield,butPlutarchmentionsafixedrentof70bushelsofbarleyfor
eachSpartanmanand12forhiswife,inadditiontooilandwine.Thoughtheywere
notfree,helotswerenotthesameasslaveselsewhereinGreece.Theybelongedto
thestate,nottoindividuals.Theylivedinstablefamilygroupsonafarmassignedto
them,andcouldnotbesoldabroad.Asidefromtheobligationtoprovidesustenance
fortheowneroftheplotofland,toserveasauxiliariesinthearmy,andtomournat
thedeathofkingsandmagistrates,thehelotshadnospecificobligationstotheir
masters.Theywerepermittedtosellexcesscropsinthemarketandtoaccumulate
somemoneyinthatway.
148
Sothattheyshouldneverforgetthattheywereenslaved,thehelotsweresubjectedto
anannualbeating.Theywerealsoobligedtowearaprimitiveandhumiliating
costumethatidentifiedthemimmediately,includinganimalskinsandaleathercap.
Submittingtotheruleofothersbutlivingintheirownterritory,thehelotsdidnot
losetheirdesireforfreedom.TheservicetheyperformedintheSpartanarmy,
moreover,providedthemwithusefulknowledgeintheirongoingstruggleagainst
theirmasters.In464someofthemtookadvantageoftheearthquakethathad
devastatedSpartaandstagedarebellionatIthomethatlastedtenyears.In455the
Spartansagreedtolettherebelsdepartonconditionthattheyshouldneverreturnto
thePeloponnesus.TheAthenianssettledmanyofthematNaupactus,onthe
northernsideoftheCorinthianGulf.Finally,in369,Messeniaregainedits
independencewiththeaidofThebesandotherBoeotianenemiesofSparta.
ThesystemofhelotrydistinguishedSpartasharplyfromotherGreekstates,making
ittheonlypoliswithaneconomicsystemtotallydependentupongeographicaland
socialdistancebetweenlandownersandworkersontheland.Despitetheprevalence
ofslaveryintheGreekworld,nowhereelsewasthelaborofthelowestclassso
essentialtosurvival.Inotherstatesinhabitantswerelocatedatmanypointsona
slidingscaleofprivilege;inSparta,aclearlineofdemarcationseparatedhavesfrom
havenots.AsPlatosrelativeCritiasobserved,nowhereelsewerethefreesofreeor
theenslavedsoenslaved.Furthermore,thoughagricultureremainedthebasisofthe
domesticeconomythroughouttheGreekworld,othersourcesofgainingalivelihood
werecustomarilydeveloped;atSpartaaloneamongmajorstatesagriculture
remainedthesolebasisofthecitizenseconomy.
TheSpartansystemwasaremarkablysuccessfulexperimentinwhatisnowcalled
socialengineering.Tobesure,despitetheideologyofequalityamongcitizensthat
wasassociatedwiththeirpolis,disparitiesofwealthdidnotdisappear.Many

Spartanshadonlytheirklerostosupportthem,whereasrichSpartanswhoowned
additionallandcouldafford,forexample,toenterchariotsintheOlympicgames.
ExceptforthemembersoftheroyalfamilyandthetinygroupelectedtotheCouncil
ofElders,however,theroleplayedbydifferentialwealthindeterminingstatusand
powerwasfarsmallerinSpartathaninotherGreekpoleis.TheSpartanscalled
themselvestheMenofEqualStatusforgoodreason.Richorpoor,theyallhad
survivedthesamejudgmentatbirth,theyhadenduredthesametraining,andthey
worethesameuniformandfoughtsidebysidewiththesameweaponsinthe
phalanx.
SPARTANGOVERNMENT
LikeSpartassocialandeducationalsystem,itsgovernmentwasmuchadmiredby
contemporaries.Itconsistedofmonarchical,oligarchical,anddemocraticelements:
theseconstitutedthekindofsystempoliticaltheoristslikeAristotlecalledamixed
constitution.Spartanconservatismmadeforareluctancetoabandontraditional
institutionslikethemonarchyandthecouncilofelderswhenother
149
Greekpoleishadabolishedtheseinstitutionsandhaddecreasedtheimportanceof
hereditarypoweringovernment.AslateronintheRomanrepublic,thevarious
organsofgovernmentandsharedofficesweredesignedtoserveaschecksand
balancestooneanother,minimizingthedangerthatthegovernmentwouldtaketoo
rapid,radicalaction.
DualKingship
Theexecutiveofficewasdilutedbydividingitbetweentwomen.Twokings(basileis)
servedastheheadofgovernment.Oneeachwasdrawnfromtheprominentfamilies
oftheAgiadsandtheEurypontids.Thissystemprobablyreflectsanefforttoresolve
thetensionsthatarosewhenthevillagesunitedtoformthetownofSparta;perhaps
thesekingshadoriginallybeenchiefsofthetwomostpowerfulvillages.The
successionwashereditaryandusuallypassedtotheoldestsonbornafterthekings
accession.Whenakingsmarriagehadnotproducedason,thekingwasurgedto
takeasecondwifetohelpensurethecontinuityofthemaleline.Despitethese
exceptions,anddespitethereportaboutwifesharingforreproductivepurposes,the
Spartans,likeotherGreeks,weremonogamous.Nowherewasthevalueofthe
Spartandualideologyofcompetitionandcooperationmoreapparentthaninthe
kingship.Thetwokings,whowerebothcooperativeandcompetitivewithone
another,andwhowereequalinauthority,servedasamutualcheckonthepowerof
themonarchy.Sparta,moreover,wasneverwithoutaleader,andthusavoidedwhat
theGreekscalledanarchy(absenceofleadershiporofgovernment).

LiketheDarkAgebasileis,theSpartankingsexercisedmilitary,religious,and
judicialpowers;inmanywaystheirmannerofruleresembledthatoftheHomeric
chiefs.Onekingservedascommanderinchiefofthearmedforces,whiletheother
superviseddomesticmattersathomeandbecameinchargeifhiscokingwaskilled
inaction.(ThisdivisionoflaborcameaboutwhenhistorytaughttheSpartansthe
harshlessonthatitwasriskytosendtwokingsoutincommandofasingle
campaign.Herodotustellsofthecrisisthataroseshortlybefore500BC.,whenKing
DemaratuschangedhismindaboutattackingtheAtheniansandabandonedhisco
kingCleomenesjustasbattlewasabouttobejoined.ForthisreasontheSpartans
passedthelawmandatingthatonekingremaininSpartawhilehiscolleaguewas
awayoncampaign.)Thekingswerenotmerefigureheadsbutwereimportant
leaderswhocontributedtothemilitaryeffectivenessofthecountry.Considered
descendantsofZeusthroughhissonHeracles,thekingsfunctionedasthechief
priestsandconductedallthepublicsacrificesinbehalfofSparta.Their
interpretationsofthesacrificialomensinfluencedtheirdecisionsinmilitarymatters.
Theroyalcompensationforfulfillingtheofficeofpriestincludedasupplyofanimals
forabimonthlysacrificetoApolloandconsequentlythespecialfavorofthegod.The
kingsweregiventheskinsofanimalsthatweresacrificed,anddoubleportionsofthe
meatthatwasdistributed.Theydidnotconsumetheextrameatthemselves,but
gaveitawayasgifts,apracticethatreflectsthecommonGreekaristocraticsystemof
150
demonstratingandconsolidatingonespowerbyshowingsignsofgenerosity.They
werealsoexpectedtoserveasmoralexemplars.Thus,thecourageandselfsacrificeof
KingLeonidasandhistroops,whoobeyedthecommandoftheSpartanstofightat
Thermopylaein480BCagainstalloddsinthewaragainstthePersians,became
legendaryandenhancedtheimageoftheinvincibleSpartans,althoughmanyother
Greeksfoughtbravelyatthesamebattle.
Gerousia
Thekingssharedtheirjudicialfunctionswiththeothermembersofthegerousia,the
CouncilofGerontes(Elders).Inadditiontothetwokings,thegerousiawas
composedoftwentyeightmenovertheageof60whoservedfortherestoftheir
lives.Sixtywasalsotheageatwhichmilitaryserviceterminated.Thoughallmale
citizenswereeligible,gerousiamemberswereusuallywealthy,influentialmen.
Consequently,thegerousiaconstitutedanaristocratic,oligarchiccomponent.
ElectiontothegerousiawasthehighesthonortowhichaSpartancouldaspire.
Candidatesappearedinanorderdeterminedbylot.Thewinnerswerechosenby
acclamationintheassembly.Thosewhoreceivedtheloudestshoutswereconsidered
elected,aprocedureAristotlelatercriticizedaschildish.Thegerousiapossessedthe
crucialrightoflegislativeinitiative:nobillcouldbebroughtbeforetheassembly

untilithadfirstbeendiscussedbythegerousia,andthegerousiacoulddeclineto
acceptadecisionoftheassemblybysummarilydeclaringanadjournment.Italso
servedasacriminalcourtforcasesofhomicide,treason,andotherseriousoffenses
thatcarriedthepenaltyofdisenfranchisement,exile,ordeath.
Ephors
EveryyeartheSpartanselectedfiveephorsbyacclamationfromcandidatesoverthe
ageof30.Theephors(overseers)supervisedthekingsandrepresentedthe
principleoflaw,precioustotheSpartansasitwastomanyGreeks.SinceSpartan
lawswereunwritten,itwasparticularlyusefultohaveofficialswhoserolewasto
serveasjudicialwatchdogs.Whentheofficeofephorcameintobeingisunclear:itis
notmentionedintheGreatRhetra.
Theephorstookamonthlyoathtoupholdtheofficeofthekingsaslongasthey
behavedinaccordancewiththelaws,andtheysharedsomeofthekingsexecutive
powers;buttheywerealsoempoweredtoimpeachkingsanddeposethem.Ephors
monitoredthekingsinSparta,andtwoofthemalwaysaccompaniedakingwhowas
oncampaign.Theephorspresidedoverthegerousiaandassembly,anddealtwith
foreignembassies.Theyalsoexercisedjudicialpowersincivicmattersandincases
involvingperioikoi.
Oneephorwasalwayseponymous,thatis,hisnamewasusedatSpartatosignify
theyear.Forexample,Thucydidesdatesatreatyof421asfollows:Thetreatyis
effectivefromthe27thdayofthemonthofArtemisiumatSparta,whenPleistolasis
anephor;andatAthensfromthe25thdayofthemonthofElaphe
151
bolium,whenAlcaeusisanarchon(519).Asacheckontheephorspower,they
servedforonlyoneyear,couldnotbereelected,andweresubjecttoanauditbytheir
successors.Thus,theywerebothademocraticandanoligarchicconstituentof
government.
Theephorsexercisedtotalcontrolovertheeducationoftheyoungandenforcedthe
irondisciplineofSparta.Theywereinchargeofthekrypteia(secretpolice),aforce
recruitedfromtheyounganddesignedtocontrolthehelots.Thisfeatureof
governmentwasuniquetoSpartaamongGreekcities,thoughthePersianempire
alsohadanelaboratespysystem.Someofthemosttalentedyoungmenweresent
outforayeartospyonthehelotsandwereencouragedtokillanyhelotsthey
caught,especiallythebestofthemwhomightbemostpronetorebel.Theephors
declaredwaragainstthehelotsannually,thusmakingitpossiblefortheSpartansto
killthemwithoutincurringthereligiouspollutionthatusuallyaccompaniedactsof

homicide.Plutarchgivesavividpictureofthedoingsofthekrypteia.The
magistrates,hewrote,
woulddespatchintothecountrysideindifferentdirectionstheoneswhoappearedto
beparticularlyintelligent;theywereequippedwithdaggersandbattlerations,but
nothingelse.Bydaytheywoulddispersetoobscurespotsinordertohideandrest.
Atnighttheymadetheirwaytoroadsandmurderedanyhelotwhomtheycaught.
Frequently,too,theymadetheirwaythroughthefields,killingthehelotswhostood
outfortheirphysiqueandstrength.
(Plutarch,Lycurgus28;Talbert1988)
Assembly
Intermsofitsmembership,theassemblywasthemostdemocraticorganofSpartan
government,foritincludedallmalecitizensovertheageof30.Itmetonceamonth
atfullmoon,outdoors.UnliketheassemblythatevolvedatAthens,however,the
Spartanassemblydidnotdebate;citizenslistenedtoaproposalmadebythe
gerousiaandsimplyvotedtoacceptorrejectit,withoutdiscussion.TheSpartanwas
trainedtoobeyhissuperiorsandtoconform,nottotakesidesinpublicdebate.
Lycurguswassaidtohaveoutlawedrhetoricteachers.Thisethosgaverisetothe
Englishwordlaconic(derivedfromLaconia),whichisusedtodescribeaspare
styleofspeechorsomeonewhotalksverylittle.
TheMixedConstitutionofAncientSparta
Sinceantiquity,manypoliticaltheoristshaveadmiredSpartasgovernment,
believingittoconfirmthebasicprinciplethatthebestguaranteeofstabilityliesina
blendofmonarchic,oligarchic,anddemocraticelements.CertainlySpartahadkings,
andthestrongideologyofeconomicequalityamongmalecitizensfosteredan
egalitarianspirit.Inreality,however,theoligarchicelementconsiderably
outweighedtheothertwo.Powerlaypredominantlywiththegerousia.Astimewent
by,moreover,thefiveephorsalsogainedincreasingpoweroverthekings
152
andfrequentlytooktheleadinframingforeignpolicy.Evenifwediscountthe95
percentorsoofdisfranchisedresidentsofLaconiaperioikoi,helots,andSpartan
womenthetruthisthatevenwithinthesubgroupofmalecitizens,participationin
governmentwaslimitedtoaverysmallgroupofmen,mostofthemrich.
SPARTAANDGREECE

Inthesixthcentury,SpartarepeatedlybecameinvolvedinthepoliticsofotherGreek
states,ofteninordertosuppresstyrannies.Philosophically,thishostilityoriginated
inanaversiontoanygovernmentthatwasinnovativeandextraconstitutional.
Tyrants,moreover,weregenerallysupportedbythepoor,andinreturnforthis
supporttheyexpandedthenonagriculturaleconomiesofcitiesandadornedthem
withpublicworks.Thispowerstructureandurbanstyleoflivingweretheprecise
inverseoftheSpartanethos,anditwasunderstandablethattheSpartans,whonever
developedanurbancenter,shouldlookforalliesinotherstatesamongmenwho
werelandedaristocratslikethemselves.Fromtimetotime,ofcourse,selfinterest
overrodeprinciple:notlongafterhelpingtheAtheniansexpeltheirtyrantHippiasin
510BC,theSpartanstriedunsuccessfullytosetupanotherpolitician,Isagoras,as
headofanoligarchywhowouldbefriendlytothem.(Itwasatthisjuncturethat
DemaratusabandonedCleomenes.)
ThePeloponnesianLeague
UntiltheRomanconquestofGreece,Spartaitselfwasneversubjecttotheongoing
ruleofnonSpartans.Intheseventhcentury,Spartatriedtoexpandnorthward
againstArcadiaandArgos,withvaryingresults.AfterthedefeatofArgosin546BC,
SpartahadbecomethemostpowerfulstatenotonlyinthePeloponnesus,butinall
Greece.WithPeloponnesianstatesotherthanMessenia,Spartaadoptedapolicyof
alliance,ratherthanconquest.Spartahadgraduallyassumedapositionof
leadership.SpartasfirstimportantallywasnearbyElis;thisalliancehadbeengained
inreturnforsupportingElissbidtogaincontroloftheinfluentialandlucrative
Olympicgamesaround570.Eventually,around510500Spartaanditsallies,or
thePeloponnesianLeagueashistorianstodaycalltheSpartanalliance,was
organized.TheLeagueincludedallthestatesinthePeloponnesusexceptArgosand
Achaea,aswellaskeypoleisthatlayoutsidethePeloponnesus,suchasThebes.One
ofthefirstunitedactionsoftheLeaguewasitsdefeatofArgosattheBattleofSepea
in494.BecauseSpartadependedonitshoplites,themembershipofcitieslike
Corinth,Aegina,andSicyon,whichhadfleets,wasofparticularvaluetoitsdefense.
SuchanallianceprotectedSpartaagainstforeigninvaderswhonotonlyposeda
threattoSpartaitselfbutmightalsofomentrebellionamongstthehelots.The
purposeoftheLeaguewasmutualprotection.Eachstatepledgedtocontributeforces
incaseofwarandsworeanoathtohavethesamefriendsandenemies,andto
followtheSpartanswherever
153
theylead.TheLeaguewasnotanempire,butanalliance;notributewaspaidexcept
inwartime.Furthermore,SpartadidnotdictatethepolicyoftheLeague,and,for
example,couldnotforcetheLeaguetogotowariftheallieswereopposedtoit.

ThegovernmentoftheLeaguewasbicameral,consistingoftheassemblyofSpartans
andthecongressofalliesinwhicheachstatehadonevote.OnlySpartacould
conveneameetingoftheLeagueandonlySpartansservedascommandersofits
armedforces.Spartasownreputationfordistinctioninmilitarymatters,alongwith
theexistenceoftheLeaguethemostpowerfulmilitaryallianceintheGreekworld
intheearlyfifthcenturymadeSpartathenaturalleaderoftheGreeksintheirwar
againstthePersians.Foreigners,includingLydians,Scythians,andGreeksinIonia
soughttheSpartansasalliesintheirstrugglesagainstthePersians.TheLeague
remainedinexistenceuntilthe360s,whenCorinthandothermemberstateswere
obligedtoquititafterSpartasdefeatbyThebes.
LeaguememberswereboundbytreatyonlytoSparta,andtheyhadnobondswith
oneanother.Althoughtheymightrisetotheoccasionandbandtogetherformutual
defenseinacrisis,aswasthecasewhenPersiainvadedGreeceshortlyafter500BC,
ingeneralGreekstateshaddifficultydevelopingreallywarmties.Thestatesinthe
PeloponnesianLeague,consequently,werenotespeciallyconcernedaboutone
anotherswellbeing;theSpartanswantedassistanceintheeventofahelotuprising
andbackingintheirongoingquarrelwithArgos,andtheotherstateswereinterested
intheguaranteeofprotectionbySparta.JusthowmuchpowerLeaguemembers
otherthanSpartareallyenjoyeddependedlargelyonhowmuchSpartaneeded
them.ThusforexampleCorinthwasacherishedallybecauseofitsfleet,and
CorinthianrageatAthenswouldplayalargeroleintheLeaguesfatefuldecisionto
declarewaronAthensin432BC.
HISTORICALCHANGEINSPARTA
SincetherearenowitnessestothefulloperationoftheSpartancommunityas
describedbyPlutarch,andXenophonstatesthatthelawsofLycurguswereno
longerenforcedinhisowntime,wemustadmitthepossibilitythatsomefeaturesof
theLycurganlegislationwereobservedonlybriefly,orpartially,ornotatall.There
aretwentiethcenturyparallelsforthefailureofsimilartotalitariandystopiasor
utopias.OnereasonitisdifficulttotracehistoricaldevelopmentinSpartaisthe
Greeksessentiallynegativeviewofchange.ManyGreekssharedtheSpartandislike
ofchangeandassociateditnotwithprogressbutwithdecline.Consequently,much
ofwhathascomedowntousaboutchangesinSpartansocietyconsistsoflaments
aboutthefallingofffromthevirtuousdaysofLycurgus,alternatingwiththe
insistencethatSpartaremainedunchangedforcenturies.Naturally,thissortof
evidenceishighlysuspect.Modernhistoriansfollowthegeneralmodeltracedby
AristotleofdrasticchangeovertimeinSpartansociety,datingthenormalization,
orlossofdistinctiveness,tothelaterfifthcentury.Suchachangemaybeobservedin
thepublicbehaviorofmaleSpartiates,butit
154

isnotatallclearthatwomensliveshadbeenfundamentallyaltered,for,asAristotle
pointedout,womenhadnevercompletelysubmittedtotheLycurgansystem.
Somechange,however,isplainlydiscernible.Oneareainwhichdevelopmentis
apparentisthatoflandtenure.Landwasthemostvaluablecommodityinthe
ancientworld.Twosystemsoflandtenure,apubliconeandaprivateone,existedin
Sparta.Whenamandied,hisklerosrevertedtothestateandthenwasallocatedto
anotherSpartanbaby,whowasnotnecessarilyrelatedtothepreviousowner.Atthe
endofthefifthcenturyorearlyinthefourth,acertainEpitadeusmadeaproposalto
abolishtheLycurgansystemregulatingpublicproperty.Thenceforthamancould
givehisklerosandhishousetoanyonehewished,orbequeaththembytestament.
Thischangeunderminedtheidealofeconomicequalityandeventuallyledtothe
concentrationofgreatwealthinthehandsofaminority.Thisshiftcreatedan
impoverishedunderclasswhofailedtomeettheeconomicrequirementsforfull
citizenship,fortheycouldnotmakethenecessarycontributiontoasyssition.They
werenolongerMenofEqualStatusbutknownasInferiors.
BytheClassicalperiod(ifnotearlier),inadditiontothelanddesignatedfor
distributionaskleroi,somelandwasheldasprivateproperty.Thoughwomenhad
probablybeenexcludedfromthedistributionofkleroi,theyownedalargerportion
oftheprivatelandthanwomeninanyotherGreekcity.Landcameintowomens
possessionasdowryandinheritance.Itseemslikelythatbeforethefreebequestof
landwasintroduced,daughtersautomaticallyinheritedhalfasmuchassons.Some
families,ofcourse,haddaughtersbutnosons.Spartawasalwaysplaguedbyalack
ofmen,formenwerecontinuallylostinbattle,leftSpartaformercenaryservice,or
failedtomeetthecensusrequirementsforfullcitizenship.Moreover,thoughmale
infanticidewassystematicallypracticed,itseemsunlikelythatfemalebabieswere
eliminatedinthisway.Plutarch,whosuppliesdetailsabouttheofficialelimination
ofmaleinfants,saysnothingaboutgirls,thoughhisinterestintherearingofgirlsis
noteworthy.Ifthisdeductioniscorrect,thenthesefactorsprobablycreateda
substantialimbalanceinthesexratio.Awomancouldinheritallherfathersland,
andmanywomenbecameextremelywealthybythismeans.ThusAristotles
statementthatinhisdaywomenownedtwofifthsofthelandofSpartaiscredible.
THESPARTANMIRAGE
TheadmirationwriterslikeXenophonandPlutarchfeltforSpartansocietyledthem
toexaggerateitsmonolithicnature,minimizingdeparturesfromidealsofequality
andobscuringpatternsofhistoricalchange.ThisperspectiveinturnmadeSparta
veryattractivetosubsequentthinkers,forwhomastaticsocietyseemedtoofferthe
stabilitylackinginamoredynamicstate(suchasdemocraticAthens).Luminariesof
theItalianRenaissancelikeNiccolMacchiavellipreferredseeminglystableSpartato
changeableAthens.ThecultofSpartareached

155
itspeakintheeighteenthcentury,whichwasanera,notcoincidentally,whenthe
popularityofPlutarchwasatanalltimehigh.Thephilosopherandeducational
theoristJeanJacquesRousseaurapturouslylabeledSpartaaRepublicofdemiGods
ratherthanofmen,andmanyofthepatriotscaughtupintheFrenchRevolution
modeledthemselvesselfconsciouslyontheSpartansofantiquity,emulatingtheir
readinesstogivetheirlivesinagoodcause.
TheidealizationofSpartainmodernpoliticalthoughtalsoowesmuchtoPlato.
AlreadyinantiquitySpartaservedastheothervisvisAthensanditsdemocracy,
asintellectualsunsympathetictoAthensexaggeratedthedifferencesbetweenthe
twosocieties.IntheirwritingsSpartabecameavirtualutopia,aparadiseofeunomia
aGreekwordmeaninggovernedbygoodlaws.Themostdramaticinstanceofthis
conceptisprobablyfoundintheblueprintfortheutopianstateinPlatoRepublic,
wheremanyfeaturesofthisidealizedSpartaappear.Theyareevident,forexample,
inPlatosdescriptionofthelifeofhisphilosopherrulers,theguardians.Centralto
bothsocialsystemsarecommonalityandtotalitariancontrol.Womenandmenofthe
topclassaregiventhesameeducation,includingphysicaltraining.Theprivate
family,withitsemphasisonwomensmonogamyandthetransmissionofproperty
tolegitimatemaleheirs,iseliminatedamongPlatosguardians.Sexualintercourse
Figure4.4.HilaireGermainEdgarDegaspainting,YoungSpartans.
156
isguidedsolelybyeugenicconsiderations.Femaleguardianswillnothaveto
performdomesticlabor,formembersofthelowerclassesperformtheworkusually
accomplishedbyGreekwomen.Theironlygenderrelatedtaskisthatofgivingbirth
tochildren.Marriageisdispensedwith,sincethestateeducatesallchildren.Private
propertyandmoneyarelikewiseoutlawedtominimizetheenvyandclassconflict
thatperpetuallythreatenedtodissolvethefabricofGreeksociety.
***
ThecontroversyaboutSpartaanditscritics,bothancientandmodern,continuesto
thepresentday.Forthepast2400years,historiansandphilosophershaveput
forwardviewsthatvaryradically,thoughtheyarebasedonreadingsofpreciselythe
sametexts.Readershavewidelydifferingreactionstotheveritablefountainof
anecdotesthathassurvivedfromantiquityembodyingtheunderpinningsofthe
Spartanethos.SeveralofthesearecollectedinPlutarchSayingsofSpartanWomen.A
Spartanmotherburyingherson,Plutarchreports,receivedcondolencesfromanold
womanwhocommentedonherbadluck.No,bytheheavens,themotherreplied,

butrathergoodluck,forIborehimsothathecoulddieforSparta,andthisis
preciselywhathashappened.Anotherwoman,seeinghersoncomingtowardher
afterabattleandhearingfromhimthateveryoneelsehaddied,pickedupatileand,
hurlingitathim,struckhimdead,sayingAndsotheysentyoutotellusthebad
news?
Thenotionofapeoplewhoseresponsetostimuliistheveryoppositeofwhathuman
naturewouldseemtodictatehasexercisedquiteaholdonthehumanimagination.
Aslateasthetwentiethcentury,criticsofwesterncapitalistsocietyhaveidealized
theSpartansashighlyvirtuous,patrioticpeopleproducedbyastablenoncapitalistic
society.Inrecentyears,however,thosewhocherishindividualfreedomandsocial
mobilityhavecometoseeinSpartaaforerunneroftotalitarianregimessuchasNazi
Germany,andinfactsomeNazisdididentifywithSparta.Furthermoretheblueprint
fortwentiethcenturyCommunismhadmanyaffinitieswiththeSpartanutopia.Even
today,however,theoldidealizationofSpartahasreappearedintheworksofsome
feministtheorists,whohavenotedthatthelivesofwomeninaristocraticSparta
appeartohavebeenmoreenjoyableandinmanywayspreferabletothoseofwomen
indemocraticAthens.
AlthoughAthenswasnomoreatypicalGreekpolisthanwasSparta,examining
AthensandSpartatogetherisausefulwayofunderstandingtheancientGreekview
oflife.ItistoAthensthatwenowturn.
TRANSLATIONS
Bing,PeterandRipCohen.1991.GamesofVenus.NewYork:Routledge.
Blanco,Walter.1998.ThePeloponnesianWar,fromThucydides:ThePeloponnesianWar,
WalterBlancoandJenniferRoberts,eds.NewYork:W.W.Norton.
Lattimore,Richmond.1960.GreekLyrics.2nded.Chicago:UniversityofChicago
Press.
157
Marchant,E.C.1971.XenophoninSevenVolumes,VII:ScriptaMinora.LoebClassical
Library.Cambridge,Mass.andLondon:HarvardUniversityPress.
Talbert,R.1988.PlutarchonSparta.NewYork:Penguin.
SUGGESTEDREADINGS
Calame,Claude.1997.ChorusesofYoungWomeninAncientGreece:TheirMorphology,
ReligiousandSocialFunctions.TranslatedbyJaniceOrionandDerekCollins.Lanham,

Md:Rowman&Littlefield.FromLeschoeursdejeunesfillesenGracearchaique.1977.
Rome:Ateneo&Bizzarri.AninfluentialstudyofAlcmanspoemsforfemale
chorusesincludingdiscussionofagegroupsandtheeducationalpurposesofthe
choruses.
Cartledge,P.A.1979.SpartaandLakonia.ARegionalHistory1300362BC.London,
Henley,andBoston:Routledge.OneofthestandardsurveysofSpartanpoliticaland
militaryhistory.
Cartledge,P.A.andAntonySpawforth.1989.HellenisticandRomanSparta.ATaleof
TwoCities.LondonandNewYork:Routledge.Clearlywrittendescriptionofthe
social,political,andeconomicconditionsofpostclassicalSparta.
Dawkins,R.M.1929.TheSanctuaryofArtemisOrthiaatSparta.London:Societyforthe
PromotionofHellenicStudies.Descriptionandphotographsoftheexcavationand
findsatthemajorSpartansanctuary.
Oliva,P.1971.SpartaandHerSocialProblems.Amsterdam:Hakkert.Lengthybut
interestingexaminationbyaCzechscholarofmajorproblemsinSpartanhistory.
Page,DenysL.1951,1979.Alcman.ThePartheneion.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,
1951;repr.NewYork,Arno,1979.Ascholarlyedition,essentialforunderstanding
thisfragmentarypoem.
Powell,A.,ed.1989.ClassicalSparta.TechniquesBehindHerSuccess.Londonand
Norman,Okla.:UniversityofOklahomaPress.Acollectionofessaysincluding
EphraimDavid,LaughterinSpartanSociety,andStephenHodkinson,
Inheritance,MarriageandDemography:PerspectivesupontheSuccessandDecline
ofClassicalSparta.
Rawson,Elizabeth.1969.TheSpartanTraditioninEuropeanThought.Oxford:Oxford
UniversityPress.ThehistoryoftheideaofSpartafromClassicalGreecethroughthe
Renaissance,WhigEngland,andNaziGermany,withashortnoteontheUnited
States.
158
5
THEGROWTHOFATHENSANDTHEPERSIANWARS
DuringtheArchaicperiod,theAtheniansstruggledwiththesameproblemsthat
besetothercitystatesofGreecefactionalquarrelsamongthearistocraticfamilies,
tensionbetweenthearistocratsandthepeople,andtyranny.By500BC,these
problemshadbeenlargelyresolved.Thelasttyranthadbeenexpelled,Athenshada

democraticgovernment,andaristocraticstasiswaslargelyconfinedtocompetition
forofficeandpersuadingthedemocraticassembly.Becauseoftheirrelative
harmony,wealth,andgreatnumbers,theAthenianshadbecomethesecondmost
powerfulGreekpolisandwerepoisedtoplayamajorroleinthegreatwarthatwas
abouttobegin.ForwhiletheGreekcitystateswereevolving,thePersianempirewas
growingintoanambitiouspowerthatwouldthreatentoengulftheHellenicworld.
AstrongAthenswouldbevitaltothedefenseofGreeceagainsttheinvasions
mountedbythePersiankingsDariusandXerxes.
SOURCESFOREARLYATHENS
WrittensourcesforearlyAthenianhistoryarealmostasmeagerastheyarefor
SpartaandtheotherGreekstates.ThefirstmantocommitthehistoryofAthensto
writingseemstohavebeenHellanicusofLesbos,whowasbornaround500Bcand
wastheearliestinaseriesofchroniclersknownasAtthidographers,thatis,people
whowroteaboutAthens.(TheotherAtthidographerswereAthenians,andthey
wroteduringthefourthandthirdcenturiesBC.)Tothesurvivingfragmentsofthe
Atthidographerswecanaddthevaluabletreatise,TheAthenianConstitution,
writtenbyAristotle(384322BC)orbyoneofhisstudents,aswellasPlutarchslives
ofearlyfiguressuchasTheseusandSolon,whichmadeuseofsourcesthatarenow
lost.Aristotle,Plutarch,andotherlaterauthorsalsopreservesubstantialfragments
ofthepoetryofSolon,thegreatAthenianstatesmanandlawgiver.Solonspoems,
writtenaroundthebeginningofthesixthcentury,constituteourearliestdirect
evidenceforAtheniansocietyatacrucialtimeinits
159
development.ThehistoriesofHerodotusandThucydides,thoughdealingmainly
withfifthcenturyevents,alsocontainsomevaluableinformationaboutearly
Athens.
ATHENSFROMTHEBRONZEAGETOTHEEARLYARCHAICAGE
LiteraryevidenceandphysicalremainscombinetoshowthatduringtheLateBronze
AgeAthenswasthelargestandmostimportantsettlementontheAtticpeninsula
andoneofthemajorpalacecentersoftheMycenaeanworld.Itisprobablethat
AthenswasthepremierpowerinAttica,exercisingaloosecontrolovertheother
fortifiedpalacecentersintheregion,whichremained,however,largelyindependent
ofthewanaxandhispalaceonthesteephillcalledtheAcropolis.Thetraditionthat
theinvasionsattheendofthethirteenthcenturyBcbypassedAthensisconfirmedby
archaeology.PerhapsthemountainsthatcutAtticaofffromcentralGreeceMount
Cithaeron,MountParnes,andothersdiscouragedtheinvaderswhospread
throughouttherestofsouthernGreece.AswesawinChapter1,thelegendstoldthat
AtticaservedasthesafehavenandpointofdeparturetoIoniaforrefugeesfrom

southernGreece.IfthestoryabouttheAchaeanrefugeesistrue(modernopinionis
divided),theywouldhavefoundinAtticathesamecollapseofthecentralizedruling
structure,drasticdepopulation,anddispersalintosmallvillagecommunitiesasin
theregionsfromwhichtheyhadfled.
Recoveryfromthepostinvasionslumpisheraldedbytheappearanceof
Protogeometricpottery,apparentlyanAthenianinvention,around1050BC.
AthenianpotterywouldcontinuetosetthestyleinGreecethroughouttherestofthe
DarkAge.DarkAgeAthens,thoughreducedtoaclusterofvillagesaroundthe
Acropolis,continuedwithoutinterruptionasthecentralplaceofAttica.Itislikely
thatby900BC,ifnotearlier,thebasileusofAthenswastheparamountbasileusof
theregionaldemosofAttica.Theappearanceofrichgravesintheninthcentury
revealsasignificantgrowthinwealthandoverseastradeduringthelaterDarkAge.
ThepopulationaroundAthensrosesharplyduringtheeighthcentury,andnew
settlementsappearedthroughoutthesparselypopulatedcountrysideofAttica,
perhapsthroughinternalcolonizationfromtheplainofAthens.
Significantly,Athensdidnottakepartintheoverseascolonizingmovementofthe
lateeighthcentury.ThesynoecismofthetownsandvillagesofAtticaintoapolitical
unityundertheleadershipofAthensmayhavebeenagradualprocessgiventhe
extentofAttica(roughly1000squaremiles)beginningperhapsinthelateninth
century,andcompletedaroundthemiddleoftheeighth.TheAtheniansascribedthe
unificationofAtticatotheirgreatesthero,Theseus,whommythlinkedwithhis
companion,theDorianheroHeracles(laterknowntotheRomansasHercules).
TheseusadventureswithHeracles,andhissoloexploits,suchasdefeatingthe
MinotaurinCreteandtheAmazons(mythicalwomenwarriorsfromAsia)in
Athens,wereenshrinedinAthenianartandliterature.IntheAthen
160
ianaccountofsynoecism,Theseus,thebasileusofAthensandparamountchiefof
Attica,createdapoliticalunitybyproclamation,abolishingthegovernmentsofthe
othertownsandvillagesandmakingasinglegovernmentinAthens.Lateron,the
unificationofAtticawascelebratedinafestivalcalledtheSynoikia,believedtohave
beeninstitutedbyTheseus.Democraticpropagandaalsocreditedhimwith
establishinganearlyformofdemocracyinthenewlyunifiedpolisoftheAthenians.
InmakingTheseusthefounderofthepolis,theAtheniansfollowedthecommon
Greekpracticeofattributingimportanteventsofthepreliterateperiodtosomegreat
figurefromthelegendarypast.(TheSpartans,aswesaw,creditedtheirlawsand
militaryandpoliticalinstitutionstothesemimythicalearlylawgiverLycurgus.)Yet
thetraditionthattheformalunificationwasvoluntaryandcooperativewasprobably
correct.FortheinhabitantsofAtticacherishedabeliefthattheywereautochthonous

(i.e.,sprungfromtheland),andthushadalwayslivedinAttica,andshareda
commonkinship.
Itiscertain,atanyrate,thatbytheendoftheeighthcenturyeverytown,village,and
hamletinAtticaconsidereditselfAthenian,andtherewasneveranyattemptby
anyoneofthemtodeclareitselfaseparatepolis,ashappenedintheArgolisand
otherregions.NorwasthereeverinAttica,asintheDoricstates,asubjugated
populationofhelots,orcommunitieswithsecondclasscitizenship,suchasthe
perioikoi.TheexerciseofcitizenshipinaregionaslargeasAtticapresented
difficultiesoftimeandtravelthatcitizensofsmallerregionalcitystatesdidnot
encounter.ForalthoughanycitizenofanyAttictowncouldparticipateinthe
governmentofAthensonthesamefootingasresidentsofAthensitself,inreality
peoplewhosecommunitieswereclosesttoAthenswouldfinditeasiertovotethan
thosewholivedfartheraway.Afarmerwholived,say,10milesoutoftowncould
expecttoloseaboutthreehoursofhisdaywalkingintoAthensandanotherthree
walkingback,whileamanwhosehomewas15or20milesawaywouldprobably
havetoarrangetostayovernight.Althoughsomepeoplepreferredthestimulationof
livingdirectlyinAthens,mostcontinuedtoliveonthelandthathadbeenintheir
familyforgenerations.WhenthePeloponnesianWarbeganin431BCandPericles
urgedthepopulationofAtticatowithdrawinitsentiretywithinthewarsofAthens,
mostpeople,Thucydidesreports(2.16),werestillaccustomedtotheirlivesinthe
countryandfoundthemoveintenselypainful.
TheearlygovernmentoftheAtheniancitystatewasstrictlyaristocratic.Its
beginnings,however,areveryobscure.Itwasprobablyduringthelatereighth
centurythatthechiefsofAtticareplacedthepositionofparamountbasileuswith
threecivicofficialswhodividedtheleadershiprolesamongthemselvesandwere
calledcollectivelythearchons,thatis,theleaders.Incommonwithothercitystates,
theoldtitleofbasileuswasretained;hisofficialdutiesweretoadministerthecultsof
thepolisandtojudgelawsuitspertainingtocultpropertyandotherreligious
matters.Thepolemarch(polemarchos)commandedtheAthenianarmy,whichwas
composedofunitsfromalloverAttica.Theleadingoffice,whichcarriedthemost
prestigeandpower,wasthatofthearchun,whohadoverallsupervisionofpublic
affairs,includingthedutiesofpresidingoverthecounciland
161
theassemblyandjudgingnonreligiouscases.Hewasknownastheeponymous
archon,becausehegavehisnametotheyear:Atheniansidentifiedagivenyearas
thearchonshipofsoandso.Subsequently(perhapsearlyintheseventhcentury),
sixjudicialofficialscalledthesmothetai(layersdownoftherules)wereadded,
makingupthegoverningbodyoftheninearchons.Theninearchonswereelected

foratermofoneyearfromcandidateswhocamefromthesmallcircleofwealthy
andwellknownfamiliesknownastheEupatrids(peoplewithgoodfathers).
Thearchonsdidnotrulealone.Rathertheyworkedinconcertwiththecouncilthat
metonthehill(pagos)sacredtothewargodAresandwascalledforthatreasonthe
CounciloftheAreopagus.Becauseformerarchonsmadeupthemembershipofthe
council,sittingarchonswhoseshorttermsinofficewouldbefollowedbyalifetime
ofcouncilmembershipwouldthinktwicebeforefloutingitswishes.Inaddition,
citizenmalesparticipatedinthepublicassembly,butthepreciseroleoftheassembly
inthegovernmentandthepartthattheordinarymenofthepolisplayedinitare
unknown;AristotleinhisPoliticsclaimedthattheassemblyelectedthearchons
(2.1274a12and1517).Whatisclearisthatpolicywasmadeprimarilyinthecouncil
bymembersofthearistocraticEupatridfamilies.
Alongsidetheseofficialstateinstitutionswereotherformsofsocialorganizationthat
directedthelivesofthecitizens.InAttica,asintherestofGreece,thebasicsocial
unitstheindividualhouseholds(oikoi)weregroupedintolargerkinlike
associations:tribes,phratries,andclans.Unfortunately,verylittleisknownabout
them,especiallyintheirearlyform.OurbestevidencecomesfromAthens.Every
citizenfamilyinAtticabelongedtooneoffourphylai(tribes)andtoanothersmaller
groupwithintheirtribe,calledaphratry(brotherhood).SincealltheIonianpeoples
hadthesamefourtribes,itisassumedthattheseoriginatedveryearlyintheDark
Age.Itisprobablethatintheearlycitystatetheyservedaspoliticalandmilitary
divisionseachtribe,forexample,beingresponsibleforfurnishingacontingentto
thearmy.Thephratrymayoriginallyhavedesignatedabrotherhoodofwarriors,
anothernameforthewarriorbandsledbyDarkAgechieftainsthatweseeinHomer.
Bytheseventhcentury,however,thephratrieshadbecomequasiofficialsocial
groupsconcernedwithmattersoffamilyandofdescent.Membershipinaphratry,
forexample,wasthenecessaryproofthatamanwasacitizenofAthens;incasesof
unintentionalhomicide,themembersofthevictimsphratrywereobligatedto
supportthefamilyofthevictim,or,ifthevictimhadnofamily,totaketheplaceof
thefamilyinpursuingthecase.Theclans(gen),aswesawinChapter3,were
associationsofseveralnoblehouseholdsdominatedbyatopoikosandclaiming
descentfromacommonancestor.Itispossiblethatsomenonnoblefamiliesalso
belongedtoagenos,assubordinatemembers.Thesearistocraticclanswerepolitically
verypowerfulinArchaicAthens.Manyscholarsbelievethatintheearlycitystate
eachofthephratrieswasinfactcontrolledbyoneormoregene.Itwaswithinthis
frameworkofoligarchiccontrolofthepolisthattheeventsoftheseventhandsixth
centuryunfolded.
162
TheConspiracyofCylon

FewspecificeventsinearlyAthenianhistoryleapoutfromthesparserecords,but
twodramaticdevelopmentspunctuatedthelatterhalfoftheseventhcentury,both
plainlyconnectedwithunrestofsomekind.Inoraround632BC,anOlympicvictor
namedCylontookadvantageofhisconnectionwithTheagenes,thetyrantofnearby
Megara(whosedaughterhehadmarried),toseizetheAcropolisandattemptto
becometyrantofAthens.CylonandhisbackersbothMegarianandAtheniansoon
foundthemselvesbesiegedintheAcropolisbythedeterminedhoplitefarmersof
Attica,andtheydecidedtotakerefugeatthealtarofAthena.Cylonandhisbrother
escaped,butwhenhissupporterssawthattheywererunningoutoffoodandwater
theysurrenderedtotheninearchonsonthepromisethattheirliveswouldbespared.
Notentirelyconfidentthatthearchonswouldkeeptheirpromise,theconspirators
tiedathreadtothestatueofAthena,sothestorygoes,anddescendedwhileholding
ontoit;inthiswaytheyhopedtoretaintheprotectionofthegoddess.Whenthe
threadfinallysnapped,thearchonMegaclesandhissupporterskilledthem.Many
peoplebelievedthatMegacleshadcommittedsacrilege,andbeforelongallmembers
ofhisfamilygrouphadbeenexiled,includingdeadrelativeswhosebodieswere
exhumedandcastbeyondtheAtticfrontier.
AlthoughCylonscoupwasunsuccessfulandhispoliticalprogramremains
unknown,theepisodewastoplayaninterestingroleinfutureAthenianhistory
becauseoftheprominentfamilytowhichMegaclesbelonged.TheAlcmaeonidgenos
wouldcontributeimportantpoliticianstoAthens,includingPericles,themost
prominentAthenianstatesmanofthelaterfifthcentury.Thedemandsusually
politicallymotivatedthatsurfacedperiodicallyfortheexpulsionofallwho
belongedtothecursedclancouldbecountedontosendshockwavesthroughthe
bodypolitic.Plainlymanypeoplefeltthatthefamilysharedresponsibilityforthe
actionofoneofitsmembersandthatthestatemightbecalledtoaccountbythe
godsfortheimpiousactofanindividual.Thisbeliefingroupresponsibilitywas
characteristicofGreekthought,butalthoughgenuinereligiousfeelingandfearof
pollutionprobablyplayedalargeroleintheoriginalexileoftheAlcmaeonids,
subsequentattacksarosemorefromfactionalrivalriesamongAthensaristocratic
familiesthanfromsincereburstsofpiety.
DracoandEarlyAthenianLaw
Muchmoreisknownaboutthenextdrama,theformulationofacomplexoflawsby
anotherwiseunknownmannamedDracoaround620BC.BecausedraknisGreek
forsnakeandtheAtheniansworshippedasacredsnakeontheAcropolis,ithas
periodicallybeensuggestedthatthelawsofDracowereinfactlawsformulatedby
thepriestsontheAcropolisandpromulgatedontheauthorityofthelocalserpent.It
seemsmorelikely,however,thatDracowasthenameofarealperson;ifBritaincan
accommodatepoliticiansnamedMr.Fox,whydenyAthensMr.Snake?

163
MostofwhatisknownaboutDracoslawsconcernshomicide.Theirthrustwasto
replacethefamilyandkinwiththestateasthearbiterofjusticeincasesofboth
intentionalandunintentionalkillings.(WhereaspreviouslymanyAtheniansviewed
intentionalandunintentionalkillingsasidenticalwithrespecttothebloodguilt
theyentailed,Dracodistinguishedbetweenthem.)BeforeDracowascommissioned
(wearenotsurejusthow)tooverhaulthelaws,bereavedfamilymembers
customarilytookituponthemselvestoavengethedeathsoftheirslainrelatives.
Atticacontainedsanctuariestowhichthosebelievedresponsibleforadeathcould
takerefugewhilearrangingtermswiththekinsmenoftheslain.Frequentlythese
termsentailedmonetarycompensation.Dracotransferredtheadjudicationofthese
disagreementstothegovernment;thenextofkincouldstillprosecute,backedbyhis
phratry,butitwouldbebodiesofmagistratesthatwoulddeterminetheappropriate
outcome.
MostcasesthatcamebeforeAthenianjudgesdidnotconcernhomicide,andabout
Dracosotherlawslittleisknownexceptthattheyweresevere,namingdeathasthe
penaltyevenforminoroffensesthattodaywouldbeclassedasmisdemeanors.The
fourthcenturyAthenianoratorDemadesquippedthatDracoslawswerewrittennot
ininkbutinblood.WhatwassignificantaboutDracoslawswastheirroleinthe
processofdevelopingtheauthorityofthestateattheexpenseofthatofthefamily,a
processthatwouldcontinueforwelloveracentury.
JustasDracoslawslimitedtheauthorityofthefamily,theyalsocurtailedthe
opportunitiesofindividualmagistratestoshapetheirdecisionsinaccordwiththeir
socialandprofessionaltiestoparticularlitigants.Altogether,Dracoresembledother
earlylawgiversinhisdesiretoestablishfixedprinciplesofjusticethatwould
overridethepersonalpreferencesofjudges.Sincejudgesallcamefromthewealthy
families,Dracossystemhadsomethingofanequalizingeffect,althoughtherich
haveneverentirelylosttheadvantageswealthaffordsinmattersoflaw.The
inequitiesthatwerecausingunrestinAthens,however,werebotheconomicand
political,andreformsthatfocusedentirelyonthejusticesystemcouldnotsoothethe
tensionsthatseemedtobeinvitingtyranny.Besides,Dracoslawscontinuedto
permitenslavementfordebt,apracticethatbythenhadbecomeaprincipal
grievanceofthepoor.
THEREFORMSOFSOLON
Thebestevidencefortheproblemsthatwerecausingunrestintheseventhcenturyis
thelegislationofSolonearlyinthesixth.Solonsreformsrevealhisdesireto
strengthenthefragileagriculturalbaseoftheAthenianeconomy,graftingontoita
thrivingcommerce.TheAthenianswerepredominantlyfarmers,butthedefining

characteristicsoftheAtticpeninsulacalledforinnovativestrategies.Thesoilof
Atticawassimplytoothintoraiseenoughgraintofeeditsincreasedpopulation.The
Athenians,consequently,grewwhattheycouldolives,vines,figs,
164
barleyandbartereditabroadforwheat.Theyalsoraisedlivestockforlocal
consumptionandfortheproductionofmilkandcheese.Oliveoilwastheirmost
significantcontributiontothemarket,anditwasexportedinbeautifulvasesmade
fromtheexcellentclayofAttica.Itschiefdestinationwaswhatisnowsouthern
RussiaaroundtheBlackSea,thesourceofmostofthewheatconsumedinAttica.just
asinRomantimes,ItalywouldbedependentforitsgrainonSicilyandthenNorth
AfricaandEgypt,sothepeopleofAtticadependedontheBlackSeaarea.Athens
foughtfiercelytodefendtheroutesthatledtotheBlackSea.ThecaptureofSigeum
attheentrancetotheHellespontaround600BCwasAthensfirstoverseasventure,
anditwasbyclosingoffthatroutethattheSpartansfinallyendedthelong
PeloponnesianWarofthefifthcentury.Sellingoil,wine,andpotterywasonlyone
meansofobtainingwheat.TheAtheniansalsohadattheirdisposalthesilverthey
hadfoundintheminesatLauriuminsoutheastAttica.MountPentelicuminthe
northeastprovidedanadditionalresourceintheformofmarble.
TheAthenianstateof600,therefore,containedenormouspotentialinadditiontoa
hostoftensions:manypoorsharecropperswerelosingthestruggletosurvive,but
therewasmuchhopefortheeconomyinaregionwithvaluablenaturalresources
andinhabitedbypeoplewithmanygiftsincludingatalentforpottery.Forasecond
timetheAtheniansstavedoffcivilwarbycommissioningarespectedindividualto
addresstheproblemsthatthreatenedtosparkviolence.Perhapsin594thoughsome
scholarswouldputitsometwentyyearslatertheAtheniansempoweredSolon,an
aristocratwithareputationforwisdom,todrawuplawsthatwoulddevelopthis
potentialbyalleviatingthesufferingsofthepoormajoritywithoutentirely
destroyingtheprivilegesoftherichminority.Ineconomicterms,whatthepoor
wantedwastheabolitionofdebtandtheredistributionofland;whattheygotwas
theabolitionofdebtslavery.Itishardertosaywhattheywantedinthepolitical
arena.ProbablyAtticaspoorerinhabitantswereopentoanynumberofstrategiesfor
looseningthestrangleholdoftherich.Solondidinfactdevisenumerousinnovative
andeffectivewaysofunderminingthedivisionofAtticaintohavesandhavenots.
Hisreformscreatedaslidingscaleofprivilegethatcontainedsomethingfor
everyoneandensuredthathisworkwouldnotberejectedoutofhand.
Soloncomposednumerousversesthatstillsurvivetodayandrevealsomethingof
therationaleforhiswork.Decryingboththeselfishnessoftherichandtheleveling
revolutionaryinclinationsofthepoor,hefrequentlyidentifieddesireforwealthasa
problematicforceinhumanaffairsandwasquicktoremindlisteners(forearlypoets

hadmorelistenersthanreaders)ofthetransienceofriches:Therearemanybadrich
men,hewrote,whilemanygoodmenarepoor;but,hewenton,hewouldnot
exchangehisvirtue(aret)fortherichesofthewealthy,forvirtueendures,while
wealthbelongsnowtooneman,nowtoanother(citedinPlutarch,Solon3).Inhis
emphasisonthemutabilityofhumanaffairshelookedaheadtothewritingsofthe
fifthcenturyhistorianHerodotus,whowouldusehimasamouthpieceforhisown
ideas.Althoughheurgedjusticeforthepeo
165
ple,hewasalsocommittedtodefendingtherightsoftheelitebothtotheirlandand
tothelionsshareofinputintogovernment:
Igavethedmossuchprivilegeasissufficienttothem,neitheraddingnortaking
away;andasforthosewhohadpowerandwereadmiredfortheirwealth,Ialso
providedthattheyshouldnotsufferunduewrong.Istoodwithastoutshield
thrownoverbothparties,notallowingeitheronetoprevailunjustlyovertheother.
(CitedinPlutarch,Solon18.4;ScottKilvert1960,andinTheAthenianConstitution,12)
Solonsviewofthedemosasineffectalobby,aspecialinterestgroupsimilartothat
oftherich,reflectedtheorientationofearlyGreekpoliticalthinking.LaterinGreek
historychampionsofdemocracywouldidentifythedemosasallthevoters;
antidemocrats,however,continuedtoidentifythedemosasthepoor.
Inlargethings,Solonwroteabouthisendeavors,itishardtopleaseeverybody.
Hisruefullamentthatintryingtopleaseeveryonehepleasednooneisironicin
viewofthecultthatdevelopedafterhisdeath,whenhewouldbecomethebeloved
GeorgeWashingtonofClassicalAthens.Becausepoliticiansofallstripessoughtto
coopthimintotheircamps,Soloncameintimetobecreditedwithawidevarietyof
programs:democratsandantidemocratsalikeclaimedhimastheirideological
ancestor.AlthoughtheearliestsurvivingsourcesforSolonsreformsasidefromhis
ownpoemswerewrittenmanygenerationsafterhisdeath,itispossibleto
reconstructtheoutlinesofhisthoughtfulandoriginalprograms.
Solonsfirstactwasdesignedtoaddressthesufferingsofthepoorestpeopleof
Attica.Theseincludedsharecropperswhowerecalledhektmoroi(sixthparters),
presumablybecausetheyowedasixthoftheirproducetoawealthylandownerto
whomtheywereindebt,andalsothosewhohadfallensodeeplyindebtthatthey
hadbecometheslavesoftheircreditors.Solonnotonlymadeitillegalforloanstobe
securedbyanyonespropertyorperson;healsofreedthosewhohadalreadyfallen
intoslaverythroughdebtandcanceledthedebtsofthehektemoroi.Thisbold
measurewasknownastheseisachtheia,theshakingoffofburdens,andformany
generationswascommemoratedbyafestivalofthesamename.Toredresstheevils

perpetratedbydebtslaveryinthepast,SolontrackeddownasmanyAtheniansashe
couldwho,becausetheycouldnotpaytheirdebts,hadbeensoldasslavesoutside
Attica.Hethenboughtthemback,settingthemupasfreeAtheniansoncemore.
Noneofthisshouldbeconstruedasanattackonslaveryperse.Solonhadno
problemwithAtheniansenslavingnonAthenians.
Solonsothereconomicmeasureswerelessdramaticbutequallyimportant.Revising
theweightsandmeasuresofAttica,hefacilitatedtradewithotherstatesby
switchingfromtheAeginetanstandardtotheEuboic.ThenceforthanAtticcoin
wouldbeworthhalfagainasmuch.SeeingthatthefutureofthinsoiledAttica
wouldlieinoilandincrafts,heencouragedthecultivationoftheoliveand
166
madeitillegaltoexportgrain,whichwasneededathome.Toattractcraftspeople
fromotherregions,moreover,Solonofferedthemcitizenshipiftheywouldmoveto
Atticaandsettlepermanentlytherewiththeirfamilies.SincetheGreekviewof
citizenshipwasanarrowonecloselyboundupwithreligiousassociationsand
membershipinphratries,thismeasurewasaradicalone.(Lateron,inthefifth
century,whenthestateandtheeconomyhadundergonealongandsuccessful
processofdevelopment,theAtheniansreversedSolonsliberalpolicyandrevertedto
restrictingcitizenship.)Solonwasalsocreditedwithdemandingthatallsonsbe
taughtatrade;sonswhoseparentshadneglectedtoinstructtheminthisregardhe
freedfromanyobligationtolookaftertheirmothersandfathersinoldage.Hewas
alsosaidtohaveempoweredtheCounciloftheAreopagustoinquireintoevery
mansmeansofsupportinghimselfandtopunishthosewhocouldshownone.
Solonsinsistencethatcitizensearntheirlivingmakesadramaticcontrastwiththe
Spartanethos,whichdefinedthecitizenasamanwhoseonlyworkwassoldiering.
Easingthesufferingsofthepooraddressedonlyonesourceoftension.Solonhad
alsotoreckonwiththeoutrageofthehoplitemiddleclass,whichresentedthe
Eupatridmonopolyonprivilege.Hissolutiontothisdifficultywastoestablisha
constitutioninwhichinputintothepoliticalprocesswasallottedinaccordwith
income.Propertyclassesthathadbeeninbeingforsometimewereusedtodivide
thecitizensintotiers,withtheadditionofaspecialclassattheverytop.Classeswere
rankedaccordingtoagriculturalwealth.Thenewclass,thepentakosiomedimnoi,or
500measuremen,consistedofthosewhoseestatesproducedatleast500medimnoi
(bushels)ofproduce;anycombinationofoil,wine,orgrainwoulddo.Belowthem
camethehippeis(horsemen,sincetheywerethemenwhocouldaffordtokeepa
horseforthecavalry),whoseincomewasbetween300and499medimnoi;followed
bythezeugitai,menwhocouldaffordtoownateamofoxen,with200to299,and
finallythethtes,poorpeoplesomefarmersandsomelandlessworkerswho
producedfewerthan200medimnoi.Membersofthefirstclasswereeligibletofillthe

officeoftamias(statetreasurer);archonshipsandtheotherhighermagistracieswere
restrictedtomembersofthetwoupperclasses;zeugitaicouldcompetewiththetwo
higherclassestofilltheloweroffices;andthethetescouldjointheothersinthe
assembly(theekklsia),whichwastomeetregularly.Thezeugitaimadeenoughofa
livingtopurchasehoplitearmsandconstitutedthemajorityofthephalanx.Mostof
thethetesservedaslightarmedtroopsorassailorsintheAthenianfleet.Three
categoriesofpersonswereexcludedfromthesystem.ManyresidentsofAtticawere
slaves,andmanyweretheresidentalienscalledmetics.Aboutathirdofthecitizens,
moreover,werewomen,forwomenslifeexpectancywasabouttenyearsshorter
thanmens.
Citizenmenfromallclassescouldserveinthehliaia,abodyofprospectivejurors.
Thesepeoplewouldserveincourtssetuptoreceiveappealsfromthejudicial
decisionsofthearchonsandtrythecasesofmagistrateswhomsomeonewishedto
accuseofmisconductinoffice.OneofSolonsmostrevolutionarycontributionstothe
Athenianjusticesystemwashisinsistencethatanymale
167
citizennotjustthevictimorthevictimsrelativescouldbringanindictmentifhe
believedacrimehadbeencommitted.Oncetheconcernoffamilies,justicewasnow
thebusinessofthecommunityofmalecitizensasawhole.
Filledasitwaswithformerarchons,theCounciloftheAreopagusremainedan
aristocraticbodyunsympathetictotheconcernsofthepoor,andalthough
magistrateswereresponsibletothepeopleandcouldbeprosecutedformalfeasance,
membersoftheAreopagiteCouncilcouldnot.ItseemslikelythatSoloncreateda
counterweightintheformoftheCouncilofFourHundred,composedofone
hundredmenfromeachAthenianphyl.Thisbodyservedaprobouleuticfunction,
thatis,itpreparedbusinessfortheassembly.ThisCouncilisevidentinAthensnot
longafterSolonstime,anditprobablydatesfromhisreforms.
SolonleftDracoshomicidelawsmoreorlessashefoundthem,buthereducedthe
penaltiesforothercrimesanddecreedanamnestytoeveryonewhohadbeenexiled
forcrimesotherthanhomicideorattemptedtyranny.Itwasprobablyunderthis
amnestythatmembersofthenotoriousAlcmaeonidfamilyreturnedtoresumetheir
involvementinfactionalpolitics.LikeDraco,Solonwasconcernedthattoomuch
powerinthehandsoffamilieswasantitheticaltotheprogramofstatebuilding.It
wasprobablyforthisreasonthathemadealawpermittingmenwithnochildren
(likehimself)tobequeaththeirpropertyastheywished;previouslythepropertyofa
childlessdecedentwouldautomaticallyreverttohisrelatives.(DespiteSolonslaw,
juriesfrequentlyawardedpropertytofamilieswhocontestedwills.)

Ingeneral,Solonsnumerouslawsregardingsexandmarriagereflectastrongsense
ofthestateasaconglomerationofproperlyregulatedoikoiwhoseorderlinesswas
verymuchtheconcernofthegovernment.Someoftheselawsseemaimedatgiving
meningovernmentpoweroverwomeninprivatelife,butsinceSolonwas
concernedtounderminethepowerofthewealthiestaristocraticfamilygroups,many
ofhismoreintrusiveprovisionssuchastherestrictionsonwomensbehaviorcan
probablybeputdowntohisapprehensionabouttheprestigeofrichfamiliesrather
thantodirectinterestinmonitoringwomensactivities.Solon,Plutarchreports,
madealawwhichregulatedwomensappearancesinpublic,aswellastheir
mourningandtheirfestivals,andputanendtowildanddisorderlybehavior.When
womenwentoutofdoors,theywerenotallowedtowearmorethanthreecloaks,or
tocarrymorethananobolsworthoffoodordrink,orabasketmorethaneighteen
incheshigh,ortotravelatnightexceptinawagonwithalampinfrontofit.
(Solon21;ScottKilvert1960)
Theselawsseemaimedatcurbingtheostentationoftherich.SeveralofSolons
policies,however,hadasignificantimpactonwomenslivesovermanygenerations.
Thoughhehadabolisheddebtslaveryandhadforbiddenfathersasaruletosell
theirchildrenintoslavery,hemadeanexceptionforamanwhodiscoveredhis
unmarrieddaughterwasnotavirgin.Atthesametimeheestablished
168
stateownedbrothelsstaffedbyslaves,andhisencouragementofimmigrationfor
commercialpurposeshadtheeffectofsignificantlyincreasingthenumberof
prostitutesinAthens.Thedichotomybetweenrespectablewomenandsexually
availableoneswouldbecomeanimportantbuildingblockofAtheniansociety.
Solonsworkstandsoutacrosstheagesastrulyremarkableforitsrichnessand
creativity.LiketheLycurgusofSpartanimagination,withwhomhewouldbe
comparedthroughoutEuropeanhistory,Solonwasgivenanunusualopportunityto
thinklongandhardaboutwhatacommunityis.Hislawsestablishedtheprinciple
thattheAthenianstatewouldbeguidedbyallcitizensworkingtogether.Indeed,in
manyrespectsheestablishedthenotionofcitizenshipitself.Hislawdemandingthat
inatimeofcivilstrifeeverymanhadtotakeastandononesideoranother
demonstrateshisdeterminationtoinvolveallmalecitizensinaffairsofstate,infact
todefineacitizenassomeonewhoisinvolvedinpublicconcerns.Hislawsalso
madeplainthatwhiletheregulationofwomensbehaviorwasessentialtoawell
orderedsociety,nonethelesstheirrolewastobeconfinedtoprivatelife,thus
excludingthemeffectivelyfromthebodypolitic.

Solonslawswereinscribedonwoodentabletscalledaxnesandputupintheagora
whereeveryonecouldseethemthoughnoteveryonecouldreadthem,sinceliteracy
wasnotwidespreadinearlysixthcenturyGreece.WhentheAthenianshadagreed
tokeephislawsineffectforahundredyearsandeacharchonhadbeencompelledto
swearthathewoulddedicateagoldstatueatDelphiifeverheviolatedanyofthem,
SolonleftAtticaandbegantraveling,partlyfromadesiretoseetheworldandpartly
toforestallanyattemptstopersuadehimtoalterhislegislation.
Solonwasnotademocratnordidheintendthathisreformsshouldalterthe
relationshipamongtheclassesinAthens.Therewassomejustice,however,inthe
claimsmadeinfifthandfourthcenturyAthensthatSolonwasthefatherofthe
democracy.Forbyabolishingthehectemorage(sixthpart)systemanddebtslavery,
Solonnotonlyhelpedcreatethefreepeasantrythatformedthebasisofthe
democracy;healsoestablishedthedistinctionbetweenfreedomandslaverythatwas
tobecentraltotheAthenianconceptofcitizenship.
PEISISTRATUSANDHISSONS
SolonsreformsalleviatedconsiderablesufferinginAttica.Byintensifyingthe
competitionforpoliticaloffice,however,theyprobablyplayedaroleinfosteringthe
civilstrifethatledtothetyrannyofPeisistratus,whichmustbeplacedinthecontext
ofthetensionsthatsurvivedSolonslaborsandofthespreadofpoliticalthinking
inevitableinanageofexperiment.TheinhabitantsofsixthcenturyAtticawere
looselydividedintothreefactionsknownastheMenofthePlain,theMenofthe
Coast,andtheMenoftheHill.Historiansarestillpuzzledaboutexactlywho
comprisedeachgroup.Itmaybethatthemenoftheplainwereprimarilylarge
landownerswhilethemenofthecoastwerefishermenandcrafts
169
menandthepoorerinhabitantsoftheAttichighlandsmadeupthemenofthehill;
perhapsthecitydwellerswereinthislastgroupaswell.
PeisistratusSeizureofPower
Around560,asuccessfulcoupwascarriedoutbyPeisistratus,adistantrelativeof
SolonfromnorthernAtticawhohadmadeanameforhimselfbycapturingtheport
ofNisaeainnearbyMegaraearlierinthecentury.Peisistratusbackersincludednot
onlytheMenoftheHillbutalsosomeofthepoorercitydwellers.Herodotustells
howPeisistratuswoundedhimselfandhismulesandthenappearedintheagora
demandingabodyguardtoprotecthimselffromhismadeupenemies.Backfromhis
travels,sothestorygoes,SolontriedtowarntheAtheniansagainstbeingdupedby
hiskinsman,buttonoavail:packedwithhissupporters,theassemblyvoted

Peisistratushisbodyguard,whereuponPeisistratusseizedtheAcropolisandwithit
thereinsofgovernment.
Afteraboutfiveyears,thepartiesoftheplainandthecoastunitedagainst
Peisistratusanddrovehimout,butwhenMegacles,theleaderofthecoastalparty,
quarrelednotonlywiththepartyoftheplainbutalsowithhisownfaction,he
decidedtoallywithPeisistratusandagreedtoreestablishhiminAthensprovidedhe
consenttomarryhisdaughter.Herodotusmarveledatthetalethatwascirculatingin
hisdayabouthowPeisistratusreturntoAthenswasaccomplished.Peisistratusand
Megacles,hereported,
cameupwithwhatisfarandawaythemostsimplemindedplottoputhimbackin
powerthatIhaveeverheardof,consideringthatfromtheveryearliesttimesthe
Greekshavebeendistinguishedfromthebarbariansbytheirintelligenceand
freedomfromsimplemindedfoolishnessif,thatis,thesetwoactuallydidplaythis
trickontheAthenians,whoaresaidtobetheforemostoftheGreekswhenitcomes
tobrains.
TherewasawomaninthevillageofPaeaniawhosenamewasPhya.Shewastall
aboutfivetenandgoodlookinginotherwaysalso.Theydeckedthiswomanoutin
fullbattlegear,andaftershowingherhowsheshouldposetoseemthemost
beautiful,theyputherinachariotanddrovetowardthecitywithheraldssent
runningonahead.Astheyapproachedthecity,thecriers,asordered,shouted,
Athenians!GiveawarmwelcometoPeisistratus!Athenahashonoredhimaboveall
othermenandisherselfbringinghimbacktoherownacropolis!Theheraldswent
fromplacetoplacesayingthis.Wordimmediatelyspreadfromvillagetovillagethat
AthenawasbringingPeisistratusback,andeventhecitydwellers,inthebeliefthat
thiswomanwasthegoddessherself,worshipedahumanbeingandwelcomed
Peisistratus.
(TheHistories1.61:Blanco1992)
Whateverthetruthofthetale,Peisistratusalliancewithhisnewfatherinlawdid
notendure.Byapreviousmarriage,Peisistratushadtwogrownsons.Notwishingto
underminetheirpositionbyfatheringanychildrenwithMegaclesdaughter(whom
inaccordwithGreekcustomHerodotusdeclinestoname),he
170
hadintercoursewithhiswifeoukatanomonnotaccordingtotheacceptednorm.(
HerodotusishardputtoexplainjusthowMegaclesfoundout;hesuggeststhat
perhapsthebridesmotherhadaskedhersomepointedquestions.)Outraged,
MegaclesmadecommoncausewithPeisistratusenemies,andtogetherthey
succeededindrivinghimoutasecondtime.

PeisistratusnextreturntoAthenswasnotaspicturesqueashisfirst.Duringtheexile
thatlastedfromabout555to546BC,heputtogetheraforceofmercenarysoldiers
withwealthdrawnfromthegoldandsilverminesofMountPangaeusinnorthern
Greece.SupportedbythewealthyLygdamisofNaxosandthecavalryofEretria,he
landedatMarathonanddefeatedtheoppositioninabattleatPallene.Hethen
governedAthensforovertenyearsuntilhediedofnaturalcausesin527.Although
SolonhadnotsucceededinsparingAthensfromtyranny,hisreformsplayedalarge
roleindeterminingwhatformthattyrannywouldtake.Solonssystemcontinuedto
functionwhilePeisistratusguidedthecitythroughaperiodofenormousgrowthand
development.ThoughPeisistratusregimehassometimesbeendescribedasalaw
abidingtyranny,itshouldberememberedthatPeisistratuspackedthearchonships
withhisfriendsandrelations,keptastandingforceofmercenariesforhispersonal
use,andheldthechildrenofpotentialopponentshostage.Whenthelastof
Peisistratussonswasexpelledin510,thewaylayopenforthedevelopmentofthe
democraticinstitutionsthatarestillassociatedwiththecityofAthens.Althoughit
mightseematfirstthatthecreationofagoverningdynastywouldrollbackallthe
workDracoandSolonhaddonetounderminethepoweroffamilies,inrealitywhen
theascendancyofthePeisistratidshadpassedintohistorythedevelopmentof
democracywasservedbythetyrannysequalizingeffect:undertheruleofasingle
family,allnonPeisistratids,richandpoor,foundthemselvesinsurprisinglysimilar
circumstances.
PeisistratusPolicies
StrengtheningtheeconomywasamajorfocusofPeisistratusprogram,andinthis
regardtoohecarriedforwardmuchofSolonswork,thoughthismaynothavebeen
hisintention.LikeSolon,hewasconcernedaboutbothagricultureandcommerce.
Heofferedlandandloanstotheneedy.Heencouragedthecultivationoftheolive,
andthegrowthofAtheniantradesparkedbySolonspoliciesbecameyetmore
conspicuousunderhisregime.AlreadyduringtheseventhcenturysomeAthenian
potteryhadfounditswaytotheBlackSeaandeventoItalyandFrance,but
quantitieswerequitesmall.Duringthefirsthalfofthesixthcentury,however,
AthenianexportsbegintoshowupinforcethroughouttheMediterraneanand
Aegean,anditisdifficulttobelievethatthisexplosionwasnotdueatleastinpartto
Solon.UnderPeisistratusfineAtticpotterytraveledevenfartherthanithadin
SolonsdaytoIonia,Cyprus,andSyriaintheeastandasfarwestasSpain.Black
figurepaintingreacheditsapogeeshortlyafterthemiddleofthecentury,and
around530pottersbegantoexperimentwiththemoreversatileredfigurestyle.
171
Thegrowthofcommercewenthandinhandwithanambitiousforeignpolicy.
BuildinganetworkofalliancesinthecentralAegean,Peisistratusinstalledhisfriend

LygdamisastyrantatNaxos;LygdamisinturninstalledPolycratesinSamos.
Sigeum,whichatsomepointafteritsfoundationhadslippedfromAthenianhands,
wasrecaptured,andoneofPeisistratussonswassenttogovernit.Peisistratusalso
establishedafootholdintheThracianChersonese(theGallipolipeninsulainwestern
Turkey),sendingMiltiades,whobelongedtotherivalPhilaidclan,toestablish
Athenianpowerthere.UndereitherPeisistratusorhissons,Athensissuedthefirstof
itssilvercoins,knownasowlsfromthebirdwithwhoseimagetheywerestamped.
Theowlsymbolizedthegoddessofwisdom,Athena,andtheAthenianowl
immediatelybecamethesoundestcurrencyintheAegean.
InAthens,Peisistratuspublicbuildingprojectsservedseveralendsatonce.They
providedjobstopeoplewhobadlyneededthemwhileatthesametimefocusing
energyonthecityasaculturalcenter.Replacingtheprivatewellsguardedby
aristocratswithpublicfountainhousesnotonlymeantconstructionjobsfortheshort
termbutalsosignaledalongtermshiftfromprivatetopublicpatronage.With
expandedopportunitiesforjobsandhousinginthecity,morepeoplecouldlivein
thecitycenter;andthosewholivedintheurbanareafounditeasiertovote.Under
PeisistratusregimetheAtheniansrebuiltthetempleofAthenaontheAcropolisand
beganahugetempletoOlympianZeuswhichwasleftunfinishedathisdeathand
completedonlysevencenturieslaterbytheRomanemperorHadrian.
Peisistratussupportofthegodsandtheartsenhancedbothhisownreputationand
thatofthecityofAthens.HecommissionedadefinitiveeditionofHomerIliadand
OdysseyandmadeHomericrecitationsaregularpartofthePanathenaicfestival,
whichwascelebratedatAthenseveryfouryearsingreatpompandannuallyona
smallerscale.Peisistratusalsoinstitutednewfestivals,thegreaterandlesser
Dionysia.StatefestivalssuchastheDionysiaandthePanathenaeawerelavishly
celebrated,andaround534BCcompetitionintragicdramabecamepartofthe
Dionysia.TheworshipofDionysusflourishedinPeisistratid
Figure5.1.Thissilvercoinworthfourdrachmasandthusknownasthe
tetradrachmwasmintedatAthensshortlyafterPeisistratusdeath.Asiftheimageof
Athenaandhersymboltheowldidnotmakethecoinsoriginplain,thefirstthree
lettersofthewordAthensalsoappear.
172
Figure5.2.DetailofAtticredfigurepsyktr(winecooler)attributedtoOltos,
ArmedWarriorsRidingonDolphins,c.520510BC.Thisvesselprobablyrepresents
thechorusofanearlytheatricalproduction.Itwasmadeforuseatthedrinkingparty
knownasasymposionand,therefore,alsodepictsotherwinevasesasdevicesonthe
warriorsshields.

Athens,anddionysiacscenesofdrinkingandunrestrainedmerrymakingwere
popularsubjectsofvasepainting.AttheDionysia,thegodwashonoredbyachoirof
satyrswearinggoatskinsandholdingconversationwiththeirleaderintheformof
agoatsongortragdiathatevolvedintothegreatAttictragediesofthefifth
century.AnexpandedPanathenaicfestivalwascelebratedwithgreatfanfare,
culminatinginthegreatprocessioncarryingtoAthenastempletherobewovenfor
herbyyoungAthenianwomen.IronicallytheprocessionuptheAcropolisatthe
PanathenaeawouldserveastheoccasionforthemurderofPeisistratusson
Hipparchusin514.
TheCollapseoftheTyranny
PatronageoftheartsbecamestillmoreconspicuousafterPeisistratusdeathin527.
ThehistorianThucydidesbelievedthatPeisistratussonHippiasruledalone,buthe
complainsofmanyotherswhoclaimedthatHippiasbrotherHipparchuswasan
equalpartnerinthegovernment.Inanyevent,HippiasandHipparchusadorned
theircourtwithcelebratedwritersSimonidesofCeos,whosechoralodeswere
famous;thelovepoetAnacreonofTeos;andLasusofHermione,
173
knownforcomposingnovelhisslesshymns,thatis,poemsinwhichthesounds
wasneverheard.Buttheprestigeoftheirglitteringcourtdidnotkeepthehereditary
tyrantssecureintheirposition.In514,Hipparchus,soitseems,findinghimself
rejectedinhisromanticattentionstoayoungmanbythenameofHarmodius,
slightedHarmodiussisterbyforbiddinghertocarryabasketinthePanathenaic
procession.HarmodiusandhisloverAristogitonthenformedaplottomurderboth
HippiasandHipparchusonthedayoftheprocession.Whenoneoftheconspirators
wasobservedchattingwithHippias,theothers,wronglybelievingtheplothadbeen
betrayed,panickedandimmediatelykilledHipparchus.Theresultsweredevastating
forAthens:afundamentallybenigngovernmentoftwoaristocratsnowgavewayto
theoverbearingandparanoidautocracyofHippias.
WhatmotivatedHarmodiusandAristogitonsfellowconspiratorswewillnever
know,butwedoknowthatthefallofHippiasfouryearslaterin510wasinlarge
measuretheworkoftheexiledAlcmaeonids.DeterminedtoreturntoAthens,they
dideverythingintheirpowertofostergoodrelationswithDelphi,wheretheold
sanctuaryofApollohadrecentlyburnedtotheground.TheAlcmaeonids
underwrotethecontracttorebuildthetemple,andinadditiontohonoringitsterms
alsothrewinafrontageoffirstclassParianmarblewherethetermshadcalledonly
forordinarystone.Afterthis,whenevertheSpartanswenttoDelphiforadviceabout
futureprojectstheyalwaysreceivedtheresponse:FirstfreeAthens.Asthe
Spartansenjoyedtheirreputationastheenemyoftyranny,theywerereceptiveto

thissuggestion,andin510KingCleomenesblockadedHippiasontheAcropolis.
WhenHippiaschildrenwerecaptured,thetyrantcapitulatedinordertogetthem
backanddepartedwithhisfamilytoSigeum.ApillarwassetupintheAcropolis
recordingthecondemnationofthePeisistratidstoatimia(lossofcivicrights).
TheAthenianschosetoremembertheheroismofHarmodiusandAristogitonmore
vividlythantheSpartanintervention.Drinkingsongsbeganmakingtheroundsin
aristocraticcirclesliketheonethatwent
Iwillcarrymyswordinaboughofmyrtle
ThewayHarmodiusandAristogitondid
Whentheykilledthetyrants
AndrestoredequallawstoAthens.
ButtheSpartaninterventionof510hadaprice:Athenswascompelledtojointhe
PeloponnesianLeague,adevelopmentthatwouldhaveimportantconsequencesfor
thefuture.
THEREFORMSOFCLEISTHENES
TheAtheniansdidnothavelongtowaitfortheSpartanstointerveneintheir
domesticaffairsagain.Predictably,thedepartureofthePeisistratidsfromAthens
wasfollowedbyaresurgenceoffactionalstrife.ThearistocratIsagorasfirst
174
gainedtheupperhandwhenhewaselectedarchonin508BC.Hispopularitywas
dueinparttohisplatformofrevokingthecitizenshipofthosewhoseancestorshad
receiveditunderSolonandPeisistratus.HisrivalCleisthenesprudentlyopposedthe
plan,thusbringingthemassesovertohisside.BecauseCleisthenesbelongedtothe
Alcmaeonidclan,Isagoras,whohadthebackingofSparta,dredgeduptheancestral
cursethathadoriginatedatthetimeofCylonsconspiracy,andCleisthenes
withdrewfromAthens.InhiseffortstoaidIsagoras,however,
Figure5.3.ThetyrannicidesHarmodiusandAristogitonwerecommemoratedinthis
statueofabout500BC.ItsurvivesinthisRomancopy.

175
CleomeneswasnotabletorepeatthesuccesshehadachievedonhislastAthenian
campaign,whenhehadhelpedtodriveoutHippias.Thistimeheoverplayedhis
hand.ReturningtoAttica,heexpelledsevenhundredfamiliespointedouttohimby
Isagorasandtriedtoestablishanoligarchy.Nowitwashisturntobeblockadedin

theAcropolis.TheindignantAtheniansroseupenmasse,forcedthecapitulationof
CleomenesandIsagoras,andwelcomedCleisthenesandhissupportersbackto
Athens.ThiswouldnotbethelasttimethatAthenianoligarchsalliedthemselves
withSparta.
Seeingclearlythattherivalriesofthewealthyfamiliescouldnotcontinuewithout
periltothestate,CleisthenesresolvedtooverhaultheAthenianconstitutioninsucha
wayastobreakthepowerofrichfamilies(otherthanhisown)onceandforall.His
methodswereingenious.Abolishingforallpracticalpurposesthefourancient
Ionianphylaitheyremainedinexistenceforceremonialpurposesonlyhe
establishedtennewtribesonanextraordinarybasis.FirsthedividedAtticainto
threegeographicalareasthecity,theshore,andtheinland(overlappingonly
partiallywiththeolddivisionsofthehill,thecoast,andtheplain.)Hethen
subdividedeachareaintotentrittyes,orthirds(thoughactuallytheywere
thirtieths),composedofanumberoftheexistingunitsknownasdemesvillagesor
townshipsofAttica.Sincethedemeswereofunequalsizetherewereovera
hundredinallthenumberofdemesineachtrittysvaried.Hethentookonetrittys
fromeachgeographicalareaandputthethreetogethertomakeatribe:onetribe,in
otherwords,wouldcontainthreetrittyes,onefromeachofthethreeareas,madeup
ofanirregularnumberofdemes.Tosignaltheweakeningoffamilyloyaltiesinfavor
ofpoliticalones,menweretobeginidentifyingthemselvesbytheirdemotic,thatis,
thenameoftheirdeme,ratherthanbytheirpatronymic,thenameoftheirfather.It
maybethatCleisthenesdesignedthisshiftinparttoconcealthenonAthenian
originsofsomeofhissupporters,butitslongtermpurposewastoweakentheforce
ofprestigiouslineageinpolitics.Generationsoftraditionwerenotsoeasilycast
aside,however,andthecustomwasemployedonlyintermittently:westillthinkof
PericlesasthesonofXanthippusandthehistorianThucydidesasthesonofOlorus.
Thenewbaseoftentribessparkedthecreationofanewbody,theCouncil(boul)of
FiveHundred,withfiftymemberschosenannuallybylotfromeachofthetentribes.
Recognizingtheprincipleofproportionalrepresentation,thefiftyslotsfortheboule
weredistributedamongthedemesinaccordancewiththepopulationofeach.The
useofthelotindeterminingthecompositionofeachyearsboulewasakey
democraticfeatureoftheCleisthenicsystem.TheboulereplacedtheoldCouncilof
FourHundred,takingoveritsprobouleuticfunctionsofpreparingbusinessforthe
ekklsia(theassembly)andalsomanagingfinancialandforeignaffairs.Becausefive
hundredwasanunwieldynumber,eachtribewouldbeinchargeforatenthofthe
year.Duringitsperiodofservicethefiftypresidingmembersofthecouncilwere
calledprytaneis,andtheprytanycametobeusedasameasureoftime,ratherlikea
month.Thechairandsecretaryeachchangedeveryday.
176

Figure5.4.Attica.
Thearchonsretainedtheiradministrativeduties,butanewboardofexecutiveswas
createdwhichthoughCleisthenesmaynothaveanticipateditwouldeventually
surpasstheminimportance.Thearmywasreorganizedonthebasisofthetentribes,
eachtribeelectingataxiarchos(infantrycommander),hipparchos(cavalry
177
commander),and,mostimportant,astratgos,orchiefgeneral.Unlikearchons,
stratgoicouldserveasmanyconsecutivetermsastheyliked.Intimetheboardoften
strategoibecamethemostprestigiousexecutivebodyinAthens.
BecauseCleistheneswasnotgrantedextraordinarypowerssuchasthosewithwhich
Solonhadbeeninvested,hismeasuresneededtobepassedintheassembly.His
reforms,consequently,wereinthemselvestheproductofdemocraticaction.Around
500BCameetingplacefortheekklesiawascarvedoutoftherockonthehillcalled
thePnyx,andfromthenontheassemblymetthereonaregularbasisandframed
policyforthestate.
ThenewCleisthenictribeswereconstitutedoneminentlyartificiallines.Itwastheir
veryartificialitythatmadethemwork,fortamperingwiththeoldtiesofsentiment
andobligationopenedthedoortoframinganewnetworkofalliances.Somenoble
families,however,remainedincontrolofimportant(andprofitable)cultssuchas
thatofDemeterandPersephoneatEleusis.WhetherCleisthenesactuallysteeled
himselftobreakthepowerofhisownfamilyalongwiththatoftheotherfamiliesis
unclear;itshouldoccasionnosurprisethattheAlcmaeonidpowerbaseseemsto
havesurvivedhiselaborateredistrictingofAtticawhereasthoseofotherfamilies
wereundermined.
THERISEOFPERSIA
WhiletheGreekswerestrugglingtocreateworkablegovernmentsintheirnumerous
smallcitystates,arichandpowerfulstateofadifferentcharacterwastakingshape
totheeast,wherethePersiansunitedthelargestempireknowntothattime.
SourcesforPersianHistory
ThesourcesforPersianhistoryareprincipallyPersianandGreek,thoughthereare
somerecordsinElamitic,Akkadian,Aramaic,Egyptian,Hebrew,andBabylonian.
ThePersiansourcesincludeinscriptionswritteninOldPersianfoundinmajor
archaeologicalsitessuchasPersepolisandSusa.Inaddition,scholarshavebeenable
todetectaPersianoraltraditionglorifyingthekings.Archaeologicalevidence

includesmonumentalbuildingswithreliefsculpturedepictinghistoricaleventsand
sealspicturingawiderangeofactivitiesyieldinginformationonmilitary,athletic,
agricultural,andreligiouspracticesandoftenshowingthefloraandfaunaofthe
empire.ThehistoricalsourcesemanatingfromPersiaare,ofcourse,biasedinfavor
ofthekingsandtheirgovernment.InscriptionswritteninOldPersianareallofficial
documents,andgiveapictureofprosperity,fertility,andsecurity.TheGreeksources
includethehistoricalwritingsofHerodotusandXenophon.Theworksoftheformer,
inparticular,tendtostressdifferencesbetweenGreeksandPersians,betweenEast
andWest.TheGreekwordforthePersians,andforallpeopleswhodidnotspeak
Greek,wasbarbaroi,fortheyseemedtobetalkinggibberish,saying
178
barbar,barbar.ThePersians,however,shouldnotbeconsideredbarbariansinthe
modernsense,fortheirpoliticalandartisticachievementswereadmirablebyany
standard.
PersiaBeforeDarius
LiketheGreeks,thePersianswereoriginallyanIndoEuropeanpeoplewhocame
fromthenorth.BytheDarkAgetheyhadoccupiedtheterritorynowknownasthe
Iranianplateau,aplacerichinnaturalresourcesincludinggold,silver,copper,
minerals,andsemipreciousstones.NotmuchisknownofPersianhistorybeforethe
seventhcenturyBC.AfterastrugglefordominationbetweenthePersiansandpeople
relatedtothemknownastheMedes,thetwogroupscametobeunified,perhaps
underthekingCyaxareswhosecapitalwasatEcbatana.
AtatimewhenmostGreekstateshadeliminatedhereditarybasileisfromtheir
governmentsandwerewaryofonemanrule,whichtheyequatedwithtyranny,
Persiawasruledbykingseachofwhom,withtheexceptionofDarius,inheritedhis
roledirectlyfromhisfather.Becausethekingsoftenhadmorethanonewife,there
wasneveralackofcandidates.AtfirstthePersiansweresubjecttotheMedes,but
aroundthemiddleofthesixthcenturyCyrusIIofPersia(ruled559530BC),a
memberoftheAchaemenidfamily,tookcontrolandmadeMediathefirstofmany
satrapies(provinces)ofthePersianempire.HenceforththePersiandynastyknown
astheAchaemenidsweretoruletheMedes,thoughtheGreeksconsideredMedes
andPersiansthesameanddescribedtheactoffavoringthePersiansasmedizing.
Cyrusconquestin546oftheLydiankingCroesusbroughtAsiaMinorintothe
empireandwasoneoftheeventsthatledultimatelytothewarbetweentheGreeks
andPersiansinthefifthcentury.CroesushadbroughttheGreekcitiesinIoniaunder
hisdominationin560.Hiswealthwasproverbial;thefirstcoins,whichweremadeof
electrum,weresaidtohavebeenmintedinLydia.Croesusprosperousempire
providedanAsianoutletontheMediterraneanandHellespontthatwas

indispensablefortradewiththeWest.HerodotusportrayshimasaphilHellene(a
loverofthingsGreek),whoenjoyedentertainingGreekphilosopherssuchasSolon
andwhosoughttheadviceofGreekoracles,sendingenvoysladenwithgifts;buthe
alsoenjoystellinghowCroesusvanityandselfabsorptionledhimtomisconstrue
whathewastold.PleasedtohearfromtheoracleatDelphithatifhemadewaron
thePersianshewoulddestroyamightyempire,CroesusproceededagainstCyrus.
Apollospokethetruth,ofcourse,butCroesushadmisunderstood.Thegreatempire
hedestroyedwashisown.In546BCCyrusconqueredLydia,andtheLydiancapital
SardisbecamethechiefadministrativecenterinAsiaMinorforthePersians.Viathe
citiesofIonia,CyrusconquestbroughtaboutthefirstofficialcontactbetweenGreeks
andPersians.CyrusalsoconqueredBabylonia,Assyria,Syria,andPalestine.These
landsandtheirpeoplewereheterogeneous:differencesbetweenGreeksofvarious
citystatespaleincomparisonwithdifferencesbetweenpartsofthePersianempire.
Thevarietyoflanguages,customs,laws,re
179
ligions,andmannerofwagingwarwasvast.Cyrusgreatachievementwasthathe
managedtounifytheempire.Communicationwasfacilitatedbyconstructingroads
andcreatingapostalsystemstaffedbyroyalmessengersonhorseback.Herodotus
reportedthatNeitherrain,norsnow,norsleet,norhailstaysthesecouriersfromthe
swiftcompletionoftheirappointedrounds(8.98;Blanco1992).Cyrusalso
permittedhissubjectstopracticetheirownreligions.
CyruswaspraisedbyGreekandAsiansourcesalikeasabenevolentandtalented
ruler.WhereastheprecedingNeoAssyrianandNeoBabylonianempireshad
deportedentirepopulationsandhadsownconqueredterritorywithsaltsothatit
couldneveragainbecomefertile,Cyruspoliciesenhancedtheprosperityofhis
empireandthewellbeingofitsinhabitants.CyruswashailedbytheJewsfor
allowingthemtoreturnfromexileinMesopotamiaundertheBabyloniancaptivityto
Jerusalemandtorebuildtheirtemplethereandworshipfreely.TheOldTestament
recordsthedeclarationoftheHebrewprophetIsaiahtotheJews:
ThussaysYahwehtohisanointed,toCyruswhomhegraspsbyhisrighthand,
Thathemightsubduenationsbeforehim,andungirdtheloinsofkings,
Toopendoorsbeforehim,thatgatesshallnotbeclosed:
Iwillgobeforeyou,andIwillleveltheroads;
Iwillshattergatesofbronze,andIwillhewbarsofirontopieces.
Iwilldeliverburiedtreasurestoyou,andhiddenriches....
(IsaiahII,45:13)

CyrussonCambysessucceededhimaskingandreignedfrom530to522BC.In525,
afterfightingagainstanarmythatincludedGreekmercenaries,headdedEgyptto
theempire.Alwaysfascinatedbythedangersattendantonwealthandpower,
Herodotustakescaretodepicthisdegenerationfromacapablerulerintoadespotic
madman.
TheAchievementsofDarius
DariusIseizedpowerin521BCandreigneduntil486.Hecreatedanadministrative
andfinancialstructurethatremainedunchangedfortwohundredyears.He
centralizedthegovernmentandmovedthecapitaltoPersepolis.Theimperial
buildingsbeguntherewerecompletedbyhisson,Xerxes.Buildinginscriptions
recordthatGreekswereamongtheworkmendrawnfromallcornersoftheempire
tobuildtheroyalbuildings.Dariusfacilitatedtravelforcommercialpurposesin
manyways,buildingacanallinkingtheNileandtheRedSea,Thiscanalmadethe
newlyconqueredterritoryofEgyptmoreprosperousthanithadbeenundernative
Egyptianrule.DariuswasthefirstPersiankingtominthisowncoinsofsilverand
gold.Thegoldcoins,Daricstatersordarics,demonstratedthekingstalentat
archery,askillhighlyprizedbythePersians,who,
180
Herodotusreported,weretaughtthreethingstoride,toshootstraight,andtotell
thetruth.
Theempirewasdividedintoprovincesorsatrapies.Thesesometimesconsistedof
peopleofthesameethnicitiesorofthoseinasingleregionwhohadbeenconquered
atthesametime.Withineachsatrapyauthoritywasdividedbetweenciviland
militaryofficials:thecivilauthorityfurnishedsuppliestothemilitaryandthe
militaryprovidedprotectioninreturn.Eachprovincewasobligedtopayanannual
tributetotheking.ThePersianmonarchswiselyrefrainedfromimposingauniform
systemofadministrationthroughouttheempireanddeclinedtouprootexisting
governorsandproceduresthatfunctionedwell.Insomeareas,forexampleLydia,
satrapsgovernedfairlyindependently.Rebellionswerediscouragedthrougha
systemofspiesknownastheEyesandEarsoftheKing.Supremepoliticalpower
wasunifiedonlyinthepersonoftheking.Theking,ascommanderinchief,
defendedhissubjectsagainstintrudersandinreturntheypaidhimtaxes,gavehim
gifts,andpaidhimtribute.Hisincomewasstoredintheroyaltreasuryandmuchof
itwaslavishedonmonumentalbuildingprojects.Thelaborofthesubjectsofthe
empirewasexploitedonalargescalethroughtaxation,forcedlabor,andmandatory
militaryservice.Thekingexercisedabsoluteauthorityandwieldedthepoweroflife
anddeathoverhissubjects,whokneltorevenlayprostrateinobeisance.Ratherthan

envyingthePersiansforenjoyinghundredsofyearsofpeace,theGreekspitiedthe
subjectsofthePersianking,consideringthemhisslaves.
THEWARSBETWEENGREECEANDPERSIA
DariuscampaignedagainsttheEuropeanScythsandthusbecamethefirstPersian
kingtoenterEurope.AlthoughhefailedtoconquerScythia,Thracewassubdued
andbecameasatrapy.Dariuswestwardexpeditionspiquedhiscuriosityaboutthe
mainlandGreeks,andarebellioninhisempirebroughthimintodirectcontactwith
them.
TheIonianRebellion
In499BCrevoltbrokeoutamongtheIonianGreeks.DiscontentinIoniawas
considerable;taxeshadgoneupwhentheGreekcitiesweretransferredfromLydian
toPersianhands,andtheGreeksresentedthesystemofpuppettyrantsthePersians
hadimposed.Violencemightnothaveerupted,however,haditnotbeenforthe
ambitionofAristagoras,thetyrantofMiletus.HopingtoaddNaxostohisdomain,
AristagorashadpersuadedthePersianstojoinhiminalargerefforttosubduethe
wholechainoftheCycladesislandsintheAegeanandperhapsmoveontomainland
Greece.Whentheplanfailed,Aristagoras,noticingtherestlessnessofthelonians,
decidedtorecouphisfailingfortunesbyunitingtheminrevolt.
181
Figure5.5.DelegationsbringingtributetoPersepolis.ThePersiankingreceiveda
widevarietyofgoodsfromthroughouttheNearEastintheformoftribute.
182
Figure5.6.ThePersianempireinthereignofDarius.
Afterresigninghistyrannyandacceptingaconstitutionalofficeinstead,hesetabout
overthrowingtyrantsintheotherIoniancities.Mostofthisseemstohavebeen
accomplishedwithoutbloodshed,butthetyrantofMytilenewassounpopularthat
hewasstonedtodeath.Therebelliouscitiesshowedtheirunitybyissuingcoinage
onacommonstandard.HerodotusaccountofAristagorasattemptstogainsupport
fromKingCleomeneswasgearedtodemonstratingtheSpartancharacterasmost
Greeksimagineditcautious,conservative,andleeryofforeignadventures;thetale
alsoillustratestheassertivenessofSpartanwomenandtherespectinwhichthey
wereheld.Aristagoras,Herodotusmaintains,carriedwithhimabronzemapofthe
wholeworldprobablytheworkofthecelebratedMilesiangeographerHecataeus.
HepointedouttoCleomenesthepeoplewhosewealthwouldfallintoGreekhands

intheeventofavictoryandheexhortedthekingtoliberatetheGreeksofIonia.
CapitalizingontheSpartansdislikeofforeigncustoms,hesuggestedthattheycould
easilydefeatmenwhofoughtintrousersandworepeakedcapsontheirheads,so
easyaretheyforthebeating.Cleomenesaskedforacoupleofdaysinwhichto
makeuphismind.Whenthetwodayswereup,Herodotussays,
183
CleomenesaskedAristagorashowmanydaysjourneyitwasfromtheIonianseato
wheretheGreatKing[i.e.,thekingofPersia]was.IneverythingelseAristagoras
wasverycleverandhadtrickedCleomenessuccessfully,butherehetrippedup.He
oughtnottohavetoldthetruthifhewantedtobringtheSpartansintoAsia.
However,hedidtellit,sayingthatthejourneyfromtheseauptoSusawasamatter
ofthreemonths.CleomenescutoffalltherestofthestorythatAristagoraswassetto
givehimaboutthejourneyandsaid,MyfriendfromMiletus,awaywithyoufrom
Spartabeforethesunsets!Thereisnoargumentofsucheloquencethatyoucanuse
ontheLacedaemoniansifyouwanttobringthemthreemonthsjourneyfromthe
sea.
(TheHistory5.50;Grene1987)
Notyetwillingtoabandonhisquest,AristagorasfollowedCleomenestohishouse,
carryingwithhimthecustomarysignofsupplicationanolivebranch,coveredwith
woolandashesatinCleomeneshomeasasupplianthenoticedyoungGorgo,who
was8or9yearsold,standingbyherfather.HeaskedthatCleomenessendhis
daughteraway,but
Cleomenesbadehimsaywhateverhelikedandnottoholdbackbecauseofthechild.
ThenAristagorasbeganwithanopeningpromiseoftentalentsifthekingwoulddo
whatheasked.AsCleomenesrefused,Aristagorasraisedhisbids,littlebylittle,till
hemadeanofferoffiftytalents.Atthisthechildcriedoutandsaid,Father,this
strangerwillcorruptyouifyoudonottakeyourselfaway.Cleomeneswas
delightedbyhisdaughtersadviceandwentintoanotherroom,andAristagorasleft
Spartaaltogetherandnevergotanotherchancetogiveanymoreinformationabout
thejourneyfromIoniainlandtothedwellingoftheGreatKing.
(TheHistory5.51;Grene1987)
TheAtheniansweremorereceptivetoAristagorasdesigns.Amoreadventurous
peoplethantheSpartans,theywerenotconstrainedbyfearofaslaverebellionin
theirabsence.TheyweremadenervousbythePersiansconnectionwithHippias,
whohadfoundhiswaytoPersia,fortheyrightlyfearedthathewasplanningto
returnwithPersianbacking.Finally,accesstograinandotherresourcesintheBlack

Seaareawaspreciousanddeservingofprotection.Theyagreedtosendtwenty
ships;theEretrianstothenorthwerewillingtosendfive.
TheunsuccessfulrebellionoftheIonianGreeksendedinamajornavaldefeatoffthe
islandofLadenearMiletusin494BC.Greekmoralehadfallen;thetyrantswhom
AristagorashadexpelledwerespreadingproPersianpropaganda;andbeforethe
battlewasovertheSamiansandLesbianshaddeserted.Miletuswasdefeated,its
womenandchildrenenslaved,andthemenrelocatedtothemouthoftheTigris.In
thecourseoftherebellion,however,thecapitalcityofthewesternPersianempire,
Sardis,wasburnt,whetheraccidentallyoronpurpose.
DariuswouldnotforgettheburningofSardis,butneitherwouldtheGreeksforget
theannihilationofMiletus.HomeofthephilosophersThales,Anaximan
184
der,andAnaximenes,andmorerecentlyofthegeographerHecataeus(whohad
warnedAristagorasofPersiasoverwhelmingsuperiority),Miletushadbeenoneof
themostculturedcitiesintheGreekworld.WhenthepoetPhrynichusproduceda
tragedyonitsfallentitledTheCaptureofMiletus,theAtheniansfinedhimone
thousanddrachmasforremindingthemoftheirmisfortune.Thestoryofthe
AtheniansoutragerevealsagrowingsenseofidentityamongtheIoniansand
perhapsamongtheGreeksmorebroadly.TheAthenianshadwithdrawnfromthe
rebellioninitsearlystages,aftertheburningofSardis,sothatAtheniansoldiershad
notbeeninvolvedinthecollapseofMiletus;yettheyidentifiedpassionatelywithit
initsfinalhour.
TherewasreasontobelievethatthefateofMiletuscouldsoonbethatofcitiesin
mainlandGreece.UndertheleadershipofarisingpoliticiannamedThemistocles,
whohadjustbeenelectedarchon,theAtheniansbegantofortifythethreerocky
harborsofPiraeusandconvertthemintoanavalandcommercialbase.Unlikemost
Athenianpoliticians,Themistocleslackedfamilyconnectionsbeyondthosehehad
garneredbyaprudentmarriage,andunlikemostpreviouspoliticians,whohad
drawnsupportfromtheleisuredlandowningclass,heseemstohaveenjoyedthe
backingofthosewhomadetheirlivingbytrade.AcutelysensibletothePersian
threatThucydidespraisedhimforhisabilitytoforeseewhatthefutureheld(1.138)
ThemistoclesservedGreecewellatthiscriticaltime.
DariusInvasionofGreece
DariushadbeeninterestedinGreeceforsomeyearsbeforetheIonianrebellion,and
thedesiretoavengetheburningofSardishadaddedanadditionalspurtohis
ambition.In492BChesenthissoninlawMardoniuswestattheheadofalarge
force.ThoughMardoniussuccessfullyrestoredPersianprestigeinnorthernGreece,

conqueringThrace,Thasos,andMacedonia,thefleetwaswreckedoffMountAthos
ontheChalcidicpeninsula,andMardoniuswasforcedtoturnback.Dariuspromptly
beganmobilizingforanotherexpedition,onethatwouldsailstraightacrossthe
Aegean,avoidingthetreacherouspromontoriesofthenorth.Mindfulofthefateof
Miletus,manyGreekcitiesyieldedtothedemandofDariusheraldsforearthand
water,theproverbialtokensofsubmissionthatsignaledrecognitionofthekings
supremacyonlandandsea.Theislandersfelttheyhadlittlechoice,andonthe
mainlandArgosandThebeswentovertothePersians.SpartaandAthens,however,
remainedsteadfastintheiropposition.
DariusfirstorderofbusinesswastopunishAthensandEretriafortheirroleinthe
Ionianrebellion.Infact,itmayhavebeentheprimarypurposeofhisexpedition.In
thesummerof490hisfleetarrivedinGreece,commandedbyhisnephew
ArtaphernesandDatis,aMede.ThefiguregivenbyHerodotusofsixhundredships
isprobablyexaggerated,butDatisandArtaphernesmayhavehadtwentythousand
menwiththem,oneofwhomwastheagingHippias,theexiledrulerofAthens
whomtheyhopedtoreinstallasbothAtheniantyrantandPersianvassal.Enroute
thePersiansburntthetownandtemplesofNaxos,deport
185
Figure5.7.HermofThemistocles.ThisRomancopywasprobablymodeledona
bronzestatueofThemistocleserectedabout460BC.Withitsthickneckandcoarse
features,theheadreflectstheearliestknownexampleofindividualportraiturein
Greekart.Weshouldperhapsassociatetheunusualphysiognomywiththetradition
thatThemistoclesmotherwasnotGreek.
ingtheircaptives;elsewheretheypressedmenintoserviceandseizedchildrenas
hostages.Afterasiegeoflessthanaweek,Eretriawasbetrayedfromwithin.The
PersiansburnttheEretrianstemplesinrevengeforthosedestroyedatSardisand
deportedthepopulationinaccordancewithDariusorders.(Severalcenturieslater
theperipateticprophetoftheRomanempireApolloniusofTyanareportedfinding
thedescendantsofthedeportedEretriansatArdericcainCissia,stillspeakingtheir
nativeGreek.)FromEretriathePersiansmoveddownonMarathonintheold
PeisistratidstompinggroundofnorthernAttica.
TheAthenianassemblyimmediatelyvotedtodispatchtheirforcestoMarathon,and
arunner,Pheidippides(orperhapsPhilippides)wassenttoSparta,covering,sothe
storywent,fully140milesbythenextday.TheSpartans,however,couldnottake
advantageofthespeedwithwhichthemessagewasdelivered,for,theyexplainedto
thebreathlessPheidippides,theywerecelebratingafestivalofApollo,theCarnea,
andwereforbiddentomarchuntilthefullmoon.AstheSpartansweredeeply
religiousandnocowardsinwar,theirexplanationmayhavebeensincere.

186
TheBattleofMarathon
Herodotusfiguresareprobablyerroneous,butitislikelythattheAthenianswere
outnumbered,ifnotasoutrageouslyashesuggeststhenatleastbyafactoroftwoto
one.ThePersianshadthemoreversatileforce,withcavalry,archers,andskirmishing
troops,buttheAthenianforceconsistingessentiallyofhopliteswasmoreheavily
armed.ThemostseriousproblemfacedbytheAthenianswasthelackofa
commander,foralldecisionslaywiththetenstrategoi(theboardofexecutives
createdbyCleisthenes)deliberatingasabody.Assomewantedtowaitforthe
Spartanreinforcementsexpectedafterthefullmoonandothersthoughtdelayrisky,
therewasdangerthatadeadlockintheAtheniancampwouldthrowthevictoryto
thePersiansandGreecewouldbeoverrun.WhentheAthenianslearnedthatsomeof
thePersiantroopsandcavalryweremissingandsuspectedthatpartofthePersian
forceswereheadingforPhaleron,itseemedtoseveralgeneralsthatthemomentto
strikehadcome,eventhoughthemoonwasfullandtheSpartanscouldbeexpected
shortly;anydelaycouldbefatal.ThestrategosMiltiadesseemstohaveplayedakey
roleinsavingGreece.
AnephewoftheMiltiadeswhomPeisistratushaddispatchedtoprotectAthenian
interestsintheChersonese(thusconvenientlydisposingofapotentialrival),
Miltiadestheyoungerhadinheritedhisunclespowerandhadspentmuchofhislife
intheremoteoutpost.InpartbecausehewasamemberoftheprominentPhilaid
clanandindeedadistantrelativeofPeisistratushimself,hebecamethevictimof
AthenianfactionalpoliticsonhisreturntoAthensin493BCwhenhewasprosecuted
forallegedtyrannyintheChersonese.SinceitisimpossibletoseewhytheAthenians
wouldworryaboutoneoftheirowncitizenstyrannizingabroad,Herodotusissurely
righttoascribethetrialtothemachinationsofMiltiadesenemies(6.104);alternative
rumorsascribedtheattacktoThemistoclesortheAlcmaeonids.Inanyevent,
MiltiadeswasacquittedandwentontotaketheleadintheGreekvictoryover
Darius,persuadingthepolemarchCallimachusandseveraloftheotherstrategoito
lethimdirectAthenianstrategy.Herodotusoffersastirringrenditionofhisspeech:
Callimachus,itisuptoyou,rightnow,toenslaveAthensortomakeherfree,andto
leaveforallfuturegenerationsofhumanityamemorialtoyourselfsuchasnoteven
HarmodiusandAristogitonhaveleft.Rightnow,Athensisinthemostperilous
momentofherhistory.Hippiashasalreadyshownherwhatshewillsufferifshe
bowsdowntotheMedes,butifthiscitysurvives,shecanbecometheforemostcity
inallGreece.Now,Illtellyoujusthowthisispossible,andhowitisuptoyouand
onlyyoutodeterminethecourseofevents.Wetengeneralsaresplitrightintwo,
withhalfsayingfightandtheotherhalfnot.Ifwedontfightnow,Iamafraidthata
stormofcivilstrifewillsoshakethetimberoftheAthenianpeoplethattheywillgo

overtotheMedes.Butifwefightnow,beforethecrackscanshowinsomeofthe
Athenians,andprovidedthatthegodstakenosides,whythenwecansurvivethis
battle.Allthisdependsonyou.Ithangsonyourdecisionnow.Ifyouvotewithme,
yourfatherlandwillbefreeandyourcitywillbefirstinallofHellas,butifyou
choosethesideofthosewhourgeusnottofight,thentheoppositeofallthegood
Ivespokenofwillfalltoyou.
(TheHistories6.109;Blanco1992)
187
Andso,earlyonemorninginlateSeptemberof490,underMiltiadescommand,the
Athenians,flankedbysomePlataeans,randownthehillonwhichtheyhad
encamped,coveringthemileorsothatdividedthemfromthePersiansatdouble
speeddespitetheweightoftheirhoplitearmor.AristidesandThemistocles
commandedtheirtribalcontingentsinthecenter,whileCanimachuscommandedon
therightwingandthePlataeansheldtheleft.Knowingtheywereoutnumbered,the
Athenianspackedtheirwingsastightlyastheycould,concentratingasmanymenas
possibleontheouterendsoftheirformation,eventhoughitmeantleavingthecenter
thin.DespitetheirnumericalsuperioritythePersianswereunabletowithstandthe
disciplinedanddeterminedhoplitesfightingindefenseoftheirfreedom.(The
Greeksalsohadbetterarmorandlongerspears.)Intheflighttotheirships,manyof
thePersianswereboggeddowninthemarshes.
Arrivingtoolatetoparticipateinthefighting,theSpartansvisitedthebattlefieldand
surveyedthePersiancorpses.HerodotusmaintainedthattheAthenianslost192
men,thePersians6400.TheGreekstatisticisprobablycorrect,forthenameswere
inscribedonthebattlefield;theyincludedCallimachus.Thedeadwerecremated
wheretheyhadfallen,andamonumentwassubsequentlyerectedonthesite.Some
PlataeansandsomeAthenianslavesalsodied,buttheirnumbersareunknown.The
playwrightAeschylushimselffoughtatMarathon.Theepitaphhecomposedfor
himselfmakesnomentionofhisstupendousachievementsasatragicdramatistbut
speaksonlyofhisserviceinthisbattleforfreedom:Thegloriousgroveof
Marathon,hewrote,cantellofhisvalorascanthelonghairedPersian,whowell
remembersit.Throughoutthenextdecades,theMarathonomachoimenwhohad
foughtatMarathonenjoyedsingularprestigeinAthensandcameastimewentby
torepresentthesimplevirtuesoftheoldergenerationinanincreasinglyluxurious
andcomplexsociety.Aboutaquartercenturyafterthebattleitwasmemorializedin
apaintingintheStoaPoikil(paintedportico)atthenorthendoftheAthenian
agora;Callimachus,Miltiades,Datis,andArtaphernescouldallbeidentified,aswell
asAeschylusbrotherCynegirushangingontothePersianship,towhichheclung
intrepidlyuntilhisarmwascutoffbyanaxe.Godsandheroeswerepresentatthe

battleaswellHeracles,Athena,andTheseus,whomanybelievedhadoffered
phantomaidonthebattlefieldasHomericgodshaddoneatTroy.
NotallGreeksrejoicedinthedefeatofPersia.Ashieldsignalwasapparentlyflashed
fromAthensafterthebattleadvisingthePersiansthatthecitywaspreparedto
surrender.AnyconnectionbetweentheAlcmaeonidsandthesignalwasindignantly
deniedbyHerodotus,whotendedtofavortheAlcmaeonidsandseemstohaveused
Alcmaeonidsourcesinhiswriting,butjustsuchaconnectionwascommongossipat
thetime.Inanyevent,someoneatAthenswishedthePersianswell.Overtheyears,
accusationsofPersiansympathieswoulddogaspiringAthenianpoliticiansandoffer
aneasyroutetodamagingacontroversialfiguresreputation.
188
GreekLeadersandTheirMisadventures:Miltiades,Cleomenes,andDemaratus
Atheniansheldtheirleaderstohighstandards.Althoughthehistoryofthefifthand
fourthcenturieswouldprovidenumerousexamplesoftheexactingtemperamentof
thedemos,theearliestareamongthemostinteresting.Shortlyafterthebattleof
Marathon,Miltiadeswasimpeachedintheassemblyandcondemnedtopayastiff
fine.Hediedindisgracebeforehecouldpay,andhissonCimondischargedthe
debt.Thecircumstanceswerecurious.Becauseofhisheroicstandingafterthevictory
ofMarathon,theAthenianswereagreeabletograntingMiltiadesshipsonhis
promisethathewouldmakethemrich.WhenhisattackontheislandofParosended
infailureandembarrassmentHerodotusclaimsthewoundthateventuallykilled
himwassustainedwhileviolatingthesanctuaryofDemeterhewasimpeachedat
Athensandhadtoattendhistrialonastretcher,ashiswoundwasbeginningto
gangrene.TheAtheniansconsideredputtinghimtodeath.Althoughitisimpossible
toknowjusthowmuchthevotersintheassemblyhadknownabouttheobjectof
Miltiadesexpeditionsecurityconsiderationswouldhavearguedagainstopenly
namingParos,whichhadsidedwiththePersiansduringthewarwhatisclearis
thatthedemoshaddevelopedtheconfidencetoholditsleadersaccountable.
Throughoutthedecadesthatfollowed,interactionbetweenthedemosanditsleaders
wouldbecharacterizedbyachangingdynamicthathelpeddefinethenatureofthe
democracyasitunfolded.
ItwasnotonlyinAthensthatpoliticalleaderstendedtocometobadends.Spartan
kingshadahabitofgettingintodifficultiesaswell.Afterwinningadecisivevictory
overSpartasinveterateenemyArgosatSepeia,Cleomeneswasaccusedbythe
Spartansofsparingthecityasaconsequenceofbribes.Acoupleofyearslater,when
hehadenlistedtheDelphicoracleinmachinationstoengineerthedepositionofhis
fellowkingDemaratus,furtheraccusationsofbriberyfollowed.Cleomenesfledto
Arcadia,wherehestirreduptheinhabitantsagainstSparta.ThoughtheSpartans

chosetopardonandrecallhim,heapparentlylosthismind.IfHerodotussources
arecorrect,heperishedhorriblywhiledisplayingtheSpartansproverbialendurance
ofphysicalpain.Whenhecamehome,Herodotusmaintains,
hewasimmediatelyseizedbysomefrenzyofmadness(evenearlierhehadbeen
somewhatdisturbedinhismind).WhenhemetanyoftheSpartiates,hewould
strikeattheminthefacewithhisstick.Forsodoing,andbecauseofhisdistraction,
hisrelativesconfinedhiminapillory.Butbeingsoaprisoner.,assoonashesawhis
guardalonefromtherest,heaskedhimforaknife.Atfirsttheguardrefusedtogive
himone,butthekingkeptthreateninghimwithwhathewoulddotohim
afterwards,untiltheguard,whowasjustoneofthehelots,finallygavehimaknife.
Cleomenestooktheknifeandstartedmutilatinghimselffromthe
189
shinsup.Hecutthefleshlengthwiseandwentupfromshinstothighsandfromthe
thighstothehipandtheflanks,untilhegottothebelly.Andhemademincemeatof
thebellytooandsodied.
(TheHistory6.75;Grene1987)
TheexiledDemaratusfaredbetter.AssomeofhisconflictwithCleomeneshadbeen
overhissympathywiththeproPersianpartyatAegina,hefoundawarmwelcome
inPersia,servedasanadviserinthewarswithGreece,andwasrewardedforhis
serviceswiththegrantoffourcitiesinAsiaMinor.
AthensAfterMarathon
ThenatureofpoliticalleadershipinAthenschangedshortlyaftertheBattleof
Marathoninaveryspecificmanner.Eventssurroundingthecampaignhad
impressedontheAthenianstheimportanceofsoundmilitaryleadership.Shortly
afterwardtheysignaledthisawarenessbyachangeinthemethodofselecting
archons,whoasprimarilyjudicialofficialshadcometoseemlessimportantin
comparisonwiththestrategoi,whohadlifeanddeathmilitaryresponsibilities.In487
theybeganchoosingarchonsbylotfromalargepool(perhapsahundredmenin
total?)contributedbythevariousdemesthemethodalreadyusedforselecting
membersoftheCouncilofFiveHundred.Thisshiftensuredthatmenofambition
wouldstandnotforthearchonship,anonrenewableoffice,butforthestrategia
(generalship).Italsoservedgraduallytounderminethestatusofthevenerable
CounciloftheAreopagus.Becauseitwascomposedofformerarchons,astimewent
byitcamemoreandmoretobefilledbymenwhohadbeenchosenbylot.Itseems
likelythattheoriginatorofthismovewasthefeistyThemistocles.Notonlywas
Themistocleshostiletothearistocraticethosthatgrantedspecialpowerandprestige
totheAreopagites;asamanwhohadalreadyservedhisarchonshipandwaseligible

torepeatonlyhisgeneralship,hehadamoreimmediateinterestinenhancingthe
roleofthestrategoiatthearchonsexpense.Selectionbylotwasaprocedure
commonlyassociatedwithdemocracyinGreece.Itworkedtodiscouragethe
machinationsofspecialinterestgroupsandensurethatasignificantproportionof
themeneligibleforeachofficewouldparticipateinpolitics,anditseemedtooffer
thegodsaroleinchoosingofficials.TheAthenianswerenofools,however.They
subjectedallwouldbeofficeholderstoaninterrogationknownasdokimasia,andthey
declinedtoemploythelottoselectcommandersforthestatesarmedforces.Asa
consequence,thegeneralshipbecamethemostprestigiousofficeinthegovernment,
andthetenstrategoioutrankedallotherAtheniansinauthority.
Atthesametime,theAtheniansbegandeployinganunusualprocedurefor
preventinganyoneindividualfromtakingoverthestate,althoughtherapid
disappearanceofseveralofThemistoclesopponentsservesasareminderthatthe
190
methodwasnotfoolproof.Oneoftheinnovationssometimesattributedtothe
reformerCleistheneswasostracism,asystemwherebyeveryspringtheAthenians
hadtheoptionofvotingtosendoneoftheirfellowcitizensintoexilefortenyears.
Thepeculiarprocesstookitsnamefromthebrokenpiecesofpotteryknownas
ostrakaonwhichthevotersinscribedthenameofthemantheywantedtobanish.No
accusationwaslodged;noshameattachedtothedeparture;theexilescitizenrights
andmaterialpossessionswouldbewaitingforhimuponhisreturn.Buttheman
whowasidentifiedasdangerousbyreceivingthemostvoteswouldbecompelledto
withdrawfromAtticaforatenyearcoolingoffperiod.Inevitablyhistorianshave
wonderedwhy,ifthisprocedurewasreallydevelopedbyCleisthenes,thefirstman
tobeexiledinthisfashionaPeisistratidnamedHipparchuswasnotostracized
until487,fullytwentyyearsafterCleisthenesascendancy.Theanswermaylieinthe
minimumofsixthousandvotesthattheAtheniansdemandedbecast;perhapsthe
ostracismofHipparchuswasnotthefirstattemptedostracismbutjustthefirstonein
whichthequorumwasmet,thefirstthattook.Perhaps,however,ostracismwas
simplyinventedlater.Itisprobablynocoincidencethatthefirstmanknowntobe
ostracizedboresuchanunfortunatename;onecommonexplanationofostracism
wasthatitwasdesignedtowardofftyranny.Wheneverostracismwasfirstdevised,
itshouldperhapsbeseenasameansofreplacingtheexpulsionofwholefamily
groups,liketheAlcmaeonids,withthelesssweepingexileofafearedindividual.
Severalprominentmenwereostracizedinthe480sMegacles,leaderofthe
Alcmaeonids,in486;Xanthippus,thefatherofPericles,in484;andThemistocles
greatrivalAristides,in482.
WhatroleThemistoclesplayedinthefirstthreeostracismsisamatterofspeculation,
buthisconflictwithAristidesisindisputable,andtheostracismof482compelledthe

Athenianstochoosebetweentwodistinctpolicies.Civilwarmightbeavertedbythe
safetyvalveofostracism,butthedangerofanothercontestwithPersiaalsohadtobe
addressed.Dariusraisedtaxesinthesummerof486,thusarousingsuspicionthathe
wasgatheringresourcestofinanceanewinvasionofGreece.Hewouldprobably
havesomesupportinnorthernGreeceThessaly,forexampleandnodoubtinthe
southaswell.BythistimethePersianswerewell
Figure5.8.NumerousostrakahavebeendiscoveredintheAthenianagora.These
bearthenamesofArtistides,sonofLysimachus,andThemistocles,sonofNeocles.
191
awarehowdividedGreekcitieswereamongthemselvestheyknewoftherivalryof
ArgoswithSparta,AeginawithAthensandhowrackedbyinternalconflict.Inthe
event,Thessaly,Locris,andallofBoeotiaexceptPlataeaandThespiaewouldinfact
givetherequisiteearthandwatertothePersiansaftertheylearnedPersianforces
hadcrossedtheHellespont.Dariusprojecthadtobedelayed,however,becauseofa
rebellioninEgyptsparkedbytheincreaseintaxes.Inthefallof486BChefellilland
died.
TheInvasionofXerxesandtheBuildingofTriremesatAthens
Dariussonandsuccessor,Xerxes(Cyrusgrandsononhismothersside)wasatfirst
ambivalentaboutcarryingouttheinvasion,butby484BChehadmadehisdecision,
andtheGreekslearnedthatshipswerebeingbuiltinlargenumbersthroughoutthe
portsoftheextensivePersianempirefromEgypttotheBlackSea.Engineersand
laborersweredispatchedtotheHellespont,wheretheybridgedthecrossingwith
boats,andtonorthernGreecewheretheycutacanalacrossAthossothatthe
shipwreckMardoniushadsufferedin492couldbeavoided.
Fortuitously,atthisverytimetheAtheniansworkingthesilverminesofLauriumin
southeasternAtticafortheirmodestyieldhituponanextraordinarylodeofsilver
previouslyundiscovered.Thenewveinwassorichthatityieldedwellover2tons
thefirstyearalone.InAthens,votersweredividedaboutwhattodowithit.
Aristidesledthosewhowantedtopartitionitamongthecitizens,butThemistocles
advocatedbuildingships.Wellawarethatgloomyprognosticationsofwarwith
Persiawerelikelytomakehimunpopular,heremindedtheAtheniansoftheir
constantwarfarewiththeneighboringislandofAegina,whichhadjustinflicteda
serioussetbackonPiraeustradebyamajornavaldefeat.Theostracismof482
decidedtheissue;AristidesleftAthens,andthefleetthatwouldsaveGreecewas
built.Itisdifficulttoimaginehowhistorymighthaveturnedouthadthevoteinthat
ostracismbeendifferent.

TheshipstheAtheniansbuiltwiththeirwindfallfromLauriumweretriremes,light,
fast,maneuverablewarshipswiththreebanksofoars.Althoughthefirsttriremes
hadbeenbuilt,probablyinCorinth,asearlyastheseventhcentury,theywere
expensivevesselstoconstruct,andittooksometimeforthetriremetoreplaceolder,
lessefficientmodelsastheGreekwarshipparexcellence.Bythefifthcentury,
however,thetriremehadestablisheditselfasanindispensabletoolofwar.Along,
slendervessel,thetriremewasaboutninetimesaslongasitwaswide,about120feet
by15feet,andwaspoweredby170rowers.WhereasGreekoaredshipshad
originallybeendesignedsimplytotransportsoldierstothetheaterofwar,bythe
fifthcenturynavalwarfarehadevolvedtomakerammingtacticscrucialtosuccess,
andforthisthetriremewasideal.ItwastriremesthatwoulddefeatthePersians,and
thetriremeswouldcomefromAthens.AstheAtheniannavygrewinpowerand
192
Figure5.9.Photographofatriremeatsea.WorkinginEnglandandGreece,
twentiethcenturyscholarsandnavalarchitectsreconstructedtheAtheniantriremeof
theClassicalperiod.
prestige,thetriremecametobeidentifiedwithAthens;inAristophanesplayThe
Birds,anAtheniantraveler,askedforhispolisoforigin,replies,Wherethefine
triremescomefrom.
WhiletheAtheniansbusiedthemselvesconstructingwarships,Xerxesheralds
arrivedinGreeceseekingearthandwater,andmanystatescomplied.Thessaly,
Thebes,andSpartasinveterateenemyArgoscouldnotbecountedon.Athensand
thePeloponnesianLeaguewouldhavetotakethelead,andinconcerttheycalleda
congressofdelegatesatCorinthin481BCtoplanthedefenseofGreece.Therethe
thirtyonestatesthatweredeterminedtoresistthePersiansformedthemselvesintoa
leaguehistoriansgenerallycalltheHellenicLeague.InthecrisisAeginaandAthens
werereconciledandAristideswasrecalledalongwithotherAthenianexiles.The
highcommandonbothlandandseawasconferredonSparta.Troopswouldbesent
north,thoughnotsofarnorthastobeinterritoryboundtogoovertoPersia,butthe
Greeksprobablyplacedtheirgreatesthopeintheirfleet.Afteranabortiveexpedition
toThessaly,theyestablishedtheirground
193
forcesatthepassofThermopylaeontheMalianGulfwhilethefleetsettledinat
nearbyArtemisiumoffnorthernEuboea.AttheinstigationofThemistocles,the
AtheniansprobablyvotedtoevacuateAtticaandwaitoutthewarontheislandof
SalamisandinnearbyTroezeninthePeloponnesus.Athirdcenturycopyofthe

decreediscoveredonTroezenin1959isprobablyareasonablefacsimileofthe
originaltext:
TheGodsResolvedbytheCouncilandPeopleThemistocles,sonofNeocles,of
Phrearri,madethemotionToentrustthecitytoAthenatheMistressofAthensand
toalltheotherGodstoguardanddefendfromtheBarbarianforthesakeoftheland.
TheAtheniansthemselvesandtheforeignerswholiveinAthensaretosendtheir
childrenandwomentosafetyinTroezen,theirprotectorbeingPittheus,the
foundingherooftheland.Theyaretosendtheoldmenandtheirmoveable
possessionstosafetyonSalamis.Thetreasurersandpriestessesaretoremainonthe
Acropolisguardingthepropertyofthegods.
AlltheotherAtheniansandforeignersofmilitaryagearetoembarkonthe200ships
thatarereadyanddefendagainsttheBarbarianforthesakeoftheirownfreedom
andthatoftherestoftheGreeksalongwiththeLacedaemonians,theCorinthians,
theAeginetans,andallotherswhowishtosharethedanger.
(Jameson1970,p.98)
TheinformationcenteroftheGreekworld,theDelphicoracleknewenoughabout
Persianmighttodiscourageresistancethecombinedforcesoftherichking
containedmanythousandsofmen,perhapsasmanyasaquartermillionandboth
theSpartansandtheAthenianshadreceivedglumoracles.Themistoclesarguedthat
thewoodenwallthatDelphiconcededmightsaveAthenswasinfactthenavy;
Spartansweretoldthattheironlychancelayinthedeathofaking.Theoraclemayin
partexplainKingLeonidastenacityinholdingtheThermopylaepassagainstall
odds.Itisalsotrue,however,thathardcalculationcalledforalandoperation,
howeverunpromising,tobuytimeforGreecewhilethefleetoffArtemisiumcould
cripplethePersiannavy.Asluckwouldhaveit,astormdidmuchoftheGreeks
workforthem,andevenbeforetheindecisivefightingatArtemisiumthePersians
hadlostmanyships.
TheBattleofThermopylae
LeonidasmarchedintoThermopylaewithaboutseventhousandmen,afairlysmall
force;possiblytheSpartanswereambivalentabouttakingastandsofarnorth.But
fortheirdependenceontheAthenianfleet,someofthemmighthavebeencontentto
limittheirdefensetothePeloponnesus.ThePhociancontingent,whichwasmost
familiarwiththelocalterrain,waschargedwithdefendingthehiddenroadoverthe
mountainsagainstthechancethatXerxeswouldbeluckyenoughtofindit.Luckyhe
was:aGreektraitorrevealedtheexistenceoftheroad
194

Figure5.10.ThePersianWars.
andledXerxescommanderHydarnesupitwiththecracktroopsknownasthe
Immortals.ForsomereasonLeonidasdismissedthebulkofhisforces.Hemayhave
doubtedtheirloyalty,orperhapsheknewhispositionwashopelessandwishedto
saveasmanysoldiersashecouldforfuturebattleswhilestillinflictingdamageand
delayontheenemy.OnlytheThebans,Thespians,andthreehundredSpartans
remained.Leonidasandhismendefendedthepassheroicallyandfellfighting,
havingslainmanyImmortalsincludingtwobrothersofXerxes.OnXerxesorders
thebodyofLeonidaswasdecapitatedanddisplayedonacross.
TheholdingoperationatThermopylaenotonlyboughttimebutwentdownin
historyasanextraordinaryactofheroism.ThedefenseoftheAlamoin1846was
commemoratedasofferingamodernparallel;GermanrecruitsinWorldWarIIwere
encouragedtoemulateLeonidasSpartans;andintheseventiesthechal
195
lengesofthefutilewarinVietnamwerecapturedinthefilmGoTelltheSpartans,
whichtookitstitlefromtheepitaphcomposedfortheThermopylaedeadattributed
toSimonides:
GotelltheSpartans,strangerpassingby,
Thathere,obeyingtheircommands,welie.
TheBattleofSalamis
TheirvictoryatThermopylaeopenedcentralGreecetothePersians,whose
confidencewasboostedbytheknowledgethattheyhadkilledaSpartanking.
SwiftlytheymovedtheirlandforcesdownonAthens.FromSalamisjustoffthe
westerncoastofAttica,wheretheopposingfleetshadtakenuptheirposition,the
AthenianscouldseethesmokeoftheburningAcropolisalltooeasily,andthosewho
hadregardedthefortificationsonthehillasthesavingwoodenwalltoutedby
Delphiwereforcedtoadmittheirmistake.Dissentrackedthenavy.Someofthe
Peloponnesianswantedtocutbacktotheisthmus,whiletheAthenianswere
determinedtostaywheretheywereandfightinthenarrows.Xerxeswasapparently
trickedintotakingactionbyamessagefromThemistocles,whopurportedtobeon
hissideandurgedimmediateattackbeforethedemoralizedGreekscoulddisperseto
theirvarioushomes.Inreality,manyGreekswerethinkingofdoingjustthat,and
Xerxesdecisiontoattackwasafoolishone.Herodotus,whocamefrom
HalicarnassusinIonia,tookdelightintellinghowXerxesprudentadviserArtemisia,
queenofHalicarnassus,counseledhiminvainagainstengagingbattlewhenallthe
evidencesuggestedhecouldwinbydefault.Byarrangingforthecontesttobe

decidedinthenarrows,Themistoclesmaximizedthechancesthatthelighter,more
maneuverableGreekshipscouldworsttheheavierPersianvessels.Fromhishigh
perchontheshoreXerxeswatchedthecourseofthebattle,inwhichtheGreekshad
theadditionaladvantagethat,asnearlyallofthemhadgrownupnearwater,they
couldswim;manyofXerxessailorscouldnot.BysundownthePersianshadlosttwo
hundredshipsandthebattle.Ratherthanconfrontthefoolishnessofhisdecisionto
fight,XerxesreactedtothedefeatbyexecutinghisPhoeniciancaptainsforalleged
cowardiceinthebattle,thusdeprivinghimselfofPhoeniciannavalsupportforthe
future.
RetreatingwithhisnavytoPersiainordertosecuretheHellespont,Xerxesleft
MardoniusinGreece,whereinthespringof479hefacedthelargestGreekarmyever
tohavetakenthefield.ThebansupportbolsteredthePersiancause,butitwas
insufficienttoensurevictory.AtthetownofPlataeaneartheborderbetweenAttica
andBoeotia,MardoniusendedhislongyearsofservicetoPersia.LedbytheSpartan
Pausanias,nephewofLeonidasandregentforhisinfantson,theGreeksmanagedto
winthehardfoughtbattle,andinthefightingMardoniusfell.TheThebanleaders
whohadmedized,thatis,goneovertothePersians,weresubsequentlyexecuted
withouttrial.Aroundthesametimetraditionclaimed
196
thatitwastheverysamedayasthebattleatPlataeatheGreekfleetthathad
pursuedthePersianseastwarddefeatedtheirnavyattheBattleofMycaleoffthe
coastofAsiaMinor,inpartbecausetheIonianGreeksdesertedfromthePersianside.
TheWarThroughGreekEyes
Victorsusuallyrecordthehistoryoftheirtriumphs.Thevanquishedreducethesame
eventstotrivial,easilyforgottenincidents.UntiltheworkofIranologistsinthe
twentiethcenturyfollowingthedeciphermentofOldPersianinthenineteenthand
theexcavationofarchaeologicalsites,ourviewsofthePersianempirewereshaped
largelybyGreekhistoricalsourcesandbyscholarswhopreferredthewestern,
EuropeandemocratictraditiontowhattheysawasOrientaldespotism.Inother
words,thesourceshavebeenoverwhelminglyHellenocentric.Foremostamongthe
ancientliterarysourcesthatestablishedthisperspectivehasbeentheHistoriesof
Herodotus,whohighlightedtheunexpectednessoftheGreekvictoryagainstall
oddsandsearchedforthecausesinthefundamentalinstitutionsofGreekand
Persiansocietyandgovernment.AlthoughHerodotusportraystheearly
Achaemenidsasvirtuousandconstructive,hedepictsXerxesasanimpiousmadman
whowasresponsibleforinitiatingthedeclineofPersia.Xerxeschiefcharacterflaw,
inHerodotusview,washybris(arrogance).LikeCroesus,Xerxesimaginedhimself
onthesamelevelasthegods.HedaredtobridgetheformidableHellespont.Thus

thegodswerethoughttohaveaidedtheGreeksindefeatingXerxes,andhewas
thoughttohaveearnedhishumiliation.TheplaywrightAeschylus,whofoughtat
SalamisaswellasMarathon,alsoportraysXerxesasresponsibleforthedeathof
manynoblePersiansbecauseofhisfolly.In472BCheproducedatragedy,The
Persians,inwhichheremindedtheAtheniansoftheirroleindefeatingthePersians
andcelebratedthevaluesforwhichtheyhadfoughtlibertyasopposedtoslavery,
responsibledemocraticgovernmentasopposedtocapriciousautocracyand
monarchy.
Theplayalsocontainsavividdescriptionofthebattleitself.Inreconstructingthe
eventsofthePersianwars,PlutarchslivesofAristidesandThemistoclesarealsoof
somevalue,dependentastheywereonsourcesnowlosttous.Byfarthebulkofour
knowledge,however,comesfromHerodotussweepingHistories.Thefirst
continuousextantprosenarrativeintheGreeklanguage,Herodotuswork,richin
detailandresonantwithmanyimportantthemes,tracedtheconflictbetweenEast
andWesttobeforetheTrojanWar.Theauthorsresearchesextendedfarinbothtime
andspace,dealingindepthwiththeconsolidationofPersia,thegrowthofGreece,
andeventhecustomsofEgypt(whichmayoriginallyhavebeencontainedina
separatework).BornofthemarriageofIonianinquisitivenesswiththecreativityof
theAthenianenlightenment,HerodotusHistorieswasonlyonereflectionofthe
extraordinaryburstofenergythateruptedamongtheGreeksaftertheirsurprising
victoryoverthewealthyandpowerfulempirethathadsoughttobringthemintoits
orbit.
197
Document5.1ThechorusfromAeschylussPersians(472BC)
AeschylustooktheoccasionofhisdramaaboutSalamistostressthedifferences
betweeneasterndespotismandwhatheconceivedasGreekfreedom.Herethe
chorusofPersianelderslamentsPersiasdefeatbyGreece:
TheythroughouttheAsianland
NolongerPersianlawsobey,
Nolongerlordlytributeyield,
Exactedbynecessity;
Norsufferruleassuppliants,
Toearthobeisancenevermake:
Lostisthekinglypower.
Nay,nolongeristhetongue
Imprisonedkept,butloosearemen,
Whenloosetheyokeofpowersbound,
Tobawltheirliberty.
ButAjaxisle,spilledwithblood

Itsearth,andwashedroundbysea,
HoldstheremainsofPersia.
ThePersians584596;translatedbySethBenardete,inDavidGreneandRichmond
Lattimore,eds.,TheCompleteGreekTragedies,vol.1,Aeschylus.Chicago:University
ofChicagoPress,1959.
TheAthenianslatercelebratedtheirtriumphoverthePersiansinthereliefsculptures
oftheParthenon,thetemplebuilttohonortheirgoddessAthena.Thereliefsonthe
foursidesofthebuildingshowedbattles:thegodsagainstthegiants;theGreeks
againsttheAmazons;theLapiths(aGreekpeople)againstthehalfhuman,half
horsemalesknownasCentaurs;andtheGreeksagainsttheTrojans,areferenceto
thestruggleagainstthePersians,whoalsolivedintheeast.ThustheAthenians
elevatedtheirvictorytomythicalstatus,perhapsbecomingguiltyofhybris
themselves.
***
AlthoughGreekhistoricalsourcestendtodepictPersianhistoryasthegradual
degenerationofthemightyempireestablishedbyCyrustheGreat,asweshallsee,
thePersianswerenotdecisivelydefeatedbyEuropeanforcesuntiltheirconquestby
AlexandertheGreat(from334323BC).Theycontinuedtoplayaninfluentialrolein
Greekpolitics,bothincivicdisputesandinrivalriesbetweenGreekstates,favoring
nowoneside,nowanother,providingrefugeforexilesandsoldiersoffortune
includingtheAtheniansHippias,Themistocles,Alcibiades,andXenophonandthe
SpartansDemaratus,Pausanias,Lysander,andAgesilaus.
198
TheSpartanvictoryinthePeloponnesianWarofthelatefifthcenturywouldhave
beenimpossiblewithoutPersianbacking,andtherelationsofthepoleisduringthe
fourthcenturyareimpossibletounderstandwithoutawatchfuleyeonPersian
involvementinGreekaffairs.Persiaheldspecialattractionsfordisaffected,greedy,
orexiledSpartans,notonlybecauseitofferedaluxuriouswayoflife,butbecauseof
somesimilaritiesinsocialstructure.BothPersiaandSpartawerestable,hierarchical,
classsocietiesinwhichsocialmobilitywasvirtuallyimpossible.Bothsocieties
dependeduponeconomicexploitationofvastnumbersofpeoplebytherelatively
fewmembersoftheupperclass,who,inturn,wereforcedintoamilitaristicwayof
lifeinordertoperpetuatethesystem.Thiswayoflife,however,wasanathematothe
volatile,mercurialIonians.
Theunanticipatedsuccessofthelittlecitystatesoverthemonolithicempirehadlittle
impactinPersia,butinGreeceitwouldgivebirthtoacivilizationofextraordinary
brillianceandoriginality.TheunitythePersianempirehadsparked,however,would

proveshortlived,anditsfragilitywouldplacelimitsonhowlongthiscivilization
couldendure.
TRANSLATIONS
Blanco,Walter.1992.TheHistories,fromHerodotus:TheHistories,WalterBlancoand
JenniferRoberts,eds.NewYork:W.W.Norton.
Grene,David.1987.TheHistory:Herodotus.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.
JamesonM.,ADecreeofThemistoclesfromTroizen,Hesperia29(1960)200201,
modifiedbyP.Green.1970.XerxesatSalamis.NewYorkandLondon:Praeger.
ScottKilvert,Ian.1960.TheRiseandFallofAthens:NineGreekLivesbyPlutarch.
Harmondsworth,England:Penguin.
SUGGESTEDREADING
Bonner,R.J.andGertrudeSmith.1968.TheAdministrationofJusticefromHomerto
Aristotle.ReprintedNewYork:GreenwoodPress.Aclassicstudyofthelegalsystems
ofancientGreece.
Cook,J.M.ThePersianEmpire.1983.London:J.M.Dent.Ahistorythatprovidesvital
backgroundinunderstandingfifthcenturyPersia.
Fornara,Charles.1971.Herodotus:AnInterpretiveEssay.Oxford:Clarendon.A
thoughtfulstudyofthefirstsurvivinghistorianofGreece.
Forrest,W.G.1966.TheEmergenceofGreekDemocracy.NewYorkandToronto:
McGrawHill.AlivelyandreadableanalysisofthegovernmentsoftheGreekcity
states.
Green,Peter.1970.XerxesatSalamis.NewYorkandLondon:Praeger(alsoreleasedas
TheYearofSalamis).AdramaticaccountofXerxesinvasionbyaneminentscholar
whohasdonemuchtobringGreekhistoryaliveforthegeneralreadingpublic.
199
Hignett,Charles.1963.XerxesInvasionofGreece.Oxford:Clarendon.Ananalysisof
GreekandPersianstrategy.
Lenardon,Robert.1978.TheSagaofThemistocles.London:ThamesandHudson.The
lifeoftheinnovativeandirreverentpolitician.

Stanton,G.R.1990.AthenianPoliticsc.800500BC:ASourcebook.LondonandNew
York:Routledge.Averyusefulcollectionofsourcesthattracestheevolutionofthe
Athenianstate.
200
6
THERIVALRIESOFTHEGREEKCITYSTATESANDTHEGROWTHOF
ATHENIANDEMOCRACY
InthestruggletopreventaPersiantakeoverofGreece,apowerfulsenseofHellenic
identitywasforged.Eagertopreventathirdinvasion,anumberofGreekstates
enteredintoanalliance,theDelianLeague,ledbytheAthenians,whosenaval
strengthhadbeeninstrumentalinwinningthewar.BecausetheAthenians
controlledtheLeaguestreasury,theriseinAthensprestigeandselfassurance
occasionedbythewarwasnowcompoundedbyasharpincreaseinthecityswealth.
TributefromtheLeaguefacilitatedstatepayforpublicservicesuchasjuryduty,
thusexpandingthenumberofmenwhocouldaffordtoparticipateingovernment.
Thefactthatthelowerclasscitizenswhorowedthetriremeswerebecoming
increasinglypivotaltothecityswellbeingalsomadeitdifficultfortherichand
wellborntomaintaintheirtraditionalmonopolyonpoliticalpower.Democratic
reformsconsequentlyunderminedtheedgewealthyaristocratsenjoyedinpolitics,
thoughnothingwhateverwasdonetoremovethecivicdisabilitiesofwomenorto
abolishslavery.Indeed,Athensimperialventuresprobablyincreasedthenumberof
slavesinAttica,andthestatusofwomenseemstohavedeclinedwiththegrowthof
equalityamongcitizenmales.
DuringthedecadesthatfollowedXerxesdefeat,moreover,Athensbecameamajor
culturalcenter.TouristscamefromalloverGreecetoobservethetragedies
performedinhonorofthegodDionysus,andsomeofthemoneyAthensreceivedto
policetheseaswasdivertedtothecelebrationofreligiousfestivalsandtothe
erectionofmagnificentpublicbuildingssuchasthetempletoAthenacalledthe
Parthenon;fortheGreeksdeliverancefromPersianautocracythegodsreceived
amplethanks.ThetragediansAeschylus,Euripides,andSophocleswereallbornin
Athens,aswasthecomicdramatistAristophanes,thesculp
201
torPhidias,andthehistorianThucydides.ManyGreekthinkerslikethehistorian
HerodotusandthephilosopherAnaxagorascamefromelsewheretoenjoyand
enhancewhatAthenshadtooffer.
Althoughitexertedamagneticforceonmanyoftheartistsandintellectualsof
Greece,Athenswasfarfromtheonlysitethatcouldboastmajorattractions.At

Delphi,forexample,donorsgratefulfordeliverancefromPersiasetupsplendid
monumentsandcommissionedsuperbworksofart.Olympiaremainedavital
religiouscenteraswell;thegameswereextendedtofivedays,andafterits
completionin456participantscouldalsoworshipattheimposingtempleofZeus.
DemocraciessimilartothatevolvingatAthensdevelopedinanumberofplaces,
mostprominentlySyracuseinSicily,andthroughouttheGreekworldintellectuals
couldbefoundbringingnewideastobirth.WhileSocrateswasaskingquestions
aboutjusticeandthehumancommunityinthestreetsofAthens,ontheislandofCos
Hippocrateswasinvestigatingmedicineandthehumanbody.
SOURCESFORTHEDECADESAFTERTHEPERSIANWARS
WhileGreekcultureflourishedthroughouttheAegean,however,tensionsbetween
AthensandSpartamarredthescene.NoSpartanwritersoftheClassicalperiodhave
leftusrecordsoftheirviewoftheworldorevenofthehistoryandhabitsoftheir
country.ForfourthcenturySpartatheAthenianexpatriateXenophonprovides
considerableinformation,sincehisnaturalaffinitieswereinmanywaysSpartan
ratherthanAthenianandhelivedformanyyearsinthePeloponnesusafterbeing
exiledfromAthens.OfcoursesomeofwhathehadtosayaboutSpartansocietyis
applicabletothefifthcenturyaswell.Butintermsofforeignpolicyanddomestic
development,fifthcenturySpartaremainsanenigmawhosestorycanbe
reconstructedonlyinpart,usingsnatchesfromcontemporaryAthenianssuchas
ThucydidesorfrommuchlaterwriterslikePlutarch.EvenPlutarchwithhis
penchantforbiographydidnotwritethelivesoffifthcenturySpartans(withthe
exceptionofLysander,whospannedthefifthandfourthcenturies),andmuchof
whathehastosayaboutSpartaisembeddedinhislivesofAthenianstatesmen.
SourcesforAthensarefuller.Thoughthereisnodetailedhistoryofthedecadesthat
followedthedefeatofPersia,awealthofinscriptionssurvivethatilluminateboth
domesticandforeignpolicy,andthesectionsdealingwiththisperiodinthefirst
bookofThucydidesHistory,thoughsketchy,areenormouslyuseful.Herodotus
shedslightonthefirstmonthsaftertheendofthePersianinvasion.Some
informationcanalsobegleanedfromtheLibraryofHistorycomposedbyDiodorusof
Sicily,wholivedshortlybeforethebirthofChristandmadeuseofthefourth
centuryGreekhistorianEphorus,whoseworkisnowlost.Factspreservedinthe
workofEphorusandofotherlosthistorianswhowroteduringthe
202
fifthandfourthcenturiesandhadmarkedbiasessometimespopupinPlutarchs
livesofAthenianpoliticians.PlutarchwrotethelivesofThemistocles,Aristides,
Cimon,andPericles.

Literarysourcesfordaytodaylifeandpopularcultureduringthefifthcenturyare
meagerindeed.Muchofwhatweknowhasbeeninferredfromthecomediesof
Aristophanesandtheancientcommentariesonthembyeditorsknownasscholiasts.
Artandarchaeologyalsoofferinsightsintohowpeoplelivedandwhatthey
cherished;vasepainting,forexample,depictednotonlymythologicalepisodesbut
scenesfromdailylife.Theorganizationofpublicandprivatespacerevealsagreat
dealaboutcivicandfamilylife.Muchofwhatweknowofcustomsandnormsinthe
fifthcentury,however,hastobeextrapolatedfromtheratherricherevidenceforthe
fourth.Aboutthelivesofwomen,slaves,andpoorpeopleweknowmuchlessthan
wewouldlike.NoAthenianwoman,forexample,hasleftusawrittenrecordofher
thoughtsordoings.
THEAFTERMATHOFTHEPERSIANWARSANDTHEFOUNDATIONOFTHE
DELIANLEAGUE
WeknowfromHerodotusthataftertheirvictoryoverthePersiansatPlataeain479
BCtheGreekalliessetupamonumentatDelphimadeofthreeintertwinedbronze
serpents.CenturieslatertheRomanemperorConstantinemovedthisimportant
monumenttoConstantinople,whereitstillstandstodayprominentlydisplayedin
thecentralsquarecalledtheHippodromeinIstanbul.Onitscoilswereinscribedthe
nameofthethirtyoneGreekstatesthathadstoodfastagainstthePersians.The
GreeksagreedthatPlataeashouldhenceforthbeconsideredsacredland,dedicated
toZeustheLiberatoringratitudeforthevictoryoverPersia.
FirstamongthethirtyonestateslistedontheserpentcolumnwereSpartaand
Athens.TheroleoftheAtheniannavyinbeatingbackthePersianshadradically
alteredthebalanceofpowerinGreece,anditwasuncertainhowtheSpartanswould
accommodatethisshift.ThucydidesreportsthatwhentheAtheniansbeganto
rebuildthewallsthatthePersianshaddemolished,Spartasallies,madenervousby
thesizeoftheAtheniansnavyandbythedaringtheyhadshownduringthewar,
pressuredtheSpartanstosendanembassytoAthenstodissuadetheAtheniansfrom
fortifyingtheircity.Puttingforwardthebizarreargumentthatawalledcitycouldbe
usedasabasebythePersiansshouldtheyreturn,theSpartansarguedthatnocity
outsidethePeloponnesusshouldhavewalls,andindeedinvitedtheAtheniansto
jointheminrazingthewallsofanynonPeloponnesiancityinordertoprotect
GreecemoreeffectivelyagainstPersia.Notsurprisingly,theAtheniansfoundthis
lineofreasoningunpersuasive,andworkonthewallscontinued,withThemistocles
reportedlydeceivingthequerulousSpartanswithfalsedenialsuntilthefortifications
werefirmlyinplace.
203
TheContinuingPersianThreat:ConflictsoverGreekLeadership

AsiftheAthenianswerenotenjoyingasufficientriseinprestigeaftertheroletheir
navyhadplayedinrepellingthePersianinvasion,developmentsintheHellespont
sooncatapultedthemtostillgreaterheights.DespitethepreponderanceofAthenian
ships,bycustomaSpartanstillcommandedthefleetoftheHellenicLeague.While
theLeaguesfleetwasatByzantiumin478seekingtoconsolidateGreekpowerinthe
east,theGreeksunderhiscommandbegantocomplainbitterlyaboutPausanias,
regentforLeonidasunderagesonPleistarchus.Heconductedhimself,theyalleged,
likeaneasternpotentate,dressinglikeaPersianandfortifyinghispositionwitha
bodyguardofMedesandEgyptians.Hewasalsoaccusedofexchangingtreacherous
letterswithKingXerxes.(Thucydidesactuallyquotesthesupposedtext,butitis
difficulttoseehowtheletterswouldhavebeenavailabletohimoranyotherGreek.)
Pausaniasmayhavebeenguiltyoftreasonorhemaynot;whatiscertainisthathis
lackoftactalienatedtheGreeksservingunderhim,particularlytheIonians,whohad
onlyrecentlybeenfreedfromthePersiankingandwereespeciallysensitivetothe
trappingsofdespotism.HavingappealedtoAthenstotakeovertheleadershipofthe
fleet,theGreekswereunmovedbythearrivalofDorcis,whomtheSpartanshad
optimisticallysentouttoreplacethedisgracedPausanias.Inthiswaytheleadership
ofthefleetpassedintowillingAthenianhandsadevelopmentmanypeopleinthe
alliedstateswouldcometoregret.
InevitablytheSpartansweredividedaboutthisturnofevents.Tosomenodoubtthe
containmentofPersiawithoutundueSpartanexertionwasanappealingprospect.
ThroughoutClassicalhistory,theunderlyingthreatofahelotrebellioninhibited
Spartanambitionsintheeast.Others,however,werestungbytheblowtoSpartan
prestigeandfoundtheAtheniansgrowingpowerominousandunsettling.
InAthens,ontheotherhand,therewaslittlecauseforambivalence.Becausea
shortageoffertilelandmadetheAthenianeconomydependentongrainfrom
Ukraine,safeguardingtheHellespontandthenorthernAegeanfromPersiawasof
supremeimportance.Inaddition,theAtheniansenjoyedapowerfulsentimental
attachmenttotheircousinstheIonianGreeks,andabandoningthemtoPersianrule
wouldbothfeelbadandlookbad.Athens,moreover,hadseenitsterritoryravaged
bythePersians,anexperienceSpartahadbeenspared.Forallthesereasonsthe
Atheniansconsidereditintheirinteresttoassumeleadershipofthenavalforces.
TheDelianLeague
Analliancewasconsequentlyformedwhich,thoughithadnonameatthetime,later
cametobecalledtheDelianLeaguebecauseitstreasurywasoriginallylocatedon
theislandofDelosintheAegean.In477representativesfromAthensanddozensof
otherstatesmetatDelosandtookoathsbindingthemselvesinto
204

anorganizationdesignedtofightthePersians.Thealliedstatesenteredintoatreaty
withAthens,whichagreedinexchangeforannualcontributionsinshipsormoneyto
leadtheleagueinmilitaryoperationsagainstPersiawhilesimultaneouslyrespecting
theinternalautonomyofeachpolisinthealliance.Policywastobeestablishedbya
leagueassembly(inwhicheachstatehadonevoteregardlessofitssize).Itwouldbe
executed,however,byanAthenianhighcommandthatwouldalsocontrolthe
treasury.Thusfromthebeginning,powerintheleaguewasconcentratedin
Athenianhands.ThesmallsizeofGreekstatesisreflectedinthenumberofpoleis
whoenrolledintheallianceprobablyabout150.Numerousstatesalsodeclinedto
join,particularlythosewhosefearoftheAtheniansoutweighedanyapprehension
aboutPersia,andthosethatdecidedtorelyfortheirsecurityontheirmembershipin
thePeloponnesianLeague.AswascustomaryinGreekalliances,allstatessworeto
havethesamefriendsandenemies.Theassociation,moreover,wasconceivedas
permanent.WhereasthegoalsofthePeloponnesianLeaguehadneverbeendefined,
thoseoftheDelianLeaguewerefairlyclearcontainmentofPersia,thegatheringof
bootyascompensationfordamagesdonetoGreeceduringthewar,andsimple
revenge.
InviewofthepersonalityproblemsthathadbroughtdownPausanias(andwithhim
Spartannavalleadership),itwasparticularlyfortunatefortheAtheniansthatthey
hadattheirdisposalamanasfamousforhisprobityandaffabilityasAristides.It
washewhowaschargedwithassessingeachstatesappropriatecontributiontothe
leaguetreasury.SomeofthelargerstatessuchasLesbos,Samos,Chios,Naxos,and
Thasoschosetomaketheircontributionsinships;mostpreferredtopaycashdirectly
tothetempleofApolloatDelos.Astimepassed,someofthebiggerpoleisconverted
tocashpayments,andperiodicallythetributeassessmentwasrevised.Fundswere
inthecareoftenAthenianmagistratesknownashellnotamiai(treasurersofthe
Greeks).Althoughrecordsofthetributepaidintheleaguesfirstyearsarelacking,it
ispossibletotrackthehistoryofpaymentsbeginningin454throughthe
compendiumthatsurvivestodaycalledtheAthenianTributeLists,actuallylistsofthe
onesixtiethofeachcontributionthatwasdedicatedtothegoddessAthena;these
figuresmultipliedby60givethesizeofeachstatescontributioninagivenyear.
FromDelianLeaguetoAthenianEmpire
ThoughitwasThemistoclesfarseeingnavalpolicythatprovidedthebaseonwhich
theDelianLeaguewasbuilt,itsheroeswerehisrivals,thereveredAristidesand
MiltiadesamiablesonCimon,whoprovedhimselfanestimablegeneral.Forovera
quartercenturyuntilCimonsdeathin450theLeaguefoughtagainstPersiaand,
underCimonsleadership,expelledthePersiansfromEuropeandmadeitimpossible
forthemtoestablishnavalbasesinIonia.In476CimonsetoutwiththeLeagues
navyforthenortheast.HisaimsweretoexpelthePersiansfromallThrace,banish
troublesomepiratesfromtheislandofScyros,andcleartheroutetotheHellespont

ofanyobstacles.ThefortressofEionontheStrymonRiverwastakenwithlittle
difficulty.TheAtheniansthenmovedagainst
205
Figure6.1.TheAthenianempireatitsheight.
Scyros,arockyislandeastofEuboeainhabitedbypirates.Enslavingthepiratesand
theirfamilies,theyestablishedontheislandthekindofcolonythatwasknownasa
cleruchy.UnlikemostGreekcolonies,whichwerefullyautonomousand
independentofthemothercity,cleruchieswereineffectpartofAthenianterritory,
foralltheirinhabitants(calledcleruchs)retainedtheirAtheniancitizenship.
GenerallychosenbythegovernmentfromamongpoorAthenians,eachcleruchwas
grantedaparcelofland(aklros,hencethewordcleruch)adequatetomaintainhim
inSolonsthirdclass,thatofthezeugitai,andhencequalifyhimforserviceasa
hopliteinfantryman.Cleruchiesfilledadoublefunction:theyprovidedanoutletfor
thedisaffectedandpotentiallydangerouspoor,andtheyoperatedasgarrisonsinthe
empiretodiscouragerebellionfromAthens.
WhileinScyrosCimonalsoorganizedasearchforthebonesofKingTheseus,who
accordingtoGreektraditionhaddiedthere,fortheDelphicoraclehadcom
206
Figure6.2.SectionofAthenianTributeListinscriptionshowingpaymentsfor
433432BC.ThecitizensofMykonos,Andros,Siphnos,Syros,Styra,Eretria,
Grynches,andRheneiaarelistedhere.
mandedthattheAtheniansretrievetheseremainsandhonorthemassacredrelics.
Histriumphantannouncementthathehadindeedmanagedtofindthekings
remainswonhimenormouspopularityinAthens.Plutarchtellsthetaleinhislifeof
Theseus:
[Cimon]caughtsightofaneagle,ataplacewhichhadtheappearanceofamound,
peckingatthegroundwithitsbeakandtearingitupwithitstalons,andbysome
divineinspirationheconcludedthattheyshoulddigatthisplace.Theretheyfounda
coffinofamanofgiganticsizeand,lyingbesideit,abronzespearandasword.
WhenCimonbroughttheserelicshomeonboardhistrireme,theAthenianswere
overjoyedandwelcomedthemwithmagnificentprocessionsandsacrifices,as
thoughtheherohimselfwerereturningtohiscity.
(Theseus36;ScottKilvert1960)

Theseusbecametheobjectofathrivingherocult,andfromthenonCimonmadea
pointofboastingofhisconnectiontohimwheneverpossible.
ShortlyafterwardtheAtheniansandtheiralliessailedagainstCarystusin
southwesternEuboea,compellingthecitytojointheDelianLeague.Sometimelater
whentheislandofNaxosdecidedtoleavetheLeague,theAtheniansforcibly
preventeditswithdrawal.DefeatedbythesuperiorforcesoftheLeague,theNaxians
sawtheirwallsdismantledandtheirfleetconfiscated.Henceforththeirtributewould
bepaidinmoney,notships.Thesetwodevelopmentshighlighttheproblematic
natureoftheDelianLeague.Astrongcasecouldbemadeandwasmadethatsince
allGreekstatesbenefitedfromtheexistenceoftheLeague,allshouldpaytributeand
supportitsfleet.Againstthisargument,however,resentfulpoleisadducedtheir
righttomaketheirowndeterminationsabouttheextentofthePersianperil.
207
BecausetheLeaguesexistencewasjustifiedonlybytheneedforcontinued
protectionofGreecefromthePersians,moreover,aproblemwouldbecreatedforthe
AtheniansifCimonandhisnavydidtoogoodajobofsquelchinganydesignsPersia
mighthaveonGreece,fordramaticsuccessinthisendeavorwouldeliminatethe
needforanexpensiveantiPersianalliance.SuspicionsthatthecostlyLeaguemight
haveoutliveditsusefulnessmountedwhenaround467thePersianforceswerebadly
beatenbythoseofCimonatthemouthoftheEurymedonRiverinsouthernAsia
Minor.AfterdestroyingthetwohundredPhoenicianshipsfightingonthePersian
side,CimonsmenlandedanddefeatedthePersianarmy;theythencapturedeighty
shipsthatwerecomingfromCyprusasreinforcements.Cimonwasnowtheheroof
thehour,andhissupportersinAthenswerequicktoidentifyhisexploitsatthe
BattleoftheEurymedonasyetanotherchapterintheconflictbetweenEastandWest
thathadbegunwiththeTrojanWaranothercontestthathadculminatedinaGreek
victoryinAsia.
GreekLeadersinTroubleAgain:ThemistoclesandPausanias
ThoughhisstunningvictoryattheEurymedondidmuchforCimonspopularityin
Athens,italsoencourageddefectionsfromtheLeague.Cimonssuccessprobably
playedaroleintherevoltin465oftheimportantislandofThasos,locatedjustoff
Thrace,buteconomicconsiderationsalsocontributedtotensionsbetweenthe
ThasiansandtheAthenians,forbothhopedtocontroltheminesofThrace.After
forcingtheThracianChersoneseintotheLeague,Cimonhadattemptedtofounda
colonyontheStrymonataplaceknownasEnneaHodoi(TheNineWays),an
importantlinkontheroutetotheminesonMountPangaeusandindeedtothe
Bosporusitself.TheThracians,however,setuponthecolonistsandkilledthem.The
subsequentrevoltofThasoswasquelledonlyafterasiegeoftwoyears.Whenthe

ThasiansfinallysurrenderedtoCimon,theywerecompelledtoyieldtheminesand
theirships,payingtributehenceforthincashcashthatcouldnotberaisedfromthe
mines,whichwerenowbackinAthenianhands.AthenianactivitiesinThasosalso
gaverisetoaninterestingpoliticaltrialinAthens.Despitehisreputationfor
incorruptibility,Cimonwasimpeachedbyhisenemiesonthegroundsthatbribes
fromKingAlexanderofMacedonwereresponsibleforhisdecisionnottousehis
baseinthenorthtoinvadeMacedonia.Cimonwasapparentlyacquitted,butoneof
thepublicprosecutorschosentoarguethecaseagainstthepopularadmiralwas
Pericles,ayoungmanwhowouldbecomethemostdistinguishedstatesmanof
ClassicalAthens.
TheAtheniansrefusaltopermitstatestoremainalooffromtheLeague,combined
withthegradualconversionoftributepaymentsfromshipstomoney,sentan
increasinglyclearmessagethatAthensruledtheseaandwasconvertingthenaval
allianceintoanempire.AlthoughAthenianleadersseemtohavebeenlargelyofone
mindaboutthemeritsofnavalimperialism,however,theyweredividedabout
AthensproperrelationshiptoSparta.Theseconflicts,moreover,
208
weretiedtodisagreementsaboutthefurtherdemocratizationofAthenianpolitical
life.AlthoughsourcesforAthenianpoliticsduringthesedecadesaresparse,some
underlyingfaultlinesarediscernible:Themistoclesencouragedcompetitionwith
Spartaandthedevelopmentofdemocracy,wheresCimonfavoredSpartaand
opposedanyfurtherdemocratization.
SpartahadhelpedIsagorasinhisbattlewithCleisthenesfortheprivilegeof
redefiningtheAthenianbodypolitic,plottingtodisbandtheboul(theCouncilof
FiveHundred)andentrustthegovernmenttoanoligarchyofthreehundred.But
SpartahadalsodrivenoutthePeisistratids,andmanyAtheniansviewedSpartaas
theirnaturalallySparta,whosekingLeonidasandhissteadfastmenatarmshad
boughttimeforAtticaatThermopylae,layingdowntheirlivessothatGreecemight
remainfree.Inbothfactandmemory,theunionofAthensandSpartahadplayedan
importantpartinthedefeatofPersia(thoughnaturallythingslookeddifferentto
Themistocles,whosechiefinvolvementinthewarwasatSalamis,fromwhichthe
Peloponnesianshadsoughttoflee,abandoningAtticatoitsfate).Theforcesin
AthensfavoringwarmrelationswithSpartaandopposingtheincreasingly
democratictrendinthegovernmentwerestrong.SowasThemistoclespersonality:
hissharptongueandquicknesstoclaimcreditforhisachievementsplayedintothe
handsofhisenemies,anditseemsthathewasostracizedaround471BC.Probably
heusedhisenforcedabsencefromAthenstofomentdiscontentandperhapssome
democratizationinthePeloponnesus,hopingtounderminethepositionofSparta.In
the460stheSpartansandAtheniansunitedagainsthim:theSpartansprovided

evidencethatpurportedtoshowthatheandPausaniaswereengagedintreasonable
correspondencewiththePersianking.InalllikelihoodPausaniaswasguiltyand
Themistoclesinnocent,butwhentheAtheniansrecalledhimfromArgostostand
trialandhefoundnoplaceinGreecethatwouldharborhim,Themistoclesfledto
XerxessuccessorArtaxerxes.HediedinPersiaabouttenyearslater,substantially
outlivingPausanias,whowaswalledupbyhisenragedcountrymeninashrinein
whichhehadtakenrefuge,anddiedofstarvation.
Document6.1ThucydidesrecountsthestoryofPausaniasdeathinhishistoryofthe
PeloponnesianWar.Theephors,hewrites,intendedtoarrestPausaniasinthecity:
ThestorycontinuesthatasPausaniaswasabouttobearrestedonthestreethesaw
theexpressiononthefaceofoneoftheephorscomingtowardhimandknewwhy
theywerecoming,whileanother,sympathetic,ephorgaveitawaywithaslightnod.
HethenescapedtosafetybyrunningtotheTempleoftheGoddessoftheBrass
House,thegroundsofwhichwerenearby.Toavoidexposuretotheweather,he
wentintoasmallbuildingwhichformedapartofthetempleandstayedthere.The
ephorsweretoolateto
209
catchhimjustthen,buttheyafterwardtoretheroofoffthebuildingand,making
surethathewasinside,theyremovedthedoors,walledhimin,encircledtheplace
andproceededtostarvehimtodeath.Whentheyfoundoutthathewasabouttodie
inthatroom,theystartedtoleadhimoutofthetemplewhiletherewasstillsome
breathinhim.Assoonashewasout,hedied.
ThePeloponnesianWar1.134;translatedbyWalterBlanco,inWalterBlancoand
JenniferRoberts,eds.,Thucydides:ThePeloponnesianWar.NewYork:
W.W.Norton,1998.
FurtherConflictsatAthens:TheFallofCimonandtheReformsofEphialtes
HavingridthemselvesofakeenandcolorfulpoliticianinThemistocles,the
AthenianswereleftwiththegenialandgentlemanlyCimon.Themistoclesand
Cimonwereoppositesineveryway.TheconventionalCimonnamedhisson
LacedaemoniuswhileThemistoclescasthiseyesfartherwestwardandnamedhis
daughtersSybarisandItalia.SlowwhereThemistocleshadbeenquick,and
courteouswhereThemistocleshadbeeninsolent,Cimonwasnointellectual,buthe
hadaflairforgeneralship.Becauseofhismilitaryreputation,hecontinuedto
commandagooddealofrespectintheAthenianassemblyevenafterthe
developmentofacalculatinganddeterminedcoalitionledbyEphialtes,whose
purposewastobreakwithSpartaandfurtherthegrowthofdemocracy.

ForsomeyearsEphialtesandhisassociateshadbeenmakingattacksonindividual
membersofthevenerableandaristocraticCounciloftheAreopagus;Cimonstrial
needstobeplacedinthiscontext.In462,notlongafterCimonsreturnfromThasos
andimpeachmentbyPericles,matterscametoahead.Twoyearsearlier,whenan
earthquakeinSpartakilledthousandsofpeopleanddestroyedmosthouses,the
helotshadseizedthemomentandrevolted.Unabletodislodgetherebelsfromtheir
strongholdonMountIthome,theSpartansappealedforaidtothecitieswithwhich
theywerestilltechnicallyalliedbythetermsoftheHellenicLeagueformedin481
forthedefenseofGreeceduringthePersianwars.TheAthenianslookedlike
promisingassociates,fortheywerereputedtobebetterthanmostatsiegewarfare,
thoughstandardsofexcellenceinthisbranchoftacticswerelowinClassicalGreece,
wheresiegesweregenerallyprolongedandtedious.
SpartasrequesttouchedoffavigorousdebateintheAthenianassembly.Cimon,it
seems,defendedthetimehonoredalliancebetweenAthensandSparta,imploring
theAtheniansnottoallowGreecetogolame,ortheirowncitybedeprivedofits
yokefellow,whileEphialtesexhortedhisfellowcitizenstolet
210
Spartaspridebetrampledunderfoot(PlutarchCimon16.8;ScottKilvert1960).
Cimoncarriedtheday,andhemarchedofftoSpartabackedbyfourthousand
hoplites.ButsomethingaboutthewaytheAtheniansoldiersconductedthemselves
inSpartasparkedpanicintheconservativeandfundamentallyxenophobicpeople
theyhadcometohelp.Aloneamongtheallies,theAtheniansweresenthome.Their
abruptdismissalimperiledwhatharmonyhadbeenachievedamongtheGreek
states.AthensnowmadeanalliancewithSpartasenemyArgos;Cimon,moreover,
wasostracizedforhismiscalculation,leavinganopenhighwayforEphialtesandhis
associates.IftheSpartanswerealarmedbytheAtheniansinnovativeandforward
lookingwaysofconstruingtheworld,theydidabadjobofsquelchingthese.The
endofCimonsascendancymarkedthebeginninginAthensoffullblown
democracy,takingdemocracyintheGreeksenseofdiffusingpoliticalpower
throughoutthemalecitizenbody,withnovotesforwomen,nocitizenshipfor
immigrants,andslavesinabundance.Ironically,moreover,thenavalascendancy
thatCimonhaddonesomuchtodevelopplayedalargeroleinfosteringthe
democraticreformsheopposed.Cimonseemstohavesupportedamoderatehoplite
democracy,thatis,governmentbythosewhocouldaffordtoprovidetheirown
weaponsandarmor.Thesuccessofhisnavaloperations,however,underlinedthe
increasingimportancetothestateofthemenwhorowedthetriremes(some
moderatelypoor,someindigent),adevelopmentthatservedtounderminetheold
fashionedsystemofpowerfollowingpropertyandcontributedtoitsreplacementby
amorebroadlybasedformofgovernment.

EphialteswasabletoseizeonthediscreditingofCimonspoliciesbypassingsome
significantdemocraticreforms.Thoughthedetailsremainobscure,weknowina
generalsensethathesubstantiallydiminishedthepowerandprestigeoftheancient
CounciloftheAreopagus.TimehadalreadydonesomeofEphialtesworkforhim:
sincetheAreopagusconsistedofexarchons,ithadbeengrowinglessandless
aristocraticwitheachyearthathadpassedsince486whentheAthenianshadbegun
selectingarchonsbylot.Itsmembers,however,heldpowerforlife,andthenewer,
poorerAreopagitesmaywellhavebeencooptedintothevaluesystemoftheir
aristocraticelders.AttheinstigationofEphialtes,theassemblypassedmeasures
constrictingthejurisdictionofthisbody,transferringmanyofitsfunctionstothe
boul,theekklsia,andthebodyofprospectivejurorsknownasthehliaia.Ephialtes
wascareful,however,toshowrespectforitsvenerablehistoryandlongtraditionsby
leavingitwithjurisdictionoverhomicideandsomereligiousmatters.
Shortlyafterthesereformswereenacted,menwhopresumablydislikedtheturnthe
governmentwastakingarrangedforEphialtesassassination.WithEphialtesdeath,
hisassociatePericlesseemstohaveassumedleadershipofthelooselyorganized
politicalgrouptowhichwegivethesomewhatmisleadingtermparty.Withthe
exceptionoftwoyears,PericlesremainedtheleadingpoliticianinAthensfrom
roughly461tohisdeathin429,beingelectedrepeatedlyasoneofthetenstrategoi.
211
THEFIRST(UNDECLARED)PELOPONNESIANWAR(460445BC)
PericlestooktheleadinshapingAthenianpolicythroughoutthedecadeduring
whichAthenschosetowagewarwithboththePersianempireandthe
PeloponnesianLeague.HostilitieswithPersiasurvivedCimonsostracism,while
tensionswithSpartaanditsalliesescalated.Theperiodfrom460to445BCis
sometimesknownastheFirstPeloponnesianWar,anundeclaredwarbetweenthe
AthenianandSpartanleaguesthatreallyconsistedofaseriesofbattlesoften
punctuatedbyconsiderableintervalsofpeace.(ThefamousPeloponnesianWar,
whichwasfoughtfairlysteadilyfortwentysevenyearsfrom431to404,wasreally
theSecondPeloponnesianWar.)Thefactthathistorianshavelabeledthewaras
PeloponnesianreflectsthefactthattheprincipalsourcesareAthenian;justaswe
knowtheTrojanWarandthePersianwarsfromtheGreekstandpointanddonot
normallycallthemtheGrecoTrojanorGrecoPersianWars,theAthenoSpartanWar
hascometobeknownasthePeloponnesianWar,thoughThucydideshimselfcalled
itthewaroftheAtheniansandthePeloponnesians.
AthensConflictswithItsNeighbors
AthensneighborMegaraplayedanimportantroleinbothPeloponnesianwars
Atticashareditswesternborderwiththissmallbutpivotalpolisthatseparatedit

fromCorinth.Acommercialstatepoorinagriculturalresources,Megarawasatrade
rivalofAthens.Megaraspositionmadeitvulnerable,butitalsogaveitpower.
AthensandCorinthdidnotalwaysgetalong,andCorinthwithitssubstantialnavy
wasanindispensableallyoflandlockedSparta.ThevacillationsofMegarawould
haveseriousrepercussionsforallGreeksthroughoutthefifthcentury.Controlledby
aprodemocraticfaction,aroundthetimeofEphialtesdeathMegaradecidedtoally
itselfwithAthenstoobtainprotectionfromthedesignsofCorinth.Alarmedbythe
AthenianspossessionoftheMegarianportofPegaeontheCorinthianGulf,from
whichitwaseasytosailtothewest,theCorinthiansbecamestillmoreagitatedatthe
upshotofthehelotrebellionthathadfollowedtheearthquakeinthePeloponnesus.
ForwhenthehelotsonMountIthomefinallysurrenderedonconditionthattheybe
permittedtoleavethePeloponnesus,theAthenianssettledthematNaupactusnear
themouthoftheGulf,onthenorthernshore.ThisboldactiongavetheAtheniansyet
anotherfootholdforwestwardpenetrationanddroveanadditionalwedgeintothe
Corinthianssphereofinfluence.Withthetwostateslockedincommercialrivalry,
movesthatpromisedtoexpandtheterritoryeasilyaccessibletoAthenianshipping
wereboundtosparkhostilityinCorinth,anditwaspredictablethatCorinthwould
seekthehelpofitspowerfulallySpartainconflictswithAthens.Thetension
betweenAthensandCorinthwasboundtoplayalargeroleindeterminingthe
diplomaticrelationsoftheGreekstates,anditoftenledtooutrightwar.
212
In459CorinthandAeginacombinedagainstAthens.TheAtheniansnotonly
repelledaCorinthianinvasionofMegarabutalsobuiltformidablewalls,thesocalled
LongWalls,linkingAthenstotheportofPiraeus.Thisprudentstrategyhadthe
effectofmakingthewholetowncompleximpossibletobesiegebyland,since
suppliescouldalwaysbebroughtinbyboat.Aroundthesametimetheyengaged
Hippodamus,anativeofMiletoswhoapparentlywroteatreatiseontownplanning,
todesigntheportarea,whichhelaidoutonagridpatternsimilartothatofhishome
stateinIonia.
TheSpartansdecisiontoenterthewaragainstAthensin457didmoreharmtothem
thantotheirdesignatedenemy.FightingtheAtheniansinBoeotia,whattheSpartans
chieflyaccomplishedwastodrawAthensintoBoeotianaffairs.By456theAthenians
hadcometocontrolthewholeregionwiththeexceptionofThebes,andAthenian
influence(orpressure)hadmadedemocraticgovernmentsthenormintheBoeotian
poleis.WestofBoeotia,PhocisandLocrisjoinedtheDelianLeague,asdidthe
vanquishedislandofAegina,andAthensalsogainedtwostatesonthePeloponnesus
itself,TroezenontheeastcoastandAchaeaontheCorinthianGulf.
Figure6.3.AerialviewofPiraeus.

213
AthenianInvolvementinEgyptandtheTransferoftheLeagueTreasurytoAthens
Athenslandempirenowstoodatitsmaximumextent.Determinedtocontinue
operationsagainstPersia,PericlespersuadedtheAthenianstosendshipsbothto
Cyprus,wheretheyhopedtoinflictdamageonthePhoenicianfleet,andtoEgypt,
whichhadrebelledfromKingArtaxerxes.TheEgyptiancampaigndraggedonfor
years,endinginawretcheddebaclein453whenArtaxerxesgeneralMegabazus
pennedintheAtheniansontheislandofProsopitisandbesiegedthemforeighteen
months.UltimatelyMegabazusdrainedthechannelsaroundtheisland,leavingthe
shipshighanddry,andmarchedacrossonfoottocapturetheAtheniansailors.
ThucydidesreportsthatnearlyalltheAthenianswerekilled.Inaddition,arelief
forceoffiftyshipsthatarrivedignorantofthedisasterwasattackedbythePersian
infantryandthePhoenicianfleet,andonlyasmallnumberoftheseshipsescaped.
AlthoughthesizeoftheoriginalforceisuncertainThucydidessaystwohundred
ships,thePersianhistorianCtesiasonlyfortystillthelossinmoralewasenormous,
surpassedonlybythelossinlife.
In454,meanwhile,theAthenianstransferredthetreasuryoftheDelianLeaguefrom
theislandofDelos,vulnerabletopiratesandPersiansalike,toAthensitself.Though
theirostensiblepurposewassecurity,Deloswasprobablynomoreendangeredthan
ithadbeenpreviously,andtheAtheniansdecisiontomovethetreasurywas
primarilyapowerplaydesignedtodemonstratetheirsupremacy.Historians
thereforehavetaken454asaconvenientdatetostopreferringtotheDelianLeague
andbeginspeakingoftheAthenianempire,thoughinrealityofcoursethe
transformationhadbeengoingonforsometime.
ABriefHiatus:AthensatPeacewithPersiaandSparta
Returningfromhistenyearsexilein451,Cimonseemstohavecometoan
understandingwithhisrivalPericles;hewouldresumehiseffortstomakewaron
PersiaandpeacewithSpartabutwouldnotinterferewithanydomesticpolicies
Periclesmightwishtoimplement.In451Cimonnegotiatedatruceoffiveyears
betweenAthensandSpartaandabandonedAthensalliancewithArgos.Argosin
turnsignedathirtyyeartreatywithSparta;theexpirationofthistreatyin420,eleven
yearsafterthebeginningofthe(Second)PeloponnesianWar,wouldcreateavolatile
situationinmainlandGreece.WhenCimondiedcampaigninginCyprusin450,the
AtheniansseemtohavemadepeacewithPersia.Wedonot,however,havethetext
ofthisagreement,thesocalledPeaceofCallias,namedafterCimonsformerbrother
inlaw,whowaslatersaidtohavenegotiatedit.Becausetheonlysourcesforthe
treatydatetothefourthcentury,somescholarshavedoubteditsreality,whileothers

placeitconsiderablyearlierorsubstantiallylater.WhatiscertainisthatAthensand
Persiaceasedfightingatthistime,treatyornotreaty.
214
PeacewithSpartafollowedin445whentheAthenianlandempirecollapsedvirtually
overnight.AftersixteenyearsofimperialismwithinmainlandGreece,theAthenians
hadlosthundredsoflivesandhadnomoreterritorythantheyhadpossessedin461
whenfightinghadbegun.JustasthefiveyeartrucebetweenAthensandSparta
expiredin446,Euboearevolted,probablybecauseofresentmentatthecleruchiesthe
Athenianswereestablishingthere.WhileAthenswasfranticallytryingtoputdown
theEuboeanrebellion,theMegarianstooktheoccasiontodefect,slaughteringtheir
Atheniangarrison.WhenPericlesreturnedfromEuboeatoAttica,thelandhad
alreadybeeninvadedbyKingPleistoanaxofSparta.Delicatediplomacyand
probablydownrightbriberyaswellenabledPericlestopersuadePleistoanaxto
returnhome,butterrorhadbeenstruckintheAthenianshearts.Thoughintime
PericleshimselfsubduedEuboea,MegararevertedtothePeloponnesianLeague,and
AthenianinfluenceinBoeotiacrashedtoacloseasThebesassumedleadershipofan
antidemocraticBoeotianLeague.
TheThirtyYearsPeace
ThepeacetheAtheniansmadewithSpartain445wasoptimisticallynamedthe
ThirtyYearsPeace,thoughitwouldnotlastevenhalfthatlong.TheAthenianshad
overextendedthemselvesbyfightingatthesametimewiththePersianempireand
thePeloponnesianLeague,andtheirnakedimperialismhadalsomadethem
unpopular.Theywereinnopositiontodictateterms,andinfactthepeacecompelled
themtosurrendertheirwholelandempire,retainingonlyNaupactusandPlataea.
(ThoughtheyalsoheldontoAegina,thisinfactviolatedthepeace.)Theirmaritime
empire,however,remainedsecurefromSpartaninterference,andthetreatyalso
specifiedthatneitherstatewastointerferewiththealliesoftheother;neutralswere
freetojoineitherside;anddisagreementsweretobesettledbyarbitration.Noallies
werepermittedtoswitchsides,andeachhegemonwasfreetouseforcetoresolve
conflictswithinitsownalliance.
PERICLESANDTHEGROWTHOFATHENIANDEMOCRACY
TheguidingspiritofAthenianimperialismwasPericles,whoowedhispositionat
Athensinparttohisrepeatedelectiontothepostofstrategosandinparttothehigh
regardinwhichtheAtheniansheldhim.Thoughhealwaysservedconcurrentlywith
nineotherstrategoieveryyear,noneoftheothergeneralsexercisedaparallel
influenceintheekklesia.Itwastheoutdoorassemblymeetingthatmadepolicyin
fifthcenturyAthens,backedbythelargejuriesofhundredsofcitizensthatwere
selectedfromtheheliaia.AlthoughPericlesoccasionallycampaignedcommanding,

forexample,thetroopsthatregainedrebelliousEuboeahisskillslayprimarilyin
formulatingpolicyandinpersuadingmembersoftheekklesiatovotehisproposals
intolaw.
215
TheAthenianAssemby
TheassemblymetintheopenaironthehillknownasthePnyxhotinsummer,cold
inwinter,andoftenwet,butstillamagnetforthemanymenofAtticawhowishedto
playaroleindeterminingthepeninsulasfuture.Intheearlydecadesofthefifth
centurytheassemblymetonlyaboutadozentimesayear,butthenumberof
meetingssoonexpanded,andinPericlestimetendaysrarelywentbywithoutat
leastonemeeting.Assembliesthatpromiseddiscussionofseriousproblemswere
likelytobeattendedbyaboutsixthousandthequorumforcertainimportant
actionssuchasostracism.Thisnumberwasprobablyaboutaneighthorsoofall
adultcitizenmalesinAtticaduringPericlescareer;whenthepopulationdropped
lateron,inpartasaconsequenceoftheruinousPeloponnesianWarof431404,the
quorumofsixthousandaccountedforahigherproportionofthepopulace.During
thefirsthalfofthefifthcentury,childrenwithatleastoneAthenianparentwouldbe
enrolledintheirdemesascitizensattheageof18,butin451Periclespersuadedthe
AthenianstolimitcitizenshiptothosewhoseparentswerebothAthenians.Thiswas
evidentlyanantiaristocraticmeasureaimedataffluentmenwhomademarriage
allianceswithnoblefamiliesfromotherstates,followingtheexampleofCleisthenes,
forinstance,whosewifewasthedaughterofthetyrantofSicyoninmainland
Greece.Thecitizenshiplawwasnotentirelyretroactive,butprobablychildrenwho
hadnotyetreachedtheageof18wereexcludedfromcitizenship.Citizenshipwas
importantforgirlsaswellasboys:thoughAthenianwomencouldnotvoteorhold
offices,theywerenowtheonlywomenwhocouldbearAthenianchildren.
Theconsequencesofthislegislationwerebothwideanddeep.ThroughoutGreece,
thediscouragementofmarriagebetweencitizensandaliensincreasedthejingoistic
tendenciesofthepolis.Theinsistencethatpeoplemarrycitizensoftheirownstate
eliminatedapowerfulsourceofconnectednessamongpoleisandfosteredasenseof
separatenessthatfrequentlyledtowar.Socialproblemswerealsocreatedwithinthe
polis.LimitedintheirchoiceofmarriagepartnerstoAthenianwomen,married
Athenianmenfrequentlyopenedthedoortodomestictensionsbymaintaining
sexualrelationshipswiththeexoticforeignwomenwhomtheycouldnotmarryif
theywantedcivicrightsfortheirsonsandgrandsons.Adoubleironyawaited
Periclesinhisownfamilylife:unhappyinhismarriage,hedivorcedthemotherof
hislegitimatechildrenandlivedinsteadwithAspasia,ahighlyintelligentimmigrant
fromMiletuswhowasoneofthemostcultivatedwomenofthecentury.Whenhis
legitimatesonsdied,heimploredtheassemblytoconfercitizenshiponthesonhe

hadwithAspasiabyaspecialdecree.Admittedtocitizenship,Periclestheyounger
servedasstrategosin406andwasoneofthesixgeneralsexecutedaftertheyfailedto
pickupsailorsinastormofftheArginusaeislandsinIonia.
Theprytaneisalonethefiftymembersoftheboulewhoseturnitwastobeincharge
forthemonthhadtheprivilegeofcallingameetingofthecitizensassembly,
thoughsometimestheydidsoatthebehestofthestrategoi.Theoretically,nomotion
couldbeputattheassemblythathadnotbeendraftedbytheboule
216
andpostedatleastfivedaysbeforethedayofthemeeting,butthisrestrictiondid
notmeanthatonlycouncilmemberscouldframelegislation.Sometimestheboules
motionwasdeliberatelycouchedinsuchvaguetermsthatitwasinevitablethat
someprivatecitizenwouldreframeitattheassemblymeeting;frequently
amendmentswounduprevisinganoriginalmotionbeyondrecognition.Besides,
mostpeoplewhoburnedtoputmotionscouldsuggestthemtosomeneighbor,
relation,orfriendofafriendwhohappenedtobeservingontheboule.
Thosewhoattendedtheassemblymightbelifelongadvocatesofcertainpoliciesand
couldwellbefollowersofapopularpolitician,buttheywerenotmembersof
politicalpartiesasweknowthemtoday,fortherewasnosuchthinginAthens.
ClassicalGreekevenlacksawordforapoliticalparty;writersusedexpressionslike
thosearoundGeneralSoandSotoidentifypoliticalgroups.Evenamongthose
whoelectedtoattendmeetingsoftheassembly,thedegreetowhichcitizenschoseto
participatevariedwidely.Asatgatheringsofacademicfacultiestoday(ortown
meetingsinNewEngland),someneverspoke,somespokeoccasionally,ahardcore
ofengagedcitizensspokefrequentlyandnodoubttherewereafewwhoseemedto
speakincessantly.Generalshadtheprivilegeofspeakingfirst,inorderofage;
amongprivatecitizens,originallythoseoverage50tookprecedenceoveryounger
men.Somepeoplespokeextemporaneously;othersbroughtnotesorevenatext.
Speakershadtobepreparedfortheirremarkstobeinterruptedperiodicallyby
laughter,applause,orhecklingofvarioussorts.Oncethedebatewasconcluded
assemblymeetingsrarelywentpastearlyafternoon,forsometimehadtobe
reservedbeforesupperforthedailymeetingoftheboulevotingwasconductedby
showofhands.
Whoattendedthemeetingsoftheassembly?Commonsensewouldsuggestthat
thosewholivedinthecitycenterweremorelikelytoturnupthanthosewholived
faraway,andnodoubtthewalkinfromdistantvillagesdiscouragedsomecitizens,
especiallyonrainydays.Nonethelessitseemsthatpeopledidtakethetroubleto
makethetripwhenvitalmatters(likewhetherornottogotowar)wereslatedfor
discussion.

AthenianOfficials
Athenshadnopresidentorprimeminister;thegeneralsexercisedpowerinpolitics
onlybyvirtueoftheesteeminwhichtheywereheld.UntilPericlesdeath,menwho
lackedmilitaryreputationsdidnotgenerallybecomedistinguishedpoliticians.The
conversetendedtobetrueaswellmilitaryheroesexpectedtoberewardedwith
politicalcareers.Inaddition,thoughanymanfromtheuppertwoclassesof
pentakosiomedimnoi(500measuremen)andhippeis(horsemen)mightstandfor
office,theAtheniansusuallyvotedforfairlyrichmenfromprominentfamilies.All
thischangedafterPericlesdeath,whenpoliticsandthemilitarybegantodivergeas
careersanditbecamesomewhatmorecustomaryforamantobejustageneralor
justapolitician;concomitantlythegovernmentceasedtobedominatedentirelyby
thescionsoffamousclans.ThroughoutAthenianhistory,
217
however,wealthandlineageremainedimportantfactors,andgeneralscontinuedto
involvethemselvesinpoliticsmorethantheydoinmanycountriestoday.
TheboardoftengeneralsonwhichPericlesservedwasonlyoneofmanybodiesthe
Atheniansestablished.Includingjobsentailedbytheadministrationoftheempire,
theremayhavebeenasmanyassevenhundredofficialpositionsalltoldinClassical
Athens,andmostofficeswereheld,likethestrategia,byboardsofseveralmen,all
servingoneyearterms.Many,likethearchons,wereselectedbylot.Mostcitizen
malesbythetimetheydiedhadheldsomepublicofficeatonetimeoranother,anda
goodnumberhadheldseveral.Bydilutingpowerinthisway,Athenianvoters
believedtheycouldinhibitthegrowthofanidentifiableclassofpermanentofficials
(whatwemightcallbureaucrats)withinterestsdifferentfromthoseofthepopulace
atlarge.Theinterestsofthedisfranchisedofwomen,metics,andslavesdidnot
strikethemasmaterialtothebodypolitic.Thefruitsofempire,fifthcenturyvoters
believed,werebeingsharedbyall.
TheJudicialSystemandStatePayforStateService
Intheabsenceofachiefexecutive,theAtheniansconsideredsovereigntytobevested
inthepeople.BythetimeofPericles,theyhadcometocalltheirformofgovernment
dmokratia,agovernmentinwhichthekratos(power),wasinthehandsofthedmos
(thepeople),bywhichtheymeantthemalecitizensintheircapacityasvotersinthe
assemblyandasjurorsinthecourts.ThelargesizeofAthenianjuriesseveral
hundred,sometimesasmanyas1501facilitatedthelegalfictionthatadecisionofa
jurywasadecisionofthedemos,andconsequentlytherecouldbenoappealfroma
verdictinanAtheniancourtroom.TheAthenianswereanotoriouslylitigiouspeople.
InAristophanesClouds,alivelycomedywhosedepictionofSocratescontributed
substantiallytothehostilityagainstthephilosopher,oneofSocratespupilspoints

outAthensonamaptothecrotchetyStrepsiades,butStrepsiadesisnotpersuaded.
Whatsthatyouresaying?heasks;Imnotconvinced,sinceIdontseeanycourts
insession.(208)Theparticipationoflargenumbersofcitizensinthejudicialsystem
wasconsideredtobeahallmarkofAtheniandemocracy.
Toensurethattheprivilegeofservingonjurieswouldbespreadaswidely
throughoutthecitizenbodyaspossible,notlongafterEphialtesdeathPericles
introducedameasureprovidingpayforjuryservice.Itwasasmallamount,lessthan
adayswagesforanaveragelaborer,butnottrivial,andnodoubtthislegislation
bolsteredPericlespopularityatthepolls.IntimeAthenianscametobepaidfor
servingonthebouleandevenforattendingtheassembly;formanyyearsduringthe
fifthcenturymagistrateswerealsopaidfortheirtime.AselsewhereinGreece,voters
gainedsomefreetimeasaconsequenceofthelabordonebywomenandslaves,but
evenacitizenwithawifeandacoupleofslavesgenerallyhadtoworkhardto
survive,andthesumsmenreceivedforparticipatingingovernmentmadea
difference.Todayitseemsnaturaltocompensatepeopleforthetimespentserving
thecommunity,andstatepayforstateserviceisnowthenorm.ButmanyAthenians
mostlyaffluentmenwhocouldaffordtoserve
218
withoutremunerationviewedthissystemasadiscreditableattemptonthepartof
democraticpoliticianstobuypopularityandvotes.Inthearistocraticvaluesystem,it
wasacceptableforCimontocourtpopularitybyinvitingpassersbytopickfruitfrom
hisorchardsandbyholdingbanquetsforthehungryathishome,butitwas
manipulativeandunderhandedofPericlestointroducemeasuresintheassembly
providingforcompensationtothosewhoservedthestate.
Despiteavarietyofconstitutionalreformsandcreativeinnovationsdesignedto
maximizepopularparticipationinciviclife,richAthenianscontinuedtoenjoy
substantialprestige.Democraticpoliticianscleverlyharnessedthewealthoftheelite
intotheserviceofthestatebyestablishinganetworkofpublicservicesknownas
liturgies.Eventhoughthesepoliticiansthemselvesbelongedtotheeliteandhence
werecreatingasystemthatwouldobligethemtospendtheirownmoney,they
consideredtheseliturgiestobegoodinvestmentsinpublicrelationsbothfor
themselvesandfordemocraticprinciples.Liturgiesincludedmajoroutlayssuchas
maintainingatriremeandtrainingitscrew(theliturgyknownasthetrierarchy),
leadingandfinancingadelegationtoareligiousfestivalinanotherGreekstate,
payingandtrainingateamofrunnersfortheintertribaltorchracesatfestivals
withinAthens,orofferingabanquettoallmembersofonestribeontheoccasionofa
religiousfestival.Someofthemostelaborate(thoughnotasexpensiveasthe
trierarchy,whichremainedthecostliestliturgy)involvedtrainingchorusesfor
performancesatAtticfestivalsinhonorofAthenaorDionysus.Thefifteenmembers

ofatragicchorus,thetwentyfourmembersofacomicchorus,andthefiftymembers
ofachorusthatwouldrecitetheversesknownasdithyrambsallneededtobe
selected,paid,andtrained.Oftentherehearsalperiodextendedformonths.The
citizenwhoperformedthisliturgymightormightnotknowanythingaboutsailing,
running,orpoetry;oftenheprovidedthefundsanddelegatedtheworktoskilled
experts.Inadditiontodozensoftrierarchies,aboutahundredcivilianliturgieswere
performedeachyear.Everyoneprofitedfromthissystem.Thosewholackedthe
meanstooffersuchservicesbenefitedfromthegenerosityofthosewhoprovided
them,andtherichcouldgarnertremendousprestigewhilesimultaneously
performingvitalmilitary,cultural,religious,andcivicfunctionsforthecommunity.
Acompetitiveelementalsofosteredexcellence,forprizesatcontestswenttothe
victoriouschoregistaswellastothesuccessfulpoet.
LITERATUREANDART
InnearlyeveryrespectweknowmoreaboutlifeinthebustlingcityofAthensthan
wedoabouthowpeoplelivedintheotherGreekpoleis,butenergyandtalentwere
dispersedwidelythroughouttheGreekworld,andmuchofitwentintoliterature
andthearts.Thewordmostcommonlyattachedtotheartandliteratureofthe
earlierfifthcenturyisgrandeur.Duringthisvigorouseraoftransition,talented
poets,painters,architects,andsculptorscarriedthetraditionsofthesixthcentury
throughoutthewiderGreekworld,whileinAthensthedefeatofPersiawasmarked
byinnovationsintragicdramasostrikingastoconstituteanewartform.
219
LyricPoetry
Lyricwasanecessaryprecursoroftragedy,anditspractitionerswereamongthe
mostdistinguishedwritersofthefifthcentury.Simonides(c.556468BC)is
rememberedchieflyastheunofficialpoetlaureateofthePersianwars.Bornonthe
IonianislandofCeos,hespenttimeatthecourtofHipparchusinAthens,amongthe
royalfamiliesofThessaly,andinSicily,wherehewasesteemedbythewarring
tyrantsHieroandTheronandwasabletoeffectatleastabriefpeacebetweenthem.
HewasprobablyinAthensduringthewarswithPersia,andhisepitaphsforthewar
dead(suchastheonecitedinChapter5)becametoGreekliteraturewhatthe
DeclarationofIndependenceandtheGettysburgAddressaretoAmericans(only
easiertoremember,sincetheywereinverse).
Siciliantyrantswerefamedfortheirinterestinculture,andSimonidesnephew
Bacchylides,whowasalsoapoet,accompaniedhimtoSicily.Bacchylidessharedhis
unclesinterestinthegenreknownasepinicianodes,thatis,poemswrittenepinik
(upon[anathletic]victory),andhecomposedapoemforHierosvictoryinthe
chariotraceattheOlympicsin476.Hehadagiftforgrippingnarrative,andHiero

wasdrawntohiswork,buttheverdictofposteritywenttohisrivalPindar,who
competedwithhimforthefavoroftheSicilianrulers.
BornintoanaristocraticfamilyinBoeotia,Pindartraveledwidelyandenjoyedthe
patronageofthepowerfulthroughouttheGreekworld;someofhismostmemorable
poemshonoredhisfriendstheSiciliantyrantsHieroandTheron.Pindarsworld
viewwasdiametricallyopposedtothatofdemocratsinAthensandelsewhere.Like
Theognis,Pindartookitasaxiomaticthatmeritwasinherited.Hismanyodes,richin
allusionandsoaringinlanguage,shareadeeplyheldbeliefinanoldfashioned
heroismanexcellencethattakesasitsstartingpointtheassumptionthatmenof
worthspringfromillustriousfamiliesthatcantracetheiroriginsultimatelytodivine
ancestors.Writingnumerousepinicianodes,hewasalsodisposedtoconnect
physicalprowesswithallaroundvirtue.Byconnectingrecentachievementswith
divinebloodandtracingtheancestryofhissubjects,hewasabletoelaboratehis
poemswithpowerfulmythsaboutgodsandancientheroes.Hisconcernwiththe
notionofexcellencelentaloftyandinspirationalqualitytohisverse,whichwas
oftenquotedbyPlatoinhisspeculationsaboutthehighesthumanvirtue.
Document6.2ExcerptfromPindarssixthNemeanodeTheoccasionofthispoem
wasthevictoryofAlkimidasofAeginaintheboyswrestlingcontestatNemea,
perhapsin465BC.Characteristically,PindarusesAlkimidassuccessasatakingoff
pointforadiscussionoflargerissues.
Thereisoneraceofmen,
oneraceofgods.
Yetfromonemother
webothtakeourbreath.
220
Thedifference
isintheallotment
ofallpower,
fortheoneisnothing
whilethebronzeskyexistsforever,
asureabode.
Andyet,somehow,
weresembletheimmortals,
whetheringreatnessofmind
ornature,thoughweknownot
towhatmeasure
daybydayandinthewatchesofthenight
fatehaswrittenthatweshouldrun.

AndnowAlkimidas
givesclearproof
thatthepower
bornintheblood
islike
thefruitbearingfields
thatnow,inalternation,
yieldmankind
yearlysustenancefromtheground
andnow,again,resting
withholdtheirstrength
treadinginthefootprintsofhisfathersfather,
Praxidamas
forhe,victoriousatOlympia,
firstbroughttheAiakidaigarlandsfromAlpheos;
...
come,Muse,direct
uponthisclan
thegloriousbreathofsong
forwhenmenhavepassedoutofourmidst
poemsandlegends
conveytheirnobledeeds....
125;translatedbyFrankNisetich,PindarsVictorySongs.BaltimoreandLondon:Johns
HopkinsUniversityPress,1980.
ItisimportantthatsomuchofPindarsworkhassurvived,notonlybecauseofthe
beautyofhisversebutasareminderofthediversityofhighlydevelopedculturesin
alltimesandplaces.Sincethesepoemscelebratethevaluesandachievementsof
aristocrats,manymodernreaderscomingtothemassumetheymusthavebeen
writtenduringthesixthcentury,beforetheriseofdemocracyin
221
Greece,butinfacttheywerenot;Pindardiedafewyearsbeforetheoutbreakofthe
PeloponnesianWar,andhisworkwascontemporarywiththatofEphialtesand
Pericles.
TheBirthofTragedy:Aeschylus
AtleastonepoetwhoenjoyedthepatronageofHieroremainedforeverassociated
withhisnativepolis.TheAtheniantragedianAeschylus(525456)diedinSicilyafter
alonglifeduringwhichhewroteperhapsseventyplays.Unfortunatelyonlya
handfulofthesesurvive.AfterhisdeaththeAthenianspaidhomagetothegreatness

ofhisworkbydecreeingthatthearchonshouldgrantachorustoanyonewho
wantedtoproduceoneofhisplays.Aeschyluswasthefirstofthefamoustragedians
offifthcenturyAthens.AlreadyinthetimeofPeisistratusThespishadexpandedthe
rangeofthechoruseshonoringDionysusbyaddinganactorwhocouldcarryona
dialoguewiththechorus;nowAeschylusaddedasecondactor.Thisinnovation
madepossiblerealconflictandmovedtragedybeyondtableauintotherealmof
drama.Atthesametime,dramaremainedfirmlygroundedinpoetry,andverse
remainedthevehicleforbothtragedyandcomedythroughoutantiquity.The
tragedyofAeschylusretainedapowerfulanchorinthepiercingbeautyofthe
choruses,whichcelebratedtheawesomepowerofthegodswhilealsoexploringthe
natureofthehumancondition.Singsorrow,sorrow,thechoruschantstowardthe
openingofhisplayAgamemnon,butgoodwinoutintheend:
Zeus:whateverhemaybe,ifthisname
pleaseshimininvocation,
thusIcalluponhim.
Ihaveponderedeverything
yetIcannotfindaway,
onlyZeus,tocastthisdeadweightofignorance
finallyfromoutmybrain.
Zeus,whoguidedmentothink,
whohaslaiditdownthatwisdom
comesalonethroughsuffering.
Stilltheredripsinsleepagainsttheheart
griefofmemory;against
ourpleasurewearetemperate.
Fromthegodswhositingrandeur
gracecomessomehowviolent.
(Agamemnon16066,176183;Lattimore1959)
Tragedyperformedacentralroleinthespiritualandintellectuallifeofthepolis.
Wealthycitizensviedforhonorandacclaimbyundertakingtheexpenseoftraining
choruses,andduringthefestivalofDionysusinMarchactorsandaudi
222
encealikeneededenormousstamina.Groupsofactorsperformedfourdramasina
day,andspectatorshadnotonlytofollowtheintricatepoetryofthechorusesbutto
turnupthenextdayandthedayafterthattocomparetheworkofeachplaywright,
tohelpdeterminewhoshouldreceivetheprize.Asignificantproportionofmen
andperhapswomenaswell,thoughthisisuncertainattendedtheplaysandno
doubtcontinuedamongthemselvesalivelydialogueaboutthepainfulissuesthe

dramashadraised.Eveninerasofcomparativelyhighliteracy,ancientcultures
remainoraltoaconsiderabledegree,andabsorbingthecompleximageryofGreek
tragicchoruseswasnotasdifficultforpeopletrainedtolistenandrememberasit
wouldbeformostpeopletoday.Nonetheless,thepopularityofperformancesthat
demandedseriousintellectualworkonthepartoftheaudiencetellsussomething
abouttherichnessofGreekculture.Overthirtytragedieshavesurvived;whatis
missing,however,isanyrecord(beyondthejokesinAristophanes)ofthe
discussionstheperformancesmusthaveinspiredamongfriendsandneighborswho
hadenjoyedthissharedtreasureofthecommunity.
Allpartsintragedywereplayedbymen;masksfacilitatedthedeception.Theywere
shapedatthemouthratherlikemegaphones,andtheymadeforgoodacoustics.To
besure,theydiscouragedthenuancedportrayalofpersonality.Thiswasnot,
however,consideredagreatloss,forGreektragedywasneverintendedtobe
naturalistic.CharactersinGreektragedywerenotlikecharactersinmodernfilmsor
novels,whomonemightexpecttorecognizewalkingdownthestreet,orwhose
subtlertraitsmightappearinonesfriendsorneighbors.Theyrepresented
humankindinallitsaspirationandfrailty.Theyarenoteasytolikeordislike,for
theywerenotintendedtobelifelike,fleshandbloodindividuals.
Norwasthematerialoftragedyanythingonecouldcallasliceoflife.Tragedywas
meanttobeheroicandgrand,farremovedfromthetrivialandthemundane.Plots
weregenerallytakenfromtherichmythsoftheHeroicAge,butaswehaveseen
exceptionscouldbemadeformajoreventssuchasthePersianwars.(Evenhere,
though,AeschylusachievedacertainremotenessbysettingtheactionofhisPersians
infarawayAsia,wherepeopledressedexotically.)Formalitiesofseveralkinds
limitedthedramatistinhischoiceofmaterial.Noviolencewaspermittedonstage,
andallactionhadtotakeplacewithinatwentyfourhourperiod.Finally,theauthor
hadtocontendwiththechallengeposedbytheintricatemetersoftragicverse.
Thestruggleofplaywrightstomolddramawithintheseconstraintsconstituteda
formofheroisminitself.Aeschylusgreatestsurvivingachievementisthetrilogy
knownastheOresteia,whichtreatsthesupremedifficultyofunderstandingand
obtainingajustsocialandreligiousorder.Apparentlythesetsoffourdramasthat
playwrightsenteredinthecompetitiongenerallyinvolvedthreetragediesfollowed
byalighterworkknownasasatyrplay,butthethreetragediesdidnotneedtotreat
thesametheme,andfrequentlytheydidnt.InthecaseoftheOresteia,however,the
threeplayscompriseonegrandandcomplexdrama,andthisworkistheonlyAttic
trilogythatescapeddestructiontobeenjoyedtoday.
223
TheOresteia

ThepointofdeparturefortheOresteiawasevidentlyEphialtescurtailmentofthe
powersoftheAreopagiteCouncil,forthetrilogyculminatesinpreciselythesortof
trialthatremainedwithintheCouncilspurviewamurdertrial.Itseemslikelythat
Aeschylussupportedthereformsandchosethisaugustdramaasavehiclebywhich
toreassureconservativeAtheniansthatthetryingofhomicidecases,theprivilege
withwhichEphialteshadconspicuouslynottampered,wasinfacttheancient
missionofthisvenerablebody.Inthiswayhecoulddrawattentionawayfromthe
significantlimitationsthathadbeenplacedonitsjurisdiction.Thematerialwith
whichAeschyluschosetoconveyhismessagewasthefamiliartaleofthecursed
houseoftheancientheroPelopsandhisdescendantAgamemnon,commanderin
chiefofthelegendaryexpeditionagainstTroy.
Thefirstplay,Agamemnon,portraystheGreekgeneralsmurderuponhisvictorious
returnfromtheTrojanWarinaplothatchedbyhisfaithlesswifeClytemnestraand
hiscousinAegisthus,whohasbecomeClytemnestraslover.Agamemnonsmurder
posesanagonizingdilemmaforhischildrenOrestesandElectra,fortheyarefaced
withachoicebetweenkillingtheirmotherandallowingtheirfathersdeathtogo
unavenged.TheirpainandOresteseventualmurderofClytemnestraandAegisthus
formthesubjectmatterofthesecondplay,TheLibationBearers.Astheplaycloses,
OrestesfindshimselfpursuedbytheavengingearthgoddessesknownastheFuries.
Hissufferingendsinthefinalplay,TheEumenides.ThisplayissetinAthens,where
Oresteshastakenrefuge,hopingthataresponsiblegovernmentwillaffordhimafair
trial.AthenaschargetothejuryproclaimsthegloriesoftheAreopagus,the
importanceofjustice,andthecentralityoflaw.
Document6.3AtthecloseofTheEumenides,thelastplayofAeschylusOresteia
trilogy,AeschylusprojectsbackontoAthenaablueprintforAtheniangovernment,
foundedonprinciplesofresponsiblegovernmentandtrialbyjury.
Ifitpleaseyou,menofAttica,hearmydecree....
HereistheHillofAres,heretheAmazonsencampedandbuilttheirshel
terswhentheycameinarms
forspiteofTheseus,heretheypiledtheirrivaltowers
torise,newcity,anddarehiscitylongago,
andslewtheirbeastsforAres.Sothisrockisnamed
fromthentheHillofAres.Herethereverence
ofcitizens,theirfearandkindreddonowrong
shallholdbydayandintheblessingofnightalike
allwhilethepeopledonotmuddytheirownlaws
withfoulinfusions.Butifbrightwateryoustain
withmud,younevermorewillfinditfittodrink.
224

Noanarchy,noruleofasinglemaster.Thus
Iadvisemycitizenstogovernandtograce,
andnottocastfearutterlyfromyourcity.What
manwhofearsnothingatalliseverrighteous?Such
beyourjustterrors,andyoumaydeserveandhave
salvationforyourcitadel,yourlandsdefence,
suchasisnowhereelsefoundamongmen,neither
amongtheScythians,northelandthatPelopsheld.
Iestablishthistribunal.Itshallbeuntouched
bymoneymaking,gravebutquicktowrath,watchful
toprotectthosewhosleep,asentryontheland.
ThesewordsIhaveunreeledareformycitizens,
adviceintothefuture.
TheEumenides681708;translatedbyRichmondLattimoreinDavidGreneandRichmond
Lattimore,eds.,TheCompleteGreekTragedies.Vol.1,Aeschylus.Chicago:Universityof
ChicagoPress,1959.
Athenabreaksthedeadlockedjurystie,andhergroundsarerevealing.Following
Apollosproclamationthatitisthemaleandnotthefemalewhoisthetrueparent,
andbearinginmindherownbirth(fullydevelopedfromtheheadofherfather
Zeus),shedecidesthattheclaimsofthefathertrumpthoseofthemother,justifying
Clytemnestrasdeath.Nowtamed,theFuriesaregivenanewname,theEumenides
(KindlyOnes).PlainlyAeschylusconceivesthecreationofresponsiblegovernment
inAthensastheantithesisnotonlyoftyrannybutalsoofadisorderedchaotic
universeinwhichemotionalandfemaleforcesofvengeancewereparamount.The
newworldwillbegovernedbyorderly,rationalinstitutionsplannedandstaffedby
men,withvengeancereplacedbyjustice.
ThegenreestablishedbyAeschyluswouldbecomeoneofthedefiningartformsof
Greekcivilization.Tragicdrama,asitevolvedthroughoutAeschyluscareerandin
thehandsofhissuccessorsSophoclesandEuripides,wasinmanywaysthehallmark
ofAtheniangreatness.ThroughShakespeareandothergreattragediansofEurope,
thisremarkabletestamenttotheheroicstruggleagainsthumanlimitationsformsan
importantpartofalegacythathasenduredtoourowntime.
TheVisualArts
Greekpaintersandsculptorssharedthetragediansfascinationwithboththehuman
andthedivine.Throughoutthedecadesofchangeandgrowththatmarkthefifth
century,bothdramaandtheplasticartsrevealapowerfuldrivetoorganizethe
worldinaccordwithharmony,balance,andproportion.Duringthefourthcentury,

Plato,intheblueprintfortheidealsocietyhedescribedinhisdialogueTheRepublic,
wouldidentifyjusticeastheconditionthatobtainedwhenallparts
225
ofthesoulandstateareinbalance.TheconnectionsPlatopositedbetweenbeauty
andtruthunderlaymuchoftheGreekviewoftheworldthroughouttheClassical
period.
Liketragedy,Greekpaintingandsculptureachievedwhattheydidwithinthe
constraintsposedbyavarietyofconventions.Onepopularvehicleforpaintingwas
thevase,whichcameinawidevarietyofsizesandshapes,eachaffordingdistinctive
challengesandopportunities.Thesmallervesselscalledforparticularingenuityand
skill.Bronzeandmarble,however,thecustomarymaterialsforsculpture,were
difficulttoworkwithanddidnotlendthemselvestonaturalism.Thetwo
generationsorsothatfollowedthePersianwarsmarkaperiodoftransitionduring
whichGreekartistsbegintoemancipatethemselvesfromthecanonsoftheArchaic
period,asaspareausteritycomestodistinguishClassicalstylesfromthosethathad
gonebefore.Someofthechangemayhavehadtodowitharejectionofeastern
influencesinthewakeofthebitterconflictwithPersia;thetieswiththeNearEast
thatweresoconspicuousinArchaicstylesnowseemmoretenuous.Astragedy
becamemoredramaticwiththeadditionofasecondactor,sothevisualartsgrew
lessstaticduringthesedecades,andactionbecameimportant.Conveyingastrong
senseofmovementinastillmediumisnosmallachievement.Someofthemost
outstandingartistsofthesedecadesmanageddespitetheconstraintsoftheircraftto
buildasenseofanticipationandexcitement.
Tobesure,thetranquilityofArchaicsculpturepersistsinsomeoftheworkofthis
period.Itisevident,forexample,inthebronzecharioteerdedicatedatDelphiinthe
470sbyHierosbrotherPolyzalusafterhisvictoryinthechariotracesatthePythian
games.Theeeriestillnessofthebodyandthegarmentthatfallsfromitinperfect
foldsshowpreciselythedisciplineandselfcontrolthatPindarcelebratedinthe
aristocratswhocarriedoffprizesintheseevents.
Probablythefreestandingsculpturethatconveysthemostdramaticsenseof
movementtocomewasthesocalleddiskobolos(discusthrower)oftheAthenian
sculptorMyron,whowasknownforhisstrikingrealism:admirerscommentedthata
bronzecowofhisontheAcropoliscouldeasilybemistakenfortherealthing.
ThoughthebronzediskobolosMyronmadearound460doesnotsurvive,avarietyof
Romancopiesenableustoappreciatethepentupenergytheathleteisaboutto
unleashashehurlshisarmforwardleaningintothethrow.
ThereliefsculpturewithwhichGreeksadornedtheirtemplesofferedstillgreater
opportunitiesforstorytelling.Liketragedy,reliefsculpturefocusedonmythological

themesgroundedinpainfulconflictsembroilinggodsandmortalsintortuous
scenarios.Talesinvolvinganimallikefiguresalsoofferedwonderfulopportunitiesto
visualartists.Thusthehalfhorse,halfhumanraceofCentaursfiguredinthe
sculpturalprogramsoftwoofthemostremarkableGreektemplesofthefifth
century,theParthenonatAthens,tobediscussedinChapter7,andthetempleof
ZeusatOlympia.
ThetempleofZeusatOlympiawasthefirsttobecompleted,between470and456
BC,justwhenthedramasofAeschylusweredefiningtheAtticstage.Beginningin
1876,excavationsbroughttolightremarkablesculpturalgroupsontheportionsof
thetempleknownasthepedimentstheelongatedtriangularspaces
226
Figure6.4.ThisbronzecharioteerfromtheDelphiMuseum(c.475BC)originally
stoodinthecarofafourhorsechariot;ithassurvivedbecauseanearthquakecastit
intoanancientdrain.
Figure6.5.Romancopyofthediskobolosordiscusthrower,byMyron.Scholars
recognizedMyronsstatueasthemodelfortheRomancopiesbecauseofapassagein
thesecondcenturyADauthorLucian,whodescribestheoriginalworkindetail.
thatsatatopthecolumnsandcriedoutfordecoration.InthetempleofZeus,each
pedimentextendedforover80feetfromlefttorightandroseinthecentertoaheight
of10feet.Libonwasthechiefarchitectfortheproject,althoughplainlymany
artisanslaboredtocreatetheelaboratesculptures.Thewestpedimentcelebratedthe
triumphoforderandcivilizationovertheanimallikebarbarismrepresentedbythe
Centaurs,whointheircharacteristicdrunkennesshadsoughtto
227
Figure6.6a.Usingsurvivingfragments,scholarshavedevelopedanumberof
differentreconstructionsforthesculpturalcompositionoftheeastpedimentofthe
templeofZeusatOlympia(c.460BC)thattellsthestoryofPelopschariotrace.
Thesetwomodelsareamongthemostrecent.
Figure6.6b.Thismarblestatueofanelderlyseerfromtheeastpedimentofthe
templeofZeusatOlympia(thirdfigurefromrightinthedesignsin6.6a)isa
dramaticblendofnaturalisticandstylizedelements.
228

disrupttheweddingoftheheroPeirithoostoDeidameiaonlytofindthemselves
worstedinthemeleebyPeirithoosandhisfriendTheseus.Inthecenteroftherelief
standsafigurewhommostscholarsidentifyasApolloupholdingtheprinciplesof
civility.
Theeastpedimentportrayedamorecomplicatedstoryanepisodeinthelifeof
AgamemnonsancestorPelops,whowonhisbrideHippodameiainachariotrace
arrangedbyherfatherOenomaus.Itisnosurprisethatthecircumstances
surroundingthisraceshouldhavebeendepictedonthetempleatOlympia,sincethe
eventwasassociatedwiththebeginningoftheOlympicgames.Motivatedbya
greaterthannormalattachmenttohisdaughter,Oenomauswasaccustomedto
defeatinghersuitorsinsuchraceswiththespecialequipmenthehadobtainedfrom
thegodAres.Hippodameia,however,fellinlovewithPelopsandarrangedforthe
charioteerMyrtilustosabotageherfatherschariotbysubstitutingwaxlinchpinsfor
itsmetalones.Intheensuingaccident,Oenomauswaskilled.ThoughPelopswon
therace,marriedHippodameia,andfatheredseveralchildren,Myrtilus,whowas
alsoinlovewithHippodameia,placedacurseonhimthatGreeksconnectedwith
thesubsequentmisfortunesofhisdescendants,includingAgamemnonandhis
family.Numerousfiguresinthescenedepictedonthetemplehavesurvived,
includingoneofthemostremarkableindividualsdepictedinreliefsculpture,a
pensiveseerwhoevenbeforetheracehasbegunknowswhatisgoingtohappen(
Figure6.6b).
Gravestelaialsoprovidedanimportantvenueforreliefsculpture.Althoughmost
commemoratedthedeathsofmen,womenandgirlsweredepictedontheir
tombstonesaswell.Oneofthebestpreservedfuneraryreliefsofthefifthcentury
offeredatenderportrayalofalittlegirlholdingherpetdoves.Thispoignant
reflectionofthedeadchildmakesclearthatforalltheirpreoccupationwithwarand
civicengagementtheGreekscouldalsofeelprivatelossesdeeply.
OurinsightintotheprivatelivesoftheGreeksowesmuchtothescenesthatappear
onsurvivingvases.Unlikesculpture,paintingwasaslikelytotreatmundanescenes
ofdailyactivitiesasitwastoportraydeedsofepicproportions.Inpaintingasin
sculpture,weareoftenignorantoftheidentityoftheartistwhoseworkstandsbefore
us.Paintersareoftenknownsimplybythesubjectmatteroftheirmostmemorable
worksortheplacestheywereorcanbefound(e.g.,thePanpainter,theBerlin
painter).GreekwallpaintingoftheClassicalperiodhasnotsurvivedtobeplaced
besidethevividfrescoesofEgypt,Italy,orBronzeAgeCrete;whatwehaveare
hundredsuponhundredsofvases.AsintheArchaicperiod,thesefrequentlytook
theirsubjectmatterfrommythology,asinthefinevaseintheMuseumofFineArts
inBostondepictingononesidethemurderofAgamemnonandontheotherthatof
Aegisthus.

Dailylife,however,mightalsoberepresented,andscenesdepictedonvasesprovide
socialhistorianswithawealthofinformationabouthowpeoplespenttheirtimeat
workandatplay,showingwomenandmeninavarietyofactivities;shoemakers,
blacksmiths,agriculturalworkers,andotherlaborersareportrayedgoingabouttheir
tasks.Weareindebtedtovasesfornumerousscenesfromwomenslivesandimages
ofdomesticspace.
229
Figure6.7.Thismarblegraverelief,probablyfromParos,datesfromabout450
BCandstandstodayintheMetropolitanMuseumofArt.
Likesculpture,vasepaintingoftheearlierfifthcenturywasfocusedonthehuman
figure,towhichthecurvingsurfacesofthevesselslentasenseofmovementand
grace.Evenmorethanindrama,thepossibilitiesoffacialexpressionarelimitedby
themedium,andcharacterportrayalisweak;weareoftengivenaclearsenseof
whatthedramatispersonaeofthevaseareexperiencingatthemomentintimethe
artisthaschosentocapture,butlittleunderstandingofwhotheyhavebeenover
theirlifetimes,whattheirdrivinganxietiesorconcerns.ThefiguresonGreekvases
areportrayedinaction,notcontemplationtheyalmostneverappeartobeposingfor
theartistandweaskourselvesnotonly,Whataretheythinking?Whatarethey
feeling?,butalso,Whathasjusthappened,andwhatwillhappennext?Butthe
focusalwaysremainsthehumanbeing.Landscapesarerarelydevelopedinany
substantiveway,andthoughanimalsoftenappearasthecompanionsofhumans,
theyarerarelythecenterofattentionastheyhadoncebeen.
230
Figure6.8.ThisAtticvaseintheBostonMuseumofFineArtswasprobably
paintedaround470BC,shortlybeforetheproductionofAeschylusOresteia.
231
Figure6.9.Vasesfrequentlydepictedcraftspeopleatwork,suchasthisAttic
blackfigureneckamphorashowingshoesbeingmadeandablacksmithforging.
232
AlthoughGreekwallpaintinghasnotsurvivedtheravagesoftime,ancientcritics
suggestthatfacialexpressionwasrathermorevariedinthismedium,particularly
afterCimonsfriendPolygnotusofThasosliberateditfromtraditionalArchaic
constraintsdepicting,forexample,openmouthsandeventeeth.Polygnotuswas

muchadmiredinantiquityforthecharacterportrayalinhisvividandcomplex
muralstheRomanrhetoricianQuintilianadvisedseriousstudentsofpaintingto
beginwithPolygnotusbutwhatweknowofhisworkcomeslargelyfrom
descriptionsbyPausanias,atravelerofthesecondcenturyAD,whoseDescriptionof
Greeceistheprincipalsourceformanyartworksthatnolongersurvivetoday;
Polygnotuspaintingsarelost.TheRomanpolymathPlinytheElderreportedthat
Polygnotuswasthefirsttoportraywomendrapedintransparentclothing,thewet
Tshirtlook.
OtherpaintersactiveatAthensinthefirsthalfofthefifthcenturyincludedMicon,
whoalsoseemstohaveenjoyedCimonspatronage.PlinytheElderrecordsthat
MiconsdaughterTimaretewasalsoanartistandpaintedanimageofDianaona
muralinEphesus.Miconwasoneamongseveralartistswhoweredrawntothe
themeofTheseusfightingtheAmazons,placingitinthecontextoftheongoing
conflictbetweenWestandEast,Greekandalien.Theseuswasalsodepictedaround
thesametimefightingthemythicalcreaturesknownasCentaurs,whosported
humantorsosonthebodiesofhorses.Theassociationofwomenwithforeignersand
animalsandthenotionthatGreekmaleidentitycouldandshouldbeassertedby
settingoneselfagainstthemwouldberepeatedinGreekartandthoughtthroughout
theClassicalperiod.BecauseGreekwriterswereoftenreticentindiscussingwomen,
visualimagesprovideimportantcluestohowwomenwerethoughtofinancient
Greece.Vasepaintingsdepictwomenofallsocialclasses.Vasesthatwereusedat
drinkingpartiesformixinganddrinkingwinefrequentlyshowprostitutes
entertainingmen.Somewomenareshownplayingflutesothersareengagedin
variousstagesofflirtation,andsomescenesarefranklypornographic.Common
prostituteswereoftenslaves.Awomanofhigherstatuswhoneverthelessmingled
withmenandreceivedpayforherserviceswasknownasahetaira.Suchwomen
werelikelytobemetics,eitherexslavesorfreeborn,wholikemalemetics
gravitatedtoAthensbecauseitwasacommercialcenter.Afewofthesewomen,like
Aspasia,themistressofPericlesandthemostfamoushetairaofall,participated
activelyintheintellectuallifeoftheirmaleassociates.Incontrast,manypaintingson
vasesusedbyrespectablewomendepictweddingscenes,orwomenvisitingtombs
orsittingathomespinningwooloradorningthemselves,ofteninthecompanyof
otherwomen.
OIKOSANDPOLIS
Asinmostcultures,thefamilywastheprimarylocusoftimeandenergyforwomen
inGreece.WehavemuchmoreinformationaboutfamilylifeinAthensthaninany
otherGreekpolis.Thewiderangeofevidenceincludesnotonlyvasepaintingbut
tombsculptureandepitaphs,lawsandcourtroomspeechesdeliveredincasesof
familydisputes,andportrayalsoffamilylifeincomedyand

233
tragedy.Thematerialfromdrama,however,mustbeusedwithspecialcaution.In
anysociety,comedy,whilerevealingmuchaboutsocialnorms,distortsforthesake
ofhumor.TragedyposesproblemspeculiartoAthens:thoughtheauthorswerefifth
centuryAthenians,theyshowmythologicalcharactersandplotsinheritedfromthe
BronzeAge,whenvaluesweredifferent.Allthismaterial,moreover,wasfiltered
throughtheimaginationofthemalepoet.Sometimestheresultseemsmisogynistic,
asinAeschylusOresteia;laterinthefifthcenturyauthorslikeSophoclesand
EuripidesappearsympathetictowomensplightinAtheniansociety.Onethingis
clear:daring,outspokenwomenlikeClytemnestrawerenotnormallyfoundin
ClassicalAthens,whereinitiative(nottomentionviolence)wasamaleprerogative,
andpoliticalpowernevershiftedintofemalehands.Wemustalwayskeepinmind
thatwehavenoideawhatwomenwerethinking.Allthehistoricalevidencefrom
ClassicalAthenswascreatedbymenand(atleastintheimmediatesense)financed
bythem.So,forexample,evenvasesdesignedforwomensuseanddepicting
womensdailyactivitieswerepaintedbymen,thenboughtbymenandgivenasgifts
towomen.Greeksocietywasmaledominated,inaword,patriarchal.
TheGreekpoliscomprisedoikoi(families,estates,orhouseholds).Theoikoswas
theprimaryunitofproduction,consumption,andreproduction.Citizensbecame
membersofthepolisnotdirectlyasindividuals,astheydoinmostmodernstates;
rather,theyfirsthadtobeacceptedasmembersofanoikos.
FamilyMembership
WhenababywasborninAtticathefatherdecidedwhethertoraiseorexposeit.He
doubtlessevaluatedthenewbornshealthaswellasthefinancialimpactofraising
anotherchild.Mostsonswereraised,becausemaleheirswerethenormalmeansof
perpetuatingthelineage,anditwasofgreatimportancethatfamiliesnotdieout.The
offspringofadaughterwasconsideredtobelongtoherhusbandsfamily,nother
fathers.Asboysgrewup,theirlaborwasconsideredvaluable.Moreover,theywere
expectedtosupporttheiragedparents,burythem,andlookaftertheirtombs.Atthe
scrutinyforpublicofficeknownasthedokimasia,theareasinvestigatedincluded
propertreatmentofparentsandofthefamilytomb.Inastateinwhichthe
governmenttookminimalresponsibilityforthosewhomageorotherinfirmity
preventedfromworking,properbearingtowardparentswascrucialforthesmooth
functioningofsociety.Parentsplacedlessvalueongirls,wholackedearningpower
andwhosechildrenwouldbelongtoadifferentfamily.Thoughtheeldestchildwas
normallyraisedregardlessofitssex,somehistorianshaveconjecturedthatasmany
as20percentofnewbornAtheniangirlswereabandonedinplaceslikethelocal
garbagedump.Slavedealerscollectedafewoftheexposedinfantsandturnedthem

overtowetnursestoberaisedandsoldasslaves.Mostexposedinfants,however,
died,andexposurequicklybecameinfanticide.
InAthens,afterababyboywasacceptedasamemberofhisfathersfamilyhe
neededtobeapprovedbyhisfathersquasiorpseudofamily:aboyinherited
234
membershipinhisphratry(brotherhood,)anddeme(citywardorcountry
village)fromhisfather.Enrollmentinthefathersphratrywasadesirable,ifnot
essential,steptowardbecomingafullfledgedAtheniancitizen.Thefather
introducedandenrolledhisbabyinhisphratryandvouchedforhimasbeing
legitimateandhisown,bornofanAthenianmother.
Names
Namesrevealedfamilymembership.Childrenwereidentifiedbytheirownnames
andpatronymics;itwasusualtonamethefirstsonafterhispaternalgrandfather,
andthesecondafterhismaternalgrandfather.Becauserulesofetiquetterequiredthe
suppressionofrespectablewomensnames,atleastwhiletheywereliving,the
quantityofevidenceavailableforthestudyoftheirnamesisfarlessthanformens
names.Nevertheless,thedataindicatethat,likeaboy,agirlwasgivenanamethat
wasderivedfromthoseinherfathersfamily,skippingageneration.Thusthefirst
daughterwouldbenamedafterherpaternalgrandmother.
DemographyandtheLifeCycle
TheaverageageatdeathinClassicalAthensforadultfemaleswas36.2yearsandfor
adultmales45years.Theaveragewomanbore4.3children,2.7ofwhomsurvived
infancy.Thedeathratioforinfantswas500per1000adults.Athenianmenmarriedat
approximatelytheageof30andwomenaroundtheageof15.Womenwereoften
widowedasaconsequenceofwar,andtheagedifferenceheightenedthelikelihood
ofwidowhoodovertakingawomanbeforeoldage;menlostyoungwivesin
childbirth.Marriagescouldalsobeendedbydivorce,whichwasnotstigmatized
unlesssomescandalwereinvolved.Widowedanddivorcedpeopleoftenremarried,
andchildrenofdivorcedparentsgenerallylivedwiththeirfathers,towhoseoikos
theybelonged.Onlyaminorityofchildrenreachedadolescencelivingwithboth
theirnaturalparents;mosthadlostoneorbothparentsatanearlyageandlivedwith
distantrelativesorinhomeswithasuccessionofstepparentsandhalfsiblings.The
intactnuclearfamilywastheexception,nottherule.
Marriage

Marriagewasthesocialinstitutionthatsustainedtheoikos,anditsprincipalpurpose
wasreproduction.Atthetimeofbetrothalthebridesfatherorotherguardian
declaredinthepresenceofwitnesses,Igiveyoumydaughtertosowforthe
purposeofproducinglegitimatechildren.Afterthebridegroomagreed,Itakeher,
heandhisfiancesfatheragreedtothesizeofherdowry.Forrespectablegirlsthere
wasnoalternativetomarriage,andtheobligationtodowereachdaughterdoubtless
wasaprimemotivatorinfemaleinfanticide.
Greekscouldbemarriedonlytoonespouseatatime,althoughtherewasadouble
standardforsexualconductandhusbandsmighthaveadditionalsexual
235
Figure6.10.ThefamilyofMegacles,abranchoftheAlcmaeonids.
236
partnersofeithergender.Marriagesbetweencloserelativessuchasfirstcousinsor
uncleandniecewerecommon.Inafamilywithnoson,theobligationtoperpetuate
theoikosfellonadaughter,calledanepiklros(someoneattachedtotheestate,
sometimestranslatedheiressforconvenience,thoughsheherselfinherited
nothing).Theepikleroswasrequiredtomarrytheclosestofherfathersmale
relativeswhowascapableofprocreation,usuallyheruncleorfirstcousin.Ifthetwo
weremarriedtootherspouses,theyhadtodivorcethem.Asonbornoftheunion
withtheepikleroswouldbeconsideredhisgrandfathersheir.Menwithoutany
childrenatallwouldtrytoadoptamalerelativesothattheirlineagewouldnotdie
out.
Thewifesdowryplusthehusbandscontributionconstitutedtheeconomic
foundationoftheoikosatthestartofamarriage.AtAthensdowriesconsistedof
cashandmovableproperty.Thehusbandprovidedthelandandthehousewithmost
ofitscontents.Theideal,atleastforthosewhofarmedtheirownland,wastofurnish
mostofthebasicnecessitiesoflifeforthefamilywithoutneedingto
Figure6.11.DetailofAtticredfigurelebsgamikos(weddingbowl)bythe
WashingPainter,lastquarterofthefifthcentury.Abridedisplaysababyboy,the
hopedforresultofhermarriage.Astandingwomantowardtherightisholdinga
loutrophoros,aweddingvaseusedfortransportingwaterfortheprenuptialbath.The
womanonthefarrightholdsavaseforperfumedointment,oroil.
237

dependonpurchasingsuppliesatthemarket.Thedivisionoflaborwasbygender:
womensworkwasindoorsandmensoutdoors.Thehusbandbroughtintothe
houseagriculturalproductssuchasfruit,vegetables,grain,andrawwool,andthe
wifeanddomesticslavestransformedtheseproductsintotextilesandediblefood.
Wiveswerealsoresponsibleforstoringthehouseholdcontentssafely,sothatthere
wouldalwaysbeenoughtoeatandwear,andeventosellifthefamilyfellonhard
times.
Document6.4Thecustomarydivisionoflaborintheoikosisspelledoutin
XenophonsSocraticdialoguetheOeconomicus,inwhichSocratesfriendIschomachus
explainstohimhowhetaughthis14yearoldbridetomanagethehousehold.
Hetoldmehesaidtoher:Wife,thegodsseemtohaveshownmuchdiscernmentin
yokingtogetherfemaleandmale,aswecallthem,sothatthecouplemightconstitute
apartnershipthatismostbeneficialtoeachofthem....
Thosewhointendtoobtainproducetobringintotheshelterneedsomeonetowork
attheoutdoorjobs.Forplowing,sowing,planting,andherdingisallworkthatis
performedoutdoors,anditisfromthesethatouressentialprovisionsareobtained.
Assoonasthesearebroughtintotheshelter,thensomeoneelseisneededtolook
afterthemandtoperformtheworkthatrequiresshelters.Thenursingofnewborn
childrenrequiresshelters,andsodoesthepreparationofbreadfromgrain,and
likewise,makingclothingoutofwool.Becauseboththeindoorandtheoutdoortasks
requireworkandconcern,hesaid,Ithinkthegod,fromtheverybeginning,
designedthenatureofwomenfortheindoorworkandconcernsandthenatureof
manfortheoutdoorwork....
Forthewomanitismorehonorabletoremainindoorsthantobeoutside;fortheman
itismoredisgracefultoremainindoorsthantoattendtobusinessoutside.
....
Andhowdidyouarrangethingsforher,Ischomachus?
Well,Ithoughtitwasbesttoshowherthepossibilitiesofourhousefirst.Itisnot
elaboratelydecorated,Socrates,buttheroomsareconstructedinsuchawaythat
theywillserveasthemostconvenientplacestocontainthethingsthatwillbekeptin
them.Sotheroomsthemselvesinvitedwhatwassuitableforeachofthem.Thusthe
bedroom,becauseitwasinthesafestpossibleplace,invitedthemostvaluable
beddingandfurniture.Thedrystoreroomscalledforgrain,thecoolonesforwine,
andthebrightonesforthoseproductsandutensilswhichneedlight.Icontinuedby
showing
238

herlivingroomsfortheoccupants,decoratedsoastobecoolinsummerandwarm
inwinter.Ipointedouttoherthattheentirehousehasitsfacadefacingsouth,sothat
itwasobviouslysunnyinwinterandshadyinsummer.Ialsoshowedherthe
womensquarters,separatedfromthemensquartersbyabolteddoor,sothat
nothingmightberemovedfromthemthatshouldnotbe,andsothattheslaves
wouldnotbreedwithoutourpermission.For,generally,honestslavesbecomemore
loyalwhentheyhaveproducedchildren,butwhenbadonesmate,theybecome
moretroublesome.
Xenophon,Oeconomicus7.18,2022,30,9.25;translatedbySarahB.Pomeroy,
XenophonOeconomicus,aSocialandHistoricalCommentary.Oxford:ClarendonPress,
1994,pp.141,143,155.
Thefundamentaldivisionofdomesticspacewasbetweenmenandwomen.Evenin
asmallhousewithonlytworooms,oneupstairsandoneonthegroundfloor,the
upperroomwasnormallythewomensquartersandthelowerroomthemens.
Entertainmenttookplaceinthemensquarters,andsoavisitortotheGreekhome
wouldmeetonlymalemembersofthefamily;whenstrangerswereinthehouse
womenandgirlswouldwithdrawtothesecludedpartsofthehomeandnotevenbe
mentionedbyname.Thefemalesinthehousehold,bothfreeandslave,sleptinthe
womensquarters.Theyalsoproducedtextilesthere,thoughinwarmweatherthey
mightmovetheirloomsintoaninteriorcourtyardandworkoutdoors,protectedby
thesurroundingwalls.
Unlessextremepovertycompelledthemtowork,citizenwomenrarelyventuredfar
fromthehouseexceptforfestivalsandfunerals.Inthiswaytheyavoidedencounters
withstrangemenwhowerenottheirrelativesandwhomightcompromisetheir
respectabilityeitherbyactualsexualcontactorbytherumorofit.Onlywomenin
straitenedcircumstanceswouldshopforgroceriesorhouseholditemsthemselves;
whereverpossible,slavesandhusbandsdidthemarketingandothererrandsthat
requiredleavingtheimmediateenvironsofthehome.
Theprevalenceofslavery,infact,shapedgenderrolesinavarietyofways.The
availabilityofslavesevenforfamiliesoffairlymodestmeanswasvital,forexample,
inperpetuatingthesocialidealofthevirtuouswomanwhoneverleftthehouse.
Thoughsomepooroikoihadtorelyonthelaboroffamilymembers,mostoikoihad
atleastoneortwofemaleslaves.Thedivisionoflaboramongtheverypoorand
amongslaveswasnotsostrictlygenderbasedasitwasforthemiddleandupper
classes.Underthewifessupervisionslavesperformeddomesticlabor,workingat
foodpreparation,childcare,andtextilemanufacture.Theywerealsocompelledto
providesexualservicestotheirmasters.Thereissomeevidencethatthispractice
causedstraininGreekhouseholdsandthattactfulhusbandsrestrictedtheir
extramaritaldalliancestolocationsoutsidetheirownhomes.

239
Figure6.12.Atticblackfigurelekythos,sixthcentury,attributedtotheAmasis
Painter,showingtextileproduction.Left:Womanspinning.Center:Womenweaving
ataverticalloom.Right:Womanweighingwool.
THEGREEKECONOMY
Theworkofslavesdidnotalwaystakeplaceinthecontextoftheoikos.Theextentto
whichslaveswereengagedinagriculturallaboriscontroversial.Somescholars
believethatlargenumbersofmaleslavesworkedonfarms,especiallywhena
wealthyownerhadlargeplotsoflandthatwerenotcontiguousbutscatteredabout
Attica.Othersstressthegroundingoftheagriculturaleconomyinthesmallfamily
farmworkedbytheindependentpeasantfarmer.Likewomen,slaveswereamuted
group;althoughtheywerenumerous,theirnamesandthoughtswerenotrecorded,
andfewhavelefttheirmarkonthehistoricalrecord.
Thereisnodoubtthatlargenumbersofslaveswereemployedinthecraftindustries,
someworkingfortheirownersandothersrentedoutbythem.Theirjobstendedto
begenderspecific.Menworkedinfactoriesmakingswords,
240
shields,furniture,pottery,andotheritems,whilewomenoftenworkedin
textilerelatedindustries.Inscriptionsrecordingexpensesincurredinconstructionon
theAthenianAcropolisshowthatslaveswerepaidthesameasfreeworkers.Of
course,thewagesofslaveswhowererentedoutwerepaidtotheirmasters.
Bynomeansallcraftspeoplewereslaves;Aristotleinfactcontendedthatmost
craftsmenwererich.Greekswhoseeconomicstatusallowedthemsomechoice
shunnedworkthatmadethemsubjecttothecommandsofanotherperson,andthis
includedmostcraftfields.Suchalife,theybelieved,wasdemeaningtoafreemale
citizen.Unlikefarming,towhichacertainnobilityalwaysattached,manualwork
performedindoorswasdespisedbymanywealthierGreeksandknownbythename
banausiclabor,whichmeansliterallyworkperformedoverahotfurnace,and
distinctionsbetweenskilledandunskilledlaborwereoftenignored.Itmaybethat
theleisuredclassesdisdainedindoorworkbecauseofitsconnectionwithslavesand
women.LitigantsinAtheniancourtroomsenjoyedmakingsnideremarksabouttheir
opponents(ortheiropponentsrelatives)everhavingheldanykindofjoboreven
havingrunabusiness,andpoliticaltheoristswhoalwayscamefromtheupper
classescontendedoftenthatstrenuousindoorworkoughttodisqualifypeoplefrom
votingonthegroundsthatitdamagedthemindassurelyasitcompromisedthe
body.MostGreeks,however,hadlimitedchoicesabouthowtosupportthemselves
andtheirfamilies,andthereisnoreasontobelievethatthosewhoworkedforothers

orperformedindoormanuallaborwereembarrassedabouttheirprofessions.Some
craftspeople,bothcitizensandmetics,achievedhighstatusasaconsequenceoftheir
technicalabilitiesandeconomicsuccess.Tombstonesfrequentlyboastedoftheir
occupantscraftskills;survivingexamplesincludeepitaphsofawoodcutteranda
miner.Aselsewhere,theideologyofliterateeliteswasatoddswiththedailypractice
ofordinarypeople.
ThedisdainwithwhichsomeGreeksregardedpaidlabordidnotpreventagreat
dealofworkfromgettingdoneoragoodbitofmoneyfrombeingmade.Sometimes,
however,revenuewastheproductofimperialismandotherformsofexploitation.It
mightcomeaswarbooty(slavesincluded),oritcouldtaketheformoftribute.The
sizeandwealthoftheAthenianempireplayedalargeroleindefiningthecharacter
ofthefifthcentury.Withoutthetributefromsubjectalliesitwouldhavebeen
difficultfortheAthenianstoinitiatethesystemofstatepayforstateserviceandthus
significantlyexpandtheproportionofcitizensabletoparticipateinthebusinessof
government.Democracywasnotentirelydependentonempire;theAthenianslost
theirempirein404BCbutcontinuedtohavedemocraticgovernmentforseveral
generationsuntiltheirconquestbyPhilipofMacedonin338(andinmanyrespects
democracypersistedevenafterthat).Butitcertainlyseemstohavereceivedits
impetusfromthesurplusfundsgeneratedbyimperialtribute.Thesplendid
buildingswithwhichtheAtheniansbeganadorningtheAcropolisshortlyafter
relocatingthetreasuryinAthenscertainlyowedtheirexistencetoimperialrevenues;
noempire,noParthenon.Inaddition,theempiresmaritimenaturemeantthatit
servedastheorganizingprincipleofGreektrade.ThecentralityoftheAthenian
empiretocommerciallifebecameabundantlyplaininthelate430swhenthe
AtheniansbannedMegarianmer
241
chantsfromtradinginimperialports,claimingtheyweresimplymakingrulesfor
theirownsphereofinfluenceasstipulatedbytheThirtyYearsPeace.The
consequencesofthismovewerefataltoMegariantrade,andoutrageoverthis
prohibitionwasonecauseofthelongPeloponnesianWarof431404.Especiallyafter
thedefeatofAeginain457,AthensmostformidablecommercialrivalwasCorinth.
PossessingportsbothontheSaronicGulfthatdividedAtticafromthePeloponnesus
andontheCorinthianGulftothenorthwest,theCorinthianshauledshipsoverland
fromtheoneharbortotheotherandthusenjoyedauniquepositioninGreek
commerce.
AgricultureandTrade
BeforethenineteenthcenturyADMostpeopleintheworldmadetheirlivingby
agriculture,andfifthcenturyGreekswerenoexception.Itwastrade,however,that

unitedthefarflungstatesthatringedtheseas,andtheroutesoverwhichmaterial
goodstraveledalsoservedasvitalconduitsfortheexchangeofideas.Traderivalries
likethatbetweenAthensandCorinthaccountedforagooddealoftensionamong
Greekpoleis.Mosttradewentbyboat,landtrafficbeingaslowandexpensive
businessoverrockyroads;thecostofcartingheavygoodsbylandmightwellexceed
thepriceofthegoodsthemselves.Fewroadswerereallysuitedforwheeledvehicles,
andsomepartsofGreece(includingAttica)lackedsufficientoxentodrawthem.
Boeotia,however,didabriskbusinessintransport,providingpackanimalsinlarge
numbers.
Lackingsophisticatednavigationalinstruments,Greekvesselsavoidedtheopenseas
whenpossible,preferringtohugtheshore.Marinerspreferredtolimitlongvoyages
tospringandsummer,thoughsomedeterminedspeculatorsinsistedonwinterruns
aswell.Speeds,however,hadincreasedconsiderablysinceHomerictimes,and
traveltimeshadbeencutinhalforbetter.Merchantvesselsaslargeas250tons
rangedtheoceanpropelledbyoarsandsail,andAtheniandeterminationclearedthe
watersofthepiracythathadbeensuchanimportantfactorinGreeklife;forthis,at
least,Athenssubjectalliesweregrateful(thoughthepirates,presumably,werenot).
Thewidespreaduseofcoinage,mostlysilver,facilitatedtrade,andAthenspressured
itsalliestoadoptitsowncurrency.Litigationarisingfromseatradewasso
widespreadthattheAtheniansestablishedaspecialcourtofnautodikai,ormarine
judges,tohandlecasesbroughttoAthens,butonthewholetheembryonicstateof
internationallawofferedlittlehopetovictimsofdishonestbusinesspractices.
Thediversityofnaturalresourcesintheancientworldmadetradeanecessity;no
polishadeverything,andsomepoleishadverylittleindeed.Atheniancommerce
especiallywasdrivenlargelybytheneedforgraintofeedalargepopulation.Grain
mightcomefromnorthorsouth.OnecrucialsourcewastheBlackSearegion,which
alsoprovidedhides,cattle,fish,hemp,wax,chestnuts,iron,andslaves.Forthisthe
Atheniansexchangedwineandoil,sometimesindecoratedvases.Theseexports
werethemselvesoftenresoldelsewhere;thePhoeniciansoftensentAtticvasesto
Egypt,andagooddealofsecondhandpottery
242
fromAthenshasbeendiscoveredinEtruriainItaly.Italiansalsoboughtagooddeal
ofAtticpotteryfirsthand.AnotherkeygranarylayinEgypt,whereAtticoliveoil
wasalsotradedforpapyrus,ivory,glasswork,slaves,andexoticanimals.Carthage
providedtextiles;Etruriafinebronzeworkandboots;Sicilypigs,cheese,andgrain;
Phoeniciapurpledyeanddates.Corinthexporteditsownwaresaswellasservingas
anintermediarybetweeneastandwest,sendingouttilesandmetalwork.Alreadyin
thefifthcenturyitseemsthatsomesilksfromChinamadetheirwaytoGreecevia
Scythianintermediaries.Arabiaexportedperfumes,andPersiacarpets.Important

sourcesofmetalswereidentifiedearly:Cyprusforcopper,Spainfortin,Laconiaas
wellastheBlackSeaforiron,ThasosandMountPangaeusinnorthernGreecefor
gold.AllthesegoodsflowedthroughouttheGreekworld,butmostofallthey
flowedintoPiraeus.
ThroughoutGreece,however,agricultureremainedthemostcommonsourceof
income.Athenswasbyfarthelargestcity,withapopulationthatnormallyvaried
between300,000and400,000.MostpeopleinAtticawhoparticipatedinpoliticallife
wereindependentfarmerswhoworkedfairlysmallplotsofland.Generallyunaware
ofthevalueofrotatingcropstomaximizetheproductivityofthesoil,farmersoften
allowedtheirlandtoliefallowinalternateyears,sothepoorestwereindeedquite
poor;thosewhoweredoingalittlebetterwereabletobuyafemaleslaveortwoto
helpoutaroundthehouse.Some,ofcourse,ownedagreatdealoflandanddidvery
well.Becauseonlycitizenscouldownland,eventheneediestfarmerstookpridein
theirwayoflife.
MeticsinFifthcenturyAthens
ManyrichresidentsofAthens,however,didnotownland,sinceitwasillegalfor
themtodosowithoutspecialdispensation.Theseweretheresidentaliensknownas
metics,andtheyplayedakeyroleintheeconomy.Craftspeopleandentrepreneurs
whohadcomefromallovertheGreekworldtoconductbusinessinAthens,metics
accountedforasignificantproportionoftheAthenianpopulation.Theycouldnot
voteorholdoffice;neithercouldtheirchildrenortheirchildrenschildren.They
wereforcedtoliveinrentedhomes.Buttheysufferednosocialdisabilities,and
meticfamiliesmingledcomfortablywithfamiliesofcitizens.Anumberofthecentral
charactersinPlatosworksweremetics,andthemostfamousPlatonicdialogue,The
Republic,wassetatthehomeoftherichmeticCephalus,whomPericleshadinvited
toAthensfromSyracuse.Citizens,metics,andslavesoftenworkedsidebyside,
sometimesforthesamepay;alistofworkersatoneconstructionsiteincluded
eightysixlaborerswhosestatuscanbedeterminedtwentyfourcitizens,fortytwo
metics,andtwentyslaves.Inacrisis,meticscouldbedraftedintothearmedforces.
ManyofAthensmostdistinguishedintellectualsweremetics,suchasthe
philosopherAnaxagorasfromAsiaMinorandtherhetoricianGorgiasfromSicily.
PericlescommonlawwifeAspasiabelongedtothemeticclass,anditwasforthis
reasonthatherequiredadecreeoftheassemblytograntcitizenshiptotheirchildren.
TheinabilityofmeticwomentoproducesonswhocouldenjoyAthen
243
iancitizenshipplayedalargeroleinshapingthecontoursofAtheniansociety,
creatingtwoclassesofwomenavailableaslongtermpartnerstocitizenmenmetic
mistressesandcitizenwives.(Inaddition,avarietyofprostitutes,bothslaveand

free,wereavailableforbrieferencounters,andownersenjoyedtheprivilegeof
sexualaccesstotheirslaves.)Mostmeticwomen,ofcourse,werehousewives
marriedtometicmen.Slaveswhoweregrantedtheirfreedombecamemeticsrather
thancitizens.MeticslivedinmanyotherpoleisbesidesAthens,butalmostnothingis
knownofmeticsinotherpartsofGreece.***Theculturalachievementsofsixthand
earlyfifthcenturyGreeceweresubstantial,butthedifficultiesthecitystates
experiencedingettingalongwithoneanother(andtheiraversiontounitingintoa
singlepoliticalunit)wouldhaveaprofoundimpactonthedirectionGreek
civilizationwouldtake.TheThirtyYearsPeaceheldagreatdealofpromise,butit
wasproblematicinmanyways.DividingtheGreekworldopenlyintotwospheresof
influenceaSpartanlandempireinmainlandGreeceandanAtheniannavalonein
theAegeanwasadubiousenterprise.Fromonestandpoint,bydrawinglinesclearly
theagreementseemedtoholdoutthehopeofpeace;butitalsofosteredapotentially
dangerousbipolarity.Thenotionofsubmittingdisputestoarbitrationwasallvery
civilizedintheabstract,butwitheverystateofanyreputationalliedwithonesideor
theother,justwhowasgoingtoactasmediator?Notreaty,moreover,couldchange
thefactthatMegarastillsatuneasilyontheAtticborder,orcoulddiminishthe
commercialrivalrybetweenAthensandCorinth.In445itwasimpossibletopredict
whetherthepeacewouldlast.
TRANSLATIONS

Lattimore,Richmond.1959.Agamemnon,fromTheCompleteTragedies,David
GreneandRichmondLattimore,eds.Vol.1,Aeschylus.Chicago:Universityof
ChicagoPress.

Pomeroy,Sarah.1994.XenophonOeconomicus,aSocialandHistoricalCommentary.
Oxford:ClarendonPress.

ScottKilvert,Ian.1960.TheRiseandFallofAthens:NineGreekLivesbyPlutarch.
Harmondsworth,England:Penguin.
SUGGESTEDREADINGS

Cohen,David.1991.Law,Sexuality,andSociety:TheEnforcementofMoralsin
ClassicalAthens.Cambridge,Eng.:CambridgeUniversityPress.Whatthe
framingandapplicationoflawrevealaboutsexualvaluesandpractices.

Ehrenberg,Victor.1973.FromSolontoSocrates.2nded.London:Methuen.This
remainsasensitiveandthoughtfulstudyoftheevolutionofGreekculture
duringthesixthandfifthcenturies.
244

Fantham,Elaine,HeleneFoley,NatalieKampen,SarahB.Pomeroy,andH.A.
Shapiro.1994.WomenintheClassicalWorld:ImageandText.NewYorkand
Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.Anexaminationofthewrittenandvisual
evidenceforthelivesofancientwomen,placedwithintheirhistoricaland
culturalcontext.
Hanson,Victor.1989.TheWesternWayofWar:InfantryBattleinClassicalGreece.

NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf.Agrippingaccountoftheexperienceofhoplite
battle.
Hignett,Charles.1952.AHistoryoftheAthenianConstitutiontotheEndoftheFifth
CenturyB.C.Oxford:ClarendonPress.Aclosestudyoftheevolutionofthe
constitutionatAthens.
Just,Roger.1989.WomeninAthenianLawandLife.LondonandNewYork:
Routledge.AstudyofhowAthenianmensoughttodefineandlocatewomen.
Meiggs,Russell.1972.TheAthenianEmpire.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.A
richlydetailedexaminationofAthenianimperialismandtheworldthatcame
underitssway.
Pollitt,JeromeJ.1972.ArtandExperienceinClassicalGreece.Cambridge,Eng.:
CambridgeUniversityPress.AsensitivesurveyofGreekartthatgroundsit
firmlyinitshistoricalcontext.
Pomeroy,SarahB.1998.FamiliesinClassicalandHellenisticGreece:Representations
andRealities.Oxford:ClarendonPress.AnaccountoftheGreekfamilyasa
productive,reproductive,andsocialunit.
245
7
GREECEONTHEEVEOFTHEPELOPONNESIANWAR

AvoidingwarwasparticularlyimportantwhentheGreekshadsuchprecious
achievementstoprotectinsomanyareas.FromSicilytoAnatolia,remarkable
templestothegodsproclaimedthegrandeurofHelleniccivilizationundertheopen
sky.Greekshipspliedtheseasinalldirections,enablingmenandwomenhundreds
ofmilesawaytoexchangetheirwaresandprofitfromawidevarietyofresources
andskills.Novelexperimentsingovernmentwereinprogress.Thesamediversity
thatfosteredthedynamiccreativityoftheGreeks,however,alsofragmentedtheir
world.Theworldofthepolis,moreover,wasinmanywaysanarrowone.Despite
thegrowthofwhattheGreekscalleddemocracy,ultimatelyeachpoliswasgrounded
intheruleofaneliteoffreemenovereveryoneelse;andtheinabilityofthepoleisto
getalongbodedillforthefutureofGreece.Inevitably,prospectsforthefuturewere
cloudedbyintermittentsuspicionsthatthepeacebetweentheAthenianandSpartan
campsmightnotendure.
SOURCESFORGREECEONTHEEVEOFTHEWAR
Theprincipalsourceforthedecadesthatprecededtheoutbreakofthegreatwar
betweenAthensandSpartaisThucydidesHistory.Thucydidesservedasageneralin
thewarandwrotethehistoryoftheperiodfrom479to411BC,thoughhisaccountof
theyearsbefore433isnotasdetailedashisnarrativeofthewaritselfandthe
tensionsthatimmediatelyprecededit.Agoodnumberofinscriptionssurvive,

althoughnowherenearasmanyaswewouldlike.DiodorusLibraryofHistory
remainsuseful.Thoughhewasnotagreathistoriananddoesnotaddtoour
understandingofthewarwhenheisusingThucydidesashisonlysource,Diodorus
didsometimesdrawinformationfromotherwriters.Plutarchishelpfulaswell;
biographieslikethatofPericlesincorporateagreatdealofinformationfromfifth
andfourthcenturyhistorianswhoseworkislost.Alltheintellectualswhohaveleft
recordsoftheirthoughts,fromthehistorianHerodotusto
246
thephysicianHippocrates,havecontributedtoourunderstandingofhowGreeks
viewedtheirworldatthisfertileperiodintheirculturalhistory.Finally,agreatdebt
isowedtothevisualartistswholeftusawidearrayofpottery,sculpture,
tombstones,andarchitecture.Unfortunately,however,Greekwriterswerehardly
representativeofthewholepopulation.Inmanystatesartistsworkedatthebehestof
elites.Tobesure,insomedemocraticpoleislikeAthenssuccessfuldramaticpoets
hadtospeaktothepeople,butitisimportanttorememberthatwhatwecallhistory
isinfactanimageoftheworldreconstructedprimarilyfromwhatseemedworthyof
creationortransmissiontothemindsofthattinyfractionofthehumanracewho
wereurban,literatemales.
GREECEAFTERTHETHIRTYYEARSPEACE
In445,rightafterthesigningofthepeace,manyGreekswereoptimistic,convinced
thatAthensandSpartahadputtheirdifferencesbehindthem.Thefactthattheir
optimismwasmisplacedmakesithardforhistorianstoavoidseeingtheyearsbefore
thePeloponnesianWarof431404asanythingbutapreludetohostilities.Thoughit
isimportanttotrytounderstandeventsastheyunfoldratherthanassessingthem
onlyintermsoftheirconsequences,hindsightalsohassomevalue.Lookingback
fromthevantagepointofthewarthatfollowed,certaineventsofthe440sand430s
takeonparticularsignificance.
DuringthisperiodtheAtheniansshowedamarkedinterestinthewestandinthe
northeast.AthenshadmultiplemotivesforacceptingMegaraintoitsalliancein460,
butthedesireforaccesstotheportofPegaeontheCorinthianGulfwascertainlyone
factor,andthesettlementoftheMesseniansatNaupactusseveralyearslater
providedaconvenientstoppingplaceforshipsheadingwest.Itwasprobablyalsoin
the450sthatAthenscontractedanalliancewithEgestainnorthwestSicily.Alliances
withRhegiuminthetoeofItalyandwithanotherSiciliancity,Leontini,followed
shortlyafterward;itmaybesignificantthattensionsmarkedtherelationshipof
LeontiniwithSyracuse,acolonyandallyofAthenstraderivalCorinth.Commerce
withthewesternGreeksplayedakeyroleintheAthenianeconomy.Largequantities
ofredfigurepotterywereexportedtoEtruria,andAthenianshipsreturnedfrom

ItalyladenwithgrainandcheesefromSicilyandmetalworkfromthemainland.
GraduallytheGreekcitiesofSicilyadoptedAtheniancurrency.
ThatAthenshadagrowinginterestintherichlandstothewestisconfirmedby
PericlesdecisiontofoundacolonyintheinstepofsouthernItalyin443.Thurii,
however,wastobenoordinaryestablishment,fortheAtheniansinvitedtheother
GreekstatestoshareinfoundingaPanhelleniccolony,thusdemonstratingtheir
commitmenttoaspiritofcooperationandgoodwill.Thecolonywassentoutunder
theguidanceofPericlesgoodfriendLampontheseer,whommanypeoplebelieved
tohaveaspecialrelationshipswiththegods.Lamponobtainedoraclesregardingthe
citysfoundingfromDelphithatcouldguidethecolonistsinselectingpreciselythe
rightsiteforthetown.Laidoutaccordingto
247
Figure7.1.SicilyandsouthernItaly.
theplansofthesameHippodamuswhohaddesignedthePiraeus,Thuriibecame
hometoanumberofnonAtheniansincludingthehistorianHerodotus.Although
theconstitutionofThuriiwasdemocraticandthelocalcoinswerestampedwiththe
headofAthena,thecityadoptedthelawsofZaleucus,anesteemedlawgiverfrom
Locris,andwhenadisagreementledthecolonistssomeyearslatertogotoDelphito
asktowhomtheybelonged,theDelphicoracleclaimedthemforApollo,notAthens.
PericlesintentionsforThuriiremainuncertain.Washisdeterminationtocastthe
colonyasPanhellenicasinceredisclaimerofAthenianmeddlinginthewest,orwas
hesimplyhopingtoheadoffCorinthianresentmentbycloakingwesternimperialism
inPanhellenism?Inanyevent,theAtticelementinthepopulationwasgreatly
dilutedwiththepassingoftime,andtheCorinthiansdonotappeartohavetaken
offense.
Athensimmediateinterest,however,layintheareaaroundThraceandtheBlackSea
region.FromheretheAtheniansimportedhides,dyes,and,moreim
248
portantly,grainandtimber,andtheroutestothispartoftheworldalsogaveaccess
tothecaravanroutethroughtheUralMountainstoCentralAsiaandultimatelyto
theChinesefrontier,whencetheWestcouldexpectfurs,gold,andperhapsevensilk.
Around445theAtheniansfoundedtheThraciancolonyofBrea,andsometenyears
laterPericleshimselfsailedwithanAtheniansquadrontotheBlackSea.

WhiletheAthenianswereengagedinexpandingtheirsphereofinteresttothenorth
andthewest,analarmingrevoltbrokeoutintheeast.In440,Samosrebelled.
SpreadingtoByzantium,theuprisingthrewterrorintotheAthenians,foritseemed
tothreatentheverycontinuationoftheirAegeanempire.Yearslater,accordingto
Thucydides,GreekslookedbackandobservedthatSamoshadalmostmanagedto
wrestfromtheAthenianstheircontrolofthesea.(8.76.4)Anoligarchy,Samoshad
quarreledwiththedemocraticgovernmenttheAthenianshadrecentlyestablishedin
neighboringMiletus,andtheMilesianswhocomplainedtoAthenswerejoinedby
someSamianswhowishedtooverthrowtheirgovernment.Oneofthreeprivileged
allies(alongwithLesbosandChios)whowerestillcontributingshipsratherthan
tributemoneytotheAthenianleague,SamostookumbrageattheAtheniandirective
tosubmitthemattertoarbitration,whereupontheAthenianssentfortyshipsto
deposethegovernmentandreplaceitwithademocracy.Itwasatthisjuncturethat
theSamianoligarchsseizedcontrolofthegovernmentbyforceandrevoltedfrom
Athens.InthisventuretheywereassistedbyPissuthnes,thesatrapofSardis.
ThespreadoftheconflagrationtoByzantiumimperiledAthenianaccesstotheBlack
Seaandraisedthespecterofageneralrevoltalongthecoastoreventhroughoutthe
empire.ThedeterminedcampaignthatfollowedinvolvedalltenoftheAthenian
strategoiandover200ships160fromAthensand55fromtheremainingalliesinthe
navy,LesbosandChios.ThesiegeofSamoslastedninemonths.Whenthecityfell,
theAtheniansconfiscatedtheSamiannavyandestablishedademocracy.Aheavy
indemnitywasimposedandhostagestaken.Plutarchreportsthatalocalhistorian,
Duris,claimedthatPericlesboundtheSamiancommandersandmarinestopostsin
themarketplaceandleftthemtherefortendays;hethengaveordersthattheirheads
bebeateninwithclubsandtheirbodiestossedonthegroundtorot(Pericles28).
Mostscholarsdoubttheaccuracyofthisclaim,buttheexistenceofthestoryreflects
theextremebitternessofthefeelingsonbothsides.Aboutthesubjugationof
ByzantiumweknownothingexceptthattheByzantinesagreedtoreturntothe
empire.
MeanwhileAthenskeptitsgazefixedonthenortheast,plantingacolonyata
strategicpointontheStrymonRiverbytheborderofMacedoniaandThrace.Tothe
samesiteinabendoftheriverwhereCimonswouldbecolonistshadbeen
murderedbyangryThracianssomethirtyyearsbefore,theAthenianssentthe
generalHagnonin437tofoundthecolonyofAmphipolis,sonamedbecausethe
riverflowedaround(amphi)thecityonthreesides.Thistimethecolonyflourished.
InadditiontoprotectingAthensaccesstograin,timber,andminerals,Amphipolis
helpedtheAtheniansmonitoractivitiesintherecentlyorganizedkingdomofthe
ThracianOdrysianstothenorthandeastaswellasinMacedo
249

niatothewest.Butthefactthatthetowndrewmuchofitspopulationfrom
neighboringtownsundermineditsidentificationwithAthens,andduringthewar
withSpartaitfailedtoserveasarallyingpointforAthenianloyaltiesinthenorth.
Withinlessthanfifteenyearsofitsfounding,AmphipoliswasinSpartanhands.
WeknownexttonothingabouthowSpartanslookedattheworldduringtheyears
betweenthesigningoftheThirtyYearsPeacein445andtheirdeclarationofwaron
Athensin432.TheonetantalizingtidbitthatleapsoutfromthepagesofThucydides
istheCorinthiansclaimthattheydissuadedtheSpartansfromattackingAthensat
thetimeoftheSamianrebellion:Wedidnotcastthedecidingvoteagainstyou,
theyreport,whenSamosrevoltedfromyou,andwhenthePeloponnesianswere
evenlydividedoverwhethertohelpthem.Weopenlyopposedit,sayingthatany
citycouldpunishitsownallies.(1.40)Ifthestoryistrueandnotfabricatedforthe
purposeofscoringpointswiththeAthenians,thensomeGreekswhoparticipatedin
meetingsofthePeloponnesianLeaguesawmeritinattackingAthensin440,and
Spartansmaywellhavebeenamongthem.
TheCorinthiansclaimalsosuggeststhatmany,indeedmost,peopleinCorinthwere
untroubledbythefoundationofThurii,oratleastnotsotroubledthattheywished
tomakewaronAthens.Thechancesforpeace,therefore,wereprobablystillfairly
reasonableduringtheearly430s.Aseriesofinterrelatedcriseslaterinthedecade,
however,broughtthepeacetoanend,andinthesecrisesCorinthplayedalargepart.
THEBREAKDOWNOFTHEPEACE
Intheabsenceofastrongcommitmenttoamicablecoexistence,thetermsofthe
ThirtyYearsPeacecontainedwithinthemtheseedsofwar.Arbitrationwas
meaninglesswhenallthemajorstateswerelinedupononesideoranother;rules
madeinonesphereofinfluencemightwellhaveanimpactontheother;andsome
statesenjoyedanambiguousstatus,withonefootineachcamp.Onallthesefronts
thepeacewasvulnerable,astheeventsthatbeganin435inaremotecornerofthe
Greekworldweretoprove.
TroubleatEpidamnus
ThecityofEpidamnus,Thucydideswrites,isontherightasyousailintotheIonic
Gulf.NonGreekspeakingTaulantiansanIllyrianpeoplelivenearby.The
Corcyraeanscolonizedthecity,althoughtheoikists,summonedaccordingtothe
ancientcustomfromthemothercity,wasaCorinthian(1.24;Blanco,adapted).
PlainlyThucydidesassumesthatreadersmayneedtobetoldthelocationofthis
littleknowntown.IntheCorcyreancolonyofEpidamnus,heexplains,acivilwar
brokeoutbetweenthedemocratsandtheoligarchs,movingthedemocratstoseek
assistancefromCorcyra.Whentheirmothercityturnedthemdownforreasonswe
donotknow,theywereencouragedbyDelphito

250
handthemselvesovertotheirgrandmotherCorinthinstead.Sincecoloniesthat
establishedcoloniesoftheirowntookanoikists(founder)fromtheoriginalfounding
city,aCorinthian,Phalius,wasthetechnicalfounderofEpidamnus,andthe
CorinthiansagreedtoassisttheEpidamniandemocrats,inpartbecauseofalong
standingfeudwithCorcyra.TheCorcyreans,however,scoredaconspicuousvictory
overtheCorinthianfleetthatsailedtotheaidofEpidamnus.Theappalled
Corinthianssetaboutbuildingamoresubstantialfleetwithwhichtohumble
Corcyraandretaintheirpredominanceinwesternwaters.
TheAllianceofCorcyraandAthens
BecausetheCorcyreansbelongedtoneitherthePeloponnesianLeaguenorthe
Athenianalliance,theyhadmuchtofearfromthegrowingCorinthiannavy.With
theprospectsofaSpartanalliancecutoffbySpartasrelationshiptoCorinth,they
determinedtoseekalliancewiththeAthenians,sendingambassadorstoAthensin
thesummerof433.ThoughtheThirtyYearsPeacespecifiedthatneutralsmightjoin
eitherside,theAthenianswereunderstandablynervousaboutallyingwithCorcyra,
theenemyofthemostpowerfulnavalstateinthePeloponnesianLeague;butthey
wereevenmoreapprehensiveaboutwhatwouldhappenifmightyCorinthdefeated
andabsorbedCorcyrassubstantialfleet.Better,theydecided,togainthoseshipsfor
Athens,andso,afteradebatethatextendedovertwodays,theyvotedtomakean
alliancewithCorcyra.PresumablyPericleswasoneofthosewhoarguedinfavorof
thealliance.ThoughtheAthenianssoughttoavoidprovokingthePeloponnesiansby
makingthealliancemerelyadefensiveone,thistechnicalityfoolednobody.Itwas
plainthatCorinthwasabouttoattackCorcyraandthatAtheniansandCorinthians
wouldsoonbefighting.
ItwasprobablyintheslimhopeofnotprovokingtheSpartansthattheAthenians
sentonlytenshipstoCorcyrasassistanceandchoseasoneoftheircommandersthe
sonCimonhadnamed,ofallthings,Lacedaemonius.Theirinstructions,Thucydides
writes,weretoavoidbattlewiththeCorinthiansifatallpossible,andtoengageonly
iftheCorinthianswereactuallyonthepointoflandingonCorcyreanterritory.Inthe
latesummerof433,theCorinthiansattackedtheCorcyreanfleetof110shipsoffthe
islandchainknownasSybota.ThePeloponnesianforceconsistedofninety
CorinthianshipsandsixtymoresuppliedbyElis,Ambracia,Anactorium,Leucas,
andsignificantlyAthensneighborMegara.ThoughatfirsttheAthenianshung
backcautiously,whenitwasclearthattheCorcyreansweregettingtheworstofit
theybegantogivethemincreasingsupport.Thus,Thucydidespointsout,asituation
inevitablycameaboutinwhichCorinthiansandAthenianswereopenlyfighting
withoneanother.

AmisunderstandingrescuedtheCorcyreansfromcompletedestruction.Toward
evening,whentheCorinthianshaddisabledoverhalftheCorcyreanfleetand
seemedtobeonthevergeofannihilatingtheirowncolony,theastonishedCorcyrean
sailorsnoticedthattheCorinthianshipshadsuddenlybeguntoretreat.Investigation
provedthattheyhadsightedshipssailingupfromthesouthandhadconjectured
thatperhapsAthenshaddecidedtoaidCorcyrainfullforce.
251
Theywereonlypartiallycorrect.TheshipswereindeedfromAthens,wherethe
Athenians,whowereplainlydividedabouttheexpedition,hadthoughtbetterof
dispatchingameretenshipsandhaddecidedtoaddtwentymore.Mostdecidedly,
however,itwasnottheentireAthenianarmadathatwasapproaching,andthe
Corinthianspaidheavilyfortheirmomentofpanic.
TheProblemofPotidaea
ChancesofawarbetweentheAtheniansandthePeloponnesianshadnowincreased,
andinthemonthsfollowingtheBattleofSybotaAthensissuedproblematicdecrees
againsttwomembersofthePeloponnesianLeague.ThecityofPotidaeaonthe
ChalcidicpeninsulaoccupiedtwopositionsintheGreekworldsimultaneously:it
wasbothaCorinthiancolonyandamemberoftheAthenianalliance.BecauseGreek
colonieswerefullyautonomous,therewasnothingillegalaboutthis,butinaclimate
ofescalatingtensions,Potidaeasambiguousidentificationwaslikelytobeasource
ofstrain.ThepotentialdifficultieswereaggravatedbythefactthatPotidaeas
relationshiptoitsmothercitywaseverythingthatCorcyraswasnot.Corcyrawas
theproverbialbadcolony,actingindependentlyfromCorinthinallthings
excludingtheCorinthiansfromthecustomaryprivilegesatpublicfestivalsand
boastingofitsfinancialandmilitarysuperioritytoitsmothercity.Potidaea,onthe
otherhand,wasexceptionallyattachedtoitsmothercityandevenwentsofarasto
acceptitsannualmagistratesfromCorinth.Duringthewinterof433432,the
AtheniansorderedthePotidaeanstodismisstheirCorinthianmagistrates,rejectany
futureofficialsfromCorinth,teardowntheirseawarddefenses,andgivehostages.
Theirmotiveswereprobablymixedandincludedthedesiretotakevengeanceon
CorinthandfearofCorinthianinterferenceintheAtheniansphereofinfluence.The
proximityofPotidaeatoMacedoniacomplicatedanalreadydifficultsituation,for
MacedoniawasavaluablesourceoftimberforshipbuildingnotonlyforAthenian
shipsbutforCorinthianonesaswell.
AfterunsuccessfulattemptstonegotiatewiththeAthenians,thePotidaeanssent
envoystothePeloponnesus.ThucydidesreportsthatCorinthianenvoyshelpedthem
extractapromisefromatleastsomeSpartansthatSpartacouldinvadeAtticaif
Potidaeawereattacked.ThefirsttoinvolvethemselvesinthePotidaeanaffair,

however,werenottheSpartansbuttheMacedonians.OnceanAthenianally,
MacedoniaskingPerdiccashadbeenalienatedbyAthenssupportoftworelatives
whochallengedhisrighttothethrone.PerdiccasnotonlyencouragedtheSpartans
tomoveagainstAthensandurgedtheCorinthianstoraisearevoltinPotidaea;he
alsopersuadedthepeoplesofChalcidiceandBottiaeatojoinwithPotidaeainrevolt
againstAthens.AthensthenattackedMacedonia,whileCorinthenteredasecret
alliancewiththeBottiaeanandChalcidianstates.Twothousandmencalled
volunteerssomeCorinthians,somePeloponnesianmercenariesenteredPotidaea.
TheAtheniansdefeatedthisforceandlaidsiegetoPotidaea.Thesiegewouldlastfor
twoyearsandcosttheAtheniansmuchinmenandmoney.
252
AthenianDecreesAgainstMegara
Aroundthesametime,theAthenianstookactionagainstMegara.Because
ThucydidesdidnotdiscussthedecreesrelatingtoMegarainanydetail,we
understandmuchlessaboutthisthirdcrisisthanwedoabouttheCorcyreanalliance
andtheconflictwithPotidaea.Thetimeframeisuncertainandthecausesofthe
frictionvague.Borderingpoleisoftenquarreled.TheAtheniansaccusedthe
Megariansofharboringescapedslavesandofcultivatingsomesacredandundefined
landthatlaybetweenEleusisandMegara.Theywereprobablyangrytooatthe
assistanceMegarahadgivenCorinthattheBattleofSybota.Atleastonedecree
againstMegara,passedprobablyin432,excludedMegarianmerchantsfromallports
oftheAthenianempire.ThisdecreeenabledtheAthenianstoinflictconsiderable
harmonamemberofthePeloponnesianLeaguewithouttechnicallyinfringingthe
termsoftheThirtyYearsPeace.SincetherewerefewGreekportsoutsidethe
Athenianempire,theirclaimthattheyweresimplyregulatingtheirownsphereof
influencewasdisingenuous.PlainlytheMegarianeconomywouldbedevastatedby
theseeconomicsanctions,andtheAthenianscouldhardlyhaveexpectedthe
Spartanstositidlybywhiletheirallysufferedsoconspicuously.
EvenmorethantheotheractionstakenbytheAthenianassemblyduringtheyears
thatprecededtheoutbreakofthePeloponnesianWar,thesanctionsagainstMegara
(andthesubsequentrefusaltorevokethem)areassociatedwiththenameofPericles.
TheplaysofAristophanesandPlutarchsbiographyofPericlesmakeitplainthat
somepeopleconsideredthefrictionwithMegarapivotalinbringingonthewarand
blamedPericlesfortheoutbreakofhostilities.ScatteredreferencesinThucydides
confirmthis.Intheautumnof432theCorinthiansdenouncedtheAtheniansbefore
theSpartanassembly.ThoughtheSpartankingArchidamusurgedcautionandtried
toconvincehisfellowSpartanstopostponetakinganyactionuntiltheycouldbuild
uptheirresourcesforwar,hisargumentsdidnotprevail,andtheSpartansvotedthat

theAthenianshadviolatedtheThirtyYearsPeace.Theythensummoneddelegates
fromthePeloponnesianLeaguewhodulyvotedtogotowarwithAthens.
LastDitchAttemptstoAvertWar
ArchidamuswasanoldfamilyfriendofPericles,buthewasbynomeanstheonly
SpartanhesitanttofightAthens,andforseveralmonthsaftertheformaldecisionfor
warhadbeentakentheSpartanssentembassiestotheAtheniansdemanding
concessionsthatcouldpreservepeacefulrelations.Theseincludedfreeingthe
Greeks(abandoningtheempire),expellinganycursedAlcmaeonidsinthecity(
PericleswasanAlcmaeonidonhismothersside),andrescindingtheMegarian
decree.TheAtheniansrespondedwithdemandsoftheirown.Theyrequested,for
example,thattheSpartanspurifythecurseofthegoddessoftheBrassHouse,a
referencetotheimpietiesinvolvedinthedeathbystarvationdecadesearlierof
Pausanias,whoaswehaveseenhadtakenrefugeinthegoddessstemple.Though
someoftheseexchangesinvolvednothingmorethanpi
253
ousposturing,otherswereplainlysincere,particularlyonSpartasbehalf.Whatthese
interchangesmakeclearare,first,thatPericleswasfirmlyentrenchedastheleaderof
theAtheniansandastheframerofAthenianpolicy;second,thattheMegariandecree
wasofconsiderableimportancetotheSpartans;andthird,thatbothAthensand
Spartaweresplitaboutthedesirabilityofwar.Whennegotiationshadbeengoingon
forseveralmonths,theimpatientThebansforcedambivalentSpartashandby
attackingAthensallyPlataea.BecausePlataeaenjoyedaspecialpositioninGreeceas
thesiteofagreatvictoryagainstPersiain478,thisassaultwasconsidered
particularlyheinous.AfterwardnobodycouldquestionthatthePeloponnesiansand
theAthenianswereatwar.
RESOURCESFORWAR
ThusendedtheperiodofahalfcenturybetweenthePersianandPeloponnesianwars
towhichThucydidesgavethenamethePentakontaetia(theFiftyYears)
(technicallyfortysevenyears).Inthejockeyingforpositionthatwentonduringthe
monthsleadinguptotheThebanattackonPlataea,theSpartansseemtohavecome
outahead.Thoughitwastheywhohaddeclaredwar,theGreekworldwasinclined
toseeimperialistAthensastheaggressorandsomeAtheniansagreed,censuring
PericlesforhiscombativestanceandadvocatingthenullificationoftheMegarian
decrees.SpartadidnotkeepastightaholdonthemembersofthePeloponnesian
LeagueasdidAthensonthoseofitsempire.Inaculturethatprizedautonomyas
muchasGreeksdid,consequently,itwaspossibleforSpartatoputitselfforwardin
oppositiontoAthensasthechampionoffreedomasthestatethathadneveritself

enduredatyrantandthatopposedtyrannythroughoutGreece.Whenwarbrokeout,
Thucydideswrites,
PopularopinionshapedupinfavoroftheSpartansbyfar,especiallysincetheyhad
proclaimedthattheyweregoingtoliberateGreece.Everywhere,cityandcitizen
alikewereeager,ifatallpossible,tojoinwiththeminwordanddeed,andeveryone
feltthatanyplanwouldcometoastandstillifhehimselfcouldnottakepartinit.
ThatishowangrymostpeoplewereatAthenssomebecausetheywantedtorid
themselvesofAthenianrule,andothersbecausetheywerefrightenedlesttheyfall
underthatrule.
(ThePeloponnesianWar2.8;Blanco1998)
ThucydidesalsoliststheprincipalcombatantsatthetimeoftheattackonPlataeain
431.OnthePeloponnesiansidewereCorinth,Boeotia,Megara,Locris,Phocis,
Ambracia,Leucas,Anactoria,andallstatesinthePeloponnesusitselfexceptfor
ArgosandAchaea(thoughinAchaeathestateofPellenedidjointheSpartans).
RangedontheAtheniansidewereanassortmentofallies,somenodoubt
enthusiasticbutmanyreluctant,expectingtogainnothingfromthewarand
imaginingthattheywouldenjoyautonomyifSpartacouldbringanendtoAthens
imperialpretensions.(Thosewhobelievedthisweremistaken.TheSpartanhege
254
monythatfollowedthewarprovedsodistastefulthatnumerousstateswereeagerto
jointhenavalconfederacytheAtheniansestablishedinthefourthcentury.)The
AtheniansalliesatthetimewarbrokeoutwereChios,Lesbos,Plataea,Zacynthus,
theMesseniansofNaupactus,mostofAcarnania,Corcyra,andsomecitiesthatpaid
tributeontheCariancoast(includingthenearbyDoriancities),inIonia,inthe
Hellespont,inThrace,amongtheCyclades(exceptforMelosandThera),andamong
whatThucydidescallstheislandsthatliebetweenthePeloponnesusandCrete
towardtheeast.
Thebelligerentsdifferednotonlyintemperamentbutalsointhenatureoftheir
militarystrengths.TheAthenianshadagreatdealmoremoneythanthe
Peloponnesians,andtheirnavywasincomparablysuperior.Athensitselfpossessed
overthreehundredshipsandcouldcountonahundredorsomorefromitsallies
Chios,Lesbos,and,ofcourse,Corcyra.ThePeloponnesiansreliedprincipallyonthe
Corinthiannavyandcouldnotputmanymorethanahundredshipsinthewater.
Theircrews,moreover,couldnotcompareinskillandexperiencewiththoseofthe
Athenians.ButthePeloponnesianinfantrywasformidable.Anadvancingphalanxof
SpartanhopliteswearingtheirdistinctiveredtunicsandsportingthedreadedLfor
LacedaemonontheirshieldsthrewterrorintoSpartasenemies.Thecombined
infantryofthePeloponnesiansoutnumberedthatoftheAthenians.Moreover,agood

numberoftheirsoldierswereSpartanswhohadspenttheirentirelivestrainingfor
thiswarwhilehelotsandperioikoiattendedtotheotherbusinessoflife.Forthese,
thecitizenfarmersoldiersoftheaverageGreekstatewereadubiousmatch.
Accordingly,Athenshopedtoconductasmuchofthewaraspossibleatsea,while
theSpartanswouldfocusontheland.TheAthenianswerefightingessentiallya
defensivewar,whosegoalwastopreservetheempiretheSpartanssoughtto
destroy.ForAthensastalematewouldamounttovictory.Spartaneededsomething
more.
INTELLECTUALLIFEINFIFTHCENTURYGREECE
AsPericleslaydying,Plutarchmaintains,hespokewithprideofwhatheconsidered
hisgreatestachievementthatnolivingAthenianeverputonmourningbecauseof
me.Theinaccuracyofthispeculiarboastbecameincreasinglyclearwithevery
passingyear.ThewarPericleshadencouragedhisfellowAthenianstofightwiththe
PeloponnesianLeaguewouldsapthestrengthofoneofthemostextraordinary
civilizationstheworldhaseverseen.LookingatthevibrantcivilizationofGreecein
themiddleofthefifthcentury,itwouldhavebeenhardforanyonealiveatthetime
tobelievethehorrorsthatlayahead.Magnificenttemplestothegodsdottedthe
landscape,deckedoutwithfriezesthatcelebratedhumananddivine
accomplishment.Shipspliedtheseasmoreorlessunharriedbypirates,transporting
bothrawmaterialsliketimber(tobuildmoreships)andartifactssuchassuperb
paintedpottery.AndthroughouttheGreekcitiespeoplehadbeguntoexplorenew
ideasabouttheuniverseandhumanitysplaceinit.
255
Figure7.2.AlliancesattheoutsetofthePeloponnesianWar.
256

257
SpeculatingAbouttheNaturalWorld
GreeksofHesiodsdayhadviewedtheearlieststateoftheuniverseasaformless
voidtheycalledchaos.Outofchaos,theybelieved,theorderoftheirownworldhad
emergedkosmos,aGreekwordmeaningbothorderandbeauty(hencetheword
cosmeticsformakeup,orcosmeticsurgerytoimproveappearance).Mythology
servedtheimportantfunctionofgroundingthegrowthofcosmosfromchaosin
variousactionstakenbythegods.ThegreatcontributionofthesixthcenturyGreek

thinkersofIoniahadlainintheirdeterminationtoabandonthismythologicaland
religiousframeworkandattemptinsteadtoexplaintheworldbymaterialprocesses
alone.
AswehaveseeninChapter3,theIonianrationalistshadfocusedonthenatural
worldratherthanonthevaluesofthehumancommunity.LikethoseofCharles
Darwininthenineteenthcentury,however,theirspeculationsraisedinevitable
questionsaboutrelationsbetweengodsandmortals,fortheysoughttoenthrone
humanreasonasthetoolforunderstandingtheuniverseandtoreplacedivineplan
(orcaprice)withmaterialforces.AnaxagorasfromClazomenaeinAsiaMinor(c.500
428BC)wasoneofmanyintellectualswhowasdrawntotheglitteringcityof
Athens.TherehebecameatrustedfriendofPericles,whomheservedasamentorfor
manyyears.Anaxagorasviewedmaterialobjectsascomposedofinfinitelydivisible
particlesandconceivedoftheirorganizationastheworkofaforcehecalledNous
(intellect);fromthiscamehisnicknameNous(theBrain).Thesun,heclaimed,
wasnotadeitybutratherawhitehotstonealittlelargerthanthePeloponnesus.
WhenPericlespoliticalenemiessoughttounderminehispositioninthe430sby
bringinghisknownassociatestotrial,Anaxagorasprovidedaneasytargetandwas
forcedtofleeforhislife.
Theworkingsoftheuniversealsointriguedotherfifthcenturythinkersthroughout
thebreadthoftheGreekworld.Empedocles(c.493c.433BC),wholivedinAcragas
inSicily,propoundedacosmogonybasedontheideaoffourprimaryelements
earth,air,fire,andwater.Physicalsubstances,heargued,wereproducedwhenthe
twinforcesofattractionandrepulsionthathecalledloveandstrifeactedupon
theseelements,combiningtheminvariousproportions.Maintainingthatthese
combinationswererandomlyproduced,Empedoclesconjecturedthatmonstrous
formshadprobablybeencreatedearlyinhistorybuthadperishedthroughtheir
failuretoadapt.
AnalternativeviewofhowtheworldismadewasputforwardbyLeucippusand
Democritus.LikeAnaxagoras,Leucippus,whoseemstohavebeenactivearoundthe
middleofthefifthcentury,believedthatmatterwascreatedoftinyparticles,andhis
ideaswerefurtherdevelopedbyhispupilDemocritusfromAbderainThrace(c.460
370BC).Intheirview,moreover,thetinyparticleswereatoma(uncuttable).
Ironically,then,thewordforatom,whichhasbeensplitinourownagewithsuch
devastatingconsequences,originallymeantthatwhichcannotbedivided.In
additiontoatoms,sothetheoryhadit,therewasvoid;fallingthroughvoid,atoms
collidedinavarietyofwaystoformvisiblematter.Whatdeterminedthemannerof
thesecollisionswasalittleuncertainLeucip
258

pusinsisteditwasnecessityandnotchance,thoughotheratomistsdisagreedbutthe
atomictheoristsagreedononething:whateverwasactiveinshapingtheformof
matterwasanaturalforceandnodivinebeing.
Thoughtheycertainlylookedaroundthemformodelsandparadigms,thinkerslike
Anaxagoras,Empedocles,Leucippus,andDemocrituswereessentiallyphilosophers,
notscientists.Amixofobservationandsystematicthinkingformedthebasisof
Greekmedicine.ThoughprayerprobablyremainedthemostcommonGreek
responsetoillnessinantiquity,duringthesixthcenturyBCGreeksinAsiaMinor
beganlearningaboutanatomyfromtheobservationsMesopotamianshadmadeon
animalentrailsusedindivination.By500BC,medicalcentershadbeenestablished
ontheislandofCosoffthecoastofAsiaMinorandonthenearbypeninsulaof
Cnidos.Someinstructionalsotookplacewithinthefamily;oftenthemedical
professionwaspasseddownfromfathertoson.Womenwereprohibitedfrom
practicingasdoctors,buttheyfrequentlyfunctionedasmidwives.
CasestudiesformedthebasisofthedoctrinesofHippocratesofCos(c.460c.377
BC).ThebodyofwritingsassociatedwithHippocratesschoolincludedovera
hundredworkscomposedoveralongperiod,andthereisnowaytoknowwhichof
thesemighthavebeenwrittenbyHippocrateshimself.Greeksdidnotdevelopmany
curesfordiseases.TheprincipalcontributionoftheHippocraticslaynotinany
specificdiscoveriesaboutmedicinebutratherintheircommitmenttoseeking
rationalexplanationsofnaturalphenomena.Epilepsy,forexample,hadbeenlabeled
thesacreddiseasebytheGreeks;intheirtreatiseOntheSacredDisease,the
Hippocraticstookadifferentview,claimingthatthisnotionwasputforwardby
anxiouscharlatanswho,havingnoideawhattodoandhavingnothingtoofferthe
sick...labelledthediseasesacredinordertoconcealtheirignorance.(OntheSacred
Disease2)Anothertreatise,Airs,Waters,Places,examinedtheimpactofclimateon
health,layingthefoundationsforepidemiology.
ThelargestgroupofHippocratictextsdealswithgynecology.Alongwiththegeneral
devaluationofwomeninGreekculture,womensreticenceaboutspeakingtomale
physicianssometimescutdoctorsofffrominformationvitaltounderstandingfemale
reproductiveprocesses.Intheabsenceofrealdataconcerningsymptomsandsexual
practices,wherewomenwereconcernedspeculationoftensubstitutedforthecareful
observationonwhichtheHippocraticspridedthemselves:
Ifsuffocationoccurssuddenly,itwillhappenespeciallytowomenwhodonothave
intercourseandtoolderwomenratherthantoyoungones,fortheirwombsare
lighter.Itusuallyoccursbecauseofthefollowing:whenawomanisemptyand
worksharderthaninherpreviousexperience,herwomb,becomingheatedfromthe
hardwork,turnsbecauseitisemptyandlight.Thereis,infact,emptyspaceforitto
turninbecausethebellyisempty.Nowwhenthewombturns,ithitstheliverand

theygotogetherandstrikeagainsttheabdomenforthewombrushesandgoes
upwardstowardsthemoisture,becauseithasbeendriedoutbyhardwork,andthe
liveris,afterall,moist.Whenthewombhitstheliver,itproducessuddensuffocation
asitoccupiesthebreathingpassagesaroundthebelly.
(DiseasesofWomen1.7;Hanson1975)
259
THELITERATUREOFTHEFIFTHCENTURY
Intheverbalrealm,theprincipalachievementsoftheAtheniansduringthisperiod
layinhistoryandintragedy.Dozensoftragedianswereactiveinfifthcentury
Athens,thoughonlytheworksofAeschylus,Sophocles,andEuripideshave
survived,andoftheseonlyafractionoftheiroutputseveneachofAeschylusand
Sophocles,andnineteenofEuripides.Historywasthelesscommongenre,butthe
twoworksthatsurvivedintheirentiretywereremarkableintheirscopeanddepth
HerodotushistoryofthePersianwarsandThucydideshistoryofthePeloponnesian
War.Betweenthem,HerodotusandThucydidesenshrinedinhistoricalwritingthe
modelofthewarmonographthathasremainedpopulartothisday.
Herodotus
LikeAnaxagoras,PericlesfriendsHerodotusandSophoclesalsosoughttochallenge
traditionalwaysoflookingattheworld.BorninHalicarnassusinIonia,Herodotus
washeirtoallthetraditionsofIonianrationalismandhadapassionatecuriosity
aboutcausesandorigins.WhythePersiansandtheGreeksfought,whataccounted
fortheGreekvictory,howDariuscametorulePersia,wheretheNilebegan,howthe
priestessesatDodonacametobethoughtofasbirdswithhumanvoices,wherethe
GreeksgottheirgodsHerodotususedtheGreekwordhistoria(inquiry)todescribe
hisquestforunderstanding,andthiswordhasgivenEnglishandnumerous
romancelanguagestheirwordfortheinvestigationandanalysisofthepast:
history.Hehassetforththeresultsofhisinquiry,hereportsintheopening
sentenceofhiswork,sothattheactionsofpeopleshallnotfadewithtime,sothat
thegreatandadmirablemonumentsproducedbybothGreeksandbarbariansshall
notgounrenowned,and,amongotherthings,tosetforththereasonswhythey
wagedwaroneachother(TheHistories1.1;Blanco1992).
BornprobablyshortlybeforeXerxesinvasionofGreecein480,Herodotuswasnot
oldenoughtorememberthePersianwars,buthewasabletointerrogateinformants
ofhisparentsgenerationclosely.Hisinterestswerenotconfinedtoaparticular
seriesofhistoricalevents;likehissomewhatyoungercontemporaryThucydides,he
wasfascinatedbywhathistoryrevealedabouthumannatureandthewaytheworld
works.Whathelearnedfromhisstudyofhistorywasthatpowergoestopeoples

heads,andthatthemightyrarelymeditateontheirconditionwithsufficient
judiciousnessandreflectionthatrulershearwhattheywanttohear,andrush
headlongtotheirowndestruction.
Thisparadigmappearsearlyinhishistoryinhisimaginativereconstructionofa
conversationbetweenSolon,theAthenianlawgiver,andCroesus,thefabulously
wealthykingofLydiawhohasgivenhisnametotheexpressionstillcurrenttoday,
richasCroesus.Duringhistravels,Herodotusmaintains,SoloncametoCroesus
palace,wherethekingmadeapointofhavingattendantsgiveSolonatourthat
wouldhighlightCroesusprosperityateveryturn.Afterward,CroesusaskedSolonif
therewasanyoneintheworldwhostruckhimaspartic
260
ularlyfortunate.FeigninginnocenceofCroesuspurposeinaskingthisquestion,
SolonnamedalittleknownGreekmanwhohaddiedfightingforhiscity,leaving
childrenbehindhim,andwasburiedwithhonors.WhenCroesuswasdissatisfied
withthisresponse,Solonofferedanalternativeexample.TwoyoungArgives,he
related,whentheirmotherneededtoattendafeastofHeraandtheoxenhadnotyet
returnedfromthefield,yokedthemselvestothefamilywagonandpulleditseveral
milestothetemple.Amidstthegreatwordsofpraiselavishedupontheyoungmen
andonherforhavingsuchfinesons,theirmotherprayedtothegoddesstobestow
onherchildrenwhateverwasbestforhumankind.Lyingdowntosleepinthe
temple,theyouthsneverawoke,andtheArgivesdedicatedstatuestothematDelphi
incommemorationoftheirexcellence.
Resentfulatnotbeingnamedthemostfortunateofmen,Croesusspokeharshlyto
Solon,voicinghisindignationatthenotionthattheAthenianshouldconsider
ordinarycitizensmorefortunatethanarichkinglikehim.Soloninturncounseled
himtothinkharderaboutwhatitmeanstobetrulyfortunate,cautioninghimnotto
makefacilejudgmentswithoutwaitingtoseehowthingsturnoutintheend.To
me,hetellsCroesus,
itisclearthatyouareveryrich,andclearthatyouarethekingofmanymen;butthe
thingthatyouaskedmeIcannotsayofyouyet,untilIhearthatyouhavebrought
yourlifetoanendwell.Forhethatisgreatlyrichisnotmoreblessedthanhethat
hasenoughforthedayunlessfortunesoattenduponhimthatheendshislifewell,
havingallthosefinethingsstillwithhim....Onemustlookalwaysattheendof
everythinghowitwillcomeoutfinally.Fortomanythegodhasshownaglimpse
ofblessednessonlytoextirpatethemintheend.
(TheHistory1.32;Grene1987)

Croesus,however,doesnotlisten.Bycarelesslymisinterpretingaseriesoforacles,he
loseshisempireandcomestorecognizeSolonswisdom.
ItisnotatalllikelythatSolonandCroesusreallymet.Solonstravelsevidently
precededCroesusaccessiontothethronearound560BC.Herodotushascraftedthis
vignettetodemonstratethesuperiorityofGreekoverPersianwaysofthinkingof
thewesterndependenceonthesolidcitizenovertheeasternreverenceforthe
powerfulautocrat.SimilarpointsarescoredinHerodotuscharacterizationofthe
overconfidentXerxes.Theimplicationsofthisareplainenough:foralltheirvirtues,
thePersians,likeothereasternpeoples,weredraggeddownbytheirhabitof
accordingimmensepowertoasingleindividual,theking.Encouraginghiminhis
childishselfconfidence,theybecameslavestosomeonewhoexaggeratedhisown
importancenotonlyvisvisothermortalsbut,moredangerouslystill,inrelationto
thegods.Incomparison,Greekcivilizationheldallthepromisethatinheredinfree
institutions,intheruleoflaw,inrespectforgodsandtheacceptanceofhuman
limitations.
InallthisHerodotuswasatypicalGreek,butinotherrespectshesoughtto
underminekneejerkassumptionshesawintheworldaroundhimassumptions
261
abouttheinsignificanceofnonGreekculturesandthelowintellectofwomen.Greek
men,inHerodotusview,neededtothinkharderandlongerabouttheirplaceinthe
world.Toassisttheminthisproject,heincludedinhishistorymanystoriesabout
theintelligenceofcleverqueens(suchasQueenArtemisiaofhisnative
Halicarnassus)andadetailedaccountoftheaccomplishmentsoftheEgyptians,
stressingthegreaterantiquityofEgyptiancultureinrelationtoGreekand
suggestingEgyptianoriginsfortheGreekgods.
Sophocles
Herodotuswarningsaboutthevicissitudesoffortuneandtheimpossibilityof
judgingamanslifeuntilitisoverareechoedinOedipusTyrannus,themostfamous
playofantiquity.HerethepoetSophocles(c.496406BC)presentstoustheseeming
goodfortuneofOedipus,thehighlyintelligentandrespectedrulerofThebesinthe
HeroicAgeonlytoshowushislifedisintegratingbeforeoureyes.Oedipus
TyrannuswasproducedintheearlyyearsofthePeloponnesianWar,butSophocles
hadalreadymadequiteanameforhimselfduringthe440swhileHerodotuswasin
Athens,wherethehistorianlivedforseveralyearsafterhistravelsandbefore
movingtoThurii.Sophocleswroteoverahundredplays.LikeAeschylusandother
tragicpoets,SophoclesreworkedthefamiliarplotsofGreekmythology,withtheir
emphasisonagonizingfamilydiscord,toexpresshisviewoftheworld.justafter
HerodotusdepartureforThuriiSophoclesproducedthefirstofthreesurviving

dramasabouttheunfortunatehouseofOedipus,thelegendaryrulerofThebeswho
wasfatedtokillhisfatherandmarryhismother.
InthefirstofSophoclesThebanplays,Antigone,theplaywrightasksusto
contemplatethepainfultensionsthatariseinOedipusfamilyafterhisdeath.Oneof
hissons,Polynices,hasdiedfightingtotakethethroneofThebesfromhisbrother;
naturallyPolynicessisterAntigonewishestofulfillherreligiousobligationandbury
hisbody.ButtheiruncleCreon,nowkingofThebes,forbidsanyonetotakeupthis
projectonthegroundsthatPolyniceswasatraitor.LikemanycharactersinGreek
tragedy,Antigonenowfindsherselfconfrontedwithapainfulchoice.Shemust
decidewhethertohonorherobligationtoherbrotherandtothegods,whichmeans
facingdeathherself,ortoobeythelawsofthestateandkeepherselfsafe.Sheis
headstronganddefiant;Creonisrigidandinsensitive.
ThoughSophoclesisaconventionalAthenianinhisrespectforthegodsandtheir
powertoguidehumanlife,inotherregardshechallengedconventionalmores.
AntigonessituationparalleledthatoftheAtheniangirlknownasanepiklros,agirl
withnosurvivingbrothers,anditishardtodoubtthatSophoclessympathieslie
withthefatherless,brotherlessgirlwhoexperiencesallthehelplessnessthatfell
uponAthenianwomenwholackedmaleprotectors.Sophocles,ashisotherplays
confirm,sympathizedwiththeplightofGreekwomen.Creon,however,makesa
goodcasefortheimportanceofalawthatmakesnoexceptionsforfamilymembers,
andasanAtheniandemocratSophoclescertainlysawtheneedtoupholdtheruleof
law.Butisthedecreeofanautocratreallylaw,
262
especiallywhenthepopulaceisonAntigonesside?Sophoclesfullyrecognizesthe
complexityofthetortuouschoicesAntigoneandCreonmustmake,andheseesin
theirconfrontationproofofthewondrouscomplexityofhumankindandthe
communitieshumanshavestruggledtodevelop.
Document7.1Thesoaringpoetryofthechoruscelebratestheachievementsofthe
humanraceinamemorablepassage.
Manythewondersbutnothingwalksstrangerthanman.
Thisthingcrossestheseainthewintersstorm,makinghispaththroughtheroaring
waves.
Andshe,thegreatestofgods,theearthagelesssheis,andunweariedhewearsher
awayastheploughsgoupanddownfromyeartoyearandhismulesturnupthe
soil.
Gaynationsofbirdshesnaresandleads,wildbeasttribesandthesaltybroodofthe
sea,withthetwistedmeshofhisnets,thiscleverman.
Hecontrolswithcraftthebeastsoftheopenair,walkersonhills.Thehorsewithhis

shaggymaneheholdsandharnesses,yokedabouttheneck,andthestrongbullof
themountain.
Language,andthoughtlikethewindandthefeelingsthatmakethetown,hehas
taughthimself,andshelteragainstthecold,refugefromrain.Hecanalwayshelp
himself.
Hefacesnofuturehelpless.Theresonlydeaththathecannotfindanescapefrom.
Hehascontrivedrefugefromillnessesoncebeyondallcure.
Cleverbeyondalldreamstheinventivecraftthathehaswhichmaydrivehimone
timeoranothertowellorill.
ExcerptfromSophoclesAntigone.Antigone11.332368,translatedbyElizabeth
Wyckoff,inDavidGreneandRichmondLattimore,eds.,TheCompleteGreek
Tragedies.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1960,pp.192193.
LikeHerodotus,Sophoclescombinedprofoundreverenceforthegodswitha
compellinginterestinthehumandimensionoflife.Inhisplays,dialoguethetalking
backandforthofhumanswasexpandedattheexpenseofthechorus;healsoadded
athirdactorwhereAeschylushadusedonlytwo(notcountingsilentactors,who
appearedonthestagebutdidnotspeak).
263
Euripides
Inthespringof431Atheniansandforeignvisitorsgatheredinthetheaterof
DionysustoseeEuripidesMedea.PlaysbyEuripides(c.485c.406BC)hadbeen
producedbefore,sotheplaywrightwasalreadyknowntotheaudience,butthe
subjectmatterforthisdramawassingularlyshocking.AlthoughtheplotsofGreek
tragedyderivedfromfamiliarmyths,Euripidesenjoyedinnovation,andthereis
somereasontobehevethattheendingoftheplaycameasasurprisetothe
enthralledonlookers.
ThequestionsSophoclesposedaboutthesocietyinwhichhelivedseemtame
comparedwiththemoresearchingcritiquesofGreekvaluesthatappearin
Euripidesplays.InMedeaEuripidesusedthetaleofJason,thecelebratedleaderof
theArgonautsintheirquestfortheGoldenFleece,toundermineconventionalviews
ofwhatmakesahero.InhisadventuresJasonhadacquiredawifeMedea,a
sorceressfromColchis,atthefarendoftheBlackSea.Hehassuchconfidenceinthe
excellenceoftheGreekwayoflifethatevenwhenhehasdecidedtoabandonMedea
tomarryaCorinthianprincess,heboastsofthebenefitshehasconferredonherby
rescuingherfromabarbarianlandandtransplantinghertoGreece.Predictably,
theseargumentsdonotsitwellwithahighlyintelligentwitchwhohasthe
advantageofanonGreekperspective.ThebitterlamentsofMedeaenablethe

audiencetoseethingsdifferentlyasshedetailstheconstraintsonherlifeasawoman
inaGreekcity:
Wewomenarethemostunfortunatecreatures.
First,withanexcessofwealthitisrequired
Forustobuyahusband,andtakeforourbodies
Amaster;fornottotakeoneisevenworse.
Andnowthequestionisseriouswhetherwetake
Agoodorbadone;forthereisnoeasyescape
Forawoman,norcanshesaynotohermarriage.
(Medea231238;Warner1959)
Jasonsshamefulrationalizationsforhisactions,moreover,raiseseriousquestions
aboutasocietythatmakesheroesofsuchmen.Greektragedies,however,werenot
moralityplays,andwhenintheplayshorrifyingconclusionMedeadecidestotake
vengeanceonJasonbykillingtheirchildren,eventhoseintheaudiencewhowere
sympathetictoherplightprobablyshiftedtheirsympathytothebereavedfather.(In
thesameway,SophoclesaudiencefeltfortheharshCreonwhenhisactionsledto
thedeathnotonlyofAntigonebutofhisownwifeandsonaswell.)Medeawasonly
oneoftheplaysinwhichEuripidesexploredthedynamicsoftheconflictbetween
reasonandpassionreason,whichcouldjustifyJasonindesertingthewifewhohad
riskedherlifeforhiminheryouth,andpassion,whichcouldmoveamothertokill
heroffspring.InevitablytheagonizingconflictthatmarkedplayslikeAntigone
struckaparticularlyresonantchordwiththeaudienceinMedea,whichwas
producedjustaswarwasbreakingoutbetweentwoverydifferentstateswith
opposingviewsoftheworld.
264
Thucydides
Thiswar,whichtookthousandsoflives,immortalizedthenameofthehistorianwho
tolditsstory.ManyintellectualcurrentsofthefifthcenturyflowedthroughAthens
asThucydideswascomingtomaturityandduringtheyearswhenhecomposedhis
historyofthelongwarinwhichheserved.Somewereplainlyimportanttohim,
othersapparentlynot.Cleverspeaking,carefulobservation,rationaldeduction,and
atragicviewoftheworldcanallbediscernedinhishistory;unlikethatof
Herodotus,Sophocles,andEuripides,however,hiswritingshowsnointerestin
women.Likemanythinkersofthelaterfifthcentury,Thucydidesconstruedthe
worldasfundamentallyhumancentered.WhereasHerodotus,bornageneration
earlier,hadconceivedhistoryasaninteractionofdivineandhumanforces,both
vitallyimportant,Thucydidessawtheactionsofpeopleasprettymuchexclusively
responsibleforhowthingsturnout.Asimilarprogressioncanbeseenintheextant

tragedians:Sophocleswassomewhatmoreconcernedwiththehumanfactorthan
Aeschylus,whowasmoredrawntotheroleandnatureofthegods,andEuripidesin
turndespiteconsiderableinterestinreligiongavehumannaturecenterstage.
AlmostnothingisknownofThucydideslife.Sinceheservedasageneralin424,he
musthavebeenatleast30inthatyear,andhistoriansconjecturehewasbornaround
460.HecamefromanaristocraticfamilywithkinshiptiestotwoofPericlesbest
knownrivals,CimonandMelesiassonThucydides,buthehadenormous
admirationforPericles.Hisopportunitiesforresearchtookanunexpectedturnwhen
hewasexiledafterfailingtokeeptheSpartansfromtakingAmphipolis.Fromthen
onhewasabletogatheragreatdealofinformationfromnonAtheniansourcesbut
couldnolongerattendmeetingsoftheAthenianassembly.Helivedlongenoughto
seeAthenslosethewar.Heclaimstohavebegunwritingasthewarbrokeout,
foreseeingitsimportance,andtohavewrittenupeachyearasithappened,buteven
ifthisistrueinitsoutlineshecertainlymadesomerevisionsbasedonhindsight;in
Book5,forexample,dealingwiththeeventsof421,hereferstothefallofAthensin
404andidentifiesthelengthofthewarastwentysevenyears.Thucydideshimself
discusseshismethodologyattheoutsetofhishistory,stressingthelengthstowhich
hewentinhisquesttodeterminethetruthandexpressingimpatiencewiththose
lesscommittedtothesearchforknowledge.Mostpeople,hecomplains,expend
verylittleeffortonthesearchfortruth,andprefertoturntoreadymadeanswers.
Hisownapproachwillbedifferent.
Document7.2Thucydidesexplainshismethodologyinhishistoryofthe
PeloponnesianWar,contrastinghimselfwithlessreliablereportersincluding,it
seems,Herodotusaswellasmetoriciansgiventovirtuosopublicdisplays.
OnewillnotgowrongifhebelievesthatthefactsweresuchasIhaverelatedthem,
basedontheevidence,andnotastheyaresungbythepoetswhoembellishand
exaggeratethemorastheyarestrungtogetherbypop
265
ularhistorianswithaviewtomakingthemnotmoretruthfulbutmoreattractiveto
theiraudiences;andconsideringthatwearedealingwithancienthistory,whose
unverifiedeventshave,overthecourseoftime,madetheirwayintotheincredible
realmsofmythology,onewillfindthattheseconclusions,derivedastheyarefrom
thebestknownevidence,areaccurateenough.Eventhoughpeoplealwaysthinkthat
thewartheyarefightingisthegreatestthereeverwas,andthenreturntomarveling
atancientwarsoncetheirshaveended,itwillbeclear,afterweexaminetheevents
themselves,thatthisactuallywasthegreatesttherehaseverbeen.
Astothestatementstheparticipantsmade,eitherwhentheywereabouttoenterthe
waroraftertheywerealreadyinit,ithasbeendifficultformeandforthosewho

reportedtometorememberexactlywhatwassaid.Ihave,therefore,writtenwhatI
thoughtthespeakersmusthavesaidgiventhesituationstheywerein,whilekeeping
ascloseaspossibletotheconsensusaboutwhatwasactuallysaid.Astotheeventsof
thewar,IhavenotwrittenthemdownasIheardthemfromjustanybody,norasI
thoughttheymusthaveoccurred,buthaveconsistentlydescribedwhatImyselfsaw
orhavebeenabletolearnfromothersaftergoingovereacheventinasmuchdetail
aspossible.Ihavefoundthistasktobeextremelydifficult,sincethosewhowere
presentattheseactionsgavevaryingreportsonthesameevent,dependingontheir
sympathiesandtheirmemories.
Mynarrative,perhaps,willseemlesspleasingtosomelistenersbecauseitlacksan
elementoffiction.Those,however,whowanttoseethingsclearlyastheywere,and,
givenhumannature,astheywillonedaybeagain,moreorless,mayfindthisbooka
usefulbasisforjudgment.Myworkwascomposednotasaprizewinningexercisein
elocutionbutasapossessionforalltime.
ThePeloponnesianWar1.22;translatedbyWalterBlanco,inWalterBlancoand
JenniferRoberts,eds.,ThePeloponnesianWar.NewYork:W.W.Norton,1998.
MosttwentiethcenturyreadershaveregardedThucydidesasthefinesthistorianof
theGrecoRomanworld.Thisisreasonable.Heislessdisposedtoseedivinejustice
asaforceinhistorythanHerodotus,whohadtheluxuryofwritingupawarwhich,
inhisview,thegoodguyswon;thePeloponnesianWarwasawarthateveryonelost.
HedoesnotmoralizelikePlutarch.Incomparisonwiththefamoushistoriansof
Rome,heislessjingoisticthanLivy,andhispartisanshipisbetterconcealedthan
thatofTacitus.Hehasoftenbeendescribedastheworldsfirstscientifichistorian,
andhisworkhasbeencitedforitsobjectivity.Thischaracterizationrestsona
misunderstandingofwhatthewritingofhistoryreallyinvolves.Historyisnota
science,anditcannotbeobjective,becauseiten
266
tailshumanswritingaboutotherhumans.Everyomission,everyconnection,
requiresajudgmentcall.
Oneexamplewillillustratethechoicesallhistoriansmustmake.Inanalyzingthe
outbreakofthewar,ThucydidesdownplayedtheMegariandecreetoaremarkable
degree,sayingalmostnothingaboutit.Hedidthis,presumably,eitherbecausehe
reallybelievedthedecreewasunimportantorbecausehewishedtodeflectcriticism
fromPericles,whowascommonlyblamedforthedecreeandthewar.Itwouldbe
impossibletoconstruethisdecisionasobjectiveorscientific.Theresultof
Thucydideschoiceisthatitisnowverydifficultforstudentsofthepastto
reconstructwhatreallyhappened.IftheMegariandecreereallywasunimportant,
thenpresumablyThucydidesdidagoodthing,butifhewaswrong,thenhedidhis

readersagreatdisservice.Thereisnolimittothenumberofsimilardecisionsthat
confronthistorians.Herodotuswasmoredisposedtoputeverythinginandlethis
readerssortitout,butoneconsequenceofthisdecisionisthathehasbeencriticized
forbeinglessanalyticalthanThucydides.
CURRENTSINGREEKTHOUGHTANDEDUCATION
TheconvolutedargumentsthathelppoliticianswhoappearinThucydidesnarrative
cloakambitioninfairsoundingwordsandtheversesinwhichEuripidesJason
defendshisactionascalculatedtoimprovehischildrenslives(wontitbewonderful
forthemtohaveroyalstepsiblings?)showtheinfluenceoftheitinerantintellectuals
whogravitatedtoAthensduringthesecondhalfofthefifthcentury,themenwho
cametobeknownasthesophists,fromtheGreekwordsophists,whichmeans
somethinglikepractitionerofwisdom.Unlikethephilosopherswhosoughtto
understandtheworld,thesophistscontentedthemselveswithteachingeager,paying
pupilshowtogetbyinit.Manyofthesophistswereimportant,iconoclasticthinkers
whosekeenanalysispiercedpretensions.Thoughtheirworksdonotsurviveexcept
infragments,itseemsclearthattheyrejectedfacileassumptionsaboutthe
connectionsbetweennoblebirthandtruemerit.Becauseofthis,andbecausethey
enabledyoungmenfromnewlyrichfamiliestolearntospeakeffectively,they
arousedsuspicionamongAthensentrenchedelite.
FormalandInformalEducation
Theoriginsofthesophisticmovementlieinthehaphazardandinformalnatureof
Greekeducation,initsliteraryandaristocraticbias,andinitsultimatelysuperficial
andstultifyingnature.SinceHomersday,Greekchildrenhadlearnedprimarilyby
watchingtheworldaroundthemandimitatingrespectedelders.Fewpeoplein
antiquityorthemiddleagesknewhowtoread,andbooklearningplayedaminor
roleintheeducationalsystemofArchaicGreece,wheremostformaleducation
involvedlisteningandrecitingfrommemory.Girlswererarely
267
senttoschool.Neitherweremostboys.Theproblemwasnotsimplythatpoverty
usuallycompelledchildrentostayhomeandworkonthefarm;thefactisthatGreek
statesdidnotprovidepublicschools.Parentsoftheupperclasses,however,paidfor
theirsonstobeinstructedinwhatwascalledmousik,asubjectthatincludedthe
memorizationofpoetry.Sinceancientpoemsweresung,mousikealsoinvolved
learningtoplaythestringedinstrumentknownasthelyrahenceourwordlyrics
versesdesignedtoaccompanylyreplayingandofcourseourwordmusicaswell.
Beginninginthesixthcentury,moreandmorechildrenalsolearnedtoreadand
write.Vasesfromthesixthandfifthcenturiesshowtheseskillsbeingtaughttoboys
andoccasionallytogirlsaswell:parentssometimeshaddaughtersinstructedinbasic

readingandwritingskillsincasetheyneededthisknowledgetosupervise
householdaccountsortomanagetemplepropertiesiftheybecamepriestesses.Some
instructioninmathwasalsoofferedtochildrenbyprivatetutorsandinschools,
thoughnotmuchwasofferedinthewayofscience.Thecurriculumincludedlittleof
whatwewouldcallsocialstudies,andtheyoungweregenerallythrownbackon
familyandfriendsfortheanswertoquestionslike,HowfarisittoSparta?and
WhatkindofgovernmentdotheyhaveinCorinth?Bythetimeboysprogressedto
theageatwhichadolescentstodaywouldentercollege,moreover,theyhadceased
tobestudentsandhadbecomesoldiersandcitizens.
Mosteducationwentoninlessformalsettings,however,andthissortofeducation
wouldcontinuethroughoutlife.Inchildhood,girlswouldabsorbthenormsof
appropriatesocialbehaviorfromtheirmothersandaunts,boysfromtheirfathers
anduncles.Asinmanysocieties,theupbringingofthetwosexeswasdesignedto
cultivateverydifferentskillsetsformalesandfemales.Thesedifferencesweremost
pronouncedintheupperclasses,forpoorchildrenofbothsexeswerelikelytolearn
farmingandcraftskillsfromparents.Amongtheelite,however,asharp
differentiationoccurredinadolescence,foratthisjuncturegirlsmarriedand
reproduced.Theireducationinhomemanagementcontinuedatthehandsofolder
relatives,andprobablyolderslavesaswell,whohadconsiderableexperienceof
childrearing.Inaddition,husbandssometimestookituponthemselvestogivetheir
wivesvocationaltraininginhouseholdmanagement.IntheOeconomicus,writtenin
thefourthcenturyintheformofaSocraticdialogue,Xenophondescribeshowa
husband,Ischomachus,trainedhisyoungwifetobeasuccessfulestatemanager:
[Socrates]said,Iwouldverymuchlikeyoutotellme,Ischomachus,whetheryou
yourselftrainedyourwifetobecomethesortofwomanthatsheoughttobe,or
whethershealreadyknewhowtocarryoutherdutieswhenyoutookherasyour
wifefromherfatherandmother.
WhatcouldshehaveknownwhenItookherasmywife,Socrates?Shewasnotyet
fifteenwhenshecametome,andhadspentherpreviousyearsundercareful
supervisionsothatshemightseeandhearandspeakaslittleaspossible.Dontyou
thinkitwasadequateifshecametomeknowingonlyhowtotake
268
woolandproduceacloak,andhadseenhowspinningtasksareallocatedtothe
slaves?Andbesides,shehadbeenverywelltrainedtocontrolherappetites,
Socrates,hesaid,andIthinkthatsortoftrainingismostimportantformanand
womanalike.
(Oeconomicus7.45;Pomeroy1994)

Whileteenagedgirlsmightreceivesuchinstructionfromtheirhusbands,adolescent
maleswereexposedtoimportantinfluencesofanotherkind.Bookswereexpensive,
andthoughliteracyincreasedthroughoutthesixthandparticularlythefifthcentury,
learningstillwentonprimarilyintheinteractionbetweentwoormorehuman
beings,notintheinteractionofapersonwithawrittentext.Relationshipswith
somewhatoldermentorsformedakeyelementintheeducationofteenagedboys.
justasyoungerteacherstodayoftenserveasrolemodelsforadolescents,soyoung
meninGreeceofferedexamplesofmanhoodtothosewhowerejustdevelopinginto
men.Theoneononenatureofthesefriendships,howeveruntrammeledbyany
needforateachertobeevenhandedwithanentireclassofstudentscombinedwith
differentattitudestosexualitytoproduceasignificantlydifferentdynamic.Thebond
betweenaGreekmaleteenagerandhisadultmentorwasoftenprofoundlyerotic.
Whatweknowabouttheserelationshipsissomewhatcompromisedbyareticence
aboutsexinthewrittensourcesandbytheneedmanyGreeksfelttostressthe
intellectualandspiritualbondattheexpenseofthesexualone.Inhisdialogueon
love,theSymposium,Platopraisesthisbondforitsvalueinthemoralimprovement
ofboththeindividualandsocietyasawhole.Iwouldmaintain,hewrites,
thattherecanbenogreaterbenefitforaboythantohaveaworthyloverfromhis
earlieryouth,norforaloverthantohaveaworthyobjectforhisaffection.The
principlewhichoughttoguidethewholelifeofthosewhointendtolivenobly
cannotbeimplantedeitherbyfamilyorbypositionorbywealthorbyanythingelse
soeffectivelyasbylove.Whatprinciple?youask.Imeantheprinciplewhich
inspiresshameatwhatisdisgracefulandambitionforwhatisnoble;withoutthese
feelingsneitherastatenoranindividualcanaccomplishanythinggreatorfine.
(Symposium178b;Hamilton1951)
Thebondbetweentheolderlover(theerasts)andtheyoungerbeloved(the
eromenos)shoredupthestabilityofsocietybyencouragingeachgeneration(orhalf
generation)toimitatetheonethathadgonebefore.
Finally,participationinthelifeofthecityasawholeaffordedanongoingeducation
togrowingmen,andtosomeextenttowomenaswell,particularlythosewhoserved
aspriestesses.ThepoetSimonidesputitwell:Polisandradidaskei(thepolisteachesa
man).Onlyinmaturelife,howeverbyattendance,forexample,attragicdramas
andthethoughtfuldiscussionsthatnodoubtfollowedinprivategatheringsdidthis
educationentailanyrealquestioningofconventionalwisdom.Ingeneral,the
purposeofGreekeducationwasablendofindoc
269
trinationandsocializationcalculatedtofostertheperpetuationoftraditionalvalues.
Poetrywasmorelikelytobememorizedthananalyzed,anddespitetheoriginality

withwhichtheGreeksarerightlycredited,theculturedidnotasawholeprize
innovation.WhatGreekyouthwastaughtaboveallwastocopyapprovedmodels.
Allthischangedwhenthesophistsburstonthesceneduringthesecondhalfofthe
fifthcentury,sparkingpowerfultensionsbetweenthegenerations.Athensactedasa
magnetforthephilosophersandteachersofrhetoricwhohadsprungupthroughout
theGreekworldasspeculationaboutboththenaturaluniverseandthehuman
communitybecameincreasinglypopularamongintellectuals.Democracywas
groundedinskillinspeakingandreasoningintheabilitytodissectanddemolish
theargumentsofpoliticalopponents.Thesophistsofferedtoteachtheseskills.
Sophistsfilledotherneedsaswell,fortheydelightedinexploringtrickyquestions
abouttheworkingsoftheworld.Noteveryonehadbeensatisfiedbythe
conventionalpietiesabouttheawesomepowersofthegodsandtheconcomitant
needtorevereauthoritiesofallkinds,andforthedissatisfiedthesophists
speculationsprovidedanopportunitytoflexboththeirintellectsandtheirrhetorical
skills.Nocommonbeliefsystemmarkedthethinkingofthevarioussophists,but
theysharedanenthusiasmforthekindofexercisesinargumentationthatarecentral
tomuchhighereducationtoday.
TheSophists
Likemuchoftheeducationthathadgonebefore,theinstructionofferedbysophists
benefitedonlyafairlysmallclassofaffluentstudentswhocouldaffordtopay.What
thesophistshadtooffer,however,differedsharplyfromearliereducation,forthe
sophistsquestionedthenotionthatdeferentialemulationofoneseldersandbetters
wasthenoblestofachievements.Theychallengedconventionalbeliefsinotherways
aswell.Oneobjectoftheirexplorationswasthenotionofnomos.
Herodotushadshowninhishistorythecentralityofnomostosociety.TheGreek
wordmeantbothlawandcustom;therewerestatesanctionednomoiforbidding
burglary,buttherewerealsosocialnomoiregardingwhattowearatyourwedding
andreligiousnomoiabouthowtoworshipApollo.Inasocietythathadexistedfor
centurieswithoutwrittenlaw,onlyablurrylinedividedalegalnomosanda
conventionalnomosbasedontradition.Thetwo,however,begantodivergethe
harderpeoplethoughtabouttheproblem.HerodotusHistoriesdemonstratedtwo
differentsidesofnomos.Ontheonehand,theGreekshadfoughtthePersiansin
ordertolivebynomosratherthanatthewhimofadespot.Ontheotherhand,the
multiplicityofnomoiindifferentculturesrevealsadiversitythatsuggeststhatlocal
customsaretheproductoftraditionratherthanofabstract,unchangingprinciplesof
rightandwrong.Todemonstratetheforceofnomos,Herodotustellsthefollowing
tale:

Darius...calledtogethersomeoftheGreekswhowereinattendanceonhimand
askedthemwhatwouldtheytaketoeattheirdeadfathers.Theysaidthat
270
nopriceintheworldwouldmakethemdoso.AfterthatDariussummonedthoseof
theIndianswhoarecalledCallatians,whodoeattheirparents,and,inthepresence
oftheGreeks(whounderstoodtheconversationthroughaninterpreter),askedthem
whatpricewouldmakethemburntheirdeadfatherswithfire.Theyshoutedaloud,
Dontmentionsuchhorrors!
(TheHistory3.38;Grene1987)
Eachsociety,heconcludes,considersitsowncustomstobebest.
Whenthisideawasassimilatedtothespeculationsofthenaturalphilosophers,an
oppositionevolvedinmanymindsbetweentheconceptofphysis(nature),and
nomos(convention).Therelationshipbetweenphysisandnomosbecamecentralto
GreekthoughtaroundHerodotustime,foritcarriedpowerfulimplicationsforthe
legitimacyofauthority.Ifnomoswasnotthenaturaloutgrowthofphysisbut
actuallyexistedinoppositiontoit,thenthelawsofthecommunitywerenot
necessarilytobeobeyed,fortheymighthavegrownuprandomly,endorsedby
generationsofunthinkingtraditionalistswhohadgivennothoughttotheir
groundinginphysis.
Thisconceptoflawvariedconspicuouslyfromtheusualviewthatlawultimately
camefromthegods,andinfactthenewwaysoflookingattheworldhadserious
implicationsforrelationsbetweengodsandmortals.Oneofthemostrenownedof
thesophistswhocametoteachinAthenswasProtagoras(c.490420BC)ofAbdera
innorthernGreece,whomovedtoAthensaround450andspentmostoftherestof
hislifethere.Heisbestknownfortwosayingswithreligiousimplications.Each
individualpersonisthemeasureofallthingsofthingsthatare,thattheyare,andof
thingsthatarenot,thattheyarenot.Nobody,inotherwords,cantellyouwhatis
realortruenostateofficial,noparent,andnogod.Anothercontentionwasstill
moreprovocative:itisimpossibletoknow,Protagorasissaidtohaveobserved,
whetherthegodsexist,orhowtheymightlookiftheydo.Numerousobstacles
standintheway,suchastheshortnessoflifeandthedifficultyofthesubjectmatter.
Notallsophistshadunconventionalideasaboutpoliticsorsocietyorreligion.Plato
representsThrasymachusarguingthatjusticeisnothingbuttheinterestofthe
stronger,butPlatoplainlydidnotlikeThrasymachus.Xenophonreportedthat
Hippiasmaintainedthatcertainnaturallawswerecommontoallsocieties;ifthisis
true,thenHippiasdidnotseeaconflictbetweennomosandphysis.Someofwhat
thesophiststaughtwassimplypracticalknowledgethatwouldbeusefultoan

aspiringpolitician;theyprobablydidtellyouhowfaritwasfromAthenstoSparta
andwhatsortofgovernmentruledCorinth.Manysophistswerehighlyesteemedin
theirbirthplacesandinAthens,wheretheytendedtowindup,buttheyalsosparked
hostilityinmanyquarters.Theirideasaboutreligionandauthorityseemed
subversive,andpeopletendedtoassociatethemwiththinkerslikeAnaxagoraswho,
afterall,hadsaidthatthesunwasnotadivinitybutratheranextremelyhotstone.In
fact,thosewhoassociatedthesophistsspeculationsinmoralandsocialphilosophy
withdevelopmentsinscientificthoughtwereontosomething,forbehindbothlay
thesamecommitmentto
271
openminded,rationalinquiryintobasicstructures,thesameinterestinthe
connectionofappearancetoreality,thesamecuriosityabouttherelationship
betweentheeternalandthechanging.Parmenidescontentionthatmotionwas
illusoryhadsomethingincommonwiththequestionsthesophistAntiphonraised
aboutthevalidityofdistinctionsbetweenaristocratandcommoner,Greekand
barbarian,andhisconclusionthatallgrewalikebynature.(SimilarlyAlcidamas
arguedthatnaturehadmadenobodyaslave.)
More,however,laybehindthemistrustthesophistsinspired.Someaffluent
Atheniansweresuspiciousofpeoplewhotookfeesforanything,sinceinherited
landedwealthwasviewedasthemostrespectableformofincome,followedby
wealthearnedbyfarmingonesownland.Someofthosewhowerelesswelloff
resentedthesophistspreciselybecausetheycouldnotaffordtopaywhatthe
sophistscharged.Itwasunclear,moreover,justwhatskillthesepeoplewere
teaching,andbywhatrighttheywerechargingtheirfees.Itwaseasytoseehowan
experiencedfluteplayercouldteachfluteplayingorhowagiftedboxercouldteach
boxing,butitwashardertounderstandwhowasqualifiedtoofferinstructionin
gettingaheadinpoliticsandinlife.Inmanywaysthesophistsweretheconsultants
ofancientGreece,inspiringmanypeopletowondergrouchily(andenviously)just
whattheyweresellingthatwasmakingthemsorich.
Therewasananswer,however,tothequestion,Justwhatdothesepeopleteach,
anyway?Thatanswerwasrhetoric,andnoteveryonelikedit.Noparentwhohas
evergoneheadtoheadwithasmartaleckyteenagercanfailtosympathizewith
middleagedAthenianswhofoundthemselvesconfoundedateveryturnbythe
smugnessofanewgenerationthathadstudiedtheartsofargumentationfrom
experiencedmasters.Concernthatcleverspeakingwascomingtosubstitutefor
seriousthinkingaboutrightandwrong,moreover,wasnotlimitedtothestodgyand
thestuffy.EuripidesinhisunsettlingportraitofJasoninMedeaandThucydidesin
hisrepresentationofthedynamicsofpowerpoliticsshowapainfulawarenessofthe
problemscreatedwhenrhetoricisdeployedtodistractthelistenerfromplainold

fashionedprinciplesoffairness.Protagorashimself,whowonrespectasan
honorablemanevenfromtheantisophisticPlato,wasreputedtobethefirstperson
towriteatreatiseinthetechniquesofargumentandtoclaimthatheknewhowto
maketheweakerargumentthestronger.Worksascribedtohimincluded
ContradictionsandTheKnockdownArguments.
AnotherpopularsophistwasAlcidamasteacherGorgias(c.485c.380BC),anative
ofLeontiniinSicilywhovisitedAthensin427onanembassythatsoughtto
persuadetheAthenianstobecomeinvolvedinSicilianaffairs.Gorgiasnameis
associatedalmostexclusivelywithrhetoric;itisunclearwhetherhethoughtmuch
aboutphilosophy.Oneofhismorefamouspieceswasarhetoricaltourdeforcein
whichhedefendedHelenonachargeofcausingtheTrojanWarbyelopingwith
Paris.GorgiasliststhreepossiblereasonsforHelensaction,eachofthemworthy:
Eithershedidwhatshedidbecauseofthewilloffortuneandtheplanofthegods
andthedecreeofnecessity,orshewasseizedbyforce,orper
272
suadedbywords,or,helatersuggests,capturedbylove.Allthesepossible
explanations,heargues,exculpateHelen:
Ifsheleftforthefirstreason,thenanywhoblameherdeserveblamethemselves,for
ahumansanticipationcannotrestrainagodsinclination.Forbynaturethestronger
isnotrestrainedbytheweakerbuttheweakerisruledandledbythestronger....
Ifshewasforciblyabductedandunlawfullyviolatedandunjustlyassaulted,itis
clearthatherabductor,herassaulter,engagedincrime;butshewhowasabducted
andassaultedencounteredmisfortune....itisrighttopityherbuthatehim.
Hethentakestheoccasionofdiscussingpersuasiontoexpatiateonthecharmsoffine
speaking,arguingthat
Ifspeechpersuadedanddeludedhermind,evenagainstthisitisnothardtodefend
herorfreeherfromblameasfollows:speechisapowerfulmasterandachievesthe
mostdivinefeatswiththesmallestandleastevidentbody.Itcanstopfear,relieve
pain,createjoy,andincreasepity.Howthisisso,Ishallshow;andImust
demonstratethistomyaudiencetochangetheiropinion....
Howmanymenonhowmanysubjectshavepersuadedanddopersuadehowmany
othersbyshapingafalsespeech!...Thepowerofspeechhasthesameeffectonthe
dispositionofthesoulasthedispositionofdrugsonthenatureofbodies.Justas
differentdrugsdrawforthdifferenthumorsfromthebodysomeputtingastopto
disease,otherstolifesotoowithwords:somecausepain,othersjoy,somestrike

fear,somestirtheaudiencetoboldness,somebenumbandbewitchthesoulwithevil
persuasion.
(EncomiumofHelen;GagarinandWoodruff1995)
ManyGreeksbelievedtherewasnolimittowhatsophistswoulduserhetoricto
defend.TheanonymoustreatiseknownasDissoiLogoi(DoubleArguments)reveals
themoralrelativismthatmanyassociatedwithsophists.Cansicknesseverbegood?
Certainly,ifyouareadoctor.Butwhataboutdeath?Deathisgoodforundertakers
andgravediggers.Theauthorgoesontoenumeratethemanyexamplesofcultural
differencefoundinHerodotusinordertodemonstratethatnoactisintrinsically
goodorbad.Amentaluniverseinwhichnothingwaspurelygoodorpatentlyevil
wasnotoneinwhichallGreekswishedtodwell.
Forallthesereasons,thesophistsdrewtothemselvesaconsiderableamountof
odium.Theyfoundthemselvesunderattacknotonlyinconversationbutonthe
stage.In423AristophanesproducedtheClouds,inwhichtheintellectualsofAthens
theeggheadsarederidedasteachingacorrosiverhetoricthatmadeamockeryof
decent,sensiblevalues.ThemanAristophanesidentifiesasrunningthethinkshop
wasnot,however,asophist.LikesomeofAristophanesothercharacters,hewasa
realperson,butnotonewhotaughtrhetoricoracceptedfees.
273
HewasSocrates,andthedispositiontoidentifyhimwiththesophistscontributedin
nosmallmeasuretohisexecutionjustaftertheendofthewar.
THEPHYSICALSPACEOFTHEPOLIS:ATHENSONTHEEVEOFWAR
TheGreekworldwasbothoneandmany:thoughcommonfeaturestiedthe
citystatestogether,eachpoliswasuniqueinculture.Assoofteninattemptsto
recovertheworldofClassicalGreece,however,thebulkofourknowledgeaboutthe
developmentofthepolisduringthelaterdecadesofthefifthcenturycomesfrom
Athens.Evenduringthewar,Atheniantragicdramatistscontinuedtoproduce
astonishingmasterpieces.ItwasthewaryearsthatwitnessedthebirthofAttic
comedy.SomeofourbestevidenceaboutfifthcenturyAthensisphysicalinnature,
fortherevenuesofempirehelpedtoadorntheimperialcitywithsplendidbuildings,
manyofwhichstillimpressandintriguevisitorstoday.
TheAcropolis
ThestructuremostpeopleassociatewithClassicalAthens,theParthenon,stoodwith
otherimportantbuildingsonthesteephilloftheAcropolis,whichhadbeenfortified
fromearliesttimes.Ahillwasadistinctadvantagetoacitystate.Thoughmost

peopletodayassociatethewordacropoliswiththeAcropolisofAthens,infactit
wasafeaturecommontomanypoleis,whichreliedforprotectiononafortified
citadelfromwhichonecouldseefarintothedistance;onacleardaytheAcropolisof
AthenswasvisiblefromthecorrespondinghighpointofCorinth,Acrocorinth.In
Athens,theAcropoliswasthespiritualfocusofthepolis.Becauseofitsheightand
steeplyslopedsides,thisnaturallyfortifiedareahadbeentheresidenceofearly
rulersandhadalwaysbeenhometothechiefgodsoftheAthenians.Thesixth
centurytyrantPeisistratus,likePericleslater,initiatedanambitiousbuildingproject
ontheAcropolis,forheunderstoodnotonlythatsuchworkwouldprovidesteady
employmenttotherestlessurbanpoor,butalsothatabeautifulcitywouldcreate
stillmorejobs,fosterpatriotismamongallcitizens,andattractwealthy,talented
metics.Itwouldbe,asPericleswouldlatersayinthepagesofThucydides,the
schoolofHellas.ThePersianinvasionof480destroyedthemonumentsandstatues
ofPeisistratusstime.Thisrubble,inturn,wasusedasthefoundationofthe
buildingsconstructedinPericlesdayontheAcropolis,largelyfinancedbyfunds
fromtheDelianLeague.
IntheClassicalperiodthetwoprincipalarchitecturalstylesorordersweretheDoric
andIonic.(Theornate,floweryCorinthiancapitalsoftenusedtodaydidnotbecome
popularuntilRomantimes.)Thoughbothorderswereusedforthesamebuilding
purposes,theydifferedindetailssuchastheshapeofthecolumnsandoftheirbases
andcapitalsandinthefeaturesoftheentablature,orstructurethatsupportedthe
roof.TheIonicappearstallerandmoreslenderthantheDoric.Architectsstroveto
designbuildingsaccordingtotheprinciplesofeachorder,
274
Figure7.3.ThismodeloftheAcropolisinPericlesdayshowsthePanathenaic
processionproceedingthroughthefrontgates(Propylaea),whichareflankedonthe
right(south)bythetempleofAthenaNike(Victory).Thelargestbuildingisthe
Parthenon.TheErechtheionisontheleft(north)oftheParthenon.
ratherthantoinventneworhighlyindividualizedstyles.Thepleasuretheytookin
theirworkwasnotthesortofdelightonemighttaketodayinstrikingoutinoriginal
andstartlingdirections.Rather,Greekarchitectstookfromtheirworkthatspecial
kindofsatisfactionthatcomesfromexercisingcreativitywithinthelimitsposedby
anelaboratecodeofrestraints.
ThetempleofAthenaParthenos(thevirgin)knownastheParthenonwasablend
ofDoricandIonicelements.Therectangularstructurewitharatioofeightcolumns
onthefrontandbackendstoseventeenonthesideswasaestheticallypleasing.
Athenianarchitectswerewellawarethatfromadistancetheeyewouldperceive
perfectlystraightcolumnsasthininthemiddleandappearingtofalloutward,anda

perfectlyhorizontalfoundationwouldappeartodrooptowardthecenter.
Consequentlytheytookpainstocreateopticalillusionsbysubtleswelling(entasis)of
themidportionofthecolumns,bytiltingthecolumnstowardtheinteriorlestthey
seemtobefallingoutward,andbycurvingthemiddleofthefloorandstepsupward
asthoughawindwereblowingunderarug.
SculpturewasanimportantfeatureofGreekarchitecture.Thesculptureofthe
ParthenondepictedmythsandhistoryofAthenaandAthens.Theeastpediment
showedthebirthofAthenawhilethewestpedimentillustratedthecontest
275
Figure7.4.TheDoricandIonicorders.TheDoricorder(left)maybeadirect
translationintostoneofbuildingelementsthatwereoriginallymadeofwood.The
morecomplexcapitaloftheIonicorderisinaspiraledformknownasavolute.
betweenAthenaandPoseidonoverprimacyinAthens.Asculptedfriezerunning
aroundthetopoftheexteriorwallofthecellaorinnershrineshowedhuman
figures,horses,sacrificialanimals,andthetwelveOlympiangods.Probablythearray
ofhumanfiguresandanimalsdepictstheprocessionattheGreaterPanathenaic
festivalthatwasheldeveryfouryearsandthepresentationofanewdressforthe
goddessbyyounggirlswhohadhelpedtoweaveit.
Thetemplewasnotaplacewhereworshipperscongregated,butratherthehomeofa
divinitywhoseimagewasplacedinsideandastorehouseforthecultsbelongings.
Thus,withinthecellaoftheParthenonwasatallstatueofAthenacoveredwithivory
andgold.Lockedinabackroomwerethegoddessspossessions,amongwhichwere
thetreasuryofthecityofAthensand,afterthemiddle
276
Figure7.5.GroundplanofParthenonshowingexteriorcolonnadeandcella(main
room)within.ThecultstatueofAthenawaskeptinthecellaandthestatetreasury
wasstoredinthebackroom.
Figure7.6.TheParthenon,built447438BC,photographedinthetwentieth
century,seenfromtheeast.
277
Figure7.7.Parthenoneastfrieze,slabV,probablyshowingthepresentationofthe
dressknownasthepeplosforAthenaatthePanathenaea.Asectionofthe
continuousfriezerunningalongthetopoftheexteriorcellawall.Otherportions

showacavalcadeofhorsemen,religiousofficials,sacrificialanimals,andthe
Olympiangods.
ofthefifthcentury,thatoftheDelianLeagueaswell.InfrontoftheParthenononthe
weststoodahugebronzestatueofAthenatheWarriorwhofightsinthefront(
Promachos).Thegoddesswasportrayedstanding,withherlefthandholdingher
shieldandherrightarmholdingherspear.Thestatuewasnearly30feettall:sailors
roundingCapeSounioncouldseethewelcomeglintofsunlightoffthetipofthe
spear.Likethestatueinsidethetemple,itwastheworkofthesculptorPhidias,a
friendofPericles.Viewedbyhiscontemporariesasthegreatestsculptorofgods,
PhidiasalsocreatedahugegoldandivorystatueofZeusatOlympiathatwas
consideredtobeoneofthesevenwondersoftheancientworld.
IncontrasttotheDoric,whichwasmassive,solid,andplain,theIonicordergavea
slender,graceful,ornateimpression.TheErechtheion,sacredtoPoseidon
Erechtheus,wasthechiefpurelyIonicmonumentontheAcropolis.Thesitesof
templesandshrineswereselectedbecauseoftheirassociationwithsome
278
legendarydivineactthathadoccurredonthespot.TheplanoftheErechtheionwas
irregular,complicatedbyavarietyofreligiousconstraints:itneededtoenclosethe
markofPoseidonstridentonAtheniansoilandasaltwellonthenorthernside;to
shelterAthenasoriginalolivetreethatstoodnearbyonthewestandtoincludeher
shrineintheeasternsection;tocoverthetombofAthensfirstkingCecropsunder
thesouthwestcorner;andtohouseothervenerablecultobjects.Thebuilding
consistedofthreeIonicporches.ThestrikingsouthporchthatfacedtheParthenon
employedsixfiguresofmaidens,calledCaryatids,tosupporttheroof(insteadof
columns).Thebuildingwasbegunin421,andbecauseofthePeloponnesianWarthe
decorationsmayneverhavebeencompleted.Manyotherbuildings,temples,statues,
andvotiveofferingsadornedtheAcropolis.Thoughlittleremainsofthese
monumentsnowadaysexceptthebaremarbleframeworkofthemajorones,in
antiquitytheyweremuchmorecolorful:someofthearchitecturalandsculptural
featureswerepaintedredandblueandwerecoveredwithgoldleaf.Belowthe
Acropolis,dramaswerestagedinhonorofthegodDionysus.Spectatorssatinthe
openairinasemicircleonthebarehillsidewatchingtheperformancesthattook
placebelowintheorchestra(dancingplace).
ThestructuresthatcomprisedPericlesbuildingprogramconfirmedmostAthenians
intheirsupportfortheempire,forwithoutthetributepouringinfromsubjectstates
suchlavishpublicmonumentswouldhavebeendifficulttofinance.Theyalso
enhancedPericlespopularity,providingjobsaswellasbeautifyingthe

Figure7.8.UsingsurvivingdescriptionsofthestatueofAthena,sculptorAlan
LeQuirecraftedthis43footreplicaforthelifesizeParthenonreplicainCentennial
ParkinNashville,Tennessee.
279
Figure7.9.GroundplanofErechtheion(421406BC).Thisgracefultemplewas
sacredtoAthena,Poseidon,andthelegendaryAtheniankingErechtheus.The
complicatedshapewastheresultofneedingtoskirtAthenassacredolivetreeandto
enclosePoseidonstridentmark.
280
Figure7.10.TheErechtheion,built421406BC,photographedinthetwentieth
century,showingthePorchoftheMaidens(Caryatids)thatfacestheParthenon.
Sincethisphotographwastaken,thestatuesweremovedindoorstoprotectthem
frompollutionandwerereplacedwithcopies.

city.Atthesametime,theyprovidedanopeningforPericlesenemiespersonal
rivalsorthosewhodislikedthemarchofdemocracytounderminehimbycalling
intoquestiontheproprietyofdivertingLeaguefundstotheaestheticimprovement
ofthehegemoniccity.TheendresultofthisclashconfirmedPericlespowerand
prestigeinAthens.Whenanostracismwasheldin443,thewinnerwasthemost
vocalopponentofthebuildingprogramThucydides,thesonofMelesias(probably
arelativeofThucydidesthehistorian).ThucydidesdepartureleftPericleswithno
seriousrivalinAthenianpolitics.
281
TheAgora
Theagorawasprincipallyacenterforsecularhumanactivity,thoughthegods,who
wereneverexcludedfromhumanactivities,alsohadtheirplace.Theagoraservedas
amarket,asameetingplacefortheexchangeofgoodsandofnews,andasafocusof
social,political,andjudicialactivities.Dailylifeforwomenwasideallyindoorsand
formenoutdoors.Menwhostayedindoorsweresuspectedofbeingeffeminateand
antisocial,andwomenwhoventuredoutdoorswerelikelytohavetheirchastity
questioned.IntheLawsPlatonotedthatthegreatestgoodinthepolisisthatthe
citizensbeknowntoeachother,asthemen(certainlynotthewomen)wouldbeif
theysawoneanothereverydayintheagora.Aristotledistinguishedhumanbeings
fromotherlivingcreaturesbytheiruseofspeech(though,again,womenwere

placedinadifferentcategoryandarecharacterizedasideallysilent).Speakingwas
essentialfortheactivitiesthattookplaceintheagora.
Document7.3AristotleinhisPoliticsexploredthenatureofpoliticalassociationand
ofthepolis.
Fromtheseconsiderationsitisevidentthatthepolisbelongstotheclassofthings
thatexistbynature,andthatmanisbynatureananimalintendedtoliveinapolis.
Hewhoiswithoutapolis,byreasonofhisownnatureandnotofsomeaccident,is
eitherapoorsortofbeing,orabeinghigherthanman:heislikethemanofwhom
Homerwroteindenunciation:Clanlessandlawlessandhearthlessishe.Theman
whoissuchbynature[i.e.,unabletojoininthesocietyofapolis]atonceplunges
intoapassionforwar;heisinthepositionofasolitaryadvancedpieceinagameof
draughts.
Thereasonwhymanisabeingmeantforpoliticalassociation,inahigherdegree
thanbeesorothergregariousanimalscaneverassociate,isevident.Nature,
accordingtoourtheory,makesnothinginvain;andmanaloneoftheanimalsis
furnishedwiththefacultyoflanguage.Themeremakingofsoundsservestoindicate
pleasureandpain,andisthusafacultythatbelongstoanimalsingeneral:their
natureenablesthemtoattainthepointatwhichtheyhaveperceptionsofpleasure
andpain,andcansignifythoseperceptionstooneanother.Butlanguageservesto
declarewhatisadvantageousandwhatisthereverse,anditthereforeservesto
declarewhatisjustandwhatisunjust.Itisthepeculiarityofman,incomparison
withtherestoftheanimalworld,thathealonepossessesaperceptionofgoodand
evil,ofthejustandtheunjust,andofothersimilarqualities;anditisassociationin[a
commonperceptionof]thesethingswhichmakesafamilyandapolis.
282
Wemaynowproceedtoaddthat[thoughtheindividualandthefamilyarepriorin
theorderoftime]thepolisispriorintheorderofnaturetothefamilyandthe
individual.
Politics1253a912,translatedbyErnestBarker,ThePoliticsofAristotle.Oxford:Oxford
UniversityPress,1973.
TheAthenianagorawasalargelevelspaceatthefootoftheAcropolisontheroad
fromthemaincitygate.Theareawasclutteredwithpublicbuildingsofwhichthe
mosteasilyidentifiedistheroundstructurecalledtheTholos,whichhousedthe
boulandwhereofficialweightsandmeasureswerestored.Theagorawasalsothe
siteoflawcourts,altars,shrines,statues,inscriptions,fountains,drains,andtrophies
ofwar.OnthewesternborderstoodaDorictemplethatwasdedicatedeitherto
Hephaestus,thegodofcrafts,ortoTheseus,alegendaryheroandkingofAthens.It

haswithstoodtheravagesoftimefarbetterthantheParthenonandisstillin
remarkablygoodcondition.Roofed,multipurposecolonnadescalledstoasflanked
theagora.Sandwichedbetweenthepermanentstructuresandwithinthestoasas
wellwereshops,bankerstables,booksellers,wholesalemerchants,schools,and
peoplebuyingandsellingthenecessitiesoflife.
OneimportantplaceinAthenianlifewasnotabuilding:thehillsideofthePnyx
wheretheassemblymettoweredabovethecity.Throughoutthefifthcentury,
citizenssateitheroncushionsordirectlyontherockygroundthatslopedfromsouth
tonorth,fillinganareaof15,000squarefeet.Around400BCthemeetingplacewas
evenedoutandenlarged,andbenchesseemtohavebeenadded.Theadultmale
citizensofAtticagatheredinallkindsofweathertolistentospeechesanddebates,to
makemotions,andtoholdhighofficialstoaccount.Invoting(whichwasbyshowof
hands)theynotonlytookintoconsiderationwhattheyhadheardonthePnyxbut
alsomadeuseofalltheinformationtheyhadgarneredintheagora.
RuralLifeinAttica
Thegrowthoftheurbancenterwasnotattheexpenseofruralareas.Public
buildingswerealsolocatedawayfromthecitycenter.Gymnasiumsandstadiums
thatrequiredplentyoflevelspacewereoftenfoundinthesuburbs,whichwere
coolerandshadierandclosertoplentifulsuppliesofwaterthancouldbefoundin
centralAthens.Cultcentersandruralagoras,aswellasfortressesandother
structuresfordefense,werescatteredthroughoutAttica.Itwasaneasywalk,
moreover,fromcitytocountry.
283
Document7.4PlatodepictsSocratesandPhaedrusenjoyingastrollthroughthe
countrysidewhilediscussingphilosophy,rhetoric,andlove.
SOCRATES.MydearPhaedrus,whereisityouregoing,andwherehaveyoucome
from?
PHAEDRUS.FromLysias,thesonofCephalus,Socrates;andImgoingforawalk
outsidethewall,becauseIspentalongtimesittingthere,sincesunup.Imdoing
whatyourfriendandmine,Acumenus,advises,andtakingmywalksalongthe
countryroads;hesaysthatwalkinghereismorerefreshingthaninthecolonnades.
SOCRATES.LetsturnoffhereandgoalongtheIlissus;thenwellsitdownquietly
whereveryouthinkbest.

PHAEDRUS.ItseemsitsjustaswellIhappenedtobebarefoot;youalwaysare.So
wecanveryeasilygoalongthestreamwithourfeetinthewater;anditwillnotbe
unpleasant,particularlyatthistimeofyearandatthistimeofday.
SOCRATES.Soleadon,andkeepalookoutforaplaceforustositdown.
PHAEDRUS.Wellthen,youseethatverytallplanetree?
SOCRATES.Idoindeed.
PHAEDRUS.Theresshadeandamoderatebreezethere,andgrasstositon,orlie
on,ifwelike.
SOCRATES.Pleaseleadon.
PHAEDRUS.Tellme,Socrates,wasntitfromsomewherejustherethatBoreasissaid
tohaveseizedOreithuiafromtheIlissus?
SOCRATES.Yes,soitssaid.
PHAEDRUS.Well,wasitfromhere?Thewaterofthestreamcertainlylooks
attractivelypureandclear,andjustrightforyounggirlstoplaybesideit.
SOCRATES.No,itwasfromaplacetwoorthreestadeslowerdown,whereone
crossesovertothedistrictofAgra;andtheresomewherethereisanaltarofBoreas.
Phaedrus227A229C;translatedbyC.J.Rowe,Plato:Phaedrus.Warminster,England:
Aris&Phillips,1986.
Inthefifthcenturyprobablythreequartersofthecitizensownedsomerural
property.Farmingcouldbeaparttimeoccupationthatproducedenoughfoodto
providesustenanceforafamily.Manypeoplestilllivedinvillages,wereloyalto
theirruraldemes,anddependedupontheirfamilyfarms.Exceptforthespacesset
asideforpublicactivities,Athenswasneitherabeautifulcitynoracomfortableone,
andmanypropertiedcitizenswerehappytoleaveittoartisans,to
284
theurbanpoor,andtometics,whowerenotpermittedtoownlandinAttica.The
cityhadmerelygrownupintheArchaicandClassicalperiodswithoutconforming
toatownplan.Streetswereirregularandnarrow;housinginthecitycenterwas
flimsyandsanitationpoor.Theseproblemswereexacerbatedwhentheentire
populationwithdrewinsidethecitywallsduringthePeloponnesianWar.
***

Thucydides,aswesawinChapter4,commentedonthelavishnessofAthens
monumentalarchitectureandrevealedhissuspicionthatitsphysicalremainsmight
leadobserverstoexaggerateitsgreatnessvisvisSparta,wherepublicspacewas
filledbyhumblerstructures.Certainlythesubstantialfundstheycollectedin
imperialtributemadeitpossiblefortheAthenianstodeckouttheircitywithedifices
ofunusualelegance,buttheunderlyingprinciplesgoverningtheallocationofspace
obtainedinotherpoleisaswell.ThroughouttheGreekworldfromIoniatoSicily
stoodbustlingcitycentersadornedwithtemples,governmentbuildings,andagoras;
some,likeOlympia,hadspecialconnectionstoreligion,whereasothers,likeCorinth,
weregreatports.Somecities,likeThurii,werecarefullylaidout;mostjustsprangup
littlebylittle,withstreetsatoddanglesmakingiteasytogetlost.Everywhere,the
cityanditssurroundingcountrysidewereinterdependent,andresidentstraveled
backandforthcomfortablybetweenthetwoareas.Commerceandagriculturewere
bothcentraltothefunctioningofeachpolis.
Althoughcommerceentailedagooddealofspecializedlabor,throughoutGreece
onesortofworkwasdiffusedthroughoutthemalepopulation,andthatwas
fighting.ExceptinSparta,Greekmengenerallyworkedattheland(or,lessoften,in
trade)inthewinterandwereavailableformilitarycampaignsinthesummer,
servingintheinfantryiftheybelongedtothepropertiedclassor,inthecaseofpoor
men,rowinginthefleet.WhenfightingbrokeoutbetweentheAthenianandSpartan
campsin431,warfarebegantoclaimanincreasinglylargeshareofpeoplestime,
energy,andworry.Theensuingsocialupheavalcausedwomentoassumesome
responsibilitiespreviouslyexercisedbymen.Intimethecomfortabledivisionofthe
yearintofightingandnonfightingseasonsevaporated,andduringthelastdecades
ofthefifthcenturyGreecefounditselfconsumedbyaprotractedanddebilitating
warofunprecedentedscope.Fighting,alwaysanimportantelementinGreek
civilization,nowcametobetheorganizingprincipleoflifeinthecitystates.
TRANSLATIONS
Blanco,Walter.1992.TheHistories,fromHerodotus:TheHistories,WalterBlancoand
JenniferRoberts,eds.,NewYork:W.W.Norton.
Blanco,Walter.1998.ThePeloponnesianWar,fromThucydides:ThePeloponnesianWar,
WalterBlancoandJenniferRoberts,eds.NewYork:W.W.Norton.
285
Gagarin,MichaelandPaulWoodruff,eds.1995.EncomiumofHelen,inEarlyGreek
PoliticalThoughtfromHomertotheSophists.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Grene,David.1987.TheHistory:Herodotus.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.

Hamilton,Walter.1951.Plato:TheSymposium.Harmondsworth,England:Penguin.
Hanson,Ann.1975.Hippocrates:DiseasesoWomeninSigns1.
Pomeroy,SarahB.1994.Xenophon:Oeconomicus,ASocialandHistoricalCommentary.
Oxford:ClarendonPress.
Warner,Rex.1959.Medea,fromTheCompleteGreekTragedies,EuripidesI:Four
Tragedies,DavidGreneandRichmondLattimore,eds.Chicago:Universityof
ChicagoPress.
SUGGESTEDREADINGS
Guthrie,W.K.C.1971.TheSophists.Cambridge,Eng.:CambridgeUniversityPress.A
brilliantstudyoftheissuesregardingthesophisticmovement,excerptedfromthe
authorsthreevolumeHistoryofGreekPhilosophy.
Harris,WilliamV.1989.AncientLiteracy.Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversity
Press.AsurveyoftheevidenceforliteracyandthelackofitinancientGreeceand
Rome.
Hill,IdaThallon.1953.TheAncientCityofAthens:ItsTopographyandMonuments.
London:Methuen.Aclearlywrittendescriptionwithillustrationsandplansofthe
architecturalandsculptedantiquitiesatAthens,beforetherestorationsthatarenow
inprogressbeganmaskingmanyofthemajormonuments.
Kagan,Donald.1969.TheOutbreakofthePeloponnesianWar.Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell
UniversityPress.ThefirstinstallmentinKagansfourvolumehistoryofthewar.
Osborne,Robin.1987.ClassicalLandscapewithFigures:TheAncientGreekCityandIts
Countryside.London:G.Philip.AnillustrateddiscussionoflifeinruralGreece,
naturalfloraandagriculture,writtenbyanauthorwhoplainlyloveshissubject.
McGregor,Malcolm.1987.TheAtheniansandTheirEmpire.Vancouver:Universityof
BritishColumbiaPress.AhistoryoftheAtheniansdealingswiththeiralliesthat
takesasympatheticviewofimperialism.
Ste.G.E.M.deCroix1972.TheOriginsofthePeloponnesianWar.Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell
UniversityPress.Ananalysisoftheavailablesourcesandanintensivestudyofthe
dataconcerningtheMegariandecrees.
Vlastos,Gregory.1991.Socrates:IronistandMoralPhilosopher.Ithaca,N.Y.:Cornell
UniversityPress.Anattempttocapturetheessenceofthephilosopher,byoneofthe
foremoststudentsofthePlatonicdialogues.

Wycherley,R.E.1979.TheStonesofAthens.Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversity
Press.AdetailedstudyofwhatthephysicalremainsofAthenshavetotellusabout
thecity.
286
8
THEPELOPONNESIANWAR
WhenwarbrokeoutbetweenAthensandSparta,fewGreeksforesawthatitwould
bedifferentfromanywartheyhadeverexperiencedorevenimagined.Thetwenty
sevenyearconflictcostthousandsuponthousandsoflivesandprovedastern
teacher.ItenhancedmanyoftheworstfeaturesofGreeksocietycompetitiveness,
jingoism,lackofcompassion,andgrossdisregardforhumanlife.Atthesametime,a
numberofextraordinarythinkerssoughttofocusattentionontheproblemspeople
faceintheirattemptstolivetogether:thewritingsofThucydides,Sophocles,and
Euripidesshowedvigorandspiritthroughoutthewaryears,andthecomic
dramatistAristophanescontinuedtoproduceenchantingplaysthroughthree
decadesoffightingandforagenerationafterwardthoughabitingsorrowisoften
evidentbeneaththemadcapfacade.ThePeloponnesianWarwouldaltertheworld
theGreeksknewinmanyrespects.Comfortableassumptionsaboutthecitizen
fighterandhisroleinthepoliswouldbreakdown,andconventionalmoralityand
pietywouldfacemanychallenges.Much,however,wouldstaythesamethepolisas
apoliticalunit,theprimacyofagriculture,therivalriesofthecitystates,andthe
worshipoftheOlympiangods.Thetraumaoccasionedbythewaranditsaftermath
wasalsostrikinglyfertile,forthewarsuppliedtheimpetusformanyofthesocial,
political,andintellectualchangesweidentifywiththefourthcenturyandtheperiod
afterthedeathofAlexanderin323BCthatwecalltheHellenisticAge.
SOURCESFORGREECEDURINGTHEPELOPONNESIANWAR
Thucydideswriteswithsucheloquenceandcertaintythathistorianshavehadto
strugglehardtochallengehisconclusionsandstrikeoutontheirownpaths.His
Historyisourprincipalsourceforthewar.AlthoughThucydidestriedtowriteeach
yearupasithappened,understandablyhebegantofallbehindasthewar
progressed,andatthetimeofhisdeatharound395BChehadgottenonlyasfaras
411.Rumorhaditthathisdaughterpreservedtheunfinishedmanuscriptand
287
gaveittoXenophontoedit.Whateverthetruthofthis,Xenophon,whopickedup
whereThucydidesleftoffandwrotethehistoryofGreecedownto362(inthework
calledtheHellenica),equaledThucydidesinneitheranalyticalcapacitynornarrative
skill.Shortlyafterthewar,however,Xenophondidhavetheadvantageoffriendship

withleadingSpartansincludingtheirkingAgesilaus.Inthecourseofthetrek
throughAsiaMinorthathedescribedintheAnabasis,hecertainlywouldhaveheard
warstoriesofsoldiersandofficersfromcitiesotherthanAthens.Afterhereturnedto
Greece,moreover,hewasexiledfromAthensandwassettledbyAgesilausinScillus
nearOlympia.HissonswereapparentlyeducatedaccordingtotheSpartansystem;
thusXenophoncertainlyunderstoodtheSpartansmethodsoftrainingsoldiersand
wagingwar.
TheworkingsofAtheniandemocracywereexploredinapamphletcalledThe
ConstitutionoftheAthenians,whoseunknownauthorissometimescalledtheOld
Oligarch;heisalsosometimescalledpseudoXenophon,sincebeforethetwentieth
centuryhistoriansbelievedhereallywasXenophon.Hostiletodemocracy,theessay
makesaninterestingcontrastwiththehappierviewofAtheniangovernmentand
societysetforthinthefamousfuneralorationforthewardeadthatThucydides
ascribedtoPericles,anditoffersakeenanalysisofthedistinctivedynamicofnaval
imperialismanditsrelationshiptoAtheniangovernment.
DiodorusandPlutarchcontinuetobeuseful.Diodorustreatmentofthewar
survivesintact,andPlutarchwrotethelivesoftheAthenianpoliticiansNiciasand
AlcibiadesandoftheSpartancommanderLysander.ThesourcesDiodorusand
PlutarchusedincludethefourthcenturyhistoriansTheopompusandEphorus,as
wellasTimaeus,wholivedaround300BC,andPhilistus,whohadbeenaboyin
SyracuseatthetimeoftheAtheniansiege.Speechesdeliveredincourtoratleast
writtenforsuchdeliverythrowconsiderablelightonthelateryearsofthewar.
Andocides,whowasimplicatedinthereligiousscandalsof415,describedhis
subsequentimprisonmentinhisspeechOntheMysteries.Lysias,whocamefroma
wealthymeticfamilyandknewSocrates,wroteanumberofspeechesearlyinthe
fourthcenturythattouchedoneventsduringthewaranditsaftermath;one(
AgainstAndocides)attackedAndocides,andanother(AgainstEratosthenes)
detailedhisownmisfortunesatthehandsoftheThirtyTyrantswhomSpartaset
upinAthensattheendofthewar.
AlthoughSophoclesproducedOedipusTyrannusduringthefirstyearsofthewar
andcontinuedtowriteuntilhisdeathin406,thetwoplaywrightswhorevealmost
aboutwhatitwasliketoliveinAthensduringthiswarwerethetragedianEuripides
andthecomicdramatistAristophanes.PlayslikeEuripidesTrojanWomendealt
withthesufferingsoccasionedbywarthroughthevehicleoftheTrojanWar,and
severalofAristophaneswartimecomediesmadeplaintheimmensedeprivationof
noncombatantmenandwomenandtheiryearningsforpeace.Someoftheflavorof
intellectuallifeinAthenscanbegatheredfromPlatosandXenophonsdialogues,
whichofferimaginativereconstructionsofconversationsSocratesheldinAthens
duringthewarwithfellowAthenians,withmetics,andwithvisitingluminariessuch
astherhetoricianGorgiasofLeontini,orthesophistProtagorasofAbdera.

288
Finally,inscriptionscontinuetoshedlightontheworkingsoftheAthenianempire,
andarchaeologicalandtopographicalinvestigationshavebeenofsomeusein
illuminatingparticularmilitarycampaignsthat,forexample,atPylosonthewest
coastofthePeloponnesusin425.Onthewhole,however,ourabilityfullyto
understandthewariscompromisedseverelybythelackofauthenticSpartan
sources.TheSpartansaversiontowritingliteraturehasplacedthematagreat
disadvantageinhistory.Oneconsequenceoftheirchoicehasbeenthefactthatthe
SpartanAthenianWarderivesthenamebywhichitisknownfromtheperspective
ofSpartasenemy:thoughmostofthebattleswerefoughtoutsidethePeloponnesus,
forAthensitwasthewaragainstthePeloponnesians,andithasbeenknownfor
centuriesasthePeloponnesianWar.TheSpartansdecisionnottorecordtheirown
storyaboutthewarhasmadeitnecessaryforustoreconstructitforthem,working
entirelyfromnonSpartansourcesandlargelyfromthewritingsofThucydides,who
mayormaynothaveenjoyedcontactsatSpartaafter(orevenbefore)hisexile.
Spartansmiraculouslybroughtbacktolifeinourowntimemightbeverysurprised
tolearnhowtheirwartimestrategieshavebeenimagined.
THEARCHIDAMIANWAR(431421BC)
TomanyGreeksaliveatthetime,thedecadeoffightingthatstretchedfrom431to
421seemedlikeadiscreteentityinitself,andinfactthiswarhasbeengivenitsown
nametheArchidamianWar,aftertheSpartancommanderArchidamus.Weowethe
conceptofasinglePeloponnesianWarextendingfrom431to404toThucydides.
Anotherhistorianmighthaveseenacontinuouswarextendingfrom460to404,or
threewarsonefrom460to446,onefrom431to421,andanotherbeginning
somewherebetween418and415andcontinuingto404.Studentsofhistoriography
(thewritingofhistory)usetheexpressioncolligation,thatis,tyingtogether,to
describethewayhistorianscreateaneventoraprocessbylinkingtogether
separateeventsinsuchawaythattheyformacoherentwhole.Joiningwhatothers
mightconstruedifferently,Thucydides,theearliestandmostimportantsourcefor
thehistoryofthisperiod,hasbycolligationsuccessfullypersuadedmostpeopleof
therealityofwhatistodaycommonlycalledthePeloponnesianWar,thewarof
431404.
ThePericleanStrategyandthePlague
Periclesdevisedaningeniousstrategyforwinningawarheconceivedasessentially
defensive,anditisameasureofhisinfluenceandeloquencethathewasableto
persuadehisfellowAthenianstodosomethingsoconspicuouslyatoddswith
humannature.HarassingPeloponnesianterritorywiththeirnavy,theAthenians
declinedtoparticipateinhoplitebattlewiththeenemy.AtPericlesinstigation,the

Athenianfarmersabandonedtheirland,takingwiththemwhatfewhousehold
goodscouldbeloadedonwagons,andhuddledwiththecitydwellers
289
Figure8.1.TheatersofoperationduringthePeloponnesianWar.

insidetheLongWallsthatlinkedAthenstoPiraeus.Thesewalls,Periclesrightly
perceived,madeAthensinessenceanisland.Foodandothernecessarygoodswould
continuetobeimportedbyshipfromthroughouttheempire.Theenemy,Pericles
calculated,wouldtireofravagingthelandwhennobodycameouttofight.Seeing
thatthesuperiortrainingandnumbersoftheirinfantrywoulddothemnogood,
theywouldsoonsueforpeace.TheSpartans,meanwhile,conjecturedthatthe
Athenianswouldgrowrestivecoopedupintheovercrowdedcitythroughoutthe
campaigningseasonand,seeingtheirlandbeingravaged,wouldbeunableto
toleratethefrustration.Theyforesawoneoftwoconsequences:eithertheAthenians
wouldseekpeaceortheywouldoverrulePericlesandcome
290
outtofight.Inforeseeingthattheenemywouldgiveupafteracoupleofyears,both
sidesmiscalculatedbadly,buttherewasnothingintrinsicallyfoolishintheir
thinking.
ItwaswithreluctanceandapprehensionthattheAtheniansabandonedtheirhomes
andthefamiliartemplesnearby,andwhenthefarmersarrivedinAthensonlyafew
wereabletofindshelterwithfriendsorrelatives.Mosthadtoseekoutemptyspace
inthecityorbunkdownintemplesandshrines.Somewoundupspendingsummers
inthetowersalongthewalls.Fortunately,theAtheniansthought,thewarwouldnot
lasttoolong;butofcoursetheSpartansknewthiswasjustwhattheywerethinking.
Thefirstyearofthewarwasrelativelyuneventful.TheAthenianfleetbusieditself
aroundthePeloponnesus.ArchidamusmovedonAtticawithhistroops,butnobody
cameouttomeetthem,sotheyhadtocontentthemselveswithcuttingdownolive
trees.Inthefall,whenthePeloponnesianshadgonehome,theAthenianarmy
ravagedtheterritoryofMegara(somethingtheycontinuedtodoannuallyforseveral
years).Thoughthisyearsawfewcasualties,bytraditiontheAtheniansheldapublic
funeralforthosewhohaddiedinthewar.Thismuchweknow:Pericleswaschosen
tooffertheeulogy.HowcloselythestirringpaeantoAthensthatappearsin
ThucydideshistoryapproximateswhatPericlesactuallysaidisanotherquestion.We
havenootherversionsofthisspeech.ItcouldrepresentThucydidesaccurate
recollectionofwhatwassaid,orafaultyrecollection,oracompositionofhisown;
andevenifPericlessaidthesethings,hisspeechcouldhavebeenwrittenbysomeone

else.Inanyevent,thespeechwehavefocusesnotonthedeadthemselvesbutonthe
cityofAthensandthewayoflifeitrepresentsawayoflifethatisdefinedasthe
antithesisofeverythingSpartan.
TheorganizingprincipleofthespeechrevealsmuchaboutGreekviewsofthestate,
forPericlesassumesthatawiseformofgovernmentprovidesthecornerstoneforthe
goodlifeinallitsmanifestations.Inthisheisincompleteagreementwiththe
politicaltheoristsofthefourthcentury,PlatoandAristotle.Thoughtheydisliked
democracy,theycertainlysharedPericlesconvictionthatthepoliteia(akindof
governmentorconstitution)astatechooseswillhavethewidestramificationsfor
thenatureofitscitizensandthespiritofitscommunallife.
Thespeechhasamarkedlydefensivetone.Itspurposeseemstobetocounter
suggestionsthataneasygoingpolissuchasAthens,withitsloveofwords,ofideas,
andofbeauty,couldnotcompetesuccessfullyinwarwithahighlyregulated,
militarizedsocietylikeSparta,wherewordsaredespisedasahindrancetoaction,
peoplehavelittlechoiceabouthowtheylivetheirlives,andanxioussecrecyisthe
orderoftheday.Welovenobilitywithoutostentation,Periclessays,
andwehaveavirileloveofknowledge.Furthermore,wealthisforussomethingto
use,notsomethingtobragabout.Andastopoverty,thereisnoshameinadmitting
toittherealshameisinnottakingactiontoescapefromit.Finally,whilethereare
thosewhomanageboththecityandtheirownprivateaffairs,
291
thereareothers,whothoughwrappedupintheirwork,neverthelesshavea
thoroughknowledgeofpublicaffairs....Forwearetheonlypeoplewhoregarda
manwhotakesnointerestinpoliticstobeleadingnotaquietlifebutauselessone.
Wearealsotheonlyoneswhoeithermakethegovernmentaldecisionsoratleast
frametheissuescorrectly,becausewedonotthinkthatactionishamperedbypublic
discoursebutbynotlearningenoughinadvance,throughdiscourse,aboutwhat
actionweneedtotake.
***
Tosumup,Itellyouthatthiscity,takenallinall,istheschoolofGreece,andasfar
asIamconcerned,anymanamonguswillexhibitamorefullydeveloped
personalitythanmenelsewhereandwillbeabletotakecareofhimselfmore
gracefullyandwiththequickestofwit.
(ThePeloponnesianWar2.4041;Blanco1998)

PericlesconcludingchargetothewomenofAthenssatoddlyonthelipsofaman
wholivedwithacompanionfarmorevisibleandrenownedthanmanyofhisfellow
politicians:
AndsinceImustalsomakesomementionofwomanlyvirtuetothosewhowillnow
bewidows,Iwilldefineitinthisbriefadmonition:yourgreatestfameconsistsin
beingnoworsethanyournatures,andinhavingtheleastpossiblereputationamong
malesforgoodorill.
(2.45;Blanco1998)
ThisiscertainlystrikingadviceinasocietyasloquaciousastheoneThucydides
depictsinAthens.Itispositedonanotionofwomanasineverywaytheoppositeof
politicalman,inwhosemindreputation(asPlatowouldsoonlament)countedfor
practicallyeverything.
Thenextyearsawtwoentirelypredictableeventsandoneunexpecteddevelopment.
TheinvasionofAtticabythealliedforcesofthePeloponnesianLeagueandthe
harassmentofthePeloponnesiancoastbytheAtheniannavywerebecomingroutine,
butnobodycouldhaveforeseenthehorrificplaguethatattackedthepopulationof
Athens.Itsoriginisunknown,asisitsprecisenaturetyphus,probably,orperhaps
smallpoxormeaslesbutitspreadrapidlyinthecrowded,unsanitaryenvironment
ofacitypackedtocapacityandbeyond.Probablyaboutathirdofthepopulacedied.
Thucydides,whohimselffellillbutrecovered,tookpainstorecordeverythinghe
couldaboutthecourseandsymptomsoftheillnesssothatitwouldbepossiblefor
readerstorecognizethedisordershoulditeverreappear.
InmanywaysThucydidesmeticulousaccountofthediseaseanditsbehaviorisa
microcosmofhishistoryasawhole,revealinghispassionateinterestinchronicling
eventsthatseemtohimtohavebroadsignificance,reflectingastheydopatternsin
events.Beginningwithadetailedaccountofthesymptomsofthediseasetheoral
bleeding,thebadbreath,thepainfulvomiting,theburningskin,theinsomnia,the
memoryloss,theoftenfataldiarrheahegoesontode
292
scribethewayinwhichpeoplereactedtothedisease.Thosewhorecoveredfromthe
illness,sensingthattheywerenowproofagainstit,notonlynursedthesickbutin
thejubilanceofthemomentheldthevainbeliefthattheywouldneverdiefromany
otherdiseaseinthefuture,either.Most,however,tookadarkerviewoflife,asthe
overwhelmingcatastropheseemedtoobviatethenecessityforobservingcustomary
moralandreligiousnorms.Thedisease,Thucydideswrote,initiatedamoregeneral
lawlessnessinthecityaspeople

decidedtogoforinstantgratificationsthattendedtosensualitybecausethey
regardedthemselvesandtheirpropertyasequallyshortlived.Noonewaswillingto
persevereinreceivedideasaboutthegoodbecausetheywereuncertainwhether
theywoulddiebeforeachievingit.Whateverwaspleasurable,andwhatever
contributedtopleasure,whereveritcamefrom,thatwasnowthegoodandthe
useful.Fearofthegods?Thelawsofman?Nooneheldback,concludingthatasto
thegods,itmadenodifferencewhetheryouworshippedornotsincetheysawthat
allalikeweredying;andastobreakingthelaw,nooneexpectedtolivelongenough
togotocourtandpayhispenalty.Thefarmoreterribleverdictwhichhadalready
beendeliveredagainstthemwashangingovertheirheadssoitwasonlynaturalto
enjoylifealittlebeforeitcamedown.
(ThePeloponnesianWar2.53;Blanco1998)
Demoralizedbytheplagueandfrustratedbybeingforbiddentomarchoutandoffer
battle,someAthenianstriedtoopennegotiationsforpeacewiththeSpartans.
Periclesmusteredonelastefforttopersuadethemtoabandonthisproject.Inatough
speechmarkedlylessidealisticthanthefuneraloration,hearguedthatthoughthe
empiremightbeatyrannyandmighthavebeenwrongtoacquire,stillthe
Athenians,havingatigerbythetail,wouldputthemselvesingreatdangerbyletting
itgo.ThoughembassiestoSpartadidcease,thecitizenryvotedtodeposePericles
(bringingforwardsomechargeagainsthim,aswascommoninAthenswhen
politicianshadceasedtopleasetheirconstituency)andindeedtofinehim.Nothing
muchhappenedwhenPericleswasoutofofficeexceptthelongawaitedsurrenderof
Potidaea.Findingthatotherleadersconductedthewarnobetter,theAthenians
returnedPericlestoofficeatthenextelections.Thenhecaughttheplagueanddied.
CleonandDiodotus:TheRevoltofMytilene(428427BC)
OnemotivefordecreesexcludingtheMegariansfromAthenianportshadprobably
beenPericlesdesiretobringonawar,iftherehadtobeone,whilehewasstillthere
toconductit;atthetimethedecreeswerepassed,hewasabout60.WithPericles
goneandthewarstillraging,theAtheniansneededtoreassessthemeritsofhis
strategyandtochooseotherleaders.Atfirsttheystucktotheplanofavoiding
infantrycombat,butintimetheyventuredforthandmetthePelo
293
Figure8.2.ThisimageofPericlesbyhisyoungercontemporaryCresilassurvives
inaRomancopyoftheheadofabronzeoriginal.Pericleswasrumoredtohaveworn
ahelmetinordertoconcealthedeformedshapeofhishead,whichmadehim
resemblethetyrantPeisistratus.

ponnesiansonthebattlefield,withmixedsuccess.NoonemanreplacedPericlesas
theunquestionedleaderoftheAthenianpeople,butoneofthemostpopularofthe
newpoliticianswasCleon(d.422BC).
HatedbyThucydidesandpilloriedbyAristophanes,Cleonhascomebeforethe
tribunalofhistoryatadesperatedisadvantage.The420ssawachangeinthe
characterofAtheniangovernment.Thoughnoformaldistinctionsdividedrichfrom
poororseparatedsocialclasses,stilluntilthewarAthenianshadfeltmost
comfortablewithpoliticalpowerinthehandsofmenfromold,wealthyfamilies
menlikeCimonandPericles.Nowthisceasedtobetrue.Richermenstillhadthe
advantageinelectionsforthegeneralship,butincreasinglymenwhosefathersand
grandfathershadrecentlymademoneyinbusinessbegantocompetesuccessfully
withthosewhosefamilieshadbeenlivingofftheirlandholdingsforgenerations.
Newwords,moreover,creptintodiscussionsofAthenianpolitics:dmaggosandits
relativedmaggia,whichfirstappearsinthesurvivingliteratureinAristophanes
Knights,producedin424BC.Literallyaleaderofthepeoplesurelythereis
nothingwronginthatinthehandsofclassconsciouscriticstheworddmaggos
cametosignalacalculatingpoliticianwhomanipulatedthevotersforhisownends
ratherthanlettinghimselfbeguidedbypatriotismandprinciple.Inreality,however,
thereisnowaytobesureofpeoplesmotives,andsometimesthewordjustbetrays
theclassprejudiceofthewriterusingit.
294
ThucydidesdescribedPericlesasleadingtheAthenianpeopleratherthanbeingled
bythem.DidthismeanPericleswasademagoguetoo?
ForemostamongthemenwhocametobeidentifiedasdemagogueswasCleon.
Deliberatelycultivatinganantiaristocraticpersona,Cleonwasthebrashand
outspokenownerofasuccessfultannery.Hewasthefirstofseveralleading
politiciansatAthenswhocommandedrespectintheassemblywithouthavingheld
thegeneralship.BeforeCleon,politicianshadalwaysexercisedthestratgiaevenif,
likePericles,theyhadnotgreatlydistinguishedthemselvesinthefield.Cleon,
however,whowasatalentedpublicspeaker,hadbecomeinfluentialalreadyin
PericleslifetimeandwasprobablythemostpowerfulpoliticianinAthensduringthe
yearsafterhisdeath(thoughheneverattainedPericlesstatureorexercised
comparableauthority).
By428,whenthewarhadbeengoingonforthreeyears,itlookedasifAthensmight
win.ThoughthesiegeofPotidaeahadbeencostly,atleastitwasover.TheAthenian
admiralPhormiohadwonsomenavalvictoriesinthenorthwest,damaging
Corinthiantrade.TheSpartansdestroyedPlataea,buttheyweresqueamishabout
invadingAtticain429becauseoftheplague,andtheyweredisappointedintheir

hopesofaidfromSicilyorPersia.Perhapstheywouldgiveup.In428,however,the
Spartansreceivedsomeverygoodnews.Fourofthefivecitiesontheislandof
LesboswererevoltingfromtheAthenianempire.LedbyMytilene,therevoltwas
particularlyunexpectedsince,alongwithChios,Lesboswasoneofthetwo
remainingsocalledautonomousmembersoftheempire,thatis,amemberthat
provideditsownshipsforthenavyratherthanbeingassessedintributemoney.
TheuprisingevokedtheimportantrevoltofSamosin440,whichhadspreadto
Byzantium.TheAthenianallianceappearedtobecomingapartattheseams,andthe
SpartanswerehappytogranttheMytilenaeansrequestforallianceandassistance.
Thepromisedaid,however,nevermaterialized;theSpartanswerenotyetreadyfor
decisivenavalaction.ThenextyeartheAtheniansiegeachieveditsaim:the
Mytilenaeanssurrendered.ThediscussionintheAthenianassemblyaboutwhatto
dowiththecapitulatedrebelsfirstbringsCleonaliveinthepagesofThucydides.
TheAtheniansinitiallyvotedtoputallthemeninMytilenetodeathandtosellthe
womenandchildrenintoslavery,andtheydispatchedaboattobringthenewstothe
generalincommandontheisland,Paches.Thenextday,however,somepeopleat
leasthadsecondthoughts,andadebateensued.Cleonshowsacockyselfassurance
inthedismissivewayheaddresseshisaudience:I,formypart,hebegins,have
oftennoticedbeforethatdemocraciescannotruleoverothers,butIseeitespecially
nowintheseregretsofyoursaboutMytilene...(3.37).DeridingtheAtheniansfor
theiropennessandflexibility,headvocatesapolicyofharshconsistency.Badlaws
thatstaythesame,heinsists,arebetterthangoodonesthatchange.Hisstudiedanti
intellectualismcontrastspointedlywiththepraiseofdeliberationanddebatein
Periclesfuneralorationdeliveredthreeyearsearlier:ordinarypeople,Cleonsays,
runtheircitiesfarbetterthanintelligentones,forthesewanttoseemwiserthanthe
lawsandtotopwhatevernonsenseissaidinpublicassemblies....Theyarethe
downfallof
295
citiesbecauseofthissortofthing(3.37;Blanco1998).Inotherrespects,however,
CleonforallhiscrassnessisplainlyPericlesheir.Youdontunderstand,hesays,
thatyouholdyourempireasatyrannyandthatyoursubjectsareschemerswhoare
governedunwillingly(3.37).ComparePericlesinhislastspeech:Youholdyour
empirelikeatyrannybynow.Takingitisthoughttohavebeencriminal;lettingitgo
wouldbeextremelydangerous(2.63;Blanco1998).
Diodotus,whoisotherwiseunknown,spokeagainstproceedingwiththeoriginal
plan,makingamarvelousargumentgroundedinhumanpsychology.Deterrence,he
contended,wasnotaseffectiveascommonlybelieved,becausepeoplewho
undertakeriskyventuresdosointheexpectationthattheywillsucceed,notfail.
Furthermore,heargued,therewasnomeritinkillingpeopleevenwhentheyhad

surrendered,fortodosoremovedanyincentiveforsurrenderinfuturerebellions.
Hethenmadeakeyobservationaboutthedynamicsoftheempire.Sofar,he
maintained,
thepopulaceinallofthecitiesiswellinclinedtowardyou.Eithertheydonotjoinin
rebellionwiththeoligarchs,or,iftheyareforcedtodoso,theyquicklyturnagainst
them.Thus,whenyougotowaryouhavethepopulaceofthecityyouareattacking
onyourside.
(ThePeloponnesianWar3.47;Blanco1998)
ThoughsomemightdebatetheaccuracyofDiodotuscontention,itcertainlymakes
usthinktwiceaboutThucydidesclaimthattheAthenianempirewasuniversally
detestedinthesubjectcities.
Diodotuswontheday,andasecondboatwassentouttoovertakethefirst.Envoys
fromMytileneprovidedextrarationsfortherowersandpromisedalargerewardif
theyarrivedintime.Asithappened,therowersontheoriginalboathadbeeninno
hurrytoannounceimpendingdoom,andthesecondboatmanagedtoarrivejustas
thedeathsentencewasbeingannounced.Insteadofputtingallthementodeathand
enslavingallthewomenandchildren,theAtheniansexecutedtheringleadersofthe
revoltwhoapparentlyamountedtooverathousandmen.
TheWarContinues
MeanwhilemiseryanddeathprevailedelsewhereinGreeceaswell.Frustratedin
theirattemptstouniteBoeotiaunderThebanleadershipasAthenshadunitedAttica,
theThebanshatedthePlataeansbecauseoftheirfriendshipwithAthens.In427they
persuadedtheSpartanstodestroyPlataea,killingthosewhohadnotmanagedto
escapetoAthens.Atthesametimeaparticularlyviciouscivilwarbrokeoutin
Corcyra.Thisconflictwassobloodyandimpassionedthatbothsexestookpart,
womenthrowingtilesasthewomenofPlataeahaddoneintryingtopreventa
Thebantakeoverin431.AsThucydidespointsout,thewarragingthroughoutGreece
intensifiedthelongstandingtensionsbetweentheordinarycitizens,whoresented
thewealthoftheelite,andthearistocrats,who
296
consideredalavishlifestyletobetheirbirthright,fortheformercouldexpecthelp
fromAthensandthelatterfromSparta.Theresultwasstasis(civilstrife)more
frequentandferociousthaneverbefore.Thucydidesdescribestheagonythatensued
whenthedemocraticpartygainedtheupperhandand,asalliesofthedemos,the
AtheniansundertheiradmiralEurymedonmadenomovetocurtailthebutchery.To
avoiddeathatthehandsofthedemocrats,someoligarchicpartisans

hangedthemselvesfromtrees.Otherskilledthemselvesinanywaytheycould.
EurymedonremainedatCorcyraforsevendayswithhissixtyships,duringwhich
theCorcyraeansceaselesslyslaughteredthoseamongthemwhomtheythoughttobe
enemies....Onesaweveryimaginablekindofdeath,andeverythingthatislikelyto
takeplaceinsituationslikethisdid,infact,takeplaceandevenmore.Forexample,
fatherskilledtheirsons;peopleweredraggedfromthetemplesandslaughteredin
frontofthem;somewereevenwalledupinthetempleofDionysusandlefttodie.
(ThePeloponnesianWar3.81;Blanco1998)
Whileoperatinginthewest,theAthenianssailedtoSicilywithavarietyofmotives
toassisttheiralliesthereagainsttheencroachmentsofSyracuse,tocutofftheexport
ofgraintothePeloponnesus,andtoexplorethepossibilityofbringingSicilyintothe
empire.Theirdesigns,however,werefoiledbythecharismaticSyracusanleader
Hermocrates,whopersuadedtheSicilianstopatchuptheirdifferencesinthefaceof
apossibleAthenianinvasion.Disappointedthattheyhadnotmanagedtogetmore
ofafootholdontheisland,theAthenianspromptlydeposedandfinedEurymedon,
reservingthepunishmentofexilefortheothertwostrategoiwhohadparticipatedin
theexpedition.MeanwhilethegeneralDemosthenes(nottobeconfusedwiththe
fourthcenturyoratorbythesamename)experiencedadisastrousfailurefollowed
bygreatsuccessaroundtheAmbracianGulf.ItwasDemostheneswhoconceiveda
projectthatdramaticallyalteredthebalanceofthewarandwouldhavebroughtitto
anendhadtheAtheniansnotrejectedSpartanpeaceovertures.Badweatheroffthe
westernPeloponnesushelpedDemosthenespersuadehiscolleaguestoputintoshore
atPylos.ThelegendaryhomeofNestor,thispromontorycombinedwiththenarrow
islandofSphacteriatoencloseabodyofwaterknowntodayastheBayofNavarino.
ThereDemosthenesandhismenbuiltafort.
FearingthatSphacteriamightfallintoAthenianhands,theSpartansrecalledthe
armythatwasravagingAtticaandpositioned420hoplitesontheisland.Whenthe
AtheniansdefeatedtheSpartansinnavalcombat,effectivelymarooningthehoplites
onSphacteria,theSpartangovernmentpanickedandsentenvoystoAthenstoplead
foranarmistice.SolimitedwasthenumberofSpartansthattheirgovernmentwas
willingtodoanythingtogetthosehoplitesbackevenmakeapeacethattookno
accountoftheiralliesinterests.OntheadviceofCleon,theAtheniansrefused,
whetheroutofoverconfidenceorbecausetheyfearedthefalloutfromahastypeace
thatultimatelyexcludedkeyplayerslikeCorinthandThebes.
297
Figure8.3.PylosandSphacteriaastheyappeartoday.

TheSpartans,then,remainedonSphacteria,andwhenCleonmadedisparaging
remarksaboutthefailureofAthensgeneralstocapturethem,hetookforhis
particulartargettherespectedstrategosNicias.Awealthyandreligiousman,Nicias
hadimpressedmanyAtheniansbythelavishsumshespentonreligiousfestivals,
andhisbaseofsupportlaywithAthensricherandmoreconservativevotersthe
sortofmenwhodespisedCleon.PointinghisfingeratNicias,Thucydidesreports,
Cleonsaidscornfullythatifthegeneralswererealmentheycouldeasilysetoutwith
anarmadaandcapturethetroopsontheisland.Ifhewereincommand,he
continued,thatwaswhathewoulddo(4.27;Blanco1998).Niciaspromptly
suggestedthatCleonhimselfbegivenaspecialcommissiontogotoPylosandget
holdofthestrandedhoplites.AgainsttheexpectationofupperclassAthenians,the
inexperiencedCleonworkedwellwithDemosthenes,andtotheastonishmentofall
Greeksofallsocialclasses,theSpartansoldierssurrenderedratherthanfighttothe
death.As128ofthePeloponnesianshadbeenkilledinthefighting,theAthenians
nowhad292bargainingchipswithwhichtonegotiateanendtothewar.Ofthese
themostvaluablewerethe120fullbloodedSpartiates,equals.Seeingtheirposition
strengthenedbythepossessionofhostages,theAtheniansresolvedtokeepfighting
ratherthantomakepeace.Thiswasprobablyamistake,foranypeacethatSparta
madeinordertoregainitsmenwaslikelytoalienateitsalliesandfosterthe
disintegrationofthePeloponnesianLeague.
ThepresenceofSpartanhostagesatAthensputanendtotheannualinvasionsof
Attica,butthewardidnotend.Now,growinginconfidencebecausetheyhad
298
compelledSpartanhoplitestolaydowntheirarms,theAtheniansoccupiedthe
MegarianportofNisaeaandseizedtheislandofCytheraoffLaconia.Thesewere
bothessentiallynavaloperationsthatPericleswoulddoubtlesshaveapproved,but
theAtheniansalsobeganexperimentingwithsubstantialdeparturesfromPericles
strategy,sendingoutinfantrytofacetheenemyinbattle.Asounddefeatbythe
BoeotiansatDeliumin424dampenedthehighspiritssparkedbythesuccessat
Pylos;thephilosopherSocrates,fightingintheranks,mightwellhavebeenkilled
hadhenotbeenrescuedbyhisadmirer,theyoungAlcibiades.Athenianlosses
farthernorthaddedstrengthtotheSpartancauseevenwhileSpartansoldiers
remainedcaptiveinAthens.FortheSpartanshaddiscoveredwhattheyhad
previouslylacked,atleastsincethelossofArchidamusaround427:acharismatic
general.Astalentedanoratorashewasastrategist,Brasidasbyhiscampaignsin
ChalcidiceverynearlywonthewarforSparta,justasDemosthenesandCleonhad
nearlywonitforAthensatPylos.
BrasidasandChalcidice(424422BC)

AthensholdonChalcidicehadalwaysbeenfragile,andnodoubttheincreaseinthe
tributeassessmenttheAthenianshadvotedin425intensifieddiscontentthereas
elsewhere.WhensomeChalcidictownsrequestedSpartanaidandwerejoinedin
theirappealbyAthensonagain,offagainallyPerdiccasofMacedonia,theSpartans
promptlydispatchedthedynamicBrasidas.OnceinChalcidice,Brasidaswasableto
persuadethetownsofAcanthus,Stagirus,andArgilusofSpartassincerityasa
liberatorandtoinducethemtorevoltfromAthens,promis
Figure8.4.ThisbronzeshieldfoundintheAthenianagorawasinscribedasbooty
takenfromPylos.
299
ingthatSpartawouldnotinterferewiththeirgovernments.(Hiseloquencewas
great,butThucydidesstressesthatfearoftheSpartanpresencewasalsoafactorin
theserevolts.)
ThoughBrasidashadaccomplishedmuchforSparta,thegreatestprizelayahead.
GainingpossessionofAmphipoliswouldrequirealittlemoreeffort,butthis
cherishedAthenianstrongholdwasBrasidasprincipaltarget,andinfacthebrought
itovertotheSpartansideinlessthantwentyfourhours.Horrifiedbythisloss,the
AtheniansbanishedoneoftheirgeneralswhohadbeenoffshoreatThasoswhenthe
catastropheoccurred:thehistorianThucydides.TheeventsofthatsnowyDecember
nightinthenorthplayedalargeroleindeterminingjustwhatformThucydides
historyofthewar,alreadybegunearlier,wouldtake.Justastheycutoffthe
opportunityforhearingspeechesdeliveredintheassemblyandforpickingupthe
latestscuttlebuttintheagora,theyalsoensuredthatThucydides,freedfromcivic
responsibilitiesandperhapsmoretrustedbyforeignersnowthathewasontheouts
withthehomegovernment,wouldhavemorereliablenonAtheniansources.
ThucydidesseemstoknowagreatdealaboutBrasidasthinking,forexample;
perhapsthetwomengottoknoweachother.
Thefollowingspring(423)theAtheniansandtheSpartanssignedayearsarmistice
thatwasrespectedinmostpartsofGreece.TroublecontinuedinChalcidice,where
thecityofScionerevoltedtoSparta,probablybeforelearningofthetruce.Whenthe
armisticeexpiredin422,itwasinChalcidicethatfightingresumed.ThereCleon,
nowaregularlyelectedgeneral,metBrasidasinbattleatAmphipolis,decidingnotto
waitforreinforcementsfromPerdiccas,whohadreturnedtotheAthenianfold.
Greekgeneralsfoughtinthefrontlines,andinthefightingbothCleonandBrasidas
werekilled.
ThePeaceofNiciasandthePeaceofAristophanes(421BC)

ThedoortopeacewasopenedbythedeathsofthemenAristophanescalledthe
pestleswhoweregrindingdownthemortarofwar.AthensandSpartahadbothhad
enough.AgricultureinAtticahadbeenhorriblydisruptedandwithitthetrade
betweencityandcountrysidethatwasthefoundationofpolislife,andtheAthenians
wereunsettledbythepatentunrestthroughouttheirsphereofinfluenceinthenorth.
SpartawasnervousaboutcontinuingitswarwithAthenswhentheSpartanArgive
truceofthirtyyearswasonthevergeofexpiring.AnumberofSpartansoldiershad
diedincaptivityinAthens,andtheSpartanswereextremelyeagertorecoverthe
survivors.Bothsidesweredisturbedbythedegreetowhichtheyhadbeen
compelledtohiremercenariestokeepthewargoing;itseemedlikeabadprecedent,
anditwasalsocostly.Theotherkeyplayersonthediplomaticscene,however
Corinth,Megara,andBoeotiahadsomewhatlesstogainfrompeaceingeneral
(althoughtheyhadalsoexperienceddevastationduringthewar),andnothingto
gainfromtheparticularpeaceonwhichtheAtheniansandSpartansagreed.Infact,
theyrefusedtosignit.Thehighlyprob
300
lematicagreementknownasthePeaceofNicias(namedfortheprincipalAthenian
negotiator,Cleonsoldrival)wasessentiallyavictoryforAthens.
CountlessmenandwomenthroughouttheGreekworldhadnodoubtlonged
increasinglyforpeaceduringthetenyearsoftheArchidamianWar,but,asisoften
thecase,weknowmostaboutthesituationinAthens,fromwhichthebulkofour
writtensourcesoriginate.In425,AristophaneshadpresentedhisAcharnians.Comic
dramaswereproducedtwiceayearinAthens,bothtimesatfestivalsofthegod
Dionysus.Asattragiccompetitions,severaldramatistspresentedplays,butthough
weknowthenamesofothercomediansandfragmentsoftheirworkremain,no
wholeplaysbyanyhandotherthanAristophaneshavesurvived.Obsceneand
boisterous,Aristophanesplaysalsomanifestatenderloveofthecountryside,a
nostalgiaforasimplertime,andasobercommitmenttopeace.Though
Aristophanescomicgeniuswasunique,hisvaluesmusthavebeencongenialtothe
community;thedecisionwhethertograntachorusfortraininglaywiththecity
magistrates,andofcourseprizeswereawardedbycitizenjudges.
TheAcharnianshadpresentedasitsheroacertainDicaeopolis(themanofthejust
city),agrumpyfarmerfromthedemeofAcharnaenorthofAthens.Dicaeopolis
spleenwasdirectednotattheinvadingenemybutratherattheAthenianpoliticians
whoweredeterminedtocontinuethewar.Acharnaehadbeenravagedannuallyby
thePeloponnesians,andDicaeopolis,disappointedinhishopeofageneralpeace,
decidedtomakehisownprivatepeacewithSparta.Nowin421,withanendtothe
warinsight,AristophaneswrotehisPeace;bythetimeitwaspresented,thetreaty
wasclosetobecomingareality.Here,parodyingalostplaybyEuripides,

AristophanesshowshisprotagonistTrygaeusridingonahugedungbeetletothe
houseofZeus(accomplishedonstagebyacrane)toinquirewhyZeusisdestroying
Greecebywar.TherehelearnsfromHermesthatthegodshavebeenalienatedby
thetwosideschildishsquabbling.Theaudiencecannothavebeenentirely
comfortablewithHermesevenhandedallotmentofblame.Thegods,hesays,
werefrequentlyforpeace.
Butyouguyswantedwar.Laconians,
whenoncetheygotalittlepieceofluck,
wouldsay,ByGod,thoseAtticanswillpay!
Orifitseemedthatluckwasonyourside,
andthentheSpartanscameaboutapeace,
atonceyoudcry:Werebeingtakenin!
Athena!Zeus!wecantagreetothis!
IfwehangontoPylos,theyllcomeback.
(Peace211219)
HethenexplainsthatWarhasimprisonedPeaceinacaveand,havingobtaineda
hugemortarinwhichtogrinddownalltheGreekcities,hassenthisslaveTumultin
searchofpestles.Tumult,however,haslearnedthatAthensandSparta
301
haverecentlylosttheirpestlesCleonandBrasidas.Perhaps,then,thereissome
hopeofsettingPeacefree.
TrygaeusfinallypersuadesHermestohelphimorganizetherescueofPeace.Thisis
nomeantask,sinceitisdifficulttogetalltheGreekstopulltogetheronthe
necessaryropesevenwithdivineassistance,butintimetheireffortsaresuccessful.
TheblessingsPeacewillbringarecelebratedintermsthatreflecttheconcernsofthe
Athenianfarmersintheaudience:
Trygaeus:Fellowfarmers!Stopandlisten!Canyouhearthesewondrouswords?
Nomorespears,men,nomorejavelins,nomorefightingwithourswords!
Wevegotpeacewithallitsgiftsnow,wecantradeinallthatarming
Forahappy,happysongaswemarchhometodosomefarming.
Chorus:Whataday,notjustforfarmersbutforanyoneworthwhile:
Whatayearnedfor,hopedforvision!SeehowjoyouslyIsmile

AsIthinkabouthowsoonIllseethevinesuponmyland;
AndthefigtreesthatIplantedasayouthwithmyownhand!
(Peace551558)
Thetermsofthereallifepeaceweretobeobservedforfiftyyears.Athenswasto
keeptheempirewithwhichithadenteredthewar;thetreatycontainedthe
expressiontheAtheniansandtheirallies.SpartawastoreturnAmphipolis,while
AthenswouldabandonPylosandCytheraandreleaseallprisonersofwar.Though
attremendouscostinmoneyandhumanlives,theAthenianwargoalhadbeenmet:
theSpartanshadfailedtodestroytheempire.Withouteventrying,theAthenians
haddonemuchtoweakenthePeloponnesianLeague.Afteragruelingwaroften
yearsSpartahadsufferedlossoflifeandlossofprestige,andnowshewasaboutto
loseheralliesaswell.
AngrythatnosubstantialdamagehadbeendonetotheAthenianempireandthat
twocitiesonthewestcoast,SolliumandAnactorium,remainedinAthenianhands,
Corinthrefusedtosignthepeace.Megarawouldnotsignanagreementthatallowed
theAthenianstoretainNisaeaastheSpartansshouldhaveforeseen.TheBoeotians,
furiousattheordertorelinquishtheborderfortressofPanactumtotheAthenians,
notonlydeclinedtosignthetreatybutdemolishedPanactumsoonerthangiveit
back.ThedisintegrationofthePeloponnesianLeaguemighthaveprovenhelpfulto
theAthenianshadthetermsofthelimitedAthenianSpartanpeacebeenrespected.
WhenArgosdecidednottorenewitstreatywithSpartaandSpartarespondedby
nervouslysigningafiftyyearalliancewithAthens,thepositionoftheAthenians
seemedquiteenviable.ButSparta,asitproved,exaggerateditsabilitytocontrol
evenitsweakestallies.TheAmphipoli
302
tans,forexample,hadburiedBrasidaswithhonorsandcometoreverehimastheir
founder,extinguishingthememoryoftheAthenianHagnonwhohadpreviously
enjoyedthatstatus,andtheyrefusedtoreturntotheAthenianempire.Inretaliation,
theAtheniansheldontoPylos.Thechanceforaproductivealliancebetweenthetwo
mostpowerfulstatesinGreecewaslost.ProbablythiswasaluckythingforSpartas
erstwhileallies.ThoughAthensandSpartadidnotattackoneanotherdirectly,the
yearsthatfollowedwereverytense,andThucydidesviewedthePeaceofNiciasasa
falsepeace,atroubledinterludebeforetheresumptionofhostilities.
BETWEENPEACEANDWAR
EventsweretoprovethatthethousandswhohaddiedintheArchidamianWarhad
giventheirlivesfornothing.Theshortlivedpeacenotonlyfailedtosolvethe

problemsofpreviousyears;italsocompromisedthehopesofthefuture.Thesense
thattheSpartansbetrayedtheminfailingtohonorthetermsofthePeaceofNicias
wasprobablyakeyfactorintheAtheniansaversiontomakinganothernegotiated
peacewiththeirrival.ThoughtheAtheniansandSpartanswhodesiredpeace
wanteditverybadlyindeed,theyhadtocontendwithformidablecountervailing
forces.
Effectivelyexcludedfromthepeaceof421,Spartasmostpowerfulalliesposeda
seriousthreattopeaceinGreece.Dangeralsocamefromindividualswithinthe
hegemonicstates.Twoephors,CleobulusandXenares,schemedwiththe
CorinthiansandBoeotianstobringArgosovertotheSpartansideandsetthestage
forcontinuingthewar.InAthens,theambitionsofonememorableAthenianhada
powerfulimpactonthecourseofevents.Asarule,itisdangeroustoaccordtoolarge
aroletohighprofileindividualsinshapingthecourseofhistory.Attimes,however,
aparticularpersondoesseemtobearanextraordinaryshareoftheresponsibilityfor
thewaythingsturnout.SuchwasthecasewiththeflashyAthenianaristocrat
Alcibiades.Strategosforthefirsttimein420,Alcibiadeshadlittleprospectofmaking
anameforhimselfinatranquilworld.Hisfutureglorywascontingentonthe
disintegrationofthefragilepeace.ToAlcibiades,evenmorethantotheaverage
Greekaristocrat,alifewithoutglorywasbarelyworththename.
Alcibiades,RenegadeAristocrat
Alcibiadeshadbeen3whenhisfatherdied,andhewasraisedinthehomeofhis
relativePericles.Handsome,witty,athletic,charming,andsensuous,hewaseagerly
courtedbyloversofbothsexes.Hisrakishpersonalityandflamboyantlifestylewere
conducivetoanecdote,andPlutarchtellsseveralstoriesillustratingtheopposition
betweentheresponsibilityofPericlesandtheirresponsibility
303
ofhisirreverentward.Oneday,itseems,whenAlcibiadeshadgrownupand
wishedtospeaktoPericles,he
wenttohishouse,butwastoldPericlescouldnotreceivehim,ashewasconsidering
howtopresenthisaccountstothepeople.Woulditnotbebetter,askedAlcibiades
ashecameaway,ifheconsideredhowtoavoidpresentingaccountstothepeopleat
all?
(Alcibiades7;ScottKilvert1960)
Alcibiadesneverdidlikerules.HispassionsincludedhisteacherSocrates,the
breedingandracingofhorses,andindeedcompetitioninallitsforms,onandoffthe
track.Hiswealthyfamily(whosegenealogywehavediagrammedinChapter6,

Figure6.10)hadconnectionsabroad,anddespitehisrelationshiptoPericles,his
grandfatherhadbeentheSpartanproxenosatAthensthemanchargedwith
representingSpartaninterestsinhishomestate.Tothefamilyconnectionsthatwere
hisbybirth,headdedamarriageconnection;hiswifeHipparete,daughterof
Hipponicus,belongedtooneofthemostprominentfamiliesinAthens.
AtfirstitappearedthatAlcibiadesinterestinreactivatingthewarwouldcometo
nothing.AlthoughElisandMantineajoinedtheallianceAthenshadformedwith
Argos,Spartamanagedtodefeatthenewgroupinginbattle,scoringadecisive
victoryinMantineain418BC,andalsosucceededinmendingfenceswithits
disaffectedalliesBoeotiaandCorinth,thusineffectrestoringthePeloponnesian
League.MeanwhiletensionsranhighamongthevariouswouldbeleadersinAthens.
AnostracismmighthavedecidedtherivalryofAlcibiadesandNicias,thehawkand
thedove,butthetwomenseemtohavepanickedandmobilizedtheirsupportersto
turnonathirdman,Hyperbolus,instead.
Apoliticianfromtherisingbusinessclass,likeCleon,Hyperbolusappearstohave
beenaneffectivespeakerwhosharedCleonsimperialisticpolicies,butotherwise
littleisknownabouthim.Inretrospect,theAthenianswereupsetbythewaythe
votinghadgone,andtheyneveragainheldanostracism.Thefactthatostracismwas
inrealitysomethingofanhonorisunderlinedbyPlutarchsclaimthatitwas
Hyperbolusunworthinessthatsparkedthisdecision;acontemporarycomicpoet
apparentlyquipped,Theman,indeed,deservedthefate,butnotthefatetheman.
Atthisdistance,itisimpossibletodeterminewhethertheAtheniansdistressatthe
outcomeoftheostracismresultedfromHyperboluspoliticalinsignificanceorhis
socialorigins;thosewhohadbeenostracizedearlierinthecenturycamefrom
aristocraticfamilies.Inanyevent,theAtheniansnowturnedtoadifferent,less
peculiarstrategyforensuringdemocraticcontrolongovernment.Aroundthistime
theybeginutilizingthegraphparanomn(indictmentforillegalproposals)to
punishpoliticianswhobroughtforwardproposalsinconflictwithexistinglaws.Like
ostracism,however,thisprocedurewasoftenusedpoliticallyadevelopmentthatis
notsurprising,since,withoutawrittenconstitutionorbillofrights,onlyahighly
subjectivejudgmentcoulddeterminewhatnewlawswereandwerenotinharmony
withtheold.
304
TheDestructionofMelos(416BC)
TheyearsthatfollowedweremarkedbyconflictinAthensandchaosinthe
Peloponnesus.Argosswitchedalliancesmorethanonce,andbothAlcibiadesand
Niciashadsufficientsupporttobeelectedtwoofthestrategoifor417416.A
disturbingAtheniannavalexpeditionstandsoutfromthesetroubledyears,

memorializedinsomeofthemostfrequentlyreadpagesinThucydides.In416,
probablyattheinstigationofAlcibiades,theAtheniansdecidedtobringthelittle
islandofMelosundertheircontrol.TheonlyislandintheCycladesthathadstood
alooffromtheiralliance,Meloshadtechnicallyremainedneutralinthepreviouswar
buthadgivenSpartaasmallsumforthewareffort.ASpartancolony,Melos
definitelyleanedtothePeloponnesianside,butAthensandSpartawerenotreallyat
waranylonger,andMeloswasofnostrategicsignificance.ItisunclearwhatAthens
hadtogainbysubjugatingMelosbesidesthesatisfactionofmakinganexampleof
theuncooperativeMelians,butforwhateverreason,Athenianshipsweredispatched
toMelostoorderitsinhabitantstoentertheiralliance.HopeofSpartanassistance
movedtheMelianstoturnAthensdown.Spartanaiddidnotmaterialize,andas
punishmentfortheirrecalcitrance,theAthenianskilledalltheMelianmenandsold
allthewomenandchildrenintoslavery.
TotreatanenemythiswaywasnotunheardofinGreece;thisispreciselywhatthe
AthenianshaddonetotheinhabitantsofrebelliousScionein421.ButtheMelians
werenottheAtheniansenemies.Theepisodeplainlymadeadeepimpressionon
Thucydides,whochosetoincludeinhishistoryachillingrenditionofthe
conversationbetweentheMeliansandtheAthenianstheonlysustaineddialoguein
hiswork.Meloswasatinyislandinaremotelocale.HowdidThucydidesknow
whatwassaidthereinsuchdetail?Hedidnt.ThesetpieceknownastheMelian
DialogueshowsusThucydidesexperimentingwithanartformclosertodramathan
tohistory.
ThucydideswasnottheonlyAthenianaliveatthetimewhousedhisverbaltalents
toshowcasethehorrorsofwarandtoexploreitscorrosiveeffectonmorality.The
followingspring(415BC)EuripidesconfrontedtheAthenianswithhisanguished
TrojanWomen.Noonecouldseriouslydoubtthatthisexquisitelypainfuldrama,
ostensiblysetinTroyintheaftermathofthecitysfall,wasdesignedtoillustratethe
dreadfulnessofwaringeneralandthecurrentwarinparticular.Thespecterofthe
enslavementofthewivesandsistersanddaughtersoftheTrojanheroesandthe
executionoftheyoungAstyanax,Hectorsson,throwntohisdeathfromthecity
walls,wasalltooevocativeofrecentdevelopments:manyofthosesittinginthe
audiencehadthemselvesdonethekillingatMelos.Italsoprovedpropheticofevents
yettocome.
THEINVASIONOFSICILY(415413BC)
Whileasmallnumberofmenmetdailytopracticesingingtheunsettlingchorusesin
Euripidessoberingdrama,alargenumberbusiedthemselvespreparingforthe
largestmilitaryexpeditioninAthenshistory.Inthewinterof416415
305

temptationhadappearedtotheAthenianassemblyintheformofambassadorsfrom
theSiciliancityofEgesta,anoldally.Theirrequestforassistanceagainsttheir
neighborSelinusprovidedaspringboardforwarmongerslikeAlcibiades.Inawar
withEgesta,SelinuscouldcountonthebackingofSyracuse,themostpowerfulcity
inSicilyandaCorinthiancolony.TheexpansionofSyracusanpowerinSicily
auguredwellforAthensenemies,andtheEgestansrequestpiquedtheinterestof
menwhoyearnedfornewadventures.PericleshadwarnedtheAtheniansthat
attemptstoexpandtheirempirewouldunderminetheirchancesofwinningthewar,
butPericleswaslongdeadandhisstrategyhaddiedwithhim.WhenAlcibiades
advocatedfullsupportforEgestaandNiciasarguedwithequalpassionagainst
involvementinSicily,theAtheniansresolvedonapeculiarcompromise.Alcibiades
wouldindeedbesentwestwithalargeforce,buthewouldbeaccompaniedbytwo
otherstrategoiLamachus,anexperiencedgeneral,andNiciashimself,whose
presencetheyhopedwouldserveasacheckonAlcibiadesrashness.
JustabouteverythingthatcouldhavegonewrongwiththeSicilianenterprisedid.
TheideathatNiciasprudencewouldcounterAlcibiadesimpulsivenaturewas
singularlywrongheaded.Shortlybeforetheexpeditionwastosail,moreover,a
bizarrenocturnalescapadeinAthenssparkedascandalofextraordinaryproportions
thatspilledoverfromreligiontopolitics.OutsideAthenianhomesandtemples
stoodreligiousimagesknownashermsstonepillarsbearingimagesofthefaceand
erectphallusofthegodHermes.Theyweremeanttobringgoodluckandprotection
fromdanger.Onemorningnotlongbeforetheexpeditionwastosetsail,the
Atheniansawoketofindthatnearlyallthesehermshadbeenvandalized.
CulturaldifferencesmakeithardforusfullytounderstandwhyAtheniansreacted
tothissacrilegiousprankwithutterterrorandbecameconvincedthataplotwas
afoottooverthrowthegovernment,butthisisexactlywhathappened.Thoughmany
werepunished,responsibilityfortheprojecthasneverbeendetermined.Itmayhave
beentheworkofoneormoreoftheorganizationsknownashetaireiai.Drinkingclubs
composedofupperclassyoungmen,oftenwitholigarchicleanings,hetaireiai
involvedthemselvesinavarietyofsocialandpoliticalactivities.Todemocratsthey
seemedsinisterandpotentiallytreasonous.
Notsurprisingly,fingerswerepointedatAlcibiades,preciselythesortofirreverent
individualwhowouldsethisdrinkingcompanionsonsuchanenterprisewhether
theybelongedtoahetaireiaornot.Fuelwasaddedtotheflamesbyaccusationsthat
AlcibiadeshadstagedaburlesquemockingthemysteryritescelebratedatEleusis,
violatingtheirsecrecybyparodyingtheminfrontoftheuninitiated.Sincehehad
solidsupportamongtheadventuroussailorsboundforSicily,Alcibiadeswisely
demandedthathebetriedatonce,beforethefleetleft.Insteadhisopponentswaited
tobringchargesuntiltheexpeditionhadsailed.

ThefleettheAtheniansdispatchedforSicilywasentirelyoutofproportiontothe
sizeorimportanceofitsintendedobjective.Itconsistedof134triremeswith130
supplyboats,atotalofover25,000men.Dozensofmerchantvesselsdecidedto
accompanythenavy,hopingforprofits.Bothcitizensandforeignerscrowded
306
theshoreoglingthearmada,whichThucydidessayswasthemostexpensiveany
Greekcityhadlauncheduntilthatday.Atrumpetproclaimedsilence,andaherald
recitedtheprayers.Oneverydeckbothofficersandmarinesofferedlibationstothe
godsinvesselsofgoldandsilver.Thecrewsraisedthepaean,andwhenthelibations
werefinished,putouttosea,sailingfirstinsinglefileandthenracingoneanotheras
farasAegina.FromtheretheyhastenedtoCorcyratorendezvouswiththerestof
theirallies.
OfthemanywhosailedforSicilyfewreturned.TheAtheniansreceivedlesssupport
fromthecitiesofSicilyandsouthernItalythantheyhadexpected,andeventhe
eagerEgestansturnedoutnottohavetheresourcestheyhadclaimed.Envoys
dispatchedtoEgesta,itproved,hadbeendupedintobelievingthecitywasrich
wheninfactitwaspoor.ThucydidestellshowthevariousEgestansreceivedthe
crewsoftheAthenianshipsintheirhomes,roundingupasmanygoldandsilver
cupsastheycouldfindintownandintheneighboringcitiesandpresentingthemat
partiesasiftheybelongedtothehousehold:
Theyallusedthesamegoblets,forthemostpart,andtheyshowedsomuchofit
everywherethatitabsolutelyawedtheAtheniancrewmen,who,whentheyreturned
toAthens,spreadthenewsaboutthegreatwealththeyhadseen.Thosewhohad
beendeceivedinturnmisledothers,andtheywereallheldresponsiblebythetroops
whenwordgotoutthatEgestadidnothaveanymoney.
(ThePeloponnesianWar6.46;Blanco1998)
Thethreegenerals,moreover,wereunabletoagreeonaplanofaction.Nicias
wantedtoheadforSelinus,settleitsquarrelwithEgesta,andthenconsiderreturning
home.AlcibiadespreferredtobuildupallianceswithotherSiciliancities.Lamachus
planwasprobablythebestanimmediateattackonSyracusebeforethecitycould
fullymobilizeitselfandrecoverfromitsterrorattheAtheniansarrivalontheisland.
Lackingsupportforhisgoodproposal,LamachusthrewhisbackingtoAlcibiades
plan.Thegeneralsthenfritteredawaynearlyayearinminorenterprises,but
AlcibiadesdidnotspendmuchofthisyearinSicily.Afterhisdeparturefrom
Athens,hisenemieshadlodgedformalchargesagainsthimforsacrilege,andoneof
Athenstwoofficialstatetriremes,theSalaminia,wasdispatchedtoSicilytobring
himhome.PermittedtofollowtheSalaminiainhisownship,Alcibiadesescapedto
ThuriiandthencetothePeloponnesus,wherehedefectedtoSpartaandsetabout

advisingAthensoldenemyofthebestwaystoundermineit.Wheninthewinterof
415414envoysfromSyracuseandCorinthcametoseekSpartanaidfortheSicilian
campaign,AlcibiadeswarnedtheSpartansthattheAthenianswereplanningto
conquerSicilyandItaly,attackCarthage,andthengoafterthePeloponnesus.The
dispatchofaSpartangeneraltoSicily,hesuggested,mightbenecessaryifthe
SpartanswantedtopreventanAtheniantakeoveroftheentireGreekworld.
MeanwhileNiciasandLamachushadoccupiedtheplateauknownasEpipolaewest
ofSyracuseandhadbegunbuildinganorthsouthwallwiththeideainmindof
blockadingthecity.InthefightingthatensuedwiththeresistingSyra
307
Figure8.5.DiagramofSyracuseandEpipolae.
cusans,however,Lamachuswaskilled,leavingNiciasinsolecommand.Niciasat
firsthandledthesituationwell,successfullymovingtheAthenianfleetinto
Syracusesharborandcreatingarealpossibilityofblockadingthecity,butthe
SpartansweredeterminedtopreventanAtheniantakeoverofSicily.Thoughthe
numbersofthefullbloodedSpartiatecastehaddropped,talentwasnotlacking,and
thereinforcementsthatarrivedinSyracusewereledbyGylippus,agifted
commanderfromthenewclassknownasmothakessometimestheoffspringofa
Spartanfatherandhelotmother,sometimesthesonsofimpoverishedSpartans
308
whonolongerhadthemeanstocontributetothecommonmealsandthusmaintain
theirstatusinthecorpsofequals.ThearrivalofGylippuswithreinforcements
changedthesituationdramatically.GylippusscaledtheEpipolaeheightsviaapass
thattheAthenianshadcarelesslyleftunguardedthesamepasstheythemselveshad
usedafewmonthsbefore.TheSyracusans,moreover,builtacounterwallthat
destroyedAthenianchancesforablockade.
NiciaswasnowsufferingacutelyfromkidneydiseaseandaskedtheAtheniansto
recallhim.Theyrefused.Convincedthesituationwashopeless,hetriedtodissuade
themfromcontinuingtheireffortsinSicilybyalonglettertotheassembly
maintainingthatonlyaforceaslargeastheoriginalexpeditioncouldhaveany
chanceofsuccess.Tohishorror,theAthenianssentDemosthenesoutattheheadof
theproposedreinforcements.Whenhearrivedwiththesecondfleetandpromptly
sufferedaseriousreverseontheEpipolaeheights,Demosthenesadvocated
immediatewithdrawal.Afraidtomovewithoutordersfromtheassembly,Niciasat
firstinsistedonremaining.WhenherealizedthatGylippushadgatheredstill
additionalforcesfromthroughoutSicilyandhadalsoreceivedfurther

reinforcementsfromthePeloponnesus,hechangedhismind.Atthatpoint,however,
religiousanxietyoncemoreintrudedintothesecularsphere.Wheneverythingwas
readyfortheAtheniansdeparture,Thucydidesrelated,
andjustastheywereabouttosail,therewasaneclipseofthemoon,which
happenedtobefull.TheeventmademostoftheAtheniansfeeluneasy,andthey
urgedtheirgeneralstostay;andNicias,whowastooinclinedtobelieveinthe
interpretationofomensandthatsortofthing,refusedeventodiscussamoveuntil
aftertheyhadstayedforthreetimesninedays,astheirseersdecreed.Thiswasthe
reasontheAtheniansstayedonafteralltheirdelays!
(ThePeloponnesianWar7.50;Blanco1998)
OnlearningthattheAthenianshadbeenplanningtoleave,theSyracusansattacked
theAthenianfleetandblockedtheexitfromtheharbor.Afiercebattleensued,with
sometwohundredshipsrammedtogetherinatightspace.Thedinmadeit
impossibletohearthecallsofthecoxswains.
Unabletomaketheirescapebysea,theAtheniansresolvedtodepartoverland,
abandoningtheirsickandwounded.About40,000mensetoutonthedismaltrek,
theSyracusanshotontheirheels.NiciasandDemosthenesbecameseparated;the
SyracusanscaughtupfirstwithDemosthenes,whosurrenderedinthehopeof
savinghissoldierslives.TheSyracusansthenovertookNiciasarmy.
Document8.1Thucydidesisathisnarrativebestinportrayingthefinalcollapseof
theAthenianeffortinSicily.
TheAthenianspushedontotheAssinarusriver,allthewhilebeingdevastatedby
thespears,arrowsandstonescomingfromeverywhereandbythehordesofcavalry
andothertroops.Theythoughtthatiftheycouldjustget
309
acrosstheriver,thingswouldbealittleeasierforthem.Theyweredesperatetostop
thepain,todrinksomewater.Whentheygottotheriver,theybrokeranksandran
intoit,everymanstrugglingtomakethebrutalcrossingfirstastheenemybore
down.Driventocrossalltogether,theyfellontooneanotherandtrampledeach
otherdown.Somewerekilledimmediatelybytheirownspears;othersgottangled
upintheirequipmentandwitheachotherandsankintotheriver.Syracusans
positionedontheotherbank,whichwassteep,hurleddownspearsattheAthenians,
mostofwhomwerejumbledtogetherravenouslydrinkingfromthenearlydry
riverbed.ThePeloponnesianswentdownintotheriverafterthemanddidmostof
thekillingthere;andthoughitquicklybecamefouled,theAtheniansnonetheless
foughtamongthemselvestogulpthemuddywaterclottedwithblood.

Finally,withdeadbodiesheapedatopeachotherintheriverbed,andthearmy
decimated,someintheriverandotherssuchasgotacrossbythecavalry,Nicias
surrenderedhimselftoGylippus,trustinghimmorethantheSyracusans.Hetold
GylippusandtheSpartanstodowithhimwhattheywanted,buttostop
slaughteringhismen.Afterthis,Gylippusorderedhistroopstotakeprisoners,
whereuponthesurvivingmenwerebroughtinalive,exceptforthelargenumber
whohadbeenhiddenbyindividualSyracusansoldiers.Theyalsosentasearchparty
outafterthethreehundredwhohadbrokenthroughthesentriesbynightand
capturedthem....Alargenumber,ofcourse,werekilled,fortherewasagreat
slaughterattheriver,greaterthananywhichoccurredinthewholewar.
(ThePeloponnesianWar7.8485;translatedbyWalterBlanco,inWalterBlancoand
JenniferRoberts,eds.,Thucydides:ThePeloponnesianWar.NewYork:W.W.Norton,
1998.
ThetriumphantSyracusanscelebratedtheirvictorybypresentingApollowithlavish
offeringsatDelphi.TheAthenians,ontheotherhand,hadlosttensofthousandsof
menandaccomplishednothing.Forthem,theoutcomeofthecampaignwasso
horrificthattheyatfirstrefusedtobelievetheappallingnews.Plutarchclaimsthat
wordofthedisasterfirstreachedAthensbywayofahaplessmanwhohadreported
itmatteroffactlytoabarberinPiraeusasifitwerecommonknowlege:theagitated
barberpromptlyranthe5milestoAthens,whereherepeatedthetale.Hewasinthe
veryprocessofbeingtorturedasatroublemakerwhenmessengersarrivedto
confirmtheastonishingstory.AsThucydideswaslatertowrite,Allwaslost.Ships.
Men.Everything(7.87).
ThewarpartyatAthenshadnotbeencrazytobelievetheAthenianscouldbring
Sicilyundertheircontrol.Withbettermanagement,thecampaignmighthave
succeeded.ButtheAtheniansambivalenceabouttheprojectandaboutindividual
leadersprovedfatal.Thoughthemutilationofthehermscouldnothavebeen
predicted,themistrustinspiredbyAlcibiades.wellknownirreverenceand
310
recklessnesswasaterribleandforeseeableliabilitytothewarparty.Nicias
timiditywasinlargepartafeatureofhispersonality,andhebearsagreatdealof
responsibilityfortheexpeditionsmiserableend.Hisfearofactingwithout
authorizationfromtheassembly,however,wasexacerbatedbytheAthenians
impeachmentofseveralunsuccessfulgeneralsinthe420sthethreegeneralswho
hadfailedinthefirstexpeditiontoSicily,andthehistorianThucydideshimself.
AlthoughthebadjudgmentshownbyNiciashadlittletodowiththeformof
governmentinoperationatAthens,aristocratswhohadneverlikeddemocracy

foundinthefailureoftheSicilianinvasionanopeningfortheiroligarchicprograms,
andantidemocraticagitationwasnotlongingettingofftheground.
THEWARINTHEAEGEANANDTHEOLIGARCHICCOUPATATHENS(413
411BC)
BytheirdefeatatSyracusetheAtheniansstunnedtheGreekworldasmuchasthey
hadbytheirvictoryatMarathon.Themythofnavalsuperioritythathadheldthe
DelianLeaguetogetherwasshattered.Athensfightingforcewasvastlysmallerthan
ithadbeenin431.Moneywasinshortsupply;previouslyonetrierarchhadbeen
appointedforeachship,butsoonafterthedisasterinSicilytheAtheniansintroduced
thesyntrierarchy,allowingtwomentosharetheexpense.ForAtheniansubjects,
suddenlyrevoltbecamenotmerelyanoptionbutapowerfultemptation.Mightnot
makingfriendswithSpartawhenitseemedpoisedonthebrinkofvictoryprove
moreprudentthanwaitingforeventstotaketheircourse?Alcibiadescruisedthe
seasonSpartasbehalf,fomentingrebellionwhereverhecould.MeanwhileinAttica
sometwentythousandslavesdesertedtotheSpartankingAgis,whoatAlcibiades
instigationhadestablishedhimselfinafortatDeceleainnortheastAttica.The
disappearanceoftheslavesfromtheminespreventedthecontinuedtappingofthe
silverveins,andthestrengthoftheencampmentatDeceleainterferedgravelywith
Athenianagriculture.NowtheSpartanscouldravageAtticaallyear,killingfarm
animalsastheywentandkeepingAthensinaperpetualstateofsiege.Seeingsuccess
wellwithintheirgrasp,theinvigoratedSpartanssetaboutbuildinganewnavalforce
ofahundredtriremesandbegannegotiatingforPersiansupport.
Incredibly,ittookSpartaeightyearstobringAthenstoitskneeseightyearsduring
whichtheAthenians,crippledbydevastatinglossesinSicily,survivedthelossofthe
hugeislandofEuboeaofftheAtticacoastandanoligarchiccoupinthecity.The
historyoftheseeightyearsiscrowdedwithshiftingalliances,plotsandcounterplots,
murdersandlies.WithinAthens,linesbetweendemocratsandoligarchsappear
blurredaskeyplayersinthepoliticalarenamovebackandforthbetweentheparties,
andanewcreatureappears,themoderateapoliticianwhosemotivesforkeeping
onefootineachcampareoftenimpossibletodetermine:sincerepatriotismbecomes
increasinglydifficulttodistinguishfromunprincipledtimeserving.Spartansare
dividedastohowseemlyitmightbetobartertheIoniansfreedominexchangefor
Persiangold.Persianscannotdecide
311
whichside,ifany,tosupport.Alcibiadesremainsawildcard,cagilyshiftingposition
tosuittherapidlyalteringinternationalsituationandtokeephimselfsafefromthe
wrathofAgis,whosewifeheappearstohaveseducedinamomentofimprudence.
Thefortunesofbattleswingwildlybackandforth.In413Athensseemedtobe

finished;by410theSpartanssueforpeace.Athenswinsastunningvictoryin406
onlytolosethewarby404(reallyby405).
CivilStrifeinAthens
TheburstofPeloponnesianenergythateruptedinthewakeofAthensdefeatin
Sicilywasshortlived.TheSpartanssoonrevertedtotheirnaturalsluggishness.Their
lukewarmeffortswouldhavecometolittlehaditnotbeenforthedynamicenergyof
AlcibiadesandforthetensionsthateruptedinAthens,settingthehopliteinfantry
andthearistocraticeliteagainstthetheteswhomannedthefleet.
FornearlyacenturyaftertheclashbetweenCleisthenesandIsagoras,Athenshad
beenfreefromthedangerofcivilwar.ThedebacleinSicily,however,gavean
openingtowouldbeoligarchswhowantedtoreconstitutethegovernmentonless
democraticlines.Thefirstrumblingsofdiscontentweremild,thoughominous:in
413BCtheAtheniansplaceddecisionmakinginthehandsoftenoldermencalled
probouloi.Despitetheundemocraticnatureofsuchaboard,however,theindividual
probouloiweremenofimpeccabledemocraticcredentials;onewastheplaywright
Sophocles.TheAtheniansnowtappedtheemergencyreservefundstheyhadbeen
storingontheAcropolissincethebeginningofthewarandusedittorebuildthe
fleetandtrainnewcrews.Withthenewshipstheywereabletopreventthesecession
ofChiosfromtheempireandwinafewvictoriesonthecoastofAsiaMinor.
Unrestcontinued,however,asmenofoligarchicinclinationsplayedonthe
Atheniansanxietiesaboutthefailureoftheirdemocraticleaderstobringthewartoa
successfulconclusion.ThemachinationsofAlcibiadesprovidedacatalystforamore
substantialchangeinthegovernment.Alcibiadeshadrenderedsignalserviceto
SpartainencouragingrebellionsinanumberofcitiesincludingErythrae,Rhodes,
Ephesus,Chios,andMiletus.HavingfallenfoulofAgis,howeverwhetherbecause
oftheallegedaffairwithhiswifeorforsomeotherreasonhehadbeguntoplota
returntoAthens.TheentryofPersiaintotheequationprovidedthespringboardhe
needed.IntheyearsthatfollowedtheAtheniandefeatinSicily,Persianpolicy
towardGreecewasdeterminednotprimarilybytheking,DariusII,butbythe
coastalsatrapsPharnabazus(thesatrapofDascylium)inthenorth,and
Tissaphernes(thesatrapofSardis)inthesouth.
TissaphernesinparticularhadalivelyinterestinGreekaffairs,andindeedinGreek
cultureasawhole.AtfirstheleanedtowardSparta,andinfactnegotiatedaseriesof
treatieswithSpartainwhichtheSpartans,uncomfortablybutunmistakably,agreed
toselloutthefreedomoftheGreekcitiesofIoniainexchangeforPersiangold.Thus
diedtheSpartansclaimtobetheliberatorsofGreece.SparkingPersiasinterest
(howevervacillating)intheircausewasprettymuchSpartasonlyachievement
duringtheseyears,andeventhistheSpartansowedingood

312
Figure8.6.ThisGreeklikecoinstruckbyTissaphernesrevealshisdesiretobe
identifiedwithGreekculture.
parttoAlcibiades.Notlongafterward,however,AlcibiadespersuadedTissaphernes
thatitmightbebetterforPersiatoletAthensandSpartaweareachotherdown.
WhenTissaphernessupportfortheSpartancausebegantowaver,Alcibiadessent
wordtoAthensthathehaditinhispowertobringthePersiansintothewaronthe
Atheniansidebutthattheirsupportwouldbecontingentonreplacingthe
democracywithanoligarchy.Hissupport,ofcourse,wouldbecontingentonhis
recall.
ThatAlcibiadesreallybelievedhecouldpersuadeTissaphernestopourmoneyinto
theAtheniantreasuryisunlikely,thoughnotimpossible.Intheevent,hecouldnt,
butbythetimeitbecameclearthatthePersiansupporthehadpromisedwas
illusory,thewheelshadbeensetinmotionforachangeingovernmentand
Alcibiadesreturn.Itisanindexofhowdeeplythelongwarhadshakenthe
Atheniansthatin411theassembly,somemembersintimidatedandothersjust
demoralized,voteditselfoutofexistenceandplacedthesafetyofthestateinthe
handsofanew,provisionalCounciloffourhundred,which,itwasunderstood,
wouldsoongivewaytoalargerbodyoffivethousand.Despitethewaythewarhad
underminedconfidenceinthedemocraticgovernment,thisvotewasmadepossible
onlybytheabsenceofthefleet,basednowatSamos;forsailors,whoweregenerally
poormen,couldbecountedontoopposeanyreformsthathadtheeffectoflimiting
thefranchisetopropertyowners.
ExperimentsinOligarchy
Neitherofthereformersnotionswasentirelynew.Solonwasbelievedbymany
peopletohavecreatedaCounciloffourhundredcertainlysuchabodydatedfrom
approximatelyhistimeandthefivethousandwerethoughttocorrespondtothe
hopliteclass.Sailorswererighttobealarmedbysuchprojects.Whatwasreallyat
issueherewasthedisfranchisementofthelowestclassintheSoloniccensus,the
thetes.ThenotionofhoplitedemocracyhadbeenCimonsideal,andhewasnot
alone.FromthismomentmanyAtheniansofantidemocratictendenciesbeganto
makeuseofanewwatchword,theancestralconstitution,that
313
is,ademocracylimitedtolandowners,whichtheyinsistedwasmoretraditionally
Athenianthantheupstartdemocracythatincludedthepoormenwhoservedas

rowersinthefleet.Thisissue,whichhadseemedtobesettledin508with
CleisthenesvictoryoverIsagoras,wasnowonceagainonthefloor.
Aswasoftenthecaseinantiquity,Athenianrevolutionariescasttheirprogramasa
returntoanearliertime.Theprobouloihadbeenoldermen;thetwowhoseidentities
areknowntouswerePericlesassociateHagnon,whowasinhis50s,andthe
playwrightSophocles,whowasover80.Ifoldmenmadegoodadvisers,deadmen
wereevenbetter;andsothosediscontentwithdemocracycalledfrequentlyonthe
namesofSolon,Draco,andCleisthenes,claimingtoberestoringamoreauthentic
Atheniangovernmentthantheonethathadoperatedduringtheirownlifetimes.
Undertheoligarchyof411,consequently,theclockwasturnedbackandpaywas
abolishedformoststateoffices.Thoughthisdidservethepurposeofconcentrating
moneyonthewareffort,italsoeffectivelylimitedparticipationingovernmentto
thosewhocouldaffordtospendtimeinnonremuneratedlabor.Carryingarmsand
flankedbyanadditional120men,theFourHundredalsoenteredtheBouleuterion
wherethecouncilmet,paidthecouncilorsthebalanceofwhatwasowingtothem,
anddismissedthem.Theirowndespoticrulewasalsomadeeasierbytheominous
suspensionofthegrapheparanomon,theindictmentforillegalproposals.
TherewerenowtwoAtheniangovernmentstheoligarchyoftheFourHundredin
thecityandthedemocraticfleetstationedatSamos,whichfunctionedasthe
assembly.ConsideringthemselvestherealgovernmentofAthens,thesailorson
Samosdeposedtheincumbentgeneralsandappointednewones,includingthe
trierarchThrasybulus,achampionofthedemocracy.Thosewhohadalways
suspectedAlcibiadesofdesignsonthedemocraticconstitutionprovedtohavemuch
justiceontheirside.Notonlyhadhesuggestedconstitutionalinnovationdirectly;
indirectlyhehadalsobroughtitaboutbyfomentingrebellionsintheeastthatkept
thedemocraticfleetawayfromAthens.Hissupport,however,didnotcomeentirely
fromantidemocraticquarters.Thrasybuluswasjustoneofthedemocratswho
backedhim,andsoonafterhisarrivalonSamosAlcibiadestoowaselectedgeneral.
BackinAthenstheFourHundredwereunderminedbytwopowerfuldivisionsin
theircamp.Somewantedtoprosecutethewarvigorously,butotherswithdifferent
plansprevailedandsentanembassytoSpartaseekingpeaceatanyprice.In
addition,somefullyexpectedtheimplementationofthegovernmentoftheFive
Thousandwhileothersunderstoodthatitwasnothingbutafictioncalculatedto
bringabouttheabdicationoftheassembly.Meanwhilerumorscirculatedamongthe
fleetatSamosthattheFourHundredwereexercisingareignofterror,thatnowifeor
childwassafefromtheiroutrage.Atthisjuncture,itappears,Alcibiadesroseto
statesmanlikeheightsanddissuadedthefurioussailorsfromsailingtoAthensto
overthrowtheFourHundred.Theirdeparturewouldhavelefttheeastatthemercy
ofAthensmanyenemies,andtheirinterventionatAthensprovedunnecessary,as
theFourHundredwereselfdestructinganyway.

314
ThebeliefthatAthensforeignaffairswoulddobetterunderoligarchicguidance
sufferedserioussetbackswhenthepeacewithSpartafailedtomaterializeand
EuboeasuccessfullyrevoltedfromtheAthenianempire.ThehopliteswhomtheFour
HundredhadsettofortifyingthepromontoryofEetioniaatPiraeusmutinied,and
theFiveThousandwerepromptlyinstalled.TheythenrecalledAthensexiles,
includingAlcibiades,andgovernedAthensforeightmonths,fromSeptember411to
June410.Notagreatdealisknownabouttheirgovernment,thoughtheyseemto
havelimitedthefranchisetothehopliteclass(cuttingoutthetheteswhomannedthe
triremes).Thucydides,whowasfrequentlyimpatientwithdemocracy,praisedthe
governmentoftheFiveThousandasalaudableblendingofdemocraticand
oligarchicelements.
ThevigortheAtheniansshowedinrebuildingtheirfleetandcarryingonthewar
despiteacutedomesticconflictwasremarkable.AfteravictoryatCynossema,the
Athenians,ledbyAlcibiades,scoredastillmorestrikingoneatCyzicus,wherethe
Spartanslosttheiradmiralinchief,Mindarus.Thebattleismemorableforthe
laconicdispatchtheAtheniansinterceptedonitswaytoSpartaafterward:Ships
lost;Mindarusdead;menstarving;cantfigureoutwhattodo.(Itisalsomemorable
asthefirstmajorencounterofthewarnotdescribedbyThucydides:Thucydides
accountbreaksoffshortlyafterCynossema.Fromthispointontheprincipalsources
areXenophonandDiodorus.)Thevictoriesintheeasthadbeenwonbythe
cooperationoftheFiveThousandinAthensandthefleetatSamos,andinJunethe
democracywasformallyrestoredatAthens.AnumberoftheleadersoftheFive
Thousandremainedpowerfulunderthedemocracy.AmongthesewasHagnonsson
Theramenes,whoseemedtofindaplaceforhimselfinanygroup.Animosityand
suspicionwerenotentirelygone,however,andasoneofitsfirstofficialactsthe
restoreddemocracyadministeredaloyaltyoath,requiringeachcitizentoswear:I
willdomybesttokillbywordandbydeed,bymyvoteandbymyhand,anyone
whooverthrowstheAtheniandemocracy,holdsofficeunderanundemocratic
regime,orseekstoestablishatyrannyeitherforhimselforforsomeoneelse.If
anyoneelsekillssuchaperson,Iwillconsiderhimcleanintheeyesofgodsand
spirits(Andocides,OntheMysteries,97).
TheSpartanssoughtpeacefromtherestoreddemocracy,butonlyonthebasisofthe
statusquo.ThattheAthenianshadregainedtheirconfidenceisindexedbytheir
refusal.InthisdecisionCleophonplayedalargepart.Agoodfinancialplanner,he
playedakeyroleinframingpolicyatthistimeandwasresponsibleforthe
conversionoftemplepropertiesintomoney,whichwasdistributedtothemost
needyintheamountoftwoobolsaday.Inretrospect,manyAtheniansmusthave
regrettedtheirrejectionoftheSpartanoffer,butatthetimeitdidlookasifthey
mightwinbacktheirlostpossessions.

TheLastYearsofWar(407404BC)
In407,however,theunionoftwopowerfulmendramaticallyalteredthesituationin
theAegean.AlcibiadeswasnottheonlyGreekwithcharm.Thenewchiefadmiralof
theSpartannavy,Lysander,wasamothaxlikeGylippus,butfarmore
315
ambitious.Hehadmanagedtowintheheart(andpresumablythebodyaswell)of
youngAgesilaus,halfbrothertoAgis.Thisremarkablecouppresagedanillustrious
future,andindeedtherewererumorsthatLysanderwasplottingtomakethe
Spartanmonarchyelective.Darius,meanwhile,recalledthetwocoastalsatrapsand
replacedthemwithhissonCyrus,grantinghimlargepowerstohelpSpartaendthe
war.Thoughnottheelderson,CyrushopedtobecomekingofPersia,andhe
acceptedhisnewresponsibilitieswithenthusiasm.LysanderandCyrusshareda
profoundlyambitioustemperament,andthetwobecamefastfriends.Ultimately,
theirassociationspelleddoomforAthens.
In407Alcibiades,havingraisedahundredtalentsforAthensbylootingthecoastof
Caria,decideditmightfinallybesafetoreturnhome.Itwasanextraordinary
circumstanceamanwithsomanyfriendsthathewasrepeatedlyelectedtothe
boardofgeneralsbutwithsomanyenemiesthathefearedtosetfootonAtticsoil.
EvenafterhisshiphadsailedintoPiraeusinJune,hestoodmotionlessonthedeck
surveyingthehugecrowdthathadassembledontheshoreuntilhesawapartyof
hisfriendswaitingtoescorthim.Onlythendidhedisembark.Shortlyafterward,in
thehopesofboostingtheAtheniansspiritswhileatthesametimedispellingthe
suspicionsofimpietythatstillattachedtohim,heledthestateprocessiontoEleusis,
daringtogobyland:sincetheoccupationofDeceleatheAthenianshadnervously
conductedtheprocessionbysea.Inautumnhesailedeastincommandofone
hundredships,investedwithfullpowerstodirectthewarwithSparta.
Hisascendancy,however,wasremarkablybrief.Withinamatterofmonths,the
AthenianslosttwentytwoshipstoLysanderatanavalengagementoffNotium,
whereAlcibiadeshadlefthispersonalpilotAntiochusinchargewithordersunder
nocircumstancestoengagetheSpartans.Antiochus,afriendofAlcibiades,probably
hadnobusinessinapositionofsuchauthority,sincehewasnotatrierarch,and
Alcibiadeshadnotacquittedhimselfwell;butthestrengthoftheAthenianreaction
atteststothecontinuingagitationofhisenemies.AlcibiadescareeratAthenswas
finished.Itiscertainthathewasnotreelectedtothestrategia,anditislikelythathe
wasactuallydeposedbeforehistermwasout.Rumorscirculatedthathehad
fortifiedacastleintheGallipolipeninsulaasarefugeincaseofemergency.Nowthat
theemergencyhadmaterialized,hepromptlywithdrewtothisveryfortress.He
neversawAthensagain.

ThatspringtheAtheniansofferedfreedomtoslaveswhowouldjointhenavythat
wasabouttosetoutfortheareaofLesbos.Theretheyscoredanimpressivevictory
inahugenavalbattleofftheArginusaeislands,sinkingfullyseventyfive
Peloponnesianships.SometwentythousandGreekslosttheirlives.Amongthese
wastheSpartanschiefadmiralCallicratidas,anothermothaxwhohadtakenover
fromLysander,sincetheannualofficewasnonrenewable.Anobleandgenerous
youngpatriot,CallicratidasrepresentedthebestelementsinSpartathosewillingto
risktheirlivestopreventtheimperialistAtheniansfromtyrannizingovertheweak,
andcommittedtodoingitwithoutPersianhelpwhereLysanderrepresentedthe
worst.Callicratidasalwaysfoughtbravelydespitehisdislikeof
316
Spartasgrowingimperialism,andheretainedtheloyaltyofhismeninthefaceof
Lysandersconstantmachinationsagainsthim.Hislossbodedillforthefutureofthe
Greekworld.
Theaftermathofthebattlewitnessedabizarrefrenzyofselfdestruction.Thoughthe
AthenianswereheartenedbytheirvictoryatArginusae,theyknewthattheir
admiralCononandhisfleetwereblockadedatMytilene.WhiletheAthenian
strategoiweredebatingwhethertosetaboutretrievingthesailorsinthewaterorto
sailtoMytilenetorescueCononsforce,asuddenstormcameupthatmaderescue
impossible.WhennewsofthecasualtiesreachedAthens,peoplebegananxiouslyto
castblameononeanother.ThegeneralsblamedthetrierarchsTheramenesand
Thrasybulus,andthetrierarchsblamedthegenerals.Whetherthemeninthewater
weredeadoraliveisuncertain,butforGreekstherecoveryevenofbodieswas
important,sincethesoulsofthoseleftunburiedwouldwandereternallyinHades,
unabletofindarestingplace.Theeightgeneralsincommandweresummonedhome
fortrial,andsixchosetoreturn.Inviolationofcustomaryprocedureandoverthe
protestsofthephilosopherSocrates,whoseturnithappenedtobetochairthe
assemblymeetingthatdaythegeneralsweretriedonasingleslate,condemned,and
executed.Ironically,afterthedeathofhislegitimatesons,Pericleshadimploredthe
AthenianstoconfercitizenshiponhissonsbyAspasia,andPericlestheYoungerwas
amongthegeneralsexecuted.
TheFinalBattle
Again,theSpartansofferedpeaceonthebasisofthestatusquo(thoughtheywere
willingtoevacuateDecelea);again,theAtheniansfollowedCleophonsadviceand
declined.Time,however,wasrunningout,aswasthepooloftalentedcommanders
andofmoney.ItseemedthatthenextmajorbattlewouldbeAthenslaststand,and
infactitwas.Lateinthesummerof405Lysander,makinggooduseofthesubsidies
hehadobtainedfromhisfriendCyrus,stormedthecityofLampsacusinthe

Hellespontwithafleetofsometwohundredshipsandestablishedabasethere.In
AugusttheAtheniangeneralsCononandPhiloclesstationedtheirfleet2milesacross
thechannelatAegospotami.Alcibiades,seeingthattheAthenianspositionwas
highlyvulnerable,descendedfromhisfortressandadvisedthemtomove,butthey
disregardedhiscautions.Afterthefleetshadbeeninthesepositionsforfivedays,
LysandergavethesignalforattackwhentheAtheniancrewshadgoneashoreto
gatherprovisions.TheSpartanscaptured171ships,andtheirinfantryoverwhelmed
thecamp.Understandably,theAthenianscarelessnessgaverisetorumorsof
treachery.OnlyahandfulofAthenianvesselsescaped,oneofthemtheofficialstate
triremetheParalus,anothercommandedbyConon.Rememberingthefateofthe
victorsofArginusae,ConontookrefugeinCyprusanddidnotreturntoAthensuntil
hehadengineeredavictoryovertheSpartansatCnidusin394,tenyearsafterthe
endofthewar.
317
Lysanderthencalledameetingofthealliestosolicittheirthoughtsabouttheproper
treatmentoftheprisoners.ThespeechesmadeabouttheAthenians,Xenophon
reports,weremanyandbitter,
bothwithregardtoallthecrimestheyhadcommittedinthepastandaboutthe
decreewhichtheyhadpassedtotheeffectthat,iftheywonthenavalaction,they
couldcutofftherighthandofeverymantakenalive;therewasalsothefactthat,
aftercapturingtwotriremes,onefromCorinthandonefromAndros,theyhad
throwneverymaninthecrewsoverboard.ItwasPhilocles,theAtheniangeneral,
whohadallthesemenkilled.Manyothersuchstoriesweretold,andintheendit
wasdecidedthatalltheprisonerswhowereAthenianshouldbeputtodeathwith
theoneexceptionofAdimantus.HehadbeentheonlymanintheAssemblywho
opposedthedecreeforcuttingoffthehandsofprisoners.Hewasalso,itshouldbe
said,accusedbysomepeopleofhavingbetrayedthefleet.AsforPhilocles,whohad
throwntheAndriansandCorinthiansoverboard,Lysanderfirstaskedhimthis
question:Whatdoyoudeserveforhavingbeenthefirsttoactlikeacriminaltoward
yourfellowGreeks?Hethenhadhisthroatcut.
(Hellenica2.1.3132;Warner1979)
TheSpartanvictoryatAegospotamihadcutoffAthensfromitsprincipalsourceof
grain;tomakesuretherewouldbenoslipups,Lysanderalsodecreeddeathasthe
penaltyforanyonecaughtbringinggraintoAthens.Lysanderknewthatthewarwas
nowover,andtheAthenianswouldknowitsoonenough,fortheParaluswasen
routetoPiraeuswiththedismaltidings.Theshiparrivedatnight,andasthenews
wasreported,Xenophonrelates,onemanpasseditontoanother,andasoundof
wailingaroseandextendedfirstfromPiraeus,thenalongtheLongWallsuntilit

reachedthecity.Thatnightnooneslept.Theymournedforthelost,butmorestillfor
theirownfate(2.2.1;Warner).LateinthefallLysandersailedvictoriousforPiraeus.
AlongthewayheacceptedthesurrenderofAthensformeralliesandreplacedtheir
democracieswitholigarchicgovernmentsbeholdentoSparta.Healsoensuredstill
furtherstressontheAtheniansdwindlingfoodsupplybyencouragingAthenian
garrisonstoreturnhome.SamospersistedinitsloyaltytoAthens,inrecognitionof
whichtheAtheniansuncharacteristicallygrantedtheSamianscitizenship.Agis,
whoseoccupationofDeceleahadplayeditsdesiredpartinthestarvationofthecity,
moveddowntothewallsofAthens,wherehewasjoinedbyPausanias,hiscoking.
Miserableandterrified,theAthenianswereatalossforwhattodo.Theycouldsee
nofutureforthemselves,Xenophonwrote,excepttosufferwhattheyhadmade
otherssuffer,peopleofsmallstateswhomtheyhadinjurednotinretaliationfor
anythingtheyhaddonebutoutofthearroganceofpowerandfornoreasonexcept
thattheywereintheSpartanalliance(2.2.10).
ThemutabilityoffortunehadbeenacommonplaceinGreekliterature,andthe
Atheniansgatheredinthetheaterin415hadbeengiventheopportunityto
contemplatethecrueltyofwarschancesinEuripidesTrojanWomen.Ofthosewho
prosper,theTrojanqueenHecubahadsuggested,considernooneblestuntilhes
dead(509510).ThisnotionsoreminiscentofSolonswarningtoCroesus
318
inHerodotuscautionarytalewasdevelopedlaterintheplay,asHecubaunderlines
thefoolishnessofthosewhobelieveprosperityissecure:
likesomeonewhosgonemad,inchangingmoodsfortuneleapswildly,nowthis
way,nowthat:nobodyeverprospersallthetime.
(TrojanWomen12041206)
Intheend,Athenswasspared.TheThebans,Corinthians,andotherSpartanallies
advocateddoingtoAthenspreciselywhathadbeendonetoMeloskillingallthe
adultmenandsellingallthewomenandchildrenintoslavery.TheSpartans
declined,pleadingAthensnobleservicetoGreeceduringthePersianwars.The
brutalityofLysanderstemperamentmakesitmorelikelythattherealmotivewas
fearofthepowervacuumintowhichCorinthormorelikelyThebescouldbe
countedontorush.
TheAtheniansfirstofferstoSpartainvolvedjoiningthePeloponnesianLeagueif
onlytheycouldkeeptheLongWallsandPiraeus,andonthemotionofCleophona
decreewaspassedforbiddinganyonetosomuchasproposeagreeingtodismantle
thewalls.Earlyinthespring,howeverbywhichtimemanyhaddiedofstarvation
andCleophonhadbeenexecutedonatrumpedupchargebroughtbyoligarchsthe

AtheniansagreedtoatreatynegotiatedbyTheramenesontheSpartansterms:
AthenswouldnotonlybecomeSpartasallybutwouldagreetothedestructionof
theLongWallsandthefortificationsofPiraeusandwouldsurrenderallbutadozen
ships.Exileswouldalsoberecalled;thesewerelargelymenofoligarchicsympathies.
Thewallswerepulleddown,Xenophonsays,tothemerryaccompanimentofflutes,
foritwasthoughtthatthisdaywasthebeginningoffreedomforGreece(2.2.23;
Warner).TheSpartansactions,however,presagedillforfreedom.Thewillingnessto
sellouttheIonianstoPersiaandtheestablishmentofproSpartanoligarchiesincities
formerlyintheAthenianempirewerebadsigns,andworsewastocome.
FALLOUTFROMTHELONGWAR
Aswehaveseen,itsometimeshappenedthatmenwhodidnotbelongtothe
entrenchedaristocracybecamewealthythroughindustryCleon,forexample,whose
familyownedatannery.Itwasalsotrue,however,thatthetendencytokeeplandin
thefamilyconstrictedsocialmobilityinGreece,limitingopportunitiesforimproving
oneslotinlife.Thefrustrationsofthepoorresultedinfrequentstasis,withthepoor
likelytofavordemocracyandthericholigarchy,althoughtherewerealwayssome
aristocratsamongthepartisansofdemocracy,menlikePericlesandCleisthenesat
Athens.ThenaturaldispositionofGreekcitystatestofactionalismandcivilstrife
hadbeenintensifiedduringthewar.Predictably,hisinterestinhumannatureand
thedrivetopowerfocusedThucydidesinterestonthisdevelopment,whichhe
encapsulatedinhisdescriptionofeventsoccurringearlyinthewar.
319
Document8.2InoneofthemostmemorablepassagesinhisHistory,Thucydides
tooktheoccasionofthebloodyeventsatCorcyrainthe420stocommentontheway
thethreedecadesofwarintensifiedconflictwithinthepolis.
Later,virtuallyallofGreecewasinafrenzy,withdissensioneverywhere,andthe
leadersofthepeopletryingtobringintheAthenians,andtheoligarchs,the
Spartans.Inpeacetime,therewouldhavebeenneitherpretextnorinclinationfor
invitingtheirintervention;butinwar,wherealliancesareatoneandthesametimea
waytohurtyourenemiesandgainsomethingforyourself,inducementscameeasily
tothosewhowantedradicalchange.Eventsstruckthesestrifetorncitiesasthey
alwaysdoandalwayswillforsolongashumannatureremainsthesame,hardand
fastwithmoreorlessviolence,quicklychangingshapeaschangekeepspacewith
happenstance.Intimesofpeaceandprosperity,bothcitiesandindividualscanhave
loftyidealsbecausetheyhavenotfallenbeforetheforceofoverwhelmingnecessity.
War,whichrobstheeaseofeveryday,isaharshteacherandabsorbsmostpeoples
passionsinthehereandnow.

Thecauseofallthiswaspowerpursuedforthesakeofgreedandpersonalambition,
whichledinturntotheentrenchmentofazealouspartisanship.Theleadershipin
thecitiesonbothsidesadvancedhighsoundingphraseslikeTheequalityoffree
menbeforethelaw,orAprudentaristocracy,butwhileservingthepublicinterest
intheirspeeches,theycreatedaspoilssystem.Strugglingwithoneanotherfor
supremacyineverywaytheycould,theykeptcommittingthemosthorriblecrimes
andescalatedtoevergreaterrevenges,nevertopromotejusticeandthebestinterests
ofthecity,butconstantlysettingthelimitatwhateverbestpleasedeachsideatany
givenmomenttheywerealwayspreparedtogluttheirpartisanshipbyeither
riggingvotesorbyseizingpowerwiththeirbarehands.Thus,neithersideobserved
therulesofpiety:theyweremorerespectedforthehighwordswithwhichtheygot
awaywithperformingtheirbaseactions.Asforthecitizenswhotriedtobeneutral,
theywerekilledbybothsideseitherbecausetheydidnotjoininthefightingorout
ofenvybecausetheyweremanagingtosurvive.
(ThePeloponnesianWar3.82,translatedbyWalterBlanco,inWalterBlancoand
JenniferRoberts,eds.,Thucydides:ThePeloponnesianWar.NewYork:W.W.Norton,
1998).
Ofthehegemons,onlyonehadremainedimmunetothisdisease.Auniquestate,
Spartamanagedthroughoutthewartoconfineinternalbloodshedtotheusual
suppressionofhelots(oratleasttokeepwordofmurderouscivilconflictfrom
leakingbeyondthePeloponnesus).Throughoutthewar,itremainedformany
Greeksamodelofstablegovernment.Athens,however,wasnotfreefromcivil
320
strife.FromCimontoTheramenes,selectedAthenianpoliticianshadalwayshad
seriousreservationsaboutdemocracy,andthedemocracysfailureinthetheaterof
waralwayscarriedwithitthedangerofanoligarchiccoup.Thetakeoverof411had
beenshortlived,butLysandersvictoryin404wouldsparkasecondandfarbloodier
episode.
TheThirtyTyrants(404403BC)
ThroughouttheAegeanLysandersetupdecarchies,thatis,boardsoften
proSpartanofficialsdesignedtoensurethatAthensformerallieswerenow
governedinaccordancewitholigarchicprinciplesandservedSpartaninterests.Ten
menwouldnotbeenoughforAthens;theintimidatedassemblyhadnochoicebutto
accedetoLysandersrequestandratifyanewgovernmenttoberunbyaboardof
thirty(theThirty).Atheniancitizens,thesethirtyweresympathetictoSpartaand
willingtosacrificedemocraticprinciples,buttheywerenotallcommittedoligarchs.
Theramenes,whowasamongthem,becameacontroversialfigurenotonlyamong
Atheniansofthefourthcenturybutalsoamongmodernhistorians.Hispropensity

forlandingonhisfeetinanycrisishassuggestedtosomethathewasaflexibleman
whosawmeritinavarietyofregimes,whereasothershaveseenhimasan
unprincipledtimeserver.Themostprominentofthosewhocametobeknownasthe
ThirtyTyrants,however,leftnodoubtastohispoliticalconvictions.Platosrelative
CritiaswasachillingfigureapupilofSocrates,abrilliantintellectual,anavowed
atheist,apassionateantidemocrat,alongtimeadmireroftheSpartanconstitution,
and,aseventsweretoshow,amanwhowouldordermurdersbythehundreds
withoutaqualm.BanishedattheinstigationofCleophonafterthefalloftheFour
Hundred,towhichhehadbelonged,Critiaswasnowbackwithavengeance.
AletterwrittenbyPlato(orbysomeoneusingPlatosnameasapseudonym)
describesthephilosophersjoyattheaccessionofthoughtfulintellectualswho
wantedtoreformtheconstitutionalongSpartanlines,andtheauthorofthe
AristotelianAthenianConstitutionechoestheviewthatthebeginningofthenew
regimeseemedfullofpromise:
Attheoutset,therefore,theywereengagedin...removingtheblackmailersandthe
personswhoconsortedundesirablywiththepeopletocurryfavorandwereevil
doersandscoundrels;andthestatewasdelightedatthesemeasures,thinkingthat
theywereactingwiththebestintentions.
([Aristotle],TheAthenianConstitution35.3;Rackham1961)
Butsoonafterward,hegoeson,
whentheygotafirmerholdonthestate,theykepttheirhandsoffnoneofthe
citizens,butputtodeaththoseofoutstandingwealthorbirthorreputation,
intendingtoputthatsourceofdangeroutoftheway,andalsodesiringtoplunder
theirestates;andbytheendofabriefintervaloftimetheyhadmadeawaywithnot
lessthanfifteenhundred.
(TheAthenianConstitution35.4;Rackham1961)
321
TheThirtydidnotestablishtheancestralconstitution,althoughtheydidabolish
theorgansofdemocraticgovernmentsuchasthepopularcourtsandappointeda
newbouleoffivehundredantidemocrats.Toprotectthemselvesfromapopular
uprising,theyrequestedfromLysandersevenhundredsoldiersandaSpartan
harmost(garrisoncommander)similartothoseSpartahadestablishedinstates
throughouttheAegeanithadliberatedfromAthenianhegemony.Theyalso
surroundedthemselveswiththreehundredwhipbearersandsetupaboardoften
tokeepaneyeonthePiraeus,rightlyconsideredahotbedofdemocraticradicalism.

Theexecutionofenemiesbegan.UnderprotestfromthealarmedTheramenes,
Critiasandhiscliqueagreedtobroadentheoligarchybyestablishingacitizenrollof
ThreeThousandwhosememberswouldbeentitledtotrialbytheboule.The
consequenceofthis,however,wastheoppositeofwhatTheramenesintended.Now
itappearedtotheThirtythattheexistenceofthisprotectedThreeThousandgave
themcarteblancheintreatingallothersastheywished,andabloodbath
commenced.Notallvictimswerecitizenswhocouldpossiblyhavebeenconceived
aspoliticalenemies;manywerewealthymeticswhosepropertytheThirtycoveted.
Understandably,somanyAthenianswereappalledandfrightenedthattheThirty
cametofearthatTheramenesmightorganizearesistancemovement,andthey
summonedhimfortrialinthebouleatrialatwhichyoungoligarchswith
concealeddaggershadbeenstationedbyprearrangement.Whenitappearedthat
Theramenesimpassioneddefenseofmoderategovernmenthadmovedthe
councilors,CritiasstruckhisnamefromtherolloftheThreeThousand,thereby
obviatingtheneedforatrial.Draggedofftoprisonfromthealtarwherehehad
takenrefuge,Therameneswasexecutedbybeingforcedtodrinkhemlock,thepoison
laterusedtoexecuteSocrates.Heroicatleastinhisfinalhours,Therameneswentout
instyleandnotwithoutirony,toastingCritiashealthwiththelastdrops.
UltimatelytheThirtywereundonebytheirownabandon.Byforbiddingthosenot
onthelistoftheThreeThousandtoenterAthensandconfiscatingmanyoftheir
farms,theycreatedadangerousbodyofexiles.ThoughSpartahadforbidden
neighboringstatestoreceiverefugeesfromtheThirty,themurderousconductofthe
AthenianoligarchyhadalienatedmanyGreeksfromSparta,andneitherThebesnor
MegarawasdisposedtoturnawayAtheniansfleeingthebrutalSpartanbacked
oligarchy.ItwasinThebesthattheAthenianexilesmountedtheircampaignto
regaintheircity,makingtheirmoveinJanuaryof403.LedbyThrasybulus,seventy
oftheexilesseizedPhyle,astrongholdonMountParnesontheAtheniansideofthe
Attic/Boeotianboundary.Theretheywaiteduntiltheirnumbersrosetoseven
hundred;inspringtheymoveddowntoPiraeus,joiningthedissidentsthereand
establishingthemselvesonthehillofMunychia.Critiasandhismenattemptedto
dislodgetheminanuphillcharge,andintheattemptCritiasdied.
Thrasybuluscallforpeaceandunionbetweenthetwocampswasrejectedbythe
oligarchs,whoexpectedSpartanaid.InSparta,however,themurderousar
322
roganceofLysanderandhisassociateswasmakingmanypowerfulmennervous,
includingthekingsAgisandPausanias.MarchingintoAttica,Pausaniastookthe
leadandmastermindednotonlythereconciliationofthevariousAthenianparties
butalsothetemporaryeclipseofLysander.UnderhisaegistheAtheniansagreedon

thefirstrecordedamnestyinhistory.Underitsterms,onlytheThirtyandtheirchief
officerscouldbebroughttojusticeforcrimescommittedbefore403;allotherswere
compelledtorenouncethemanybittergrievancesthathadaccumulated.In
SeptemberThrasybulusledhismenunopposedtotheAcropolis,wherethey
sacrificedtoAthenaingratitudeforthesalvationofthecityandtheirownsafe
return.Theworkofreestablishingthedemocracythenbegan.
TheTrialofSocrates(399BC)
TheAthenianscameclosetorespectingthetermsoftheamnestyuponwhichthey
hadagreed.Nonetheless,decadesofwarfollowedbymonthsofterrorunderthe
Thirtyhadtakenaheavytoll,andtherewasnolackofpeopleeagertoassignblame
forAthensproblems.ThecolorfulSocrateshadannoyedjealousparentswhose
youngsonshadlionizedhim,andthoughtheAthenianswereaversetobreakingthe
amnestylaw,somewereopentobendingit.Rawfromthedevastatingwarand
frustratedbythechangetheysawintheworldaroundthem,threeAthenians
Anytus,Meletus,andLyconzeroedinonthiseccentricoldphilosopherwho
hauntedthepublicspacesofAthensconfutingthecarelessinargument.Socrates(
470399BC)hadbeenquicktoidentifythedrawbacksofdemocracy,andhehadalso
beentheteacherof(atleast)twomenwhoindifferentwayshadharmedAthens:
AlcibiadesandCritias.TheamnestypreventedhisaccusersfromchargingSocrates
withincitinghispupilstotreason,soinsteadtheybroughtathreepronged
accusationofakindsomewhatunusualinAthens.Socrates,theyclaimed,didnot
believeinthegodsofthestate;hetaughtnewgods;andhecorruptedtheyoung.
ThoughthissortofchargewasunusualatAthens,precedentswerenotlacking.
Greekstateshadnoconstitutionalprinciplesseparatingchurchandstateor
protectingfreespeech.Becauseofhisnaturalisticexplanationoftheuniverseandhis
sophisticatedconceptionofdivinityasNous,Anaxagorashadbeenforcedtoleave
Athenstoavoidpossibleexecutionforatheism.Thisaccusation,however,whichwas
lodgedatthesametimeasAspasiastrialforimpiety,wasplainlypoliticalinits
motivation.ThesamemustbesaidaboutthetrialofSocrates,thoughnodoubtthe
ironicmannerthatcharmedsomeandinfuriatedothersplayedaroleaswell.
SinceSocratesneverwroteanything,wearedependentforourconceptionofhimon
thedialoguesofhisadmirersPlatoandXenophon.PlatospupilAristotleobserved
aboutSocratesthatthetwothingsonecouldbecertainofattributingtohimwere
inductivereasoninganduniversaldefinition.Wecanbesureofafewotherthings.
Socrates,anAtheniancitizen,performedconventionalcivicservicesinAthens,
fightingasahopliteatPotidaea,Delium,andAmphipolisinthePeloponnesianWar
andservingaspresidentoftheassemblyonthedayof
323

theArginusaetrialin406.Hisavocationwasdiscussinginterestingphilosophical
questionswithyoungmen,questionsthatfocusedonthebestwayforhumansto
thinkandlive;atleastinhismatureyears,hewasnotparticularlyexcitedbynatural
science.Hebelievedthatthebestwaytodevelopideaswasinthegiveandtakeof
conversation,andthatthebestwaytoeducatepeoplewastoaskthemaseriesof
questionsleadinginaparticulardirection(nownamedforhimtheSocratic
method).Howeverpainfulitmightbetofindoneselftheobjectofinjustice,hewas
firmlyconvincedthatdoingwrongoneselfwastheonlyrealmisfortunethatcould
befallaperson.Hehadakeenwitandanengagingpersonality,andpupilsflockedto
himeagerly,thoughhehadnothingthatcouldbecalledaschool.Hewasnota
sophist;hebecamepoorthroughhisrefusaltochargefees,andhisgoalwasto
inculcatemoralexcellence,whichheviewedastheparticularexcellenceofahuman
being.Likethesophists,however,heusedcleverargumentsandsubjected
conventionalnotionstorationalanalysis,andlikethemhedisruptedthecustomary
bondthatplacededucationinthecontextofthefamily,woundingAthenianparents
whosesonspreferredhiscompanytotheirsandwhogavehisideasgreater
credence.Whom,SocratesasksMeletusinXenophonsrenditionofhisdefense
speech,doIcorrupt?ByGod,Meletusreplies,Iknowsomethoseyouve
persuadedtoobeyyouratherthantheirparents.(Xenophon,ApologyofSocrates20)
Itisnotpeculiar,therefore,thathewasmistakenforasophist,orthatthesophists
shadyreputationshouldhaverubbedoffonhim.HewasparodiedinAristophanes
Clouds,whichshowedhimcarriedacrosstheskyinacraneinaflakyeducational
establishmentknownasathinkshop.
Healsospokesharplyaboutdemocracy.Whetheritisfairtosaythatheopposedit
andwouldhavelikedtoseeadifferentregimeinstitutedatAthensisanother
question.Socratesenjoyedpuncturingillusions,anditmaybethathadhelived
underamonarchyoranoligarchy,thosewouldhavebeenthegovernmentshespent
histimeundermining.ButifanythingcansafelybegatheredfromPlatosdialogues,
thenSocrateswastroubledbythenotionofamateurgovernment,inwhichanyones
opinioncountedforasmuchasthenextmansandinwhichavolatileassemblywas
swayedthiswayandthatbyrhetoricaldisplays.Mostpeople,hepointedout,arent
terriblythoughtfuloranalytical,sowhyshouldmostpeople,thatis,themajority,
makethelifeanddeathdecisionsthataffectthepolis?
Thisisaquestionanyadvocateofdemocracymustask,andSocratesinsistenceon
askingitneednotbetakenasimplyingthathewanteddecisionsmadebyaminority.
CombinedwithhisassociationwithAlcibiadesandCritias,however,hispointed
remarksaboutthefoiblesofdemocracyseemeddownrightunpatriotic,andhecould
easilyenoughbecastasapurveyorofdangerousideas.
ByAtheniancustom,Socratestrialtookonlyoneday.Itisintolerablypainfulfor
mostreadersofPlatoApologyofSocratestobelievethatthewordswrittendownby

PlatowerenotactuallyspokenatSocratestrial.Perhapstheywere,andperhapsthey
werent;XenophonsaccountofSocratesspeech,alsocalledtheApology,isless
inspiringandmuchthinner.(TheGreekwordapologydoesnot
324
connoteapologizinginthemodernsensebutrathermeansarefutation.)Platos
renditioncontainsthefamousdictumthattheunexaminedlifeisnotworthliving
andconstitutesanextraordinarilymovingpaeantointellectualfreedomandthelife
ofthemind.Shunningthestrategythatheidentifiesasstandardprocedureinan
Atheniancourtroomweeping,pleading,paradinghischildreninfrontofthejury
Socrates,accordingtoPlato,tookthepositionthatthebestdefensewasastrong
offense.Usingthequestionandanswermethodforwhichhewasfamousandwhich
hadapparentlygottenhimintotrouble,hedemolishedhisaccusersby
demonstratingtheinconsistenciesintheirallegationsandthenwentontoexplainin
poignantdetailthegreatserviceprovidedtothestatebyhisrelentlessprobing.His
servicetothestate,heargues,ispreciousandirreplaceable.Itis,literally,agodsend:
Knowthatifyoukillme,IbeingsuchamanasIsayIam,youwillnotinjuremeso
muchasyourselves;forneitherMeletusnorAnytuscouldinjureme;thatwouldbe
impossible,forIbelieveitisnotthegodswillthatabettermanbeinjuredbyaworse
....Forifyouputmetodeath,youwillnoteasilyfindanother,who,tousearather
absurdfigure,attacheshimselftothecityasagadflytoahorse,which,thoughlarge
andwellbred,issluggishonaccountofhissizeandneedstobearousedbystinging.
Ithinkthegodfastenedmeuponthecityinsomesuchcapacity,andIgoabout
arousing,andurgingandreproachingeachoneofyou,constantlyalightingupon
youeverywherethewholedaylong.Suchanotherisnotlikelytocometoyou,
gentlemen;butifyoutakemyadvice,youwillspareme.Butyou,perhaps,mightbe
angry,likepeopleawakenedfromanap,andmightslapme,asAnytusadvises,and
easilykillme;thenyouwouldpasstherestofyourlivesinslumber,unlessthegod,
inhiscareforyou,shouldsendsomeoneelsetostingyou.
(Apology30C31A;Fowler1966,adapted)
Socratespersuadednearlyhalfthejuryof501Atheniancitizens;heseemstohave
losthiscasebyaboutthirtyvotes.Meletus,theprincipalaccuser,hadproposedthe
penaltyofdeath.Athenianprocedurecalledforconvicteddefendantstorecommend
analternativepenalty,anditseemsclearthatSocratesaccusersexpectedhimto
proposeexileandwouldhavebeenquitecontenttoseehimleavetown.Instead,he
provokedthejurybysuggestingratherthattheAtheniansshouldprovidehimwith
freemealsfortherestofhislifeastheirbenefactor,justastheydidforOlympic
victors.XenophonascribedthisstrategytoSocrateswishtoendasatisfyinglife
beforethesadrealitiesofoldageovertookhim;itisalsopossiblethatSocrateswas

testingthejurytoseeiftheyunderstoodwhohereallywasandwhathereally
providedtoAthens.Anumberofthosewhohadwantedhimacquittedhadachange
ofheartandvotedforthedeathpenalty.Socrateswasthenexecutedbyoneofthe
customaryAthenianmethods,beingorderedtodownapoisonousdraftofhemlock.
Athistrial,ifwearetobelievePlato,SocratesprophesiedthattheAthenianswould
bringgreatodiumonthemselvesforkillinghim.Hewasright.Throughout
subsequenthistory,theexecutionofSocratesisthemostseriouschargethat
325
hasbeenbroughtbythecriticsofAtheniandemocracy.Socratesdeathalsomadea
deepimpressiononhisbrightestdisciples,youngaristocratslikeXenophonand
Plato.ThoughXenophonsworksarelittlereadtoday,theywereverypopularin
ancientRomeandduringtheRenaissance.ThedialoguesPlatobegansoonafterhis
teachersdeath,inwhichSocratesservedasamouthpieceforhisownthinking,
becamethefoundationofwesternphilosophy.Inthiswaythestrainsoccasionedby
thePeloponnesianWarplayedadramaticroleinthehistoryofideas.
THEWARINRETROSPECT
TherewasnothinginevitableabouttheSpartansultimatevictoryinthewar.Darius
ofPersiadiedin404.HadtheAtheniansnotbeensocarelessatAegospotami,the
withdrawalofPersiansupportthatwouldprobablyhaveattendedonDariusdeath
wouldgravelyhavecompromisedtheSpartanschancesofwinningthewar.Onthe
otherhand,theSpartansalthoughnotasquicklyasprudencewouldhavedictated
didintimelearnavitallessonaboutthecentralityofnavalpower.Theanonymous
treatisewrittensometimeduringthelaterfifthcenturybythesocalledOldOligarch
(onceconfusedwithXenophon)hadjudgedseapowersuperiortopoweronland.
TheAthenians,theauthorargued,didwelltosacrificethedevelopmentoftheir
infantrytothatoftheirnavy.Foritispossible,hewrote,
forsmallsubjectcitiesonthemainlandtouniteandformasinglearmy,butinasea
empireitisnotpossibleforthosewhoareislanderstocombinetheirforces,forthe
seadividesthem,andtheirrulerscontrolthesea....Further,itispossibleforthe
rulersoftheseatodowhatlandpowerscannotalwaysdo;theycanravagetheland
ofmorepowerfulstates.Theycansailalongthecoasttoanareawheretheenemy
forcesarefewornonexistent,andiftheenemyapproachtheycanembarkandsail
away;inthiswaytheygetintolessdifficultythanthoseoperatingonland.Then
again,therulersoftheseacansailasfarasyoulikefromtheirownland,butland
powerscannotmakelengthyexpeditionsfromtheirownterritory,formarchingis
slow,anditisnotpossibletotakeprovisionsforalongperiodwhentravellingon
foot.Also,alandforcemustmarchthroughfriendlyterritoryorwinapassageby

force,butanavalforcecandisembarkwhereitisstrongerandnotdosowhereitis
not,butsailonuntilitreachesfriendlyterritoryoralesspowerfulstate.
([PseudoXenophon]TheConstitutionofAthenians34;Moore1975)
WhenSpartabecameaseapower,theAthenianslostthisadvantage,lostthewar,
andlosttheirempire.
Theeconomicconsequencesofthewarweregrave.ExceptinSpartaproper,where
helotscontinuedtotillthelandandnoforeignforcedaredinvade,agriculture
sufferedterribly.Theredoubledlaborofwomenandslaveswasinsufficientfullyto
compensateforthedeathorabsenceoffarmersonlongcampaignsfarfromhome,
andagooddealofterritory(inAtticaontheAtheniansideandMegaraonthe
Peloponnesian,forexample)wasregularlyravagedbytheenemy.
326
Livestockandfarmingimplementsweredestroyed.Vinestookseveralyearsof
nurturebeforetheywouldproducearichcropofgrapes,anddamagewroughtby
thedestructionofolivetreeswasevenlongerlasting:thoughcuttingscarefully
graftedontodamagedtreesorstumpsmightproduceenougholivesforasmall
familyinfiveortenyears,newlyplantedtreesgenerallytookaboutfifteenyearsto
produceasalablecrop.Commercebylandandseawasdisrupted;citieslikeCorinth
sufferedimmensely.
UnliketheoverseaswarsoftheRomanrepublic,whichenrichedthefewwhile
impoverishingthemany,thePeloponnesianWarhurteveryone.ThroughoutGreece
povertypushedasignificantnumberofmenbeneaththehoplitecensus.Somemen
tookserviceasmercenaries,anincreasinglypopularprofession.Asusuallyhappens
inwartime,manywomenwereforcedtoworkoutsidethehome.Populationalso
droppedinmanypartsoftheGreekworld,andthelossofthousandsupon
thousandsofsoldiersandsailorsleftmanywomenwithouthusbands.Intheplay
namedforherandproducedin411,AristophanesprotagonistLysistrata,whohas
organizedthewivesofGreeceinasexstriketoforceanendtothefighting,is
scandalizedwhenamagistratecomplainsaboutuppitybehavioronthepartof
womenwhoborenoshareinthewar:
None,youhopelesshypocrite?
Thequotawebearisdouble.First,wedeliveredoursons
tofilloutthefrontlinesinSicily....
Next,thebestyearsofourliveswerelevied.Toplevelstrategy
attachedourjoy,andwesleepalone.
Butitsnotthematrons

likeuswhomatter.Imournforthevirgins,beddedinsingle
blessedness,withnothingtodobutgrowold.
Men,theCommissionerprotests,
havebeenknowntoage,aswellaswomen.
No,Lysistratareplies,
notaswellasbetter.
Aman,anabsoluteantique,comesbackfromthewar,andhesbarelydodderedinto
townbeforehesmarriedtheveriestnymphet.Butawomansseasonisbrief;itslips,
andshellhavenohusband,butsitoutherlifegropingatomensandfindingno
men.
(Lysistrata,pp.587589,591597;Parker1964)
InAthensalone,asmanyasfiftythousandpeopleprobablydiedoftheplague,many
ofthemdoingsobeforetheycouldreproduce.Warcasualtiesseemtohaveincluded
atleastfivethousandhoplitesoldiersandtwelvethousandsailors(includingsome
threethousandexecutedbyLysanderafterAegospotami),andtheThirtyTyrantsof
404403apparentlykilledsomefifteenhundredcitizens,perhapsmanymore.
Probablythenumberofadultmalecitizensin403washalf
327
whatithadbeenin431.Somecities,likeMelosandScione,hadbeenvirtually
annihilated.InSparta,absolutenumbersdroppedlesssharply,butthevarious
classesbegantoredefinethemselves,astheranksofcommandersaswellassoldiers
wereswellednotonlybydistinguishedmothakesbutalsobyhelotfightersrewarded
withfreedomandlandandknownasneodamdeis(newcitizens).
ThelongwaralsounderminedwhatonescholarhascalledthePoliscitizenaxis.
WhetherThucydideswasrighttoidentifyasinglewaraslastingfrom431to404
remainsanopenquestion,perhapsonethatcanneverberesolved:whereonewar
stopsandanotherbeginsmaybeasubjectmoreforphilosophersthanfordiplomatic
historians.Buthewascorrecttoenvisionsomethingunprecedentedaboutthese
decadesofconflict.ForuntilthistimeGreekwarfarehadobservedalmostcourtly
rulesofplay.Whenwintercame,fightingceased;usingcitizensforfightingin
farmingseasonviolatedbothdecorumandcommonsense.Therewasatimetoplow
andatimetofight,anditwasnotthesametime.PreviouslyinGreekhistory
importantconflictsandevensocalledwarscouldbedecidedbybriefhoplite
encountersonlevelground.ThegrowthofAtheniannavalpowerhadbegunto
changethis,butneverbeforethePeloponnesianWarhadfightingbecomethecentral

factoflifeinbothhotandcoldweather.TheBattleofDeliumtookplaceinwinter,as
didtheclimacticnavalbattleintheSyracusanharbor.ThucydideslostAmphipolisto
Brasidasinthesnow.Brasidas,moreover,hadwithhimsevenhundredhelotsand
numerousmercenaries.Theuseofmercenariesandtheperiodicemergency
enfranchisementofhelotsandslavestherewereonethousandneodamodeisin
Spartaby421andprobablyatleastfifteenhundredbytheendofthewarblurred
thelinesthathadtraditionallydividedcitizensfromnoncitizensanderodedthe
conceptofthecitizensoldierandthecitizensailor,andthefrequencyofbloodycivil
strifeerodedtheconceptofthepolisitself.AristophanesTrygaeusatthedoorstepof
ZeuswasnottheonlyGreektoinquirehowitcouldbethatthegodswouldallow
Greecetobeconsumedbyawarofthisscope.Atthesametime,however,the
shatteringoffaithfosteredaquestioningspiritthatopenedthedoortothereflections
ofSocrates,Xenophon,andPlato.ThePeloponnesianWartransformedtheGreek
world,butitdidnotdestroyit.
TRANSLATIONS
Blanco,Walter.1998.ThePeloponnesianWar,fromWalterBlancoandJenniferRoberts,
eds.Thucydides:ThePeloponnesianWar,NewYork:W.W.Norton.
Fowler,H.N.1966.TheApologyofSocratesinPlato:Euthyphro,Apology,Crito,Phaedo,
Phaedrus.LoebClassicalLibrary.Cambridge,Mass.andLondon:HarvardUniversity
Press.
Moore,J.M.1975.TheConstitutionoftheAtheniansAscribedtoXenophontheOratorin
AristotleandXenophononDemocracyandOligarchy.Berkeley:UniversityofCalifornia
Press.
Parker,Douglass.1964.Lysistrata.NewYorkandScarsborough,Ontario:Mentor.
Rackham,H.1961.Aristotle:TheAthenianConstitution,inTheAthenianConstitution;
TheEudemianEthics;OnVirtuesandVices.LoebClassicalLibrary.Cambridge,Mass.
andLondon:HarvardUniversityPress.
328
ScottKilvert,Ian.1960.TheRiseandFallofAthens:NineGreekLivesbyPlutarch.
Harmondsworth,England:Penguin.
Warner,Rex.1979.Xenophon:AHistoryofMyTimes[TheHellenica].Harmondsworth,
England:Penguin.
SUGGESTEDREADINGS

Connor,W.Robert.1992.TheNewPoliticiansofFifthCenturyAthens.Indianapolis:
Hackett.Anuancedbuthighlyreadableexaminationofthechangingdynamicsof
Athenianpoliticallifeinthefifthcentury.
DeJacquelineRomilly.1988.ThucydidesandAthenianImperialism.Trans.P.Thody.
ReprintedSalem,N.H.:AyerCo.Publishers.AclassicstudyofThucydidesandthe
empire.
Ehrenberg,Victor.1974.ThePeopleofAristophanes.ReprintedNewYork:Barnes&
Noble.AstudyofthesociologyandeconomicsoftheAthenianstatebasedonaclose
examinationofdatainAristophanescomedies.
Green,Peter.1970.ArmadafromAthens.London:HodderandStoughton.Aspirited
accountoftheAthenianinvasionofSicilybyadistinguishedancienthistorian.
Hansen,MogensHerman.1995.TheTrialofSocratesfromtheAthenianPointofView.
Copenhagen:TheRoyalDanishAcademyofSciencesandLetters.Discussionofthe
sources,areconstructionofthetrial,andaninvestigationofthepoliticalbackground
oftheprosecution.
Hornblower,Simon.1986.Thucydides.Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress.A
penetratingstudyofthehistorianshistorian.
Kagan,Donald.1974,1981,1987.TheArchidamianWar(1974),ThePeaceofNiciasand
theSicilianExpedition(1981),andTheFalloftheAthenianEmpire(1987).Ithaca,N.Y.:
CornellUniversityPress.Thesethreevolumesofferadetailedanalysisofthewars
militaryanddiplomatichistory.
Loraux,Nicole.1986.TheInventionofAthens:TheFuneralOrationintheClassicalCity.
Trans.AlanSheridan.Cambridge,Mass.,andLondon:HarvardUniversityPress.An
examinationofthekeyroleoftheAthenianfuneralorationinshapingidealsofcivic
lifeanddefiningwhatAthenswasallabout.
Meiggs,Russell.1972.TheAthenianEmpire.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.A
historyofAthensrelationshipwithitsalliesfromtheinceptionoftheDelianLeague
totheendofthePeloponnesianWar,withchaptersonthejudgmentsmadeonthe
empireinboththefifthandfourthcenturiesandachartrecordingtributepayments
fortheyears453to420.
Strauss,Barry.1993.FathersandSonsinAthens:IdeologyandSocietyintheEraofthe
PeloponnesianWar.Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress.Asensitiveanalysisof
Atheniansocietyduringthelastdecadesofthefifthcenturythatgroundsconflictin
intergenerationaltension.

329
9
THECRISISOFTHEPOLISANDTHEAGEOFSHIFTINGHEGEMONIES
ThelongPeloponnesianWarwroughtchangesintheGreekworldsofarreaching
thatitisimpossibletoimaginethecourseofhistorywithoutit.Tobesure,fourth
centuryGreekscontinuedtofarmandweaveandfight,andthepoliticallyaware
polisremainedtheprimaryunitofgovernmentforseveralgenerations.Yearsof
futilewarfare,however,accompaniedbyeconomicdifficultiesandattendantcivil
strifeledmanypeopletoquestiontheirrelationshiptotheworldaroundthem.
AlreadyaroundthemiddleofthefifthcenturyGreekthinkershadbeguntoaskkey
questionsaboutthehumancommunity.Whatwasthepurposeofciviclife?Whyhad
peoplecometogetherincommunitiesinthefirstplace?Werethelawsofthepolisin
accordwithnatureorinconflictwithit?Whyweresomepeoplefreeandothers
slaves?HowwereGreeksdifferentfromnonGreeks?ShouldGreekswarwithother
Greeksandenslavethemwhenvictorious?
Tothesequestionsotherscametobeadded.Whyshouldsomehavesomuchmore
thanothers?Didtheautonomouscitystateprovidethebestwayoflife?Didthe
exclusionofwomenfromdecisionmakinggowithoutsaying?Waswarfareworth
thesacrificesitentailed?Asmallergroupdebatedlargerquestionsthenatureof
justice,ofpiety,ofcourage,oflove.Thoughmanyoftheseconcernshadengaged
fifthcenturyminds,thepostwargenerationsweremorepronetothiskindof
questioningandlessconfidentthattheylivedinthebestofallpossibleworlds.New
genrestooktheplaceoftheoldasthesearchformeaninginlifemovedforwardon
differentpaths:whereasthepainfulissuesofhumanexistencehadbeenexplored
duringthefifthcenturyintragedyandhistory,fourthcenturythinkersdevelopedthe
philosophicaldialogueandtreatise.
WhilemanyGreeksweresubjectingtheirtraditionalvaluestoscrutiny,others
perpetuatedthesquabblesofthefifthcentury.ThePeloponnesianWarhad
330
solvednothing.Inmanypoleistheeconomicproblemsarisingfromthewar
exacerbatedexistingclasstensionsandsparkedbloodycivilconflict,thoughthe
Atheniandemocracyremainedremarkablyfreeofstasis.Interpoliswarfare
continuedtobetheorderoftheday,andcivilstrifeoftenverybloodywas
extremelycommon.TheeagerinvolvementofPersiaheightenedanalreadychaotic
situation.WhenanextraordinaryindividualarosetothenorthintheformofPhilip
ofMacedon,theinabilityoftheGreekstoworktogetherproductivelyhaddramatic
consequences,andtheautonomouspolisceasedtobethedefiningpolitical
institutionoftheGreekworld.

SOURCESFORFOURTHCENTURYGREECE
Inalmostallrespectsthesourcesforthepoliticalhistoryofthefourthcenturyare
richerthanforthefifth.Awealthofinscriptionsshedslightonbothinternational
relationsanddomesticpolicy,andAristophanesEcclesiazusae(WomeninCongress)
andPlutus(Wealth)providevaluableinformationaboutAthenstroublesinthe
generationafterAegospotami.PlutarchsbiographiesoftheSpartansLysanderand
AgesilausandoftheThebanPelopidassurvive;unfortunatelythelifeof
Epaminondasislost.Muchcanbegleanedfromthevastbodyofmiscellanygathered
togetherinthecollectionknownasPlutarchMoralia,thoughsomematerialhascrept
infromotherauthors.
Atticoratoryprovidesavitalwindowintothelivesandthoughtpatternsoffourth
centuryAthenians.Unfortunatelynocomparablebodyoftextshassurvivedfrom
anyotherpolis.DozensofspeecheswrittenfordeliveryinAthenssometimestothe
courts,sometimestotheassemblyrevealthepolitical,social,andeconomicsituation
inthecity.Numerousspeecheshavebeenpreservedunderthenameofthemetic
Lysias,thoughsomeofthemmayreallybebyothers.ThespeechAndocidesgave
whenheservedasambassadorduringtheCorinthianWarisveryuseful.Ofthe
manyspeechesattributedtoIsocrates,abouthalfofthetwentyonethatsurvivewere
composedduringtheperiodbetweentheendofthePeloponnesianWarandtherise
ofMacedon.Thosewrittenlater,moreover(Isocrateslivedtobe98andcontinued
writinguntilhisdeathin338BC),alsocontainusefulperspectivesontheprevious
decades.Indeed,oratorsactiveprimarilyaftertheaccessionofPhilipofMacedonin
359providesomeofourmostpreciousinformationaboutthehalfcenturyafterthe
endofthePeloponnesianWar.MostprominentamongtheseisDemosthenes(384
322BC),dozensofwhosespeechessurvive.(Heisofcourseadifferentpersonfrom
thefifthcenturygeneralbythesamenamewhowasexecutedinSicily.)Eventhe
speechesthatseemtohavebeenwronglyattributedtoDemosthenescomprisea
valuablecompendiumofdetailaboutGreeklaw.
Speeches,however,mustbeusedwithevenmorecautionthanisgenerallyexercised
withsources.Thoughapricelessindextothevaluesofthecommunity,anddotted
withallusionstohistoricalevents,theyaimedatpersuasion,nottruth,andtheso
calledinformationtheycontainmustberegardedwithsome
331
skepticism.TherewerenoprofessionallawyersinAthens,moreover;thosewhohad
toappearincourtsimplyhiredtrainedrhetoricianstowritespeechesforthem.Not
surprisingly,thelawsembeddedintheserhetoricaldisplayswereoftenquoted
partiallyorinaccurately,sincethespeechwriterscouldnotbeheldtoaccountfor
theirmisrepresentations.Evenaslateasthefourthcentury,Greekcultureretaineda

thickoverlayoforality,andthenotionofverificationbyreferencetodocumentswas
notsofirmlyentrenchedasitistoday.
NohistoryofthefourthcenturysurvivesthatcanmatchthatofHerodotusor
Thucydidesineitherpainstakingresearchordepthofanalysis.Onegiftedhistorian
wroteduringthefourthcentury,buthisworkisalmostentirelylost;alittleonthe
PeloponnesianWarandontheyears397to395isallthatsurvivesofthewriter
knownastheOxyrhynchushistorianbecausethefragmentsofhisworkwerefound
amidstotherpapyriattheEgyptianvillageofOxyrhynchus.Onlyfragmentssurvive
ofEphorus,Theopompus,andtheSicilianPhilistus,thoughEphoruswasapparently
theprincipalsourceforDiodorusaccountofthisperiod,andmuchofPhilistuswork
(greatlyadmiredinantiquity)founditswayintoDiodorusaccountofaffairsinhis
nativeSicily.Intheabsenceoffullercontemporarysources,therefore,wearethrown
backchieflyonXenophon.
Alivelyandinnovativewriter,XenophonhadahardypartialityforSpartaevenatits
moredisgracefulmomentsthatsometimesmarstheaccounthegivesofGreek
historyinhisHellenica.Wearenonethelessindebtedtohisnarrativeformuch
informationthatwouldotherwisehavebeenlost;thesameistrueofhisencomiastic
biographyAgesilaus.HisWaysandMeansprovidesvaluableinsightintoAthens
economicdifficultiesinthefourthcentury.TheAnabasis,theaccountofhis
experienceswithfellowmercenariesinPersia,isanincomparableeyewitnesssource
forGrecoPersianinteraction.TheCyropaedia,ahistoricalromancebasedonthelifeof
CyrustheGreat,tellsusagreatdealaboutGreekperceptionsofPersia.Various
dialoguesinwhichSocratesappearsrevealagooddealaboutthevaluesof
Xenophonssocialclass,andmayeventellusabitaboutSocrates.
Socrates,likeJesus,expressedhimselfinspeechandwrotenothing.MostofPlatos
workconsistsofconversationsPlatohasimaginativelyreconstructed,inwhich
someonehecallsSocratesleadsoneormoreyoungmentoagreaterunderstanding
ofsomesubject.Aristotlewasstillmoreprolific.AncientestimatesofAristotles
prodigiousoutputrangedfromfourhundredtoonethousanddifferentworks.
Thoughmanyarelostandsomearethoughttobetheworkofhisstudents,the
Aristoteliancorpusfillsseveralvolumes.
POSTWARGREECEANDTHESTRUGGLEFORHEGEMONY
TherehadbeennothinginevitableaboutSpartasvictoryinthePeloponnesianWar.
TheAtheniansmightwellhavewonhadeventsturnedoutjustalittledifferently.
ConsequentlythepoleisofGreecewatchedSpartasselfaggrandizementwarily.The
economicsituationoftheGreekcities,thoughitvariedfrom
332

onepolistothenext,seemedtofavorwar.Ontheonehand,thelongyearsof
fightingattheendofthefifthcenturyhadharmedtheeconomyofmanyGreekstates
sufficientlytocreateadesireforbothbootyandrevenge;atthesametime,however,
thepostwarpoleisshowedremarkableresilience,andwithinlessthantenyearsfrom
theendofthePeloponnesianWar,theeconomyhadreboundedsufficientlyfor
peopletocontemplatenewmilitaryundertakings.Theeconomy,inshort,wasbad
enoughformanypeopletowantwarandgoodenoughforthemtoconsiderit.Itwas
notlongafterthewarthatthehostilityoftheGreekstatesfoundafocus,andthat
focuswasSparta.
Spartanswerenobleindeathbutinsufferableinvictory.Plutarch,aswehaveseen,
enjoyedreportingthedisappointmentSpartanmothersprofessedifasonmadethe
mistakeofsurvivingabattle,andXenophontoldoftheheroicfortitudeofthe
SpartansinhearingoftheirresoundingdefeatatthehandsoftheThebansin371:the
nextday,hewrote,youcouldseethosewhoserelativeshadbeenkilledgoingabout
inpubliclookingbrightandhappy,whileasforthosewhoserelativeshadbeen
reportedliving,therewerenotmanyofthemtobeseen,andthosewhoweretobe
seenwerewalkingaboutlookinggloomyandsorryforthemselves(Hellenica6.4.16;
Warner1966).Theprotocolfordealingwithvictory,however,wasmoreelusive.
Thoughatfirsttheirhoplitescontinuedtodowellonthebattlefield,agraceless
diplomacyregularlyledtheSpartanstolosethepeaceafterwinningthewar.Intime,
Spartasaggressiveforeignpolicywouldsparkacounterattackthatwouldalsoend
themythofSpartaninvincibilityonthebattlefield.
JubilantafterbringingAthenstoitskneesin404,Spartahousedsignificant
imperialistfactionssupportingtheaggressivepoliciesofLysanderandKing
Agesilaus.In395Spartasalienatedalliescombinedagainstit.Theresultingwar
endedin387,butcontinuinghighhandedbehavioronSpartaspartcausedexisting
resentmentstofester.In377Agesilausprovocativepoliciesresultedbothinthe
formationofanewAtheniannavalconfederacyandintheallianceofAthensand
Thebes.By371ThebeswasstrongenoughtodefeatSpartaonthebattlefield,andthe
yearsthatfollowedsawtheThebanscrippleSpartastillfurtherbytheliberationof
Messenia.TheThebansascendancydied,however,whentheircharismaticleader
Epaminondaswaskilledinbattle,andrevoltsduringthe360sand350sgradually
weakenedtheAthenianconfederacy.Theresultingvacuumwouldbefilledby
MacedonundertheresoluteleadershipofPhilip.
TheNewImperialistsofSparta
Thoughdetailsabouttheircollapsearelacking,themurderousdecarchiesLysander
establishedinthewakeofAegospotamiseemtohavebeenshortlived.Spartas
interferenceinthedomesticaffairsofitsallies,however,continued.Justasthe
imperialistAthenianshadalwayspreferreddemocraciesinalliedstates,sothe

Spartansofthepostwarperiodsoughttoestablisholigarchieswhereverpossibleby
militaryinterventionifnecessary.Alarmedbythisproclivity,theThebansdeclined
tohelptheirSpartanallieswhenKingAgisIImarchedonElis
333
around400inordertocompelthedemocraticgovernmenttheretogrant
independencetotheoutlyingcitiesinitscontrol.BadfeelingincreasedwhenAgis
diedandLysanderengineeredthesuccessionofthekingsbrother,hisfriend
Agesilaus.WhenAgesilaus,planningtoinvadeAsia,triedtolendlegitimacytohis
crusadebysacrificingatAulis,justasAgamemnonhaddoneenroutetoTroy,the
Boeotiancavalrywasdispatchedtostandinhisway.Agesilausneverforgotthe
insult,andhelivedalongtime.Thenextdecadessawfrequentwarfarebetween
SpartaandThebes.
ThegenesisofAgesilausjourneytoAsiaissignificantinanumberofrespects.
SpartasrelationswithPersiabegantodeterioratewhenLysandersallyCyrusthe
Youngerbecameenmeshedinaquarreloverthesuccession.Whenhisbrother
ArtaxerxessucceededDariusIIin404,Cyrusmountedarebellionforwhichhe
engagedthirteenthousandGreekmercenaries.ThoughCyrusarmywassuccessful
atthepivotalbattleofCunaxanearBabylonin401,inthehourofvictoryCyrus
caughtsightofhisbrotherand,losingcontrol,attemptedtokillhim.Hewas
promptlycutdownintheensuingmelee.ThisuntowarddevelopmentlefthisGreek
soldiersinanextraordinarilyvulnerablesituation,deepintheheartofahugeempire
whosekingtheyhadjustattemptedtooverthrow.Theircircumstancesdeteriorated
stillfurtherwhentheSpartanClearchusandtheotherGreekgenerals,havingbeen
hospitablyreceivedbythesatrapTissaphernes,weretreacherouslymurdered.
Indesperatestraitstheyelectednewleaders,oneofwhomwasXenophonthe
Athenian.Actingasamobilepolisunderthisnewleadership,theymanagedto
completethearduousmarchbacktotheseaandsailbacktotheirhomesinGreece.
Xenophonslivelyaccountoftheiradventuresinthismarchupcountry(Anabasis)
survivesintactandhasprovidedentertainmentandexcitementforgenerationsof
intermediateGreekstudents(aswellasanthropologistsandzoologists).Xenophons
contemporaries,however,foundnewsoftheGreeksexperienceinAsiatobemore
thanentertaining.Itwasalsoprofoundlyinstructive.Whatittaughtwasthatthe
PersianempirewasbynomeansasformidableanadversaryasGreekshad
imagined.Intime,thisknowledgewouldissueinthecampaignsofAlexander,
campaignsthatwouldtransformthecivilizationsofGreece,Egypt,andwesternAsia.
Intheshortrun,itpromptedAgesilaustoinvadeAsia.WithCyrusdead,prospects
forfriendshipwithPersiahadwaned.Nowtherewouldbewarinstead.

WhileAgesilausandhismenfoughtinAsiaMinor,theSpartanscontinuedto
alienatetheiralliesinmainlandGreecebyinterventionindomesticaffairs,marching
onMessenianNaupactus,forexample,andHeracleaTrachinianearThermopylae.
WhennearlyadecadehadpassedsincetheendofthePeloponnesianWarandthe
economiesofthemainlandstateshadmanagedapartialrecovery,Spartaslongtime
alliesThebesandCorinthwereopentoallyingwiththeiroldenemyAthensagainst
Sparta.AtthisjunctureoneTimocratesofRhodesappearedinGreecebearinggold
fromthePersianking:eagertogetAgesilausoffhisback,Artaxerxeswasprepared
todisbursethismoneytothosewhowouldmakewaronSparta.
334
TheCorinthianWar(395387BC)
ThewarthatensuedwasknownastheCorinthianWar,sincemuchofthefighting
tookplaceintheareaoftheisthmus.ItpittedSpartaagainstacoalitionofAthens,
Thebes,Corinth,andArgos.Thefirstconsequenceofthisfutilewarwasthedeathof
Lysander,whowaskilledfightingatitsoutset.ThePersiansthengottheirwish:
SpartarecalledAgesilausfromAsia.MeanwhilethePersiannavycommandedbythe
satrapPharnabazusandtheAthenianadmiralCononwonadecisivevictoryover
SpartaatCnidus(394BC)insouthwestAsiaMinor.Feelingsecureatlastfromthe
odiumthathadattachedtoallwhohadbeenpresentatAegospotami,Cononnow
returnedtoAthensandplayedalargepartinrebuildingtheLongWallsthere.Inthis
projecthewasassistedbyPersianshipsandmoney.
Lossoflifeintheongoingwarwasconsiderable.Aboutfourthousandmenwere
killedfightingbytheNemeaRiverinthenortheastPeloponnesusin394,thelargest
hoplitebattleGreekshadeverfought.EventuallytheSpartanspersuadedthe
Persianstoallywiththembyoffering,oncemore,toabandontheGreeksofAsia
MinortoPersiandomination.Peacenegotiationsinitiatedin392failedhowever,and
fightingcontinued.
Tothehoplitewarfareoftheseyearswasaddedacrucialnewelementavarietyof
lightlyarmedtroopsincludingarchers,slingers,andjavelinthrowers.Aparticularly
usefulbrandofjavelinthrowerwasthemanknownasthepeltast,namedforthe
smallroundwickershieldhecarried,theThracianpelt.Enjoyingamobility
unthinkableforthehopliteswiththeirheavyshieldsandarmor,peltastsandother
lightlyarmedsoldiersexpandedthepossibilitiesofwarfare.Theycouldbedeployed
toforageforsupplies,toseizeanddefendpasses,toambushenemytroops,andto
ravageenemyterritory.Theyalsoplayedkeyrolesinwhatwerebasicallyhoplite
confrontations,forharassmentatadistancebyjavelinthrowingpeltastsmadeit
difficultfortheheavilyarmedenemyhoplitestoretreat.Ahardybandofpeltasts
backingupahopliteforcecouldeasilyturnthetideofbattle.

Perhapsbecauseoftheirhistoryofsuccessathoplitewarfare,theSpartansnever
reallylearnedtomakeuseoflightarmedtroopsandthisdespiteaharshlesson
administeredin390,whenharassmentbypeltastsinthecommandoftheAthenian
IphicratesenabledtheAthenianstodestroyanentireSpartanregimentatthe
CorinthianportofLechaeum.TheSpartancommander,Xenophonreports,
orderedtheinfantryintheagegroups20to30tochargeanddriveofftheirattackers.
However,theywerehoplitespursuingpeltastsatthedistanceofajavelinsthrow,
andtheyfailedtocatchanyone,sinceIphicrateshadorderedhismentofallback
beforethehoplitescametoclosequarters.ButwhentheSpartans,inlooseorder
becauseeachmanhadbeenrunningathisownspeed,turnedbackagainfromthe
pursuit,Iphicratesmenwheeledround,somehurlingtheirjavelinsagainfromin
frontwhileothersranupalongtheflank,shootingatthesideunprotectedbythe
shields....Then,asthingsweregoingverybadly,[theSpartancommander]ordered
anotherpursuit,thistimewiththemenoftheage
335
groups20to35.Butinfallingbackfromthispursuitevenmoremenwerekilledthan
before....
Afterawhile,Xenophoncontinues,theSpartanswere
attheirwitsend,sufferingastheywereandbeingdestroyedwithoutbeingableto
doanythingaboutit;andnowwhen,inadditiontoallthis,theysawthehoplites
bearingdownonthem,theybrokeandran.Someplungedintothesea....
(Hellenica4.5.1518;Warner1966)
ThisremarkableachievementstunnedtheGreekworld.Italsomadethereputation
ofIphicrates.Subsequentlyelectedonnumerousoccasionstothestratgia,Iphicrates
becameoneofAthensbestknowngenerals.Intimeheintroducedlongerswords
andlight,comfortablebootsthatcametobecalledIphicratides.
Mercenaryserviceandthepopularityoflightarmedtroopsfrequentlywenthandin
hand:thelessercostofthelightwickershieldmadeserviceasapeltastmore
appealingtotheimpoverishedlandlessmenwhochosetosupportthemselvesas
soldiersoffortune.Likemercenaries,lightlyarmedsoldiershadbeenused
throughoutthelaterfifthcentury.Havinglearnedoftheirpotentialfromhispainful
experienceswiththeAetolians,DemostheneshadmadesuretodeploythematPylos
andSphacteria,wheretheywerecrucialtotheAthenianssuccess.Asinsomany
areas,whatappearasdistinguishingcharacteristicsofthefourthcenturyinfacthad
theirrootsinthePeloponnesianWar.

In387theexhaustedGreeksagreedtoapeacenegotiatedinPersia.Thisagreement
wasthefirstofseveralfourthcenturyattemptsatwhatDiodorus,following
Ephorus,calledakoineiren(commonpeace),apeaceapplicabletoallpoleisand
whoseoverridingprinciplewasthatofautonomy.Throughoutthefourthcentury,
intellectualsandpoliticiansexpressedlongingforsuchapeace.Theformthis
particularpeacetook,however,wascalculatedtodrivehometotheGreeksthe
PersiankingscloutinHellenicaffairs.ThetextappearsinXenophonHellenica:
I,KingArtaxerxes,regardthefollowingarrangementsasjust:1.ThecitiesinAsia
and,amongtheislands,ClazomenaeandCyprusshouldbelongtome.2.Theother
Greekcities,bigandsmall,shouldbelefttogovernthemselves,exceptforLemnus,
ImbrosandScyros,whichshouldbelongtoAthens,asinthepast.Andifeitherofthe
twopartiesrefusestoacceptpeaceontheseterms,I,togetherwiththosewhowill
acceptthispeace,willmakewaronthatpartybothbylandandbysea,withships
andwithmoney.
(Hellenica5.1.31;Warner1966)
NegotiationsnearlybrokedownoverthethornyquestionoftheBoeotianLeague.
WhentheThebanswantedtoratifythetreatyonbehalfofallBoeotia,Agesilaus
demandedthattheysweartoleavealltheBoeotiancitiesautonomous.Meeting
resistance,hebeganmobilizingforcestoinvadeBoeotia.InthefaceofaSpartan
336
attack,theThebansgrudginglyagreedtoAgesilausterms.Futuredevelopments
wouldshow,however,thattheirambitionshadnotsubsided.
GreeceAftertheKingsPeace
ThegoverningprincipleoftheKingsPeacewasautonomy.Ironically,Spartaas
Persiasallywascastastheguarantorofthispeacedespitethefactthatitwas
SpartandisregardfortheautonomyofotherGreekstatesthathadsparkedthewarin
thefirstplace.Intheguiseofenforcingautonomy,Spartapromptlysetaboutusing
forceandthreatsofforcetodismantleavarietyofexistingarrangementsinGreece.
SincethelongstandingBoeotianLeaguewasdominatedbyThebes,its
disintegrationhadgivenAgesilausparticularpleasure.DuringthewarCorinthand
Argoshadundertakenacuriousexperimentinisopolitywherebycitizenshipand
itsprivilegesweresharedbybothstatesinanovelformofunion.Spartademanded
itsdissolution.WhenPhliusdeclinedtochangeitsgovernmentinresponseto
Spartanpressure,itwasbesiegedandultimatelyforcedtoreplaceitsgovernment
withthatofproSpartanexiles.Mantinea,composedoffivevillages,wascompelled
toteardownitsfortificationsanddissolveitselfintothefiveoriginalcommunities.

Allthiswasasnothing,however,toSpartasseizureofthecityofThebes.Duringthe
380stheThebansweredividedbetweenaproSpartanfactionledbyLeontiadesand
aproAtheniangroupledbyIsmenias,andin382LeontiadespersuadedtheSpartan
commanderPhoebidastooccupytheThebanacropoliscalledtheCadmeaandinstall
aproSpartangovernment.PhoebidasactionssparkedoutragethroughoutGreece.
ThoughtheSpartansbroughtPhoebidastotrial,Agesilausarguedforhisacquittal
onthegroundsthattheonlycriterionforjudgingPhoebidasbehaviorshouldbeits
usefulnesstoSparta.Phoebidasgotoffwithasmallfine,andtheSpartangarrison
remainedontheCadmea.EquallyshockingtoGreekswasthetrialatThebesof
Ismenias,whomtheproSpartangovernmentexecutedonchargesofconspiringwith
PersiaandacceptingPersianmoney.SpartasownrecordofcollaborationwithPersia
madethisturnofeventsparticularlyscandalous.
In379sevenofthepartisansofIsmeniaswhohadtakenrefugeinAthensslipped
unnoticedintoBoeotiaand,linkingupwithfellowconspiratorsthere,werebrought
tothemagistratesdisguisedaswomenwhohadbeensuppliedfortheirdelectation.
Drawingtheirweapons,theyeasilyoverpoweredandkilledtheoligarchs;
proceedingtothehouseofLeontiadestheykilledhimaswell.Thenextdaytwo
Atheniangeneralsandtheirregimentsappeared,probablyasvolunteers,andhelped
theThebanpatriotsexpeltheSpartangarrisonontheCadmea.
TheSpartanspromptlysentouttheiryoungkingCleombrotusattheheadofan
expedition.ThoughhewasunabletodoanythingaboutthesituationinThebes,his
campaignhadimportantconsequences.AlarmedbytheSpartanmilitarypresence,
theAtheniansbroughtthetwogeneralswhohadhelpedtheThebansretaketheircity
totrial,executingtheonewhoturnedupforhishearing
337
andexilingtheother.ThoughthegeneralsassistancetotheThebanshadprobably
beenofanunofficialnature,stillitwasreprehensiblefortheAthenianstopunish
theminthiswayforimplementingapolicytheAthenianstatesurelyapproved.
Thetrialofthegeneralscontrastednotonlywiththelightsentencemetedoutto
PhoebidasinSpartaafewyearsbeforebutalsowithamockeryofatrialthat
followedafewmonthslater.In378Sphodrias,theharmost(governor)whom
CleombrotushadleftbehindinBoeotia,decidedthatanightmarchcouldbringhim
toPiraeusbydawn,andheplottedtoseizetheportforSparta.Hemiscalculated:a
nightmarchbroughthimasfarastheThriasianplainnearEleusis.Hisplantoseize
Piraeuscametonothing,andtheAthenianswerefurious.Immediatelytheyseized
someSpartanenvoyswhohappenedtobeatAthens,buttheyreleasedthemwhen
theenvoysassuredthemthatSphodriashadactedwithoutauthorizationandwould

surelybeexecutedatSparta.Nothingofthekindhappened.Sphodriassonand
Agesilaussonwerelovers,andAgesilausengineeredSphodriasacquittal.
Sparta,Athens,andThebes
EnragedatSpartasfailuretopunishSphodriasanddeeplysorrytheyhadletthe
Spartanenvoysgo,theAtheniansnowalliedwiththeThebansformutualprotection
againstSparta.Theyalsomovedforwardwiththeirplanstoestablishthenewnaval
leaguethathistorianscalltheSecondAthenianConfederacy,plansthathadprobably
beguntotakeshapeevenbeforetheSphodriasfiasco.Learningfromhistory,the
Atheniansconceivedthenewleaguealonglinesverydifferentfromtheoldone.The
decreeproposedbyAristotelessettinguptheleagueincludedinitspreamblethe
statementthattheassemblywastakingthisactionsothattheSpartansmayallow
theGreekstoliveinpeace,freeandautonomous,withalltheirterritorysecureand
sothatthepeaceof387mayremaininforceforever.Allallies,thedecree
proclaimed,willremainindependentandautonomous,enjoyingtheformof
governmenttheywish,admittingnogarrisonsormagistratesandpayingnotribute.
Athenianswereprohibitedfromacquiringpropertyinalliedterritory.Thetotal
numberofstatesinthealliancewassomewherebetweensixtyandseventy.League
memberscamefromallovertheAegeanandwesternGreece.Theyincludedabout
thirtyfiveformermembersoftheDelianLeague,anoteworthydevelopmentthat
mustbethrowninwiththeotherevidenceforthepopularityofAthensfirst
experimentinleagueleadership.
Leaguepolicywastobecontrolledbytwobodiesofequalweight,theAthenian
assembly(ekklsia)andtheassemblyoftheallies(synedrion).Allproposalsrequired
theapprovalofbothbodies.Thuseachassemblyhadthepowertovetomeasures
approvedonlybytheother.Eachstate,however,sentonlyonedelegatetothe
synedrion,withtheresultthatAthenscouldgarnerquiteanumberofvotesin
supportofitspoliciesbyintimidatingthetiniestpoleis.TheAtheniansalsoretained
controlovermilitaryoperations.Finally,thoughthedecreeofAris
338
Figure9.1.TheDecreeofAristoteles,377BC.Thenamesofthecitiesthatjoined
thealliancewereinscribedonthesamestoneasthedecree.Asnewstatesjoined,
theirnameswereadded.
totelesspecifiednotribute,asystemofsyntaxeis(contributions)wasestablishedto
financeleagueoperations.Thesesyntaxeisdidnotoccasionthesamebitternessasthe
tributeassessmentsoftheDelianLeague,butalliesdidnotalwaysmeettheir
obligations,thuscausingfinancialproblemsfortheleagueandrevealingsome
ambivalenceonthepartofitsmembers.

UndertheAtheniangeneralChabrias,theconfederacypromptlywonanimportant
navalvictoryovertheSpartansatNaxos.OperatingintheAegeanandThraceunder
ChabriasandinthewestunderTimotheus,thefleetbroughtseveralnewstatesinto
theconfederacy.TheSpartans,whomtheseeventshadmadequiteanxious,were
furtheralarmedbythegrowthofapowerfulstateinthenorth,whereJasonofPherae
wassucceedinginhiseffortstouniteThessalyandrevivetheoldtitleoftagos
(dictatorofallThessaly),unitingtheThessaliansunderoneleaderforthefirsttime
sincethesixthcentury.Athens,ontheotherhand,thoughenjoyingvictoriesatsea,
foundnavaloperationscostly,andsawmeritinendingthefighting.In375Sparta,
Athens,andThebessignedaCommonPeacethatacknowledgedtheexistenceof
theAtheniansnewleague.Fighting,how
339
ever,soonbrokeoutagainandcontinueduntilanotherattemptatacommonpeace
wasmadein371.
ThistimetheambitionsofThebessankthepeacenegotiations.ThestatusofThebes
intheBoeotianLeaguehadvariedovertheyears,andtheThebanswerenow
strongerthanever.Inthe370stheyhadenjoyedtheenergeticleadershipoftwo
intimatefriends,EpaminondasandPelopidas.Bothhadbeeninvolvedinthe
liberationoftheCadmeain379(PelopidasmorethanEpaminondas),andeachwas
oftenelectedtoserveontheboardofelevenBoeotarchswhogovernedtheregion.
Pelopidasexcelledprimarilyingeneralship,Epaminondasincharismaticpolitical
leadership.AstheBoeotarchrepresentingThebesin371,Epaminondaswalkedoutof
thepeacecongressinSpartawhenAgesilauswouldnotlethimsignthetreatyon
behalfofallBoeotia.
ThispowerplaydidnotsitwellwiththeSpartans.KingCleombrotusinvaded
Boeotiawithtenthousandmenaboutninethousandhoplitespluscavalry.
EpaminondasandPelopidasmethimontheplainofLeuctrawithanarmyofsix
thousandhoplitesandonethousandcavalry.InnovativeThebantacticsproved
decisivedespitetheSpartanssuperiornumbers.ItwastraditionalforThebansto
fightinanunusuallydeepformation;atDeliumin424,forexample,theyhadfought
twentyfivedeep.Now,however,Epaminondaspackedhisleftwing(normallythe
weakersideofaGreekformation)fullyfiftyshieldsdeep.Healsoadvancedinan
obliquelinesoastoholdbackthecenterandrightwingwhileoverpoweringthe
enemywiththeleftatthepointwherehecouldexpectCleombrotustobe.The
cuttingedgeoftheThebanlinewasprovidedbytheelitecorpsknownastheSacred
Band,150pairsofselecthoplites.PlatowasprobablythinkingoftheSacredBand
whenhewrotethatifonecouldcontrivethatastateoranarmyshouldentirely
consistofloversandloved,itwouldbeimpossibleforittohaveabetterorganization
thanthatwhichitwouldthenenjoythroughtheiravoidanceofalldishonourand

theirmutualemulation;moreover,ahandfulofsuchmen,fightingsidebyside,
woulddefeatpracticallythewholeworld(Symposium178179;Hamilton).Plutarch
analyzedthedynamicinhislifeofPelopidas:abandcementedbyfriendship
groundeduponloveisnevertobebroken,andinvincible;sincethelovers,ashamed
tobebaseinsightoftheirbeloved,andthebelovedbeforetheirlovers,willinglyrush
intodangerforthereliefofoneanother(Pelopidas18;Dryden,rev.Clough).The
SacredBandandthenoveltacticsofEpaminondascarriedtheday,andoftheseven
hundredSpartanspresentthebulkofthearmyconsistedofSpartanalliesfullyfour
hundredwerekilled,Cleombrotusamongthem.TheremainderoftheSpartanarmy
withdrew,thelegendofSpartansupremacyinhoplitewarfareforevershattered.
ThelossoflifeatLeuctrawascriticaltothefutureofinterpolisrelationsinGreece,
fortherenowremainedonlyaboutathousandSpartanhoplites.WhentheSpartans
weaknessbecameapparenttotheirallies,thePeloponnesusbeganseethingwith
sedition.Democraticrevolutionsinmanycitiesledtobanishmentsandexecutions,
andaleaguewasformedconsistingofMantinea,Tegea,andthecommunitiesof
southernandcentralArcadia.InevitablySpartaopposedthenewfederation,butit
receivedthesupportnotonlyofThebesbutofthevariousstates
340
ithadmanagedtogatherunderitsleadership:whenEpaminondasarrivedinthe
Peloponnesushisarmyamountedtoatleastfortythousandmen.Thoughthisforce
wasunabletotakethecityofSparta,itravagedLaconia,somethingthathadnever
happenedpreviously.Mostimportant,itsucceededintheliberationofMessenia.
Helotswerenowcitizens,andthenewcapitalofMessenewasfoundedonMount
Ithome.EpaminondasalsofoundedanewcapitalfortheArcadianLeague,
Megalopolis.ThisnewfoundationbecamethemeetingplaceoftheCouncilofFifty
thatrepresentedthecommunitiesoftheleagueinproportiontotheirpopulation,and
oftheAssemblyofTenThousand,inwhichallleaguecitizenscouldparticipate.This
developmentindexedagrowinginterestinexperimentingwithamicablefederations.
(SodidthefoundingoftheSecondAthenianConfederacy,thoughitsprofessed
egalitarianismseemstohavebrokendownovertheyears.)
Withinafewyearsandwithcomparativelylittlelossoflife,Thebesunder
EpaminondasandPelopidasmanagedtoaccomplishwhatgenerationsofAthenians
couldnot,fightanddieastheymight.Spartawasfinishedasaninternationalpower.
JasonofPherae,adangerousallywithseriousaspirationsofhisown,was
assassinatedin370.TheremainingthreattoThebanexpansionwastheAthenian
navy.Epaminondasbuiltafleetandcapitalizedongrowingrestlessnessinthe
AthenianleaguetobringsomeofAthensalliesovertohisside,butthecostand
laborofsupportinganavywasultimatelyunmanageable,andtheThebansfound
themselvesoverextended.PelopidaswaskilledfightinginThessaly.Fearingthe

collapseoftheBoeotianLeague,theThebansmarchedagainstrestiveOrchomenos
anddestroyedit,killingthemenandenslavingthewomenandchildren.
Forallhispersonalmagnetism,EpaminondasseemedtohavenoplanforGreece
beyondreplacingAthenianandSpartanimperialismwithThebanimperialism.His
supportinthePeloponnesuswaswaning:anumberofArcadiancommunitiesallied
withAchaea,Elis,Athens,andSpartaagainstThebes.Marchingsouth,Epaminondas
triedtotakeSpartabysurprisebyanightmarchbutfailed.Finallyhemetthe
allianceontheplainofMantinea(362BC).DeployingthesamestrategyasatLeuctra
andoutnumberingtheenemybysometenthousandmen,theThebanswere
victorious,butEpaminondashimselfwaskilledandwithhisdyingbreathcounseled
hiscountrymentomakepeace.UltimatelyThebesgainednothingbyitsdecadeof
militaryascendancy.IthadfailedtoinspireloyaltyorunifyGreeceinanyproductive
way.ThoughtheliberationofMesseniawascertainlypleasantfortheMessenians
andoffersacertainsatisfactiontotheenemiesofslaveryinalltimesandplaces,by
knockingoutSpartaasamilitarypowerEpaminondasperformedagreatserviceto
PhilipofMacedon,thefutureconquerorofGreecesomethingforwhichnotall
Greekswouldultimatelybegrateful.
DisaffectionintheSecondAthenianConfederacy
InhisnavaloperationsEpaminondastookadvantageofgrowingunrestinthe
Athenianalliance.Ambiguitiesintheevidencehavelefthistoriansdividedastojust
howhonorablytheAtheniansadheredtothefairsoundingprinciplessetout
341
inthedecreeofAristoteles.Itseemslikelythatattheveryleastthepassingoftime
fosterederosion.Somecleruchiesappeartohavebeenestablishedinviolationofthe
prohibitionagainstAtheniansowningpropertyinalliedterritory.Particularlyunder
theirembarrassinglyviolentandungovernablegeneralChares,theAtheniansdid
sometimesinterveneindomesticaffairs.ThefourthcenturyhistorianTheopompus
wasquicktoobservesarcasticallythattheuseofthewordsyntaxeis(contributions)
clothedtheoldtributeinaeuphemismthatfoolednobody.Resentmentgrewwhen
theAtheniansdivertedleaguefundstooperationsthatbenefitedAthensalone,such
astheconstantoperationsintheareaaroundAmphipolis,wherethestrugglefor
preciousnaturalresourcescontinued.
Revoltsfromtheleague,however,werefrequentlyconnectedwithoutsideagitators
Epaminondas,forone,whodealttheAtheniansaseriousblowbydetaching
Byzantium,andsubsequentlyMausolus.TechnicallyasatrapofthePersianking,in
factMausolusoperatedasanindependentrulerofthemountainousregionofCaria
insouthwestAsiaMinorthatlaysouthoftheMaeanderRiver.TheCariansclaimed
tobeindigenous,butbyMausolusdaytheywereHellenized,fortheareaincluded

theGreekcitiesofCnidusand,mostimportantly,Halicarnassus,thehomeof
Herodotus.MausolusdecisiontomovehiscapitaltoHalicarnassusfromtheCarian
cityofMylasaprobablysignaledhisidentificationwithHellenism;Greeksculptors
workedonthehugetombthathewasconstructingforhimself(theMausoleum,
whenceourEnglishword)andthathiswifeArtemisiafinishedafterhisdeath.Eager
todevelopCariasmaritimecapabilities,MausolussawtheAthenianleagueasa
seriousobstacletohisambitions.TheislandofCos,whichblockedtheharborat
Halicarnassus,wasamemberoftheleague.AsubstantialAtheniancleruchy,
moreover,stoodonnearbySamos.Mausolussolutionwastoencouragetheunrest
hehadnoticedamongoligarchsinalliedstatesgovernedbydemocracies.In357,
afterreceivingpromisesofCarianbacking,Rhodes,Cos,andChiosrevoltedfrom
Athens.SoapparentlydidByzantium,thoughthereissomequestionwhetherthe
ByzantineshadeverreallyreturnedtotheAthenianalliancesincetheyhaddefected
toEpaminondasinthe360s.
AllAthensmostprominentgeneralsweresenteasttosquelchthisuprising,whichis
generallyknownastheSocialWarfromtheLatinwordforally,socius(thesameroot
thatappearsinassociate,andsociety).CharesandChabriaswentfirst,but
ChabriaswaspromptlykilledtryingtoforcehiswayintotheharboratChios.
IphicratesandTimotheusweredispatchedthefollowingyearandtogetherwith
CharespreparedtomeettherebelfleetoffthelittleislandofEmbatathatstood
betweenChiosandthemainland.WhenTimotheusandIphicratesdeclinedto
engagebattlebecauseofbadweather,Charesattackedanyway.Withoutthebacking
ofhiscolleagues,hesufferedsubstantiallosses,andhelateraccusedIphicratesand
TimotheusoftreasonattheexithearingsknownaseuthynaithatallAthenian
officialshadtoundergouponleavingoffice.Iphicrateswasacquitted,butTimotheus
wasfinedsuchalargesumthathewasforcedtogointoexilesincehecouldnotpay
it,andhediedsoonafterward.
342
Latein355orearlyin354Athensmadepeace,inpartbecauseofiratethreatsfrom
thenewPersiankingArtaxerxesIII,whohadsucceededArtaxerxesIIin358.Chares
wasrecalledandtheindependenceofByzantium,Chios,Rhodes,andCoswas
recognized.SoonLesbosandseveralotherstatesalsobrokeawayfromthe
confederation.ThesanitizedDelianLeaguehadnotenduredmorethanageneration.
ThoughtheAthenianconfederacycontinuedtoexist,itwasseverelycrippled.Inthe
end,PhilipwasthebeneficiaryofMausolusagitation,ashewasofthefailedTheban
imperialismthathadbrokenthepowerandprestigeofSparta.
LAWANDDEMOCRACYINATHENS

ThebodythattriedTimotheusandIphicrateswhenCharesaccusedthemmayhave
beentheassembly,butitcouldjustaswellhavebeenoneofthepeoplescourts
knownasdicasteries(dikastria).ThepeoplescourtswerecentraltotheAthenian
democracy.Atheniansocietywasnotoriouslylitigious,andinthehandsof
unscrupulouspoliticianscourtcasesoftenbecametoolsoffactionalstrife.Trialsof
impeachedofficialsstrategoiinparticularwerefrequentlyofapoliticalnature,for
impeachmentatAthenswasoftenusedasaforumforadebateonforeignpolicy.
Sincedecreesproposedintheassemblycouldbechallengedbythegraphparanomn
(indictmentforillegalproposals),itcanbearguedthatinfourthcenturyAthensthe
dicasteriesratherthantheekklesiaweretheultimatearbitersofpolicy.Inthe
absenceofasupremecourtorabodyofjurisconsults,dicasterieswerealsothe
arbitersoflaw.Courtswerealsoused,ofcourse,intheadjudicationofprivate
lawsuitsandcriminalcaseswithnopoliticalramifications.
TheFunctioningofDicasteries
Allmalecitizensovertheageof30wereeligibletoserveondicasteries,anddicasts
(jurors)werechoseneachyearbylotfromthosewhovolunteered.Aswesawin
Chapter6,toensurethatthecompositionofthecourtswouldreflectthevotersof
Athens,Pericleshadinstitutedpayforjuryservice.Thethreeobolsaday,orhalfthe
averagewageofalaborer,doubtlessattractedthepoor,whocouldnotearnthree
obolsanotherway,aswellascomfortablyretiredoldermenwhoenjoyedthe
opportunitytositwiththeirfellowcitizensinsituationsthatoftenoffered
spellbindingentertainment.Perhaps,then,itwasnotasrepresentativeasPericles
hadhoped.Thenumberofdicastsallocatedtoagivencasevariedusuallyfrom201
to501(oddnumberspreventedatie),althoughalargerbodymightbeusedforhigh
profiletrialsofapoliticalnature,andsomeimportantpoliticaltrialswereheldinthe
assemblyitself.Largejuriesweredesignedinparttoinvolvelargenumbersof
citizensindecisionmaking,inparttodiscouragebribery.Furtherobstaclesto
briberyincludedanelaboratemechanismtose
343
lectjuriesbylotandthecustomofchoosingthematthelastpossiblemomentbefore
thetrial.Smallplaques,eachinscribedwithadicastsname,wereinsertedintoa
klrotrion,anallotmentdevicethatdistributedthenameshaphazardlyamongthe
dailyjuries.Votingwasbysecretballot.Eachdicastwasgiventwopebblesorbronze
discs,oneofwhichhadaholepunchedthroughit;aheraldwouldproclaimthatthe
pebblewiththeholeisavotefortheprosecutor,andthewholepebbleavoteforthe
defendant.Tocasthisvotehewouldthrowtheonehewantedtobecountedintoa
copperreceptacleanddiscardtheotherpebbleintothewoodenone.

AsthecaseofSocratesreveals,thedicastsalsodeterminedthepenalty.Precedents
werenotbinding,soeachjurywassovereign.ThedecisionofanAthenianjurywas
final.Therecouldbenoappealtoahighercourtortothepeople,foranAthenian
dicasterywasboththehighestcourtandthepeople.Consequentlydicastsfunctioned
asjudgesaswellasjurors.
MurderandtheCourts
TheearliestknownlawsinAthensandthosethatremainedunchangedforthe
longesttimeconcernedhomicide.SincetheGreeksbelievedthatmurderoffended
thegods,therewerereligioussanctionsagainsthomicide,andanyone
Figure9.2a.Thisfragmentremainstogiveussomeideaofthefunctioningofthe
kleroterionorallotmentdevicethatassignedjurorstodicasteries.
344
whokilledanotherpersonoutsideofwartimewasconsideredpolluted.Atthesame
timeapressingreligiousandsocialobligationlayuponthemalenextofkinto
avengeadeathbykillingtheperpetrator,evenifanactofhomicidehadbeen
involuntary,say,astheresultofahuntingaccident.Inaccordancewithbasic
principlesofvendettasthatoperateacrossmanysocieties,therefore,onehomicide
couldevolveintoanunendingseriesofretaliations.TheAtheniansclaimedtohave
foundedthefirstlawcourtintheworldwhenAgamemnonssonOrestescameto
AthensfromArgosseekingabsolutionforthemurderofhismother,whomhehad
killedinordertoavengehisslainfather.TheBronzeAgemyththatAeschylushad
fleshedoutinhisOresteiahadofferedtheplaywrightanopportunitytoexplainhow
lawhadcometoreplacefamilyfeudinjustsuchacase.ThecourtoftheAreopagus
inAthensadjudicatedthecase,markingthehistorictransferofjurisdictionfromthe
familytothestate.
Apersonalelement,however,remained,foraccusationsofhomicidehadtobe
broughtbyfamilymembers.Thus,whilethemurderofaslavebyhisorhermaster
mightbeillegal,prosecutionwasunlikelyintheabsenceofacitizenrelativewho
couldbringcharges.ThroughoutAthenianhistory,selfhelpremainedacentral
principleinlaw.(Italsoextendedtohelpingfriendsandrelationsinawidevarietyof
instances.Citizenswereexpectedtoshowbothfriendshipandcivicmindednessby
bringingcasesonbehalfofotherswhowerewronged,suchasorphansorgirlsof
marriageableagewithoutdowries.)
BesidestheAreopagustherewerefouradditionalvenuesformurdertrials.Thecourt
ofthePalladionwasusedforunpremeditatedkillings,theDelphinionforjustifiable
ones(i.e.,homicidescommittedinselfdefense,orbyamanwhodiscovered

someoneintheveryactofhavingintercoursewithhiswife,mother,sister,or
daughter).ThePrytaneionhandledcasesofunidentifiedmurderersandcasesin
whichananimaloranobjectsuchasafallingrooftilehadcausedadeath.Finally,
thosewhowerealreadysentencedtoexileforhomicideandwereontrialforan
additionalmurderhadtopleadtheircasesonaboatoffthecoastofPhreattotoavoid
pollutingthelandofAttica.
ConductofCases
Theseriousnessofthechargesdictatedtheamountoftimeallocatedtoatrial,and
theminutesweremeasuredoutbyawaterclock.Theconductofcasesdifferedfrom
thoseinmodernwesterncourtsinthattheGreeksreliedheavilyonthetestimonyof
witnessesnotonlyastothefactsbutalsoastothecharacterofthedefendant.Itwas
customaryforwitnessestotestifytothevirtuesoftheaccusedandthepublicservices
hehadperformedortothecalamitieshisfamilywouldexperienceifhewas
convicted.Thoughrulesoftimewerestringentlyobserved,rulesofevidencewere
few,anddefendantsthemselveswerenotdiscouragedfromspeechifyingabouttheir
pastservicestothepolisorfromparadingtheirvulnerablechildrenbeforethejury.
Evenaftertheadventofwriting,Greeksremainedsomewhatsuspiciousoftexts,and
jurorsusuallytrustedthetestimonygivenbywitnessesunderoathmorethan
writtenevidence;theyunder
345
Figure9.2b.Inthisklepsydra,orwaterclock,waterdrainedfromtheupper
vesseltothelowerone.Ittookseveralminutesforavesseltoempty.Tenvessels
wereallocatedforcasesinvolvinglargesumsofmoney.
stoodthatadocumentsuchasawillcouldbeforged.Slaveswereoftentheoptimal
witnesses,fortheywereubiquitousandoftenobligedtoassisttheirownersinillicit
activities.Theoretically,thetestimonyofslaveswasadmissibleonlyifithadbeen
givenundertorture,butweareuncertainhowoftensuchtorturewasactually
inflicted.Followingaguiltyverdict,prosecutoranddefendantproposedalternate
penalties,asinthecaseofSocrates,andthejurydecidedbetweenthetwo.The
principleofselfhelpalsomeantthatinprivate,orcivil,casestheprosecutorhadto
executethejudgmenthimself.WhentheoratorDemosthenessucceededin
convincingajurythathisguardianshaddissipatedthefortunehisfatherhadleft,it
washisownresponsibilitytotrytocollectthemissingfundsandproperty.
PoliticsintheCourts
WithafewnotableexceptionssuchasthetrialofSocrates,onthewholethe
Atheniansobservedtheamnestyof403.Insignificantmeasuretheremarkable

stabilityoffourthcenturyAthenswasthelegacyofCritiasandhiscompanions,for
theThirtyhaddisgracedthenameofoligarchyinsuchathoroughgoingwaythat
nobodydaredhintatitsrevival.Previouslyoligarchyandtyrannyhadbeendistinct
concepts.Now,however,theyhadcometobeindissolublylinkedinmostAthenian
minds,adevelopmentthatguaranteedthehealthofthedemocracy.
Still,avarietyofpolicyandfactionaldisputesgaverisetopoliticalandquasipolitical
trials.AlargeproportionofAthenianpublicofficialsfoundthemselves
346
incourtatsomepointintheirlivesaseitheraccusersordefendants.Thishadbeen
trueinthefifthcentury,whenMiltiades,Aristides,Themistocles,Cimon,Pericles,
Alcibiades,andahostoflessfamousofficialsfoundthemselvesimpeachedor
ostracized,anditremainedthecaseinthefourthwithafewdifferences:notall
importantpublicfiguresservedasgeneral,andthegrapheparanomonhadreplaced
ostracismasaweaponthatcouldbeusedagainstthosewhohappenedtoholdno
office.Sometrialstookplaceinfrontofregulardicasteries,otherinfrontofthe
demosassembledintheekklesia.Factorsthatgaverisetosuchtrialsincluded
genuinesuspicionofincompetenceortreason,factionaldisputes,andselfprotective
behaviorofvariouskinds.Inthefourthcenturyasinthefifth,moreover,important
menmightbringaccusations.Iphicrateswasinvolvedinaccusationsagainst
Timotheus;TimotheusandIphicrateswereimpeachedbyChares.
TheAthenianDemocracyintheFourthCentury
Thesurvivalofsomanyspeechesandinscriptionsfromthefourthcenturyenablesus
toseeAtheniandemocracyinactionmorevividlyinthisperiodthanwaspossible
forthefifthcentury.Insomewaysthedemocracychangedaftertherestorationof
403,particularlyintheconstitutionofvariousadhocboardsofnomothetai(creators
oflaws)toapproveandreviewlegislation.Thefundamentalprinciples,however,
remainedthesame.Allfreeadultmaleshadatheoreticallyequalrighttoparticipate
ingovernmentregardlessofdifferentialprestigeandeconomicstanding.Women
andslaveswereexcluded,anditwasdifficultforresidentaliensortheirchildrento
becomecitizens.Onlymenwithtwocitizenparentscouldvote.Wealthand
illustriousancestryweredistinctadvantagesinseekingpublicoffice.Boastingof
yourbenefactionstothestatewasagoodstrategyifyouneededtodefendyourself
incourt,whichwasoftenthecaseinthislitigioussociety.AlthoughSolonsfour
classeswereneverformallyabolished,itisclearthatatleastbythemiddleofthe
fourthcenturypublicofficeswereopentomenofallgroups.Manythetesand
zeugitaiwereselectedforofficeschosenbylot,suchasserviceontheboule.Thus
participationingovernmentwaswidelydiffusedthroughoutthecommunityof
citizenmales.

JokesinAristophanesplaysrevealachangeinthedynamicsofassemblyattendance.
TheAcharnians(425BC)alludestothehabitofropingcitizensinwithacordcovered
withredpaintthatwouldsmeartheclothesoftherecalcitrant,butwhenwomen
dressasmenandpacktheassemblyintheEcclesiazusae(392BC)untilaquorumis
reached,therealmenofAthenscomplainthattheyarrivedtoolatetogettheirpay.
Thecarrotreplacedthestickshortlybefore400,whenasalaryofthreeobolswas
institutedforattendanceattheassembly.ByAristotlestimeithadbeenraisedtoa
drachma(sixobols)foranordinaryassemblyandadrachmaandahalfforthekyria
ekklsia,thatis,theprincipalassemblyofaprytany.Atthelevelofassembly
attendance,then,thegovernmentofthefourthcenturywassomewhatmore
democraticthanthefifth,forahighernumbercouldaffordtotaketimeawayfrom
work,thoughitremainedthecasethatattending
347
meetingswaseasierforthosewholivedclosebyandthosewhoworkedfor
themselves.Thelargenumberofpoliticalissuesultimatelydecidedinthecourtswas
anotherdemocraticelement.
Asinthecourts,whereevencriminalcasesdependedonvolunteerprosecutorstoset
theminmotion,thevoluntaryprincipleplayedakeyroleintheassembly.Inthe
absenceoforganizedpoliticalparties,concernedcitizenstookituponthemselvesto
initiatelegislation.Nowelldefinedgroupofofficeholderssawitselforwasseenby
othersasclearlymarkedofffromtherestofthepopulace.Bypoliticianspeople
simplymeantthosewhomostenjoyedmakingproposalsintheassemblyandgiving
speechesintheirsupport.Theimportanceoforatoryanddebatetothefunctioningof
thedemocraticsystemisattestedintheGreekwordthatcomesclosesttoourword
politician:rhtr.Sincerhtoressharedcommoninterestsandhabits,nodoubt
peoplewerecomfortableidentifyingaparticularcitizentheymightseewalking
downthestreetasoneoftherhetores,butitisimportanttorememberthatthere
wasnoofficialboardofrhetorestowhichsuchmenbelonged.Todayitwouldbe
peculiartoidentifysomeonewhodidnotholdpublicofficeasapolitician,butthe
Athenianssawnothingstrangeaboutit.Itwaspreciselybecauseofthepower
privatecitizenscouldgainthroughskillfuloratorythattheAtheniansmadesureto
havethegrapheparanomononthebookstoensuretheaccountabilityevenofthose
whotookpartinpublicaffairswithoutholdingoffice.Thoseconvictedofproposing
somethingillegalweregenerallyfined;threeconvictionsdeprivedacitizenofthe
righttomakefurtherproposals.
ThefrustrationsofAthensimperialistventures,theexacerbationofclasstensions,
andtheriseofindividualismallplayedaroleinthecreationofanewphenomenon
atAthens:alargeclassofwealthymenwhochosenottoinvolvethemselvesin
politics.Thoughthisiscommonenoughtoday,whenevenamongtheelite

participationinnationalaffairstendstobelimitedtoasmallfraction,this
developmentwasnoteworthyinfourthcenturyAthens,forduringtheprevious
centurymenfromaffluentfamiliesnormallyhadchosentostandforthehighoffices
theyconsideredappropriatetotheirstatus.NowaftertheruinousPeloponnesian
Warthequietismsomehadalwayschosenbecamemorewidespread.TheAthenian
system,however,stillguaranteedthatcivicresponsibilitywouldbesharedbyalarge
groupthehundredswhosatontheboule(stillaoneyearterm),thethousandswho
servedasdicastsandattendedmeetingsoftheekklesia,andthehundredswhosat
foradayinanewbodythatwasperiodicallyconstitutedtoinspectandpasslaws,
thenomothetai.Socrateswascertainlyontosomethingimportantintheideologyof
Atheniandemocracywhenhecomplainedthatitmeantgovernmentbyamateurs:
becausemanyGreeksweresomewhatsuspiciousofprofessionalismandconsidered
itincompatiblewithgoodbreeding,Atheniandemocracywasrunlargelybypeople
whodevotedonlyafractionoftheirtimetopolitics.Itisimportanttoremember,
however,thattheignorantanduntalentedwerediscouragedfrominvolving
themselvesinpublicaffairsbytheAtheniansrelentlessuseofthemachineryof
accountabilityagainstanyonewhochosetomountthespeakersplatform,letalone
holdastateoffice;
348
andtheprinciplesofselectionbylotandfrequentrotationinofficemeantagood
dealofhandsontraininginthebusinessofgovernment.
THEFOURTHCENTURYPOLIS
AlthoughthebulkofourevidencecomesfromAthens,mostGreeks,ofcourse,lived
inotherstates.Inthefourthcenturyasinthefifth,someGreekpoleisweregoverned
bydemocracies,othersbyoligarchiesthatvariedintheirnarrowness.Ashadalways
beenthecaseinGreece,unevendistributionofwealthfosteredeverpresenttensions
thatthreatenedconstantlytoeruptanddisturbthetenuousconcordthatunited
citizens,andchangesofconstitutionwerefrequent.Althoughwarfareremaineda
factoflife,manypeopleweresickofitandhadcometoquestionitsefficacyin
improvingtheirlives.Whilesomepoorercitizenscontinuedtowelcomewarforthe
payitofferedtorowersinthefleet,thosewhohadlandorcommercetoprotectwere
hesitant.Nolongerdidwarseemtopromiseeitherthetangiblerewardsofbootyor
theintangibleonesofgloryandprestige.Theidealofthecitizensoldierwaswearing
thin,andanincreasingshareofthefightingwasconductedbymercenariesfrom
outside.Agricultureremainedthebasisoftheeconomy,butthedevastationofthe
landduringthePeloponnesianWarhadfosteredadrifttothecities.Bythrowing
peopletogether,thisdevelopmentheightenedtheawarenessofeconomicinequality
andsharpenedclassbitterness.PlatoandhispupilAristotlebothtookitforgranted
thatapolisconsistedinrealityoftwocities,oneofthemanypoorandoneofthefew

rich.ThedivisionofcitizensintohavesandhavenotsthathadalwaysmarkedGreek
stateswasexacerbatedinthefourthcenturybytheincreasedpovertyofthehave
nots,bringinglatenttensionstothesurfacewheretheycouldnolongerbeignored.
Stasis
Wheretheeconomywasmostprosperousandfamiliesfromthelowerclasseshad
thebestchanceofremainingabovethepovertylevel,stasismightbeavoided,aswas
thecaseindemocraticAthens,thestableststateofthefourthcentury.Manypoleis
withlargeconcentrationsofpoorpeople,however,wereconsumedwithcivilstrife;
XenophonHellenicamentionsoverthirtyinstances.Bloodshedwascommon,and
religiouspietieswereoftenignored.In392Corinthiandemocratsviolatedthe
sanctityoftemplesbymurderingoligarchswhohadtakenrefugethere.Diodorus
reportsrevolutionsinCorinth,Sicyon,andPhliusandXenophonrecordedserious
tensionsinTegea,Phlius,Sicyon,Pellene,andElis.Diodorus,whosharedthe
antidemocraticorientationofmostancientwriters,tookacertainsatisfactionin
relatingthetortureandmurderoftheelitebyArgivedemocratsin371,whenclass
tensionseruptedwithviolenceexceptionalevenbyGreekstandards.Afterthe
executionoftwelvehundredinfluentialmen,Diodoruscontends,
349
thepopulacedidnotsparethedemagoguesthemselves.Forbecauseofthe
magnitudeofthecalamitythedemagogueswereafraidthatsomeunforeseenturnof
fortunemightovertakethemandthereforedesistedfromtheiraccusation,whereas
themob,nowthinkingthattheyhadbeenleftinthelurchbythem,wereangryat
thisandputtodeathallthedemagogues.Sothesemenreceivedthepunishment
whichfittedtheircrimesasifsomedivinitywerevisitingitsjustresentmentupon
them,andthepeople,easedoftheirmadrage,wererestoredtotheirsenses.
(LibraryofHistory15.58.4;Sherman1952)
Internalstrifewasexacerbatedbytensionsamongpoleis.Thusforexampleacertain
EuphrongainedpoweratSicyonbyplayingonantiSpartanfeelinginthe
Peloponnesus:HetoldtheArgivesandtheArcadians,Xenophonwrites,thatifthe
menofthewealthyclassesremainedincontrolofSicyon,quiteobviouslythecity
would,atthefirstopportunity,goovertoSpartaagain.Butif,hesaid,Ia
democraticgovernmentissetup,youcanbesurethatthecitywillremainloyalto
you(Hellenica7.1.44;Warner1979).Outsidehelpwasvaluableinstasis.InElis,
Xenophonreports,whiletheEleanswereatwarwiththeArcadians,thedemocrats
enlistedtheArcadianshelpinseizingtheacropolis.Assistancemightalsocome
fromthelargepoolofavailablemercenaries,suchasthosewhohelpedEuphron
regainpowerinSicyon.

BothAthensandSpartausedtheprevailingdiscordanddemoralizationtogood
rhetoricaleffectinarguingfortheirownhegemony.Thosewhowouldreject
AthenianhegemonyinfavoroftheautonomyguaranteedbytheKingsPeace,
Isocratesargued,shouldthinkagain:
Forwhowoulddesireaconditionofthingswherepiratescommandtheseasand
mercenariesoccupyourcities;wherefellowcountrymen,insteadofwagingwarin
defenceoftheirterritoriesagainststrangers,arefightingwithintheirownwalls
againsteachother;wheremorecitieshavebeencapturedinwarthanbeforewe
madethepeace;andwhererevolutionsfollowsothicklyuponeachotherthatthose
whoareathomeintheirowncountriesaremoredejectedthanthosewhohavebeen
punishedwithexile?
(Panegyricus116117;Norlin1966)
Document9.1IsocratesputssimilarargumentsaboutSpartanhegemonyinthe
mouthofArchidamusIII,thesonofAgeslaus.Evenallowingforaconsiderable
degreeofrhetoricalexaggeration,thepictureoflifeinthePeloponnesusissobering.
NotonlythepeopleofthePeloponnesusingeneralbuteventheadherentsof
democracy,whomweconsidertobeespeciallyunfriendlytous,arealready
yearningforourprotection.Forbyrevoltingfromustheyhavegainednothingof
whattheyanticipated;onthecontrary,theyhavegotjust
350
theoppositeoffreedom...;andthewaroffactions,ofwhoseexistenceinother
territoriestheyusedtoknowonlybyreport,theynowseewagedalmosteveryday
intheirownstates.Theyhavebeensolevelledbytheirmisfortunesthatnomancan
discernwhoamongthemarethemostwretched;fornotoneoftheirstatesis
unscathed,notonebuthasneighboursreadytodoitinjury....Theyfeelsuch
distrustandsuchhatredofoneanotherthattheyfeartheirfellowcitizensmorethan
theenemy;insteadofpreservingthespiritofaccord[homonoia]andmutual
helpfulnesswhichtheyenjoyedunderourrule,theyhavebecomesounsocialthat
thosewhoownpropertyhadratherthrowtheirpossessionsintotheseathanlend
aidtotheneedy,whilethosewhoareinpoorercircumstanceswouldlessgladlyfind
atreasurethanseizethepossessionsoftherich;havingceasedsacrificingvictimsat
thealtarstheyslaughteroneanotherthereinstead;andmorepeopleareinexilenow
fromasinglecitythanbeforefromthewholeofthePeloponnesus.
Archidamus6467;translatedbyGeorgeNorlin,inIsocratesvol.1.Londonand
Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,1966,p.387.

Beginninglateinthefifthcentury,Greekintellectualshadbeguncallingfor
homonoia(concord,)amongcitizens,butthefrequencywithwhichtheappealwas
maderevealsthediscordantreality:infacttheslogancaughtonduringthe
contentiousdaysofthePeloponnesianWar.Inpraisingtheruleoflaw,Socrateshad
insistedinthepagesofXenophonMemorabiliathatthroughoutGreecehomonoia
wasadvocatedbythebestmen(thearistoi).Aristotle,however,tookadarkerand
morerealisticview.Insomestatesofhisownday,hewroteinthePolitics,the
oligarchsinchargetakeanoathtobehostiletothedemosandplotwhateverevil
possibleagainstthepeople(1310a).
Notallpoleiswereconstantlytornapartbystasisanddebilitatedbyinterpoliswars.
Sincetheprincipalcauseofinternalweaknessandvulnerabilitytooutsideattackwas
thefrustrationsofthepoor,prosperitymightactasapowerfuldeterrent.Megara
withitsbriskwoolentradeflourishedthroughoutthefourthcentury,andcivilstrife
wasrare.Theprogressoftheeconomywasfacilitatedbypeacewithotherpoleis:the
alliancebetweenCorinthandAthensduringtheCorinthanWareliminatedMegaras
pivotalpositionininterpolisdiplomacy,andtheMegariansseemtohavepreserved
theirneutralitythroughoutthatwar.Megarianwoolensfoundeagermarkets
throughoutGreece.Sheepgrazedinabundance,andlargenumbersofslaves,
probablymostlyfemale,turnedoutwellmadeandinexpensivegarments.The
privatehomesofMegarawereknownfortheirelegance,andavarietyofmonuments
decoratedthecity.TheAtheniansculptorPraxiteles(370329BC)produced
numerousstatuesofthegodsforthesanctuariesofArtemisandApolloandthe
templeofAphrodite.Scopas,whocontributedtotheMausoleuminCaria,also
workedinMegara.ExactlywhatkindofgovernmentfourthcenturyMegaraenjoyed
isuncertainPlatopraised
351
itbutdidnotdescribeitbutitseemsatleasttohavebeenfairlystable.Megarawas
not,however,entirelyimmunetotheendemicstasisofthefourthcentury,for
Diodorusreportsanabortiveuprisinginthe370s.
MarginalizedWorkersintheEconomy
Theeconomyofeachpoliswasdifferent,butthroughoutGreeceprestigeattachedto
somekindsofworkmorethantoothers.Becausesocialprejudicesfavoredself
sufficiencythroughfarming,ormakingmoneybysellingtheproduceofonesland,
freecitizenstendedtoavoidinvolvementincommerceandbanking,turningover
theseactivitiestometicsandslaves.Suchworkersbecameimportantinthefourth
centuryandoftenmadeconsiderablefortunes,foronephenomenonthat
distinguishedthepolisofthefourthcenturyfromthatofthefifthwastheriseof
banking.

Bankownerstrustedslavestomanagethedailyoperationsofbanksindependently
andeventotravelwithlargesumsofcash.Suchslaveswerehighlyskilled,usually
literate,andveryvaluable.Aslavewhomanagedabankcouldbecompletely
responsibleforhismastersproperty.Therefore,amastermightwriteawillfreeing
hisbankmanageronconditionthathemarryhiswidowandmanagehisbankin
behalfofhisminorchildren.Manumittedslavesbecamemetics.Someofthese
metics,includingacertainPasioandPhormio,wereamongthewealthiestAthenians
ofthefourthcentury.Ingratitudefortheirgenerousbenefactionstothestate,Athens
rewardedthemwithcitizenship.Thusslavesinbankingmightexperiencerapid
socialmobility.
Thestigmathatattachedtoworkingforsomeoneelsewasgreaterforwomenthan
formen;fewwomenchosetoworkoutsidethehomeunlesscompelledtodosoby
poverty.Inthefourthcenturyasinthefifth,however,somewomendidworkat
servicejobsoutsidetheirhomes.Slavewomenweresometimesrentedoutbytheir
owners,andformerslaves,metics,andevencitizenwomeninstraitenedfinancial
circumstancesworkedatavarietyofjobs.Somehiredthemselvesoutasnursesfor
otherwomenschildren;somesoldgoodsinthemarketplace;andolderwomenoften
servedashiredmournersatfunerals.Althoughunacceptableforcitizenwomen,
prostitutionwasprobablytheworkdonemostfrequentlybywomenoutsidethe
home.Somewereputtoworkwhentheywerestillchildren.InCorinth,Nicarete,a
formerslave,purchasedyounggirlsfromslaveholdersandtrainedthemfortheir
work:
Nicarete,whowasthefreedwomanofCharisiusofElisandthewifeofhiscook
Hippias,boughtsevengirlswhentheyweresmallchildren.Shewasanastutejudge
ofnaturalbeautyinlittlegirlsandfurthermoresheunderstoodhowtobringthem
upandtrainthemskillfully,forshemadethisherprofessionandgotherlivelihood
fromthegirls.Sheusedtoaddressthemasdaughters,implyingthattheywerefree
women,sothatshemightextractthelargestfeesfromthosewhowishedtogetclose
tothem.Whenshehadreapedtheprofitoftheyouth
352
fulprimeofeach,shesoldallsevenofthem:Anteia,Stratola,Aristocleia,Metaneira,
Phila,Isthmias,andthisNeaerahere...
Neaera...wasworkingwithherbody,althoughshewasstillveryyoung,forshe
hadnotyetreachedpuberty.
(PseudoDemosthenes,59.1820;Murray1936)
Neaerasfurtheradventuresarealsodetailedinthisspeech,whichisincludedinthe
corpusofDemosthenesalthoughitwasalmostcertainlywrittenbysomeoneelse.

TwoofNeaerasclientspurchasedherfromNicaretetobetheirslave.Butwhen
thesemenwereabouttomarry,theyofferedNeaeratheopportunitytobuyher
freedom.Neaeraborrowedherpurchasepricefromformerclients,andrepaidthem
fromherearningsasafreeprostitute.Herattemptatsocialmobilitywasquashed,
however,whenshemovedtoAthens,marriedacertainStephanus,andpretendedto
beanAtheniancitizen.Apollodorus,anenemyofStephanus(whohadbrought
againsthimoneindictmentforanillegalproposalandanotherformurder),brought
hertotrialforfalseassumptionofcitizenrights.HealsochargedStephanuswith
livingwithanonAthenianwomanasthoughshewerehiswife,andwithgiving
NeaerasdaughterinmarriagetoanAtheniancitizenasbeinghisowndaughterborn
fromacitizenwoman.
PHILOSOPHYANDTHEPOLIS
ThechangingpoliticalsituationintheGreekworldhelpedshapeGreekthoughtin
eachnewgeneration,andtheproblemsofthefourthcenturypoliswereno
exception.PhilosophyevolvedwiththepolisandsurviveditwhenPhilipof
Macedonbroughtthefreedomoftheindependentcitystatestoanendin338BC.
TheGreekwordphilosophosmeansaloverofwisdom,andformanyyearsbefore
PlatoandAristotlefoundedtheirfamousschoolsinAthens,Greekthinkershad
takendelightinsearchingfortheunderlyingprinciplesthatshapedthecosmosand
determinedthelifehumansmadeinit.Democrituscontendedthathewouldrather
findtheexplanationforasinglephenomenonthangainthekingdomofPersia.The
trulyprosperousman,Empedoclessaid,isonewhoenjoystherichesofadivine
intelligence.Philosopherscameinmanyshapes.ThinkerslikeThalesand
Anaximanderfocusedonthenaturalworld.OtherslikeHerodotusandThucydides
usedthewritingofhistoryasavehiclefortheirideasaboutthehumancondition,
whilestillothersexpressedthemthroughdramasasdidAeschylus,Sophocles,and
Euripides.Intime,PlatowouldwritedialoguesandAristotletreatises.These
innovativethinkersexploredtheareasthatstillmakeupphilosophytodayethics,
logic,epistemology(thephilosophyofknowledge),metaphysics(thescienceof
being),aesthetics,theology,philosophyofscience,andsocialandpoliticaltheory.It
wasintherealmofsocialandpoliticaltheorythatphilosophywasmostcloselytied
tothepolis.Becausemostsurvivingtextsofpoliticaltheorywerecomposedin
democraticAthens,onemightimaginethat
353
theypraiseddemocracy.Infact,theoppositeistrue:theprincipaltextsofGreek
politicaltheoryweretheworkofintellectualswhowereintenselycriticalof
democraticgovernment.Indeed,modernpoliticalscientistshaveobservedthat
politicaltheoryliterally,lookingatthecitystatewasinventedtoshowwhy

democracycouldnotpossiblywork.Itistheworkingsofdemocracyitselfthatreveal
theideologybehindit.
DemocracyandPoliticalTheory
TheOldOligarchhaddefendedAtheniandemocracywithbitingironyasa
beautifullyefficientwayofguaranteeingthesuppressionofoneclassbyanother,but
nosurvivingtexttreatsthedynamicsofdemocracyinapositiveway.Reconstructing
thetheorybehinddemocracyfromwrittentextsrequiresassemblingpatchesfroma
varietyofsourcesthatengagetheissueonlyobliquely.Thucydidesversionof
PericlesfuneralorationgivesusasenseofwhattheAtheniansatanyrateprizedin
theirgovernment.AtAthens,Periclessays,worthisassessedintermsofability,not
wealthorclass.Atheniansconsiderremainingalooffrompoliticsavice,notavirtue.
Theyviewdebateasanaidtoconstructiveaction,notahindrance.
JustasThucydides,whowasnotparticularlysympathetictodemocracy,included
Periclesspeechinhishistory,soPlato,oneofdemocracyssharpestcritics,included
astatementofdemocraticideologyinhisdialogueProtagoras.Therethefamous
sophisttellsaquaintmythinsupportofhisthesisthatallpeoplepossessthe
rudimentsofcivicmindedness.Inearliesttimes,Protagorassays,peoplewere
unabletolivetogetherconstructivelyincitiesbecauseoftheirlackofpolitiktechn,
theskillofformingandmanagingapolis.Seeingthisandfearingthedestructionof
thespecies,ZeussentHermestobringaids(shame)anddike(justice)tomortals.
WhenHermesaskedZeuswhethertheseshouldbedistributedtoaselectfew,aswas
thecasewiththeartsofmedicineandothertechniques,ortoeveryone,Zeusordered
himtogivesometoeverybody,sincecitiescannotbeformedifonlyafewsharein
theseskillsastheydointheotherarts.(322D)Itisforthisreason,Protagorassays,
thatwhentheAthenianscometogethertomakedecisionsthatrequirethesenseof
justicethatgoesintopoliticalwisdomtheytakeadvicefromeverybody,sinceitis
heldthatforstatestoexisteveryonemustpartakeofthisexcellence(322E323E).
Becausethepolitiketechneisdiffusedthroughoutthecommunity,Protagoras
concludes,theAtheniansdorighttowelcomepoliticaladvicefromanyonewhois
movedtogiveit.Nowheredoeshesuggestthateveryoneisequallyskilledincivics,
buteveryone,heargues,hasatleastalittle.
Furthercluesareprovidedinthedozensoforationssurvivingfromthefourth
century,whichpraisefreedomofspeech,liberty,equalitybeforethelaw,andthe
ruleoflaw.Ourbestcluetothetheoryofdemocracy,however,isitspractice.The
AtheniandemocracyitselfrevealswhatmostmeninAthensbelievedabout
government:theybelievedinademocracyofmalecitizensthatrequiredactive
participationonthepartofthesecitizens,guaranteedbyfrequentrotationinoffice,
354

andtheybelievedthattheaveragemanwasqualifiedtomakepoliticaldecisions,as
evidencedbytheuseofthelotandthetakingofimportantdecisionsintheassembly
bymajorityvote.Theybelievedintrialbyjury,andtheyfearedthecorruptionthat
inheredinsmallgroupsmorethanthemobpsychologythatthreatenedlargeones.
Theybelievedthatthepeoplehadtherighttocallitsofficialstoaccountwith
regularityandontheslightestpretext.Theybelievedincapitalpunishmentfora
widevarietyofoffensesincludingmilitaryincompetenceandtheseductionofthe
wives,daughters,andsistersofcitizens.Theybelievedthatthestabilityofthestate
wassocrucialthatitwasreasonabletoexileamanfortenyearsunderthesystem
knownasostracismevenifhehaddonenothingtobreakthelaw.Theybelievedin
slaveryandpatriarchy.Theybelievedthatthecontrolofwomenssexualitywas
essentialtothesmoothfunctioningofthecommunityandthatthesequestrationof
womenandgirlswasagoodstepinthisdirection.Weknowallthisnotbecausethey
wroteitdownbutbecauseofhowtheychosetoruntheirgovernmentandlivetheir
lives.
WeknowalsothatGreekswhodidnotliveunderdemocraticgovernmentsbelieved
intheruleoflaw,whichappearsasapersistentleitmotivintheliteratureofthefifth
andfourthcenturies.ItsprominencebeginswiththeeffortsofHerodotusand
AeschylustodefineandcelebratewhatitmeanstobeGreek;forthemlivingunder
lawplayedakeyroleinshapingthatidentity.Euripidesalsoconnectedlawwith
democracyinhisSuppliants,wherehedefinedAthensevenunderTheseusasaplace
where
Ourcityisnotsubjecttooneman.
No,itisfree,forherethepeoplerule.
(404406)
Underatyranny,onemangoverns,keepingthelawinhisprivatehands,andthereis
noequality:
Butwhenthelawsarewrittendown,theweak
Enjoythesameprotectionastherich.
(434435)
AlthoughmanyAthenansidentifiedtheirdemocraticconstitutionwiththeruleof
law,Greekintellectualssometimessawthingsdifferently.Platofrequentlyidentified
democracywithtyranny,andhispupilAristotlecomplainedthatthedecreesofa
democraticassemblywerenodifferentfromtheedictsofthetyrant.
Plato

ItiscertainlyatributetoAtheniandemocracythatitproduceditsownmostastute
critics.AnaristocratfromoneofAthensmostdistinguishedfamiliesandarelativeof
theoligarchCritias,PlatobecameadiscipleofSocratesandwasprofoundlyshaken
byhisdeath.Thelossofhismentor,however,onlyheightened
355
hiscreativepowers.OverhislifetimePlatocomposednumerousdialogues,inmost
ofwhichtheprincipalpartisplayedbyacharacterheidentifiesasSocrates.Whatis
beauty?Whatispiety?Whatisjustice?Whatislove?Thesequestionswereexplored
inPlatosSocraticdialogues.AsPlatosthinkingevolvedwiththepassingoftime,
thisSocrateshadlessandlessincommonwiththehistoricalSocratesandcameto
serveasavehicleforPlatosownideas.
ChiefamongthesewasthetheoryofForms.PlatosbeliefinFormswasconnectedto
hispassionfordefinitions,forbothdependonaconvictionthatdisparateactsand
itemscannonethelessbeclassifiedincategoriesthatbeautifulobjectsandactsand
ideas,forexample,allhavesomethingincommon.InPlatosview,theyallpartakeof
theidealFormofbeauty.Whileabeautifulsunsetmightseemdifferentfroma
beautifulmathematicalprooforabeautifulyoungathlete,infactwhattiesthem
togetherismoreenduringthanwhatsetsthemapart.Similarlywiththevariousseats
thataremundanerepresentationsoftheidealFormofchair,orthevariouspale
thingsthatareearthlyexamplesoftheidealFormofwhiteness.
TherelationshipofappearancetorealityinPlatosworldviewcanperhapsbebest
graspedinthecontextofmathematics.Aringoraprincelydiademortheperimeter
ofahopliteshieldmightseemtothecasualobservertobecircles,buttheyarenot
circlesinthesamesensethatthelocusofallpointsinagivenplaneequidistantfrom
agivenpointisacircle.Theyonlylooklikecircles;ifyouweretoputthemundera
magnifyingglassyouwouldseethattheywerenotcirclesatall,merelyobjects
vaguelycircularinappearancepreciselybecausetheybringtomindtheFormofthe
circle.Onlythecircledepictedinthemathematicaldefinitionisacircle.Somepeople
mightsaythattheseconcreteobjectsarerealcircleswhereasthegeometricalconcept
isimaginary,butPlatowasnotoneofthesepeople.ForPlato,onlytheconceptis
real.Thetangibleobjectsaredebasedcopies,feebleimitationsoftheidealForm.
Plato,inotherwords,wasanidealistandadualist.Hebelievedinanopposition
betweenthephysicalworldofappearances,whicharedeceptive,andtheintellectual
universeofideas,whichrepresentreality.Thefirstistawdryandservesonlyto
distractpeoplefromultimatetruth;thesecondisnoble,andtocontemplateit
ennobling.
InmanywaysPlatowasarevolutionary.Thecloseconnectionbetweenappearance
andrealitywasfundamentaltoGreekcivilization.Ifyouarerichandhandsome,

mostofhiscontemporariesbelieved,thenprobablyyouarealsogood;ifyouare
poorandugly,probablyyouarebadaswell.Ifeveryoneadmiresyou,thenallis
rightwiththeworld;ifyouaredespised,thenyouhavenoreasontogoon.Formost
Greekmen,reputation,power,andmaterialsuccesswerecentraltohappiness.Like
Socratesbeforehim,whopreferredbeingrighttobeingalive,Platoidentifiedvalues
thatweremoreimportantthanbeingwelllikedorenvied.Inhisdialogueon
governmentandeducation,TheRepublic,heraisedakeyquestionaboutjustice.Let
ussay,heproposed,thatyouhadamagicringthatwouldmakeyouinvisible.
Wouldyoupracticejustice,orwouldyoutaketheopportunitytograbasmuch
powerandwealthasyoucould,practicinginjusticeinthehappyexpectationof
gettingawaywithit?
356
everyoccupationisopentoboth,sofarastheirnaturesareconcernedthough
womanisforallpurposestheweaker.
Glau.Certainly.
Soc.Isthatareasonformakingoveralloccupationstomenonly?Glau.Ofcourse
not.
Soc.No,becauseonewomanmayhaveanaturalgiftformedicineorformusic,
anothermaynot.
Glau.Surely.
Soc.Isitnotalsotruethatawomanmay,ormaynot,bewarlikeorathletic?Glau.I
thinkso.
Soc.Andagain,onemayloveknowledge,anotherhateit;onemaybehighspirited,
anotherspiritless?
Glau.Trueagain.
Soc.ItfollowsthatonewomanwillbefittedbynaturetobeaGuardian,anotherwill
not;becausethesewerethequalitiesforwhichweselectedourmenGuardians.So
forthepurposeofkeepingwatchoverthecommonwealth,womanhasthesame
natureasman,saveinsofarassheisweaker.Glau.Soitappears.
Soc.Itfollowsthatwomenofthistypemustbeselectedtosharethelifeanddutiesof
Guardianswithmenofthesametype,sincetheyarecompetentandofalikenature,
andthesamenaturesmustbeallowedthesamepursuits.

Glau.Yes.
Soc.Wecomeround,then,toourformerposition,thatthereisnothingcontraryto
natureingivingourGuardianswivesthesametrainingformindandbody.The
practiceweproposedtoestablishwasnotimpossibleorvisionary,sinceitwasin
accordancewithnature.Rather,thecontrarypracticewhichnowprevailsturnsout
tobeunnatural.
Glau.Soitappears.
Soc.Well,wesetouttoinquirewhethertheplanweproposedwasfeasibleandalso
thebest.Thatitisfeasibleisnowagreed;wemustnextsettlewhetheritisthebest.
Glau.Obviously.
Soc.Now,forthepurposeofproducingawomanfittobeaGuardian,weshallnot
haveoneeducationformenandanotherforwomen,preciselybecausethenatureto
betakeninhandisthesame.
Glau.True.
TheRepublic455;translatedbyF.M.Cornford,TheRepublicofPlato.LondonandNew
York:OxfordUniversityPress,1945.
Theguardiansliveswillbeunusualinmanyrespects.Theacquisitiveprinciplethat
guidesmostpeoplesactivitieswillbealientothem,forPlatoenvisionsa
communisticregimewithintheguardianclass;privateproperty,thoughitexistsfor
theothertwoclasses,willbeabolishedforthetopgroup.Norwilltheyhavespouses
intheconventionalsenseoftheword.Inshort,theywillhavenooikoi
358
somethingthatmakesthememinentlyunAthenian.Thoughtheywillnotlivein
households,however,theguardiansmustreproduceinordertoperpetuatethe
system.Anelaboratemathematicalschemewilldictatetemporarycouplings.(Plato
wasdeeplyinfluencedbythePythagoreans,andhefoundinmathematicsnotonly
theembodimentofperfectabstractionbutelementsofmysticismaswell.)Onceborn
oftheseshorttermmarriages,however,childrenwillbemixedinwithalltheother
childrenconceivedaroundthesametimeandraisedincommonnurseries.Thusno
parentwillknowhisorherownchildandviceversa.
Likeotherutopias,Platosisdesignedtodemonstratetheshortcomingsofrealstates.
WhetherheeverplannedorevenwishedtoseehisRepublicestablishedisuncertain.
WhatisclearishisdislikeoftheexistinggovernmentsinGreece,andparticularlyof

democracy.Tyrannyandoligarchyareeasiesttodismiss;nobodyshouldhavetolive
bythewhimsofapowerhungryautocrat,andmoneyisnomeasureofmerit.
Democracyishardertodisposeof,butlivingunderagovernmenthedidnotlike
galvanizedPlatointoavehementattackonasystemhecategorizedasanagreeable
formofanarchymarkedbyanequalityofapeculiarkindforequalsandunequals
alike(558C;Cornford1945).Thedebunkingofthesocalledequalityofdemocracy
wascommontothethinkingoffourthcenturyintellectuals.AristotleandIsocrates
sharedPlatospreferenceforwhattheylabeledproportionalorgeometric
equality.Itwastheratiobetweenmeritandprivilege,theyargued,thatoughtto
remainconstant.Suchasystemwasfarmoreequitable,theybelieved,thanthe
arithmeticequalityofdemocracythataccordedequalprivilegetopeopleof
unequalmerit.ForPlato,givingequalpoliticalpowertoallalikewasnodifferent
fromgivingallstudentsthesamegraderegardlessoftheirperformanceonpapers
andexams.
Goodgovernment,Platoconcluded,willnevercomeintobeinguntilphilosophers
andrulersareoneandthesame.Tohelpbringthisabout,Platofoundedaschoolhe
calledtheAcademybecauseofitslocationbythegrovesoftheancientGreekhero
Academus.Theremenstudiedforyearstoachieveanenlightenmentwhich,in
Platosview,wouldqualifythemtoparticipateingovernmentbutwhichhe
acknowledgedwouldinfactdriveawedgebetweenthemandtheirunenlightened
fellowcitizens.FormerstudentsattheAcademyincludedmanyfamous
philosophers,astronomers,mathematicians,andevenscientists.Thepresenceof
scientistsattheAcademyisatestamenttoitsbreadth,forPlatohimselfwasnot
drawntoscience.Howcouldhebe,whenhebelievedthatonlytheeternalmattered
thattheformsweretheultimateandonlyreality?Sciencedealswithchangeand
withmotion.LikeParmenides,Platoconceivedrealityasunchangingand
unchangeable.Withoutamechanismforexplainingchange,Platosidealist
philosophywasantitheticaltoscience.
Aristotle
ItwasPlatosstarpupilAristotlewhofoundedthegreatinstitutionofscientific
learningatAthens,theLyceum.HisfatherhadbeenacourtphysicianinMacedon,
andhehadbeentrainedinscientificobservationfromhisyouth.Hewas
359
neverhappierthaninthemeticulousobservationandclassificationofspecies.
Scholarsinalldisciplines,butespeciallyperhapsbiologists,willrecognizethe
delighthetookinconnectingtheparticulartothegeneral,andinobservingnatureat
workinallitsperfection:evenintheanimalsthatarenotattractivetothesenses,he
wrote,thecraftsmanshipofnatureprovidesextraordinarypleasurestothosewho

areabletorecognizethecausesinthingsandwhohaveanaturalinclinationto
philosophy(OnthePartsofAnimals645a7ff).CertainlyAristotlethrivedinthe
constantlychangingworldofnature,whilePlatowashappiestcontemplatingthe
eternaltruthsofmathematics.ForAristotle,thedynamicpowerofchangeaccounted
foragreatdealoftheexcitementofmentallife.Andnotonlythis:itwasmovement
towardaparticularendteleology,fromtheGreektelosmeaningendorgoal
thathesawastheguidingforcebehindlife.Aprimemover,heargued,shapedthe
universeinaccordwithhisends.Onlytheprimemoverwasnotitselfmoved.
Looselyspeaking,theprimemoverwaswhatmostpeoplewouldcallGod.
AristotlesphilosophywasverypopularinEuropeduringtheMiddleAges,when
ThomasAquinas(12251274AD)adaptedittoChristiantheology.
AristotlewasalesseccentricpersonthanPlato.ThoughhecamefromtheIoniancity
ofStagirainnorthernGreeceandhencedidnotbelonginAthensthesamewaythe
bluebloodedPlatodid,hewasmorefirmlygroundedinthecustomaryrelationsof
GreeksocietythanPlato,whoapparentlynevermarriedorhadchildren.Helived
withtwosuccessivewomen,hiswifePythiasandthen,afterPythiasdeath,his
concubineHerpyllis;hehadadaughterandason.AfterPlatosdeathin347,when
AristotlehadstudiedattheAcademyfornearlytwentyyears,heleftAthensand
tookupresidenceinAssosinAsiaMinor.Severalyearslaterhereturnedto
Macedon,wherePhiliphadsummonedhimtoserveastutortotheyoungprince
Alexander.BackinAthensin335,heestablishedhisownschool,theLyceum.Heand
hisstudentsconversedtherewhilestrollingthroughthecolonnadedwalks(peripatoi,
whichgavehisfollowersthenameperipateticsbywhichtheyarestillknown
today).WhenhewasaccusedofimpietyintheburstofantiMacedonianfeelingthat
eruptedafternewsofAlexandersdeatharrivedinAthens,AristotleleftAttica.
LookingbacksomberlyatthetrialofSocrates,heobservedthathedidnotwantthe
Athenianstosinasecondtimeagainstphilosophy.Hediedthefollowingyear,in
322.
ThatAristotlelovedsciencewhilePlatolovedmathematicsrevealsaprofound
differencebetweenthetwomenandtheirwaysofengagingwiththeworldofideas.
LivethingsexcitedAristotleandinspiredinhimthedesiretocategorizethem.The
sameurgewouldleadhimtoclassifyallthepoliticalarrangementsfamiliarinhis
dayinhisfamousworkofpoliticaltheory,thePolitics.WherePlatohadusedreason
asvirtuallyhisonlytoolinthequestforunderstanding,Aristotleplacedtremendous
importanceonobservation.HisstayinnorthwestAsiaMinorandtheadjacent
islandswasparticularlyrewardingtohimbecauseoftheopportunityitaffordedhim
tostudythelagoonofPyrrhaonLesbos,whichteemedwithlife.Thoughreasonwas
nothisonlytool,hewasthefounderofthedisciplineoflogic.ToAristotleweowe
thearticulationofthefundamentalprinciple
360

ofthesyllogismtheprinciplethattellsusthatifAyieldsBandByieldsC,thenAby
itselfmustyieldC.IfSneakyisacatandallcatsaremammals,thenSneakymustbe
amammal.SincetheParthenonisinAthensandAthensisinAttica,thenthe
ParthenonmustbeinAttica.
WhereasPlatohaddevelopedaframeworkfordiscussingpoliticssotheoreticalthat
scholarsareoftenpuzzledastowhatrealstateshemighthavehadinmind,Aristotle
approachedthequestionofthehumancommunitybyamassingandanalyzinga
tremendousamountofdata.Inthisprojecthewasassistedbyhisstudentsatthe
Lyceum,where158essaysonconstitutionsofvariouspoleisweredrawnup.Thatall
thesehavedisappearedexceptforTheAthenianConstitutionisanincalculablelossto
thestudyofGreekhistory.Aristotlewasfascinatedbyissuessurrounding
government.HisprincipalworkofpoliticaltheoryishisPolitics,whichremaineda
cherishedhandbookthroughoutthemedieval,Renaissance,andearlymodern
periods.
Inhisconceptionoftheuniverseatlarge,AristotledifferedwithPlatoonakeypoint
theexistenceofForms.ToAristotle,astotheaverageperson,Formswerenotreal.
Onlythecombinationofformandmattercreatedsomethingreal.Plato,Aristotle
thought,hadfailed,likeParmenides,toaccountforchange.Aristotlealsorejectedthe
broadlevelofgeneralizationatwhichPlatooperated.Intheirviewsofthehuman
community,however,thetwomenwerequitesimilar.Bothsawthepolisasmore
thanapracticalarrangementfortheexchangeofgoodsandmutualprotection;for
themhumanexistenceandtheexistenceofthepoliswerecoterminous.(Thelackofa
statestructurewouldmakeafullyhumanexistenceimpossible,butastructurelarger
thanthepolisseemedunimaginable.Aristotleidentifiedthelargestpossiblesizefor
thestateattenthousandcitizens,thenumberwhocouldbeaddressedbyaspeaker
atonetime.)Aristotleisfamousforhavingsaidmanisapoliticalanimal.Whathe
actuallysaidisthatpeopleareanimalswhosenatureitistoliveinapolis.Onlyina
poliscouldindividualsrealizetheirsocialnaturesandgrowthroughthesharingof
ideas.Thisgrowth,however,waslimitedtoafewpeopleofintellectualgiftswho
belongedtoasocialclassthatguaranteedthemleisureforcontemplation.Powerful
obstaclespreventedthepoorfromparticipatinginpoliticsespeciallythe
nonfarmingpoor,whodidbanausiclabor,arduousjobsthatcompromisedthe
mindalongwiththebody.Thebeststate,heconcludes,willnotmakecommon
laborerscitizens,forcitizensmusthaveadequatepropertytoensuresufficientleisure
forgoodnessandpoliticalactivity.Somuchfordemocracy.
BoththebluebloodedAthenianaristocratandAthensmostfamousmetic,then,
wereintenselyclassconscious.Aristotlespoliticalphilosophy,however,differed
fromPlatosintwokeyrespects.First,Aristotlebelievedincollectivewisdom:amass
ofpeoplewhoareindividuallyunwise,heargues,maysurpassthewisdomofthe
fewbestmen,justaspotluckdinnersmayprovetobetastierthanthosehostedbya

singleindividual.Themasses,heclaims,canbeperfectlygoodjudgesofmusicand
poetry,sincesomeappreciateonething,someanother,andtakentogetherthey
appreciateeverything(Politics1281b).Forthisreason,heisopentoacompromise
similartothatofSolon:poorpeopleinhis
361
idealstatewouldbeallowedtochooseofficialsandholdthemtoaccount,butnotto
holdoffice.Second,Aristotlehadsuchapowerfulbeliefinnaturalhierarchiesfree
overslave,GreekovernonGreek,adultoverchild,maleoverfemalethathe
recurredwithsomefrequencytothethemeoftheinferiorityofwomentomen.
WhereasPlatosutopiaentailedaunisexeducationaimedatproducingguardian
menandwomenwhowouldgoverntogether,Aristotlewasastaunchsupporterof
patriarchy,whichhebelievedhadasolidbasisinwomensbiologicalinadequacy.
Women,hemaintained,hadcolderbodiesthanmen.Forthisreason,thoughthey
wereabletoprovidematterforembryos,onlymencouldprovidethesoul.Inthe
womb,embryosthatstoppedshortoffulldevelopmentforlackofheatbecame
female.Thuswomenwereliterallyhalfbaked.Fromthiscametheinferiorstrength
heidentifiedinavarietyofspecies.Thefemale,hecontended,is,sotospeak,a
deformedmale(GenerationofAnimals737a).Attimes,aswasthecasewiththe
Hippocratics,Aristotlespowersofobservationdesertedhimwhenwomenwere
theirsubject.ThetwentiethcenturyphilosopherBertrandRussellquippedthat
Aristotlewouldnothaveclaimedthatwomenhadfewerteeththanmenifhehad
allowedhiswifetoopenhermouth.
Foralltheirdifferences,PlatoandAristotlesharedapassionateconvictionthatthe
goalofphilosophywastoenableselectedpeopletopursueenlightenmentina
republicofvirtuouscitizens.Thestateforthemmeantthepolis,anditwascentralto
thegoodlife.Theirthinkingcontrastsstrikinglywiththatofmostmoderns,whoare
morelikelytoseethestateasdesignedtograntindividualsthefreedomtopursue
theirprivategoals,particularlytheireconomicones.ThoughPlatoandAristotlewere
bothintenselycriticalofdemocracy,theysharedwiththeAtheniandemocratsan
eminentlyGreekbeliefintheactivenatureofthepolis.Sofarfromanartificial
institutionwhosechiefgoalwastoredistributegoodsandpreventcrime,thepolis
wasconceivedbyitsresidentsasaforceforthemoralandspiritualimprovementof
itscitizens.Forthisforcetooperateproperly,citizenshadtoengageeagerlyin
politicallife;participationwasaduty,notaright.Theproblemsofthefourth
century,however,raisedseriousquestionsaboutwhetherthepolisastraditionally
conceivedwasadequatetoservepeoplesneeds.
SignsofDespair:FlirtingwithMonarchy

Awarethathisidealrepublicwouldnotberealizedinhislifetime,Platoframeda
secondbeststateinhislatedialogueTheLaws.Towardtheendofhislife,however,
healsotoyedwiththenotionthatrulebyaparticularlywiseindividualmightbe
preferabletogovernmentbyeventhebestlaws.Laws,afterall,areinflexibleand
cannoteasilybeadaptedtoindividuals.InhisdialogueTheStatesman,Platogavea
blankchecktothemanofextraordinarywisdom.Suchmen,hewrites,
whethertheyruleoverwillingorunwillingsubjects,withorwithoutwrittenlaws,
andwhethertheyarerichorpoor,must,accordingtoourpresentopinion,be
supposedtoexercisetheirruleinaccordancewithsomeartorscience....
362
Andwhethertheypurgethestateforitsgoodbykillingorbanishingsomeofthe
citizens,ormakeitsmallerbysendingoutcoloniessomewhere,asbeesswarmfrom
thehive,orbringincitizensfromelsewheretomakeitlarger,solongastheyactin
accordancewithscienceandjusticeandpreserveandbenefititbymakingitbetter
thanitwas,sofarasispossible,thatmustatthattimeandbysuchcharacteristicsbe
declaredtobetheonlyrightformofgovernment.
(TheStatesman293;Fowler1925)
AlthoughthisnotionwasthepredictableconsequenceofPlatosownconvictionthat
knowledgeisabsoluteinnature,itcanalsobeseenasanaturaloutgrowthofthe
particularstrainsofthefourthcentury.Asdraininginterpoliswarsandeconomic
difficultiesdraggedonandon,somepeoplewithworldviewsverydifferentfrom
Platosbegantoquestionwhetherinfacttheruleoflawwouldsolvetheproblemsof
thepolis.Whatifanexceptionalindividualweretoarisewithanextraordinarygift
forknowingwhatwasright?Perhapsitwouldbeeasiertofindandeducateonesuch
personthantoroundupmany,orevenafew.
ThenotionthatonegiftedmancouldmakeanimprovementinthelifeofGreeceis
apparentinthewritingsofPlatoscontemporariesXenophonandIsocrates.Each
manhadsomethingincommonwithPlato:XenophonsharedPlatosadmirationfor
theirteacherSocrates,andIsocrateshadhisownschool.Thetwomenwerevery
differentfromoneanother:Xenophonwasamanofaction,asoldierandadventurer
whoenjoyedwritingabouthorsemanshipandhunting,whereasIsocrateswastoo
nervoustofeelcomfortablespeakinginpubliceventhoughhemadehisliving
teachingoratoryandwritingspeeches.Bothmen,however,wereintriguedbythe
possibilitiesofakindofpoliticalleadershipfewGreeksofthefifthcenturywould
havedaredpraise.Fordifferentreasons,bothweredrawntomonarchy.
Theconceptofawisemonarchrulingbylaw,whichappearsinXenophons
encomiumonhisfriendAgesilaus,alsoplaysanimportantroleinhisCyropaedia(

TheEducationofCyrus),ahistoricalromancesetinanimaginary,sentimentalized
Persia.Inoneoftheirmanyheartwarmingconversations,Cyrusmotherassureshim
thatPersiaissuperiortoMediainthatamongthePersianswhatisjustisdefinedas
whatisequal(Cyropaedia1.3.18).HisfatherthePersianking,sheboasts,isalways
thefirsttocarryouttheordersofthestateandacceptwhathasbeendecreed,forhis
standardisnothisowninclinationbutratherthelaw(1.3.18).This,shesays,is
whatdistinguisheskingshipfromtyranny.
ThehappyegalitarianPersiaoftheCyropaediaisafarcryfromthedespotismsetup
byAeschylusandHerodotusasafoiltoGreekfreedom.Xenophonsimageof
monarchywouldhaveseemedincongruous(andprobablytreasonous)inthefifth
century,whenoligarchyanddemocracyalwaysprovidedthepolesofthedebate.
Greeksknewwhereonemanruled:Persia.TheinvasionsofDariusandXerxesleft
Greekswithastrongfeelingthattobethemselvestheyneededtoliveundersome
formofnonmonarchicgovernment.Bythefourthcentury,despitetheoverbearing
conductofArtaxerxes,itseemedmorelikelythatthenextinvasionwouldgofrom
westtoeast.NowmemoriesofthePersianmenace
363
servedprimarilytostirthoughtsofrevenge,nottoshapeGreekidentity.Theworld
hadchanged,andincreasinglypeoplebegantoquestionwhetherastillmoreradical
shiftwasnotcalledfor.
Isocratesproposedjustsuchachange.Hisviewofmonarchyalsohadtodowith
Persia,butinanentirelydifferentway.Convincedthatthemanlyandintelligent
Greekracehadanaturalright(andaneconomicneed)toruleoverslavishand
effeminatebarbarians,IsocratesyearnedforamanwhowouldunitetheGreeksina
holywaragainstPersiandegenerates.SuchaprojectwouldunifytheGreeksby
turningtheiraggressionoutwardagainstacommonfoe,wouldenthronethemaster
raceinitsappropriatepositioninworldpolitics,andwouldimprovetheeconomic
conditionofGreecebytakingfromPersia:Trytopicturetoyourselves,hesuggests
tohisfellowGreeksinhisPanegyricusof380,whatvastprosperityweshouldattain
ifweshouldturnthewarwhichnowinvolvesourselvesagainstthepeopleofthe
continent,andbringtheprosperityofAsiaacrosstoEurope(Panegyricus.187188;
Norlin)
Itwasthispracticalconcernthatpromptedhimtocastaboutforastrongmanwho
couldsaveGreece.HeconsideredsuchdisparatepersonalitiesasJasonofPherae,
tagosofThessaly;DionysiusI,thetyrantofSyracuse;andArchidamusIIIofSparta.
ThefactthatbothJasonandDionysiusowedtheirpowertomercenariesrevealsthe
pricehewaswillingtoseeGreecepayforunification.WhenJasonandDionysius
diedandArchidamusprovedtohavemorelocalconcerns,IsocratesturnedtoPhilip

andtherisingpowerofMacedontoputtheprogramofthePanegyricusinmotion.
IsocratesdidnotimagineaMacedonianempireoverGreecebutratheraleagueof
oldfashionedpoleisunitedunderadeterminedleader.WhenMacedoniadidunite
GreeceintheyearofIsocratesdeath,thetermswereverydifferentfromwhathehad
envisioned.Nonetheless,thehopeofaPanhelleniccrusadeagainstPersiakepthim
goinguntiltheageofnearly100.AfterPhilipsconquestofGreecein338Isocrates
wrotetotheMacedoniankingassuringhimthat
agloryunsurpassableandworthyofyourpastdeedswillbeyourswhenyoucompel
thebarbarians...tobeserfsoftheGreeks,andwhenyoushallforcethekingwhois
nowcalledGreattodowhateveryousay.Forthentherewillbenothingleftforyou
excepttobecomeagod.
(ToPhilip115)
AReallifeExperiment:DionysiusIofSyracuse
AnembryonicexperimentinunitingGreeceunderacharismaticleaderhadalready
takenplaceinthewestbeforePhilipaccededtothethroneofMacedon.Isocrateswas
nottheonlypersonwhohadoncethoughtDionysiusofSyracusemightbedestined
forgreatness.Dionysiusthoughtsotoo.Hadhissuccessorsinheritedhisenergyand
determination,theempireDionysiuscreatedinItaly,Sicily,andbeyondmighthave
changedtheGreekworldmuchastheconquestsofMacedondidlaterinthecentury.
Intheevent,however,thosewhocameaf
364
terhimlackedhistalentsandhisluck,andintheendallhishardworkwas
rewardedwithoblivion.AlmostnobodyremembersDionysius,exceptperhapsas
thetyrantcaricaturedinCicerowhohadhisdaughtersshavehimbecausehedidnot
trustbarbers.Intime,hedidnottrusthisdaughterseither,andheaskedthemto
forgotherazorandremovehisbeardbysingeingitwithheatedwalnutshells.
AlthoughinsomewayshisregimeevokesthatofPeisistratusinsixthcentury
Athens,Dionysiuswasverymuchaproductofhistime,forhispowerwasfirmly
groundedinthatquintessentialfourthcenturyphenomenon,themercenaryarmy.
Carthaginianinvasionsprovidedaspringboardforhisambitions.Denouncinghis
fellowgeneralsfortheirfailureindealingwiththeinvaders,hepersuadedthe
Syracusanstodismisshiscolleaguesandplacehiminsolecharge.Whenastaged
assassinationattempt(afterthemannerofPeisistratus)gavecredencetotheneedfor
abodyguard,hesethimselfupasadefactotyrant(405BC),usingavarietyoftitles
suchasbasileusandarchonofSicily.AsinPeisistratidAthens,muchofthedayto
daymachineryofdemocracycontinuedtofunction,butDionysiusalwayshadthe
lastword,andhisregimewasfarbloodierthanthatofhisAthenianpredecessor.

Whateverhecalledhimself,Dionysiusowedhispowertoamercenaryforcethat
numberedsomewherebetweentenandtwentythousandmenandeffectedhis
restorationwheneverpopularuprisingsoustedhimfromhisoffice.Dionysius
remainedinpowerforthirtyeightyearsuntilhisdeathin367,leadingtheSicilians
inaseriesofCarthaginianwarswithmixedsuccess.Thoughhewasneverable
entirelytoridSicilyofCarthaginians,hedidsucceedinunitingmuchoftheisland
underhisrule.HedidnothesitatetomakeallianceswithnonGreekpeoplesin
EuropewhowereattackingHelleniccities.HisalliancewiththeLucanianswholived
intheItalianinteriorfacilitatedhisconquestofmanycoastalGreekcitiesinsouthern
Italy,andhisGallicalliesenabledhimtoravagethecoastofwesternItaly,establisha
navalbaseonCorsica,andoccupytheislandofElba.Healsotookpartinthepolitics
oftheGreekhomeland,usuallysidingwithSpartabuttryingtomaintaingood
relationswithSyracusesoldenemyAthenswheneverpossible.TheAthenians
grantedhimhonorarycitizenshipshortlybeforehisdeath.
JustashedidnotscrupletoallywithLucaniansandGauls,Dionysiushappily
incorporatedSicelandItalianmercenariesintohisarmy,believingthatthe
admixtureofnonGreekswouldinvigoratehisfightingforce.Naturallyhealso
wishedtoseeasmanypeopleaspossibleindebtedtohimfortheirpositions.While
somewerebitterbecauseofhisconstantconscriptionsoflabortobuildwallsthat
madeSyracusethebestfortifiedcityinEuropeandtoconstructanavyofoverthree
hundredships,othersweregratefulthathehadgiventhemcitizenshiporfreedthem
fromslavery.Foreveryslavehefreed,however,anotherfreepersonwasseizedand
sold,forsubstantialrevenuewasrequiredtomaintainthemercenariesinthestyle
theydemanded.WholepopulationswerealsoforciblyrelocatedtoSyracusefrom
ItalyandotherpartsofSicily.
Dionysiuswasthemostremarkablemilitaryinnovatorofhisday.Hisadvanceswere
mostconspicuousinthearenaofsiegewarfare.Aswehaveseen
365
fromthecourseofthePeloponnesianWar,Greeksiegesnormallyendedwhen
hungerforcedsurrender.Dionysius,however,anticipatedAlexandertheGreatinhis
abilitytotakecitiesbystorm,makinguseofthenewdeviceknownasthegastraphets
(orbellyshooterbecauseofthewayitsoperatorusedhisstomachtoactivateit).In
essenceahugecompositebow,thegastrapheteswascockedbyasoldierwhorested
hisstomachinagrooveandpushedtheinstrumenttomaximumextensionby
pressingforwardonit.Thisdevicecouldhurlaprojectileabout250yards.Along
withwheeledsixstoreysiegetowerswithflyingbridges,thegastraphetesseemsto
havebeentogoodeffectinDionysiussiegeofMotya,akeyCarthaginianstronghold
inSicilythathedestroyedin397.(Greekinhabitantswhohadremainedloyalto
Carthagewerecrucified.)Withtheadditionofartillerytolightandheavyinfantry

andcavalry,Dionysiusarmywasthemostcomplexinorganizationandequipment
ofanyfightingforceinGreecedowntohistime.
Document9.3DiodorusofSicily,whoOftenspokeharshlyofDionysius,nonetheless
admiredhisenergyanddetermination.HerecountedinhisLibraryofHistorythe
eagernesswithwhichworkmenviedtomakethebestcontributionstothewareffort.
HisaccountalsostressedtheforceofDionysiuspersonality.
Aftercollectingmanyskilledworkmen,hedividedthemintogroupsinaccordance
withtheirskills,andappointedoverthemthemostconspicuouscitizens,offering
greatbountiestoanywhocreatedasupplyofarms.Asforthearmour,he
distributedamongthemmodelsofeachkind,becausehehadgatheredhis
mercenariesfrommanynations;forhewaseagertohaveeveryoneofhissoldiers
armedwiththeweaponsofhispeople,conceivingthatbysucharmourhisarmy
would,forthisveryreason,causegreatconsternation,andthatinbattleallofhis
soldierswouldfighttobesteffectinarmourtowhichtheywereaccustomed.And
sincetheSyracusansenthusiasticallysupportedthepolicyofDionysius,itcameto
passthatrivalryrosehightomanufacturethearms....
InfactthecatapultwasinventedatthistimeinSyracuse,sincetheablestskilled
workmenhadbeengatheredfromeverywhereintooneplace.Thehighwagesas
wellasthenumerousprizesofferedtheworkmenwhowerejudgedtobethebest
stimulatedtheirzeal.Andoverandabovethesefactors,Dionysiuscirculateddaily
amongtheworkers,conversedwiththeminkindlyfashion,andrewardedthemost
zealouswithgiftsandinvitedthemtohistable.Consequentlytheworkmenbrought
unsurpassabledevotiontothedevisingofmanymissilesandenginesofwarthat
werestrangeandcapableofrenderinggreatservice.Healsobegantheconstruction
ofquadriremesandquinqueremes,beingthefirsttothinkoftheconstruction
366
ofsuchships....Withsomanyarmsandshipsunderconstructionatoneplacethe
beholderwasfilledwithutterwonderatthesight.
LibraryofHistory14.41.443.1;translatedbyC.L.ShermaninDiodorusofSicily,vol.
VII,LoebClassicalLibrary,Cambridge,Mass.andLondon:HarvardUniversity
Press,1954.
Dionysiusenvisionedhimselfasthefounderofadynasty,andhemadeapublic
displayofthetyrantsfreedomfromconventionalrestraintsbymarryingtwowomen
inasingleceremony.Insodoingheborrowedconsiderabletroubleforthefuture.
Uponhisdeath,DionysiusII,thesonofonewife,foundhimselfinchargebut
saddledwithanofficialadviserinthepersonofDion,theotherwifesbrother.The
twomenhadradicallydifferenttemperaments,andtheyfoughtforyears.Plato,who

hadmetDionduringastayinSicilyinthe380s,woundupinthemiddlewhenDion
twiceinvitedhimbacktoSicilyinthehopethatDionysiusIIcouldbeimprovedby
thestudyofphilosophy.Theattemptwasnotsuccessful;PlatoreturnedtoAthens,
andDionwasassassinatedin354.
Theburgeoningofanimperialtyrannyinthewestmustbeseeninthecontextofthe
risingindividualismofthefourthcentury,aphenomenonalsovisibleinAthensin
thewithdrawalofmanyaffluentcitizensfrompoliticstofollowprivatepursuitsand
intheindependentventuresmanyAtheniangeneralsundertookasmercenaries.
IphicratesmarriedthedaughteroftheOdrysiankingCotysandspentmanyyears
fightingonCotysbehalf.(WhatdidhedowhenCotysattackedAthensbasesinthe
Chersoneseandelsewhere?)Thepullthatthedrivetopowerexertedontalented
individualsisevidentinliteratureaswellaslife.PlatosdialogueGorgiasdepicts
SocratesinconversationwithabrashyouthPlatocallsCallicles.ForCallicles,
conventionalpietiesmustbecastasidewhentheyinhibitmenofexceptionalabilities
(suchas,presumably,himself).Themanwhoistoliverightly,heargues,should
lethisappetitesgrowaslargeaspossibleandnotrestrainthem,andwhentheseare
aslargeaspossible,hemusthavethepowertoservethem,becauseofhisbravery
andwisdom,andtofillthemupwithwhateverhehasanappetiteforatanytime(
Gorgias491e492a;Irwin1979).Peopleofaverageabilities,Calliclessays,beingunable
todothis,praisetemperanceandjusticetoconcealtheirownimpotence.Dionysius,
whomPlatohadknowninSicily,wouldprobablyhaveagreed.SowouldAristotles
employerPhilipofMacedon.
***
ThefourthcenturyBCwitnessedanexplosionofcreativeenergyinmanyareas.
Philosophy,biology,politicaltheory,mathematics,andmilitaryscienceallmade
significantadvances.Whereallthisfertilitywasleadingisunclear.Solidfoundations
wereestablishedforintellectualtraditionsthatlivedandgrewforcenturies;manyof
themstillflourishinalteredorunalteredforms.Theknowledgegenerateddidnot,
however,offersalvationtoGreece.Theincreasingspecializationofthefourth
centuryledtoadivisionbetweengeneralsandpoliticians
367
thatresultedinmoreprofessionalmilitaryskills.Consequentlygeneralsinthefourth
centurywerebetterthanthoseofthefifth.Theirweaponsandmachineryweremore
versatileandsophisticated.Newwaysofthinkingalsoledtospecialized
monographslikeXenophonstreatisesontheartofhorsemanshipandtheskills
necessaryforasuccessfulcavalrycommander,andtheSiegecraftoftheauthorknown
asAeneasTacticus.Nogood,however,cameoftheseimprovements.Greekssimply
expandedtherepertoireofavailablemethodsforkilling.

ThegreattextsofGreekpoliticaltheorycontinuetobereadtoday.Theinsightthey
afforded,however,seemstohavehadlittlereallifeapplicationintheirownday.
PlatosstudentsneverdidtakeoverAtheniangovernment,andAristotlesinfluence
onhispupilAlexanderseemstohavebeennegligible.Identifyingthosewhoare
likelytogovernbestisalwaysachallenge,anditcontributeslittletopointoutthe
imprudenceofaccordingsovereignpowertoapowerhungrytyrant,acliqueofrich
men,oranangrymob.Itispreciselybecausewealthandbirthhavehistoricallybeen
thecriteriaforinclusionintheelitethatdemocracyhasbecomeapopularalternative
tooligarchy.Itisonethingtoadvocateanaristocracyofintellectandanotherto
designpracticalmachineryforestablishingone.ItwasacentraltenetofGreek
intellectualsthatmostpeoplelackedcapacityforgrowth.PlatoandAristotleworked
ontheassumptionthatthesecrettoreforminggovernmentwasinnurturingthetiny
minoritythathadthiscapacity.Theirgoalwasbasicallytodesignaconstitutionthat
minimizedthepowerprudencemustaccordtothemindlessmasseswhomight
otherwiseriseupandslaughtertheirbetters.
Tosaythatthepolisultimatelyfailedbecauseitlackedatrulydemocraticideology
wouldnonethelessberidiculousonseveralcounts.First,mightyempireshave
flourishedforlongperiodswithoutanydemocraticideologywhatsoever.Second,we
knowfromthevigorandstabilityoffourthcenturyAthensthatdemocracywasalive
andwell,albeitnotinthemindsofGreecesintellectuals.Third,thepolisdidnot
entirelyfail.ThecollapseofpolisideologybeforetheMacedonianonslaughtwas
certainlynoticeableinstateslikeAthensandSpartathathadonceenjoyedthe
privilegeofframingtheirownforeignpolicies.Smallerpoleis,however,hadlong
beenaccustomedtoekingoutwhatdignitytheycouldintheshadowofgreater
powers.ThebustlingcityinfactremainedthecoreofGreekcivilizationforcenturies
tocome.
TRANSLATIONS
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York:W.W.Norton.
Cornford,F.M.1945.TheRepublicofPlato.LondonandNewYork:OxfordUniversity
Press.
Dryden,John.n.d.PelopidasinPlutarchsLives,rev.A.H.Clough.NewYork:Modern
Library.
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Fowler,H.N.1925.TheStatesman,fromPlato:TheStatesman,Philebus,H.N.Fowler,
andW.R.Lamb,eds.LoebClassicalLibrary.Cambridge,Mass.andLondon:
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Hamilton,Walter.1951.Plato:TheSymposium.Harmondsworth,England:Penguin.
Irwin,Terence.1979.Plato:Gorgias.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.
Murray,A.T.1936.PseudoDemosthenes,AgainstNeaera,fromDemosthenes.Vol.VI.
LoebClassicalLibrary.Cambridge,Mass.andLondon:HarvardUniversityPress.
Norlin,George.1966.ArchidamusandPanegyricus,fromIsocrates.Vol.I.LoebClassical
Library.Cambridge,Mass.andLondon:HarvardUniversityPress.
Oldfather,C.H.andC.L.Sherman,1952,1954.DiodorusofSicily.Vol.VI,VII.Loeb
ClassicalLibrary.Cambridge,Mass.andLondon:HarvardUniversityPress.
Warner,Rex.1979.Xenophon:AHistoryofMyTimes[TheHellenical.Harmondsworth,
England:Penguin.
SUGGESTEDREADING
Bryant,Joseph.1996.MoralCodesandSocialStructureinAncientGreece.Albany:State
UniversityofNewYorkPress.Theconnectionbetweenvaluesandsocial
organizationfromtheArchaicperiodthroughtheHellenisticAge.
Cartledge,Paul.1987.AgesilaosandtheCrisisofSparta.Baltimore:JohnsHopkins
UniversityPress.AclosestudyoffourthcenturySparta.
Caven,Brian.1990.DionysiusI:WarLordofSicily.NewHaven,Conn.:Yale
UniversityPress.AreadableexaminationofthesourcesforDionysiusrulethatseeks
topresenthiminamorefavorablelightthanhasbeencustomary.
Field,G.C.1967.PlatoandHisContemporaries.3rded.London:Methuen.The
intellectualandhistoricalcontextofPlatoswork.
Grene,Marjorie.1963.APortraitofAristotle.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress.A
livelysummaryofAristotlesthoughtthatgroundshisworldviewinhisenthusiasm
forbiology.
Hansen,MogensH.1991.TheAthenianDemocracyintheAgeofDemosthenes.Oxford
andCambridge,Mass.:BasilBlackwell.AnengaginganalyticalstudyofAthenian
democracythatiscrammedwithusefulfacts.
Hunter,Virginia.1994.PolicingAthens.SocialControlintheAtticLawsuits,430320B.C.
Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress.Anexaminationofsocialcontroland
conflictresolutioninAthens,withemphasisonthesocialmatrixandspecial
emphasisongenderrelations,slavery,andtheroleofgossip.

Ober,Josiah.1989.MassandEliteinDemocraticAthens:Rhetoric,Ideology,andthePower
ofthePeople.Princeton,N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress.Asociopoliticalstudyof
fourthcenturyAthensthatusesthefindingsofmodernsocialscientiststoshedlight
ontheideologyofthedemocracyasrevealedintheworkoftheorators.
369
Sage,Michael,ed.1996.WarfareinAncientGreece:ASourcebook.LondonandNewYork:
Routledge.AcollectionofpassagesrelatingtoGreekwarfare,tiedtogetherby
thoughtfulanddetailedcommentarythatincludescriticalreadingsofthesources
themselves.
Sinclair,T.A.1968.AHistoryofGreekPoliticalThought.2nded.ClevelandandNew
York:Meridian.AthoughtprovokinganalysisofGreekpoliticalthinkingfrom
HomerthroughtheRomanconquest.
Todd,S.C.1993.TheShapeofAthenianLaw.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.A
detailedandanalyticalstudyofAthenianlawdealingwithbothprocedureand
substance.
Tritle,Lawrence,ed.1997.TheGreekWorldintheFourthCentury:FromtheFallofthe
AthenianEmpiretotheSuccessorsofAlexander.LondonandNewYork:Routledge.A
collectionofessaysontheproblemsofthefourthcentury,includingchapterson
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Wood,EllenMeiksins.1988.PeasantCitizenandSlave:TheFoundationsofAthenian
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370
10
PHILIPIIANDTHERISEOFMACEDON
ItisoneofthegreatparadoxesofancienthistorythattheGreekpoleiswereableto
maintaintheirindependenceuntilalmostthelastthirdofthefourthcenturyBC.
TheirtinysizeandconstantquarrelsmadetheirescapefromPersianconquestinthe
earlyfifthcenturyBCappearalmostmiraculous,eveninantiquity.Itwasnot
surprisingwhenthethreatofforeignconquestreturnedalittleoveracenturylater.
Whatwassurprisingwasthesourceofthethreat:notthemightyPersianempire,
fearedbytheGreeksforalmosttwocenturies,butthehithertoinsignificantkingdom
ofMacedonlocatednorthofGreeceinsoutheasternEurope.

ThesuccessofMacedoninconqueringtheGreekstateswasdueinparttothe
internaldivisionsandeconomicstrainsthatinhibitedtheevolutionofaconsistent
policyinAthens,inparttothemutualmistrustthatstoodinthewayofaneffective
unitedfrontonthepartoftheleadingpoleisAthens,Sparta,andThebes.Alarge
partwasplayedaswellbythelongingmanyGreeksfeltforaradicalcurefortheills
ofHellasmonarchy,perhaps,andevenacrusadesuchasamonarchcouldmount
againstPersia.Credithowevermustalsobegiventotheuniquemilitaryand
diplomaticgiftsofthemanwhobecamekingofMacedonin359BC.Amanof
exceptionaltalentsandindefatigabledetermination,PhilipIIhasfascinated
historiansofantiquityforovertwothousandyearsandcontinuestodosotoday.
SOURCESFORMACEDONIANHISTORY
ReconstructingthehistoryofMacedonbeforethereignofPhilipIIisdifficult.The
lackofsourcesthatbedevilsmuchofGreekhistoryisanobviouspartoftheproblem.
WeknowthenamesofseveralhistorianswhowrotehistoriesofMacedonin
antiquity,butonlymeagerfragmentsoftheirworkssurvive.Themostimportantof
theseworkswasthefiftyeightbooklongPhilippicaofTheopompus
371
ofChios(fourthcenturyBC).AfewmanuscriptsofTheopompushistorywerestill
extantinConstantinopleintheninthcenturyAD,buttheydisappearedsoon
thereafter.Nevertheless,muchofthecontentoftheseworkssurvivesingeneral
historiessuchasthosebyDiodorusofSicily(firstcenturyBC)andJustin(second
centuryAD).
ThebiographerPlutarch,thegeographerStrabo,andseveralAthenianorators,
includingAeschines,Hyperides,andespeciallyDemosthenes,alsopreserve
importantevidence.Inaddition,archaeologicaldiscoveriesconstantlysupplement
theevidenceoftheliterarysources.Inrecentdecades,forexample,archaeologists
haverevealedtheremainsoftheearlyMacedoniancapitalofAegaeandtheadjacent
royalcemetery,theimportantsanctuaryofZeusatDion,andanArchaicAge
cemeteryrichinspectaculargoldjewelryatSindos.Thecombinationofliteraryand
archaeologicalsourceshasmadeitpossibleforhistorianstoreconstructthehistoryof
Macedoningreaterdetailthaneverbefore.
Thisreconstructioniscomplicatedbythethreefoldbiasesoftheavailablesources.
Firstandforemost,ancienthistorianstreatedMacedonianhistorypriortoAlexander
theGreatasamereprologuetoAlexandersspectacularreign.Second,manysources
originateinAthensand,notsurprisingly,viewMacedonianactionsalmostentirely
intermsoftheirputativeeffectsonAthenianinterests.Thefiercelypartisanpolitical
conflictsofmidfourthcenturyAthensonlyexacerbatethistendencyinsomeofthe
mostimportantsources.Finally,theauthorsofmostofoursourceswerestrongly

influencedbythefourthcenturydebateconcerningtheGreekorbarbariancharacter
oftheMacedonians.Asaresult,constructingachronicleofearlyMacedonianhistory
isrelativelyeasy,butviewingthathistoryfromaMacedonianperspectiveisnot.
OnlyrecentlyhavehistoriansattemptedtostudythehistoryofMacedonfroma
Macedonianpointofviewinsteadofreproducingtheorientationoftheancient
sourcesbytreatingitasanappendixtoGreekhistory.
EARLYMACEDONIA
AccordingtothehistorianHerodotus,Perdiccas,thefirstkingofMacedon,was
promisedthelandilluminatedbythesunashiskingdom.Therealitywasdifferent.
FormostoftheArchaicandearlyClassicalperiodsofGreekhistory,thekingsof
Macedonruledachronicallyunstablekingdomthatwasoftenastatemoreinname
thaninfact.SandwichedbetweenThessalyonthesouth,ThraceandtheChalcidian
Leagueontheeast,Paeoniaonthenorth,andIllyriaandEpirusonthewest,
Macedoniankingshadtostrugglehardtofendoffforeignenemies.Atthesame
time,theystrovehardtoasserttheirpreeminenceoverthelocaldynasts,whoruled
thevariousregionsthatmadeupthekingdomofMacedon.
Macedoniasgeographyrenderedtheirstruggleevenmoredifficult.Ancient
Macedoniaconsistedoftwodistinctgeographicalregions:LowerMacedonia,the
greatalluvialplaincreatedbytheHaliacmonandAxiusriversastheyflowed
372
downtotheGulfofTherma;andUpperMacedonia,thehorseshoeofrugged
uplandsandmountainsthatstretchednorthwestwardtowardIllyriaandEpirusand
wasdrainedbythesametwogreatrivers.TheplainsofLowerMacedoniaformed
theheartofthekingdomofMacedonandsupportedalargeagriculturalpopulation.
Itsmountainoushinterlandsnotonlyheldextensiveforestsandrichmineraldeposits
butalsoshelteredvarioustribeswhojealouslyguardedtheirfreedomfromthe
controlofthelowlandMacedoniankings.Unitingthesetworegionsunderthe
authorityofthekingofMacedonwastheessentialpreconditionforthegrowthand
expansionofMacedonianpower.
MACEDONIANSOCIETYANDKINGSHIP
WeretheMacedoniansGreek?Thisquestionisthemostcontentiousissuein
Macedonianhistoriography.IncontemporaryBalkanpolitics,conflictingclaimsto
theterritoryofancientMacedoniahavemadethequestionoftheGreeknessofthe
ancientMacedoniansaburningissue.Modernnationalistsmaybeconfidentoftheir
answers,butsufficientevidencetosettletheissueonewayoranotherislacking.
Thus,althoughthesourcesareclearthatGreekscouldnotunderstandspoken
Macedonian,notextswritteninMacedoniansurvive.Linguistscannoteven

determinewhetherMacedonianwasanarchaicdialectofGreekoranotherlanguage
altogether.Nevertheless,onefactisundisputed:inantiquityneitherMacedonians
norGreeksconsideredtheMacedonianstobeGreek.Greeksviewedthe
MacedoniansasbarbariansliketheirThracianandIllyrianneighbors.Anexception
wasmadeonlyforthemembersoftherulingArgeadhouse,whoclaimedtobethe
descendantsofimmigrantsfromArgos.
Moreimportant,althoughMacedoniankingsencouragedtheHellenizationofthe
Macedoniannobility,MacedonianandGreekculturehadlittleincommon.While
mostpeopleinGreecelivedbyagriculture,stillthecitieswerethecoreofwhatwas
mostdistinctiveinGreekcivilization.CitylifeinMacedonia,ontheotherhand,was
limitedtoafewGreekcoloniesonthecoastoftheGulfofTherma.Thefewlarge
settlementsintheinteriorofMacedon,suchasAegaeandPella,weredynastic
centerswithoutcivicinstitutions.ThevastmajorityofMacedoniansweresmall
farmersorseminomadicpastoralists,wholivedinscatteredvillagesandowedtheir
primaryallegiancetoMacedonianaristocrats.Otherdistinctionsdividedthetwo
culturesaswell.TheMacedonianelite,forexample,waspolygamous,whereasthe
Greeksweremonogamous.TheMacedoniansloveofunmixedwineandtheir
preferencefortumulusburialinsteadofsimplecremationorintermentwereother
significantiflessremarkabledifferences.
ThehistoryoftheMacedonianmonarchyisasmuchabouttheeffortsofMacedonian
kingstotametheirturbulentnobilityasitisabouttheireffortstoexpandtheir
territory.ThelifestyleoftheMacedoniannobilityhadmoreincommonwiththatof
HomericheroesthanwiththatofClassicalGreeks.Warandhuntingweretheonly
suitableactivitiesforaMacedoniannoble.Killingwasawayoflife.Beforebeing
recognizedasanadult,ayoungmanhadtospearaboarwithoutthe
373
Figure10.1.Macedoniaanditsneighbors.
374
aidofanetandkillanenemy.Heavydrinking,fiercecompetitionforpreferenceat
theroyalcourt,andstrugglesoverthefavorsofyoungmenandwomenallgenerated
violentfeuds.
ThemonarchywasthecentralinstitutionofMacedoniansociety.LikeLouisXIVof
France,theMacedoniankingswereautocratswhocouldwellsayIamthestate.
Althoughearliertheoriesheldthattheirpowerswerelimitedbyanarmyassembly
investedwiththerighttoelectthekingandtrycasesoftreason,itisnowclearthat
thesehypothesesaregroundless.Thearmymightacclaimanewkingandwitness

trialsofnobles,butthekingandhisadvisersalwaysmadethefinaldecisions.The
kingmadeallappointments,allgrantsoflandandprivilege,andallresponsesto
petitions.ThekingalonerepresentedMacedoninforeignaffairs.Treatiesand
alliancesweremadewithhimpersonally,andforeignalliespledgedtheirsupportto
himandhisfamilywithoutreferencetotheMacedonianpeople.Thekingeven
decidedtheroyalsuccession.Macedoniankingswerepolygamous,and,provided
onlythatthenewkingwasanArgead,akingcoulddesignateanysonbyanywifeas
hissuccessor.
Nevertheless,suchabaldsummaryofthepowersoftheMacedoniankingsis
potentiallymisleading.Therewerenoconstitutionallimitationsonthekings
powers,buttherewereextraconstitutionallimitsonhowtheseprerogativeswere
exercised.Greekpoliticaltheoristsusuallyequatedmonarchyandtyranny,because
theyconsideredthesupremeimportanceoftherulerspersonalityinpublicand
privatespheresaliketobethedistinguishingfeatureofboth.Thiswasespeciallytrue
ofMacedon,wherenoimpersonalbureaucracybufferedthekingfromhissubjects.
ThekingsofMacedonspenttheirlivesinthemidstoftheircompanions
Macedoniannobleswhoformedtheirpersonalentourage.Thekingschosetheir
closestadvisersandthemembersoftheirbodyguardfromthesecompanions.Inwar,
thecompanionsservedinanelitecavalryunitpersonallycommandedbytheking.It
isnotsurprising,therefore,thatMacedoniankingssatoninsecurethrones.Onlytwo
ofPhilipIIspredecessorsdiednaturaldeaths.One,Archelaus,wasmurderedbya
disgruntledhomosexuallover.Therestdiedinbattleorfellvictimtoconspiracies.
ThePredecessorsofPhilipII
PhilipIIwasthebeneficiaryofalmosttwocenturiesofpatientstatebuildingbyhis
Argeadpredecessors.InviewofthedecisiverolethatPhilipIIandhissonAlexander
wouldplayinthedestructionofthePersianempire,itisironicthatthisstate
buildingprocessbeganinthelatesixthcenturyBCwithAmyntasIsalliancewith
Persia.ThealliancewassealedbythemarriageofaMacedonianprincesstoahigh
Persianofficialandlastedforoverthreedecades.TheMacedoniansprovedtobe
loyalallies.DuringthePersianinvasionofGreecein480BC,Amyntassonand
successor,AlexanderI,personallyledtheMacedoniancontingentsagainstthe
Greeks.Notsurprisingly,afterthePersiandefeatAlexanderIencouragedthespread
ofstoriestestifyingtohiscovertsupportoftheGreekcauseduringtheinvasion.
375
aidofanetandkillanenemy.Heavydrinking,fiercecompetitionforpreferenceat
theroyalcourt,andstrugglesoverthefavorsofyoungmenandwomenallgenerated
violentfeuds.

ThemonarchywasthecentralinstitutionofMacedoniansociety.LikeLouisXIVof
France,theMacedoniankingswereautocratswhocouldwellsayIamthestate.
Althoughearliertheoriesheldthattheirpowerswerelimitedbyanarmyassembly
investedwiththerighttoelectthekingandtrycasesoftreason,itisnowclearthat
thesehypothesesaregroundless.Thearmymightacclaimanewkingandwitness
trialsofnobles,butthekingandhisadvisersalwaysmadethefinaldecisions.The
kingmadeallappointments,allgrantsoflandandprivilege,andallresponsesto
petitions.ThekingalonerepresentedMacedoninforeignaffairs.Treatiesand
alliancesweremadewithhimpersonally,andforeignalliespledgedtheirsupportto
himandhisfamilywithoutreferencetotheMacedonianpeople.Thekingeven
decidedtheroyalsuccession.Macedoniankingswerepolygamous,and,provided
onlythatthenewkingwasanArgead,akingcoulddesignateanysonbyanywifeas
hissuccessor.
Nevertheless,suchabaldsummaryofthepowersoftheMacedoniankingsis
potentiallymisleading.Therewerenoconstitutionallimitationsonthekings
powers,buttherewereextraconstitutionallimitsonhowtheseprerogativeswere
exercised.Greekpoliticaltheoristsusuallyequatedmonarchyandtyranny,because
theyconsideredthesupremeimportanceoftherulerspersonalityinpublicand
privatespheresaliketobethedistinguishingfeatureofboth.Thiswasespeciallytrue
ofMacedon,wherenoimpersonalbureaucracybufferedthekingfromhissubjects.
ThekingsofMacedonspenttheirlivesinthemidstoftheircompanions
Macedoniannobleswhoformedtheirpersonalentourage.Thekingschosetheir
closestadvisersandthemembersoftheirbodyguardfromthesecompanions.Inwar,
thecompanionsservedinanelitecavalryunitpersonallycommandedbytheking.It
isnotsurprising,therefore,thatMacedoniankingssatoninsecurethrones.Onlytwo
ofPhilipIIspredecessorsdiednaturaldeaths.One,Archelaus,wasmurderedbya
disgruntledhomosexuallover.Therestdiedinbattleorfellvictimtoconspiracies.
ThePredecessorsofPhilipII
PhilipIIwasthebeneficiaryofalmosttwocenturiesofpatientstatebuildingbyhis
Argeadpredecessors.InviewofthedecisiverolethatPhilipIIandhissonAlexander
wouldplayinthedestructionofthePersianempire,itisironicthatthisstate
buildingprocessbeganinthelatesixthcenturyBCwithAmyntasIsalliancewith
Persia.ThealliancewassealedbythemarriageofaMacedonianprincesstoahigh
Persianofficialandlastedforoverthreedecades.TheMacedoniansprovedtobe
loyalallies.DuringthePersianinvasionofGreecein480BC,Amyntassonand
successor,AlexanderI,personallyledtheMacedoniancontingentsagainstthe
Greeks.Notsurprisingly,afterthePersiandefeatAlexanderIencouragedthespread
ofstoriestestifyingtohiscovertsupportoftheGreekcauseduringtheinvasion.
375

tween400and360BC.Finally,in360,Philipsbrother,PerdiccasIII,waskilledin
battlewiththeIllyrians.Inadditiontotheking,fourthousandMacedoniantroops
andnumerousmembersoftheMacedonianaristocracydiedinthebattle.Macedons
enemiesquicklytookadvantageofthisunprecedenteddebacleandthechaosthat
resultedfromit.TheIllyriansandPaeonianspreparedinvasions,whilethe
AtheniansandThraciansofferedtheirsupportforinsurrectionsinfavorof
pretenderstotheMacedonianthrone.Thekingdomseemedonthevergeofcollapse.
THEREIGNOFPHILIPII
PhilipIIwasbornabout382BC,thelastsonofAmyntasIIIandhisIllyrianwife
Eurydice.Littleisknownabouthisearlylife.AccordingtoPlutarch,hismother
Eurydicelearnedtoreadinordertoeducateherchildren.WhateverchancePhilip
hadforeducation,however,wasendedbytheturbulentpoliticsofMacedoninthe
370s.AnunsuccessfulattemptbyhisbrotherAlexanderIItoweakenTheban
influenceinThessalyledtoPhilipsspendingtheyears369to367asahostagein
Thebes.Hisexilewasnotallloss.PhilipsenforcedresidenceinThebes,scarcelytwo
yearsafteritsvictoryatLeuctramadeitthegreatestpowerinGreece,gavehiman
insightintoGreekpoliticsandmilitarytacticsthatwouldlaterproveinvaluable.
Figure10.2.ThisminiatureivoryheadofPhilipIIwasdiscoveredatVergina.The
damagetohisrighteyecausedbyacatapultboltisclearlyindicated.
377
PhilipsreturntoMacedonin367coincidedwiththedescentofthekingdominto
chaos.ThreekingsruledMacedonduringthemiddleandlate360s:Ptolemyof
Alorus,Pausanias,andPhilipsbrotherPerdiccasIII.Theinstabilityencouraged
Macedonsenemiesandapparentlyforeclosedanyhopeforaquickrestorationof
ordertoMacedonianaffairs.ItalsoprovidedPhilipwithanunexpectedopportunity.
ThecrisiscreatedbyPerdiccasdeathdemandedarulercapableoftakingdecisive
action.ThatrulercouldonlybePhilip,sincehewasthesolesurvivingadultArgead.
Philipquicklyassumedcontrolofthegovernment,andby357atthelatesthehad
supplantedhisinfantnephewAmyntastobecomekingofMacedon.
WhenPhiliptookpowerin360,hischancesofsurvivalseemedslim.Macedonwas
threatenedbyformidableenemiesonallsides.Worseyet,pretenderschallengedhis
righttothethrone.SeuthesII,thepowerfulkingoftheThracians,supportedthe
claimsofthreeofPhilipshalfbrothers.TheAthenians,stillhopingtoregaintheir
longlostcolonyofAmphipolis,backedtheclaimsofArgaeus,apretenderwhohad
brieflyruledMacedoninthe380sbeforebeingexpelledbyPhilipsfather,Amyntas
II.

Inthenexttwoyearsthesituationhadchangeddramatically.Throughastute
diplomacy,PhilippersuadedtheThraciansandAthenianstoabandonthe
Macedonianpretenderstheyhadbeensupporting.Freetoconcentrateallhisforces
againsthisotherenemies,PhilipquicklydefeatedboththePaeoniansandIllyrians
andregainedcontrolofwesternandnorthwesternMacedonia.Philipsbrilliantuse
ofdiplomacytopreparethewayforhisdecisivemilitaryvictoriesoverthePaeonians
andIllyriansin358setthepatternfortherestofhisreign.
Successfollowedsuccessduringtheremainderofthedecade.Analliancewiththe
MolossiansinEpirus,whoalsohadlongsufferedfromIllyrianattacks,completed
thepacificationofMacedonswesternfrontierandfreedPhiliptoturnhisattentions
totheeast.Inquicksuccession,PhilipseizedtheGreekcitiesalongthecoastofthe
GulfofThermaandinsouthwesternThrace,togetherwiththerichgoldmining
regionofMountPangaeus.ThesameminesprovidedPhilipwiththefinancial
resourcesonethousandtalentsayear,accordingtoDiodorusrequiredtocarryout
hisvariousplansduringtheremainderofhisreign.
Inlessthanadecade,PhiliphadfreedMacedonfromtheenemiesthathad
threateneditssurvivalsincethesixthcentury.Hismilitaryanddiplomaticsuccesses
inthe350swereaccompaniedbyfarreachingreforms,givingthekingdom
unprecedentedmilitarystrengthandpoliticalcohesion.
TheReformsofPhilipII
PhilipIIsrisetopowercoincidedwitharevolutioninmilitarytacticsandweaponry
thatendedtheGreekhoplitesdominanceofthebattlefield.Byintroducingthese
innovationstoMacedon,Philiptransformeditalmostovernightintothepreeminent
militarypowerinsoutheasternEurope.Someofhisinnovationsweretechnological.
DionysiusIofSyracusehadfirstdemonstratedthepotentialofthecatapultatthe
siegeofMotyain397.ItwasPhilip,however,whorealized
378
thatpotentialbyintroducingnewandmorepowerfultorsioncatapultspoweredby
energystoredintightlytwistedropes.Combinedwiththecreationofanelitecorps
ofmilitaryengineers,thesenewweaponsenabledPhilipsuccessfullytobesiege
fortifiedcitiessuchasAmphipolis.Atthesametime,theskirmishingandscouting
abilitiesofhisarmywereenhancedbyspecialunitsoflightarmedinfantryand
cavalryrecruitedfromhisnonMacedoniansubjectsandallies.
Document10.1AlexandersSpeechatOpis(324BC)InthisspeechtheRoman
historianArrianhasAlexanderadducethechangesPhilipIIbroughttoMacedoniain
anefforttoquellthemutinyofhistroopsatOpisin324.

Inthefirstplace,asisreasonable,IshallbeginmyspeechfrommyfatherPhilip.For
hefoundyouvagabondsanddestituteofmeans,mostofyoucladinhides,feedinga
fewsheepupthemountainsides,fortheprotectionofwhichyouhadtofightwith
smallsuccessagainstIllyrians,Triballians,andtheborderThracians.Insteadofthe
hideshegaveyoucloakstowear,andfromthemountainsheledyoudownintothe
plains,andmadeyoucapableoffightingtheneighboringbarbarians,sothatyou
werenolongercompelledtopreserveyourselvesbytrustingrathertothe
inaccessiblestrongholdsthantoyourownvalor.Hemadeyoucolonistsofcities,
whichheadornedwithusefullawsandcustoms;andfrombeingslavesandsubjects,
hemadeyourulersoverthoseverybarbariansbywhomyouyourselves,aswellas
yourproperty,werepreviouslyliabletobecarriedofforravaged.Healsoaddedthe
greaterpartofThracetoMacedonia,andbyseizingthemostconvenientlysituated
placesontheseacoast,hespreadabundanceoverthelandfromcommerce,and
madetheworkingoftheminesasecureemployment.Hemadeyourulersoverthe
Thessalians,ofwhomyouhadformerlybeeninmortalfear;andbyhumblingthe
nationofthePhocians,herenderedtheavenueintoGreecebroadandeasyforyou,
insteadofbeingnarrowanddifficult.TheAtheniansandThebans,whowerealways
lyinginwaittoattackMacedonia,hehumbledtosuchadegree...that...those
statesintheirturnprocuresecuritytothemselvesbyourassistance.
Arrian,AnabasisAlexandri7.9,translatedbyE.J.Chinnock.ArrianAnabasisof
AlexanderandIndica.LondonandNewYork:G.Bell&Sons,1893.
PhilipsmostimportantmilitaryreformwasthereorganizationoftheMacedonian
infantry.Philipcreatedanewuniformlyequippedphalanxtoreplacetheold
undisciplinedmilitiathathadservedMacedoniankingssopoorlyinthepast.Asin
theoldgenerallevy,thesixdivisionsofthenewphalanxwererecruitedfromeachof
Macedonstraditionalterritorialdivisions,buttheywereequipped
379
Figure10.3.TheMacedonianphalanx.
withnewweaponsandassignedanewroleinbattle.Eachmemberofthephalanx
woreametalhelmetandcarriedasmallshieldandashortsword.Hisprincipal
weapon,however,wasanenormouspikethatcouldbeasmuchas18feetlong,
allowingthesoldiertostrikeablowbeforehisenemiescouldcloseandusetheir
shorterweapons.
Inthisway,PhilipdeprivedhisGreekopponentsoftheirchieftacticaladvantage:the
abilitytoconcentratehoplitesincloseformationagainstanenemyanddestroyhim.
Asaresult,themerepresenceofthenewphalanxinabattleforcedPhilipsenemies
tomodifytheirtacticstocopewiththisunusualformation.Thetacticalopportunities

thuscreatedcouldthenbeexploitedbythecompanioncavalry,whichwoulddeala
decisiveblowtoanenemyforcealreadyconfusedbythephalanxandtheeliteguard
unitsprotectingitsflanks.
PhilipsreformswerenotlimitedtoreorganizationoftheMacedonianarmy.Healso
tookstepstostrengthenthebondsbetweenthearmy,itsleaders,andtheking.He
freelysharedhismenshardshipsanddangers,ashismanywounds(includingthe
lossofaneye)attested.Heconferredanewtitleonthecommonsoldiers,Pezhetairoi
(FootCompanions),suggestingthattheytoo,likethenobles,werethekings
personalcompanions.Agenerationlater,therageofAlexanderssoldiersatthe
thoughtofsharingtheircherishednewstatuswiththeconqueredPersiansclearly
demonstratedthepowerfulbondPhiliphadforgedwithhissoldiers.
Philipalsomadeimportantchangesinthenatureofthebondbetweenthekingand
theMacedoniannobility.PerdiccasIIIsdisastrousdefeathadcausedthedeathsof
manyMacedoniannoblemen.Philipusedtheopportunitythuscreatedtorecruit
newmembersfortheroyalcompanions,chosenfromtheGreeksandnonGreeks
whoflockedtoMacedoninsearchofopportunityandwealth.Healsocreated
opportunitiesformembersoftheoldnobility,whoreceivedcommandsinPhilips
newmodelarmy.Theirsonsalsobecamemembersofanewinstitution,theroyal
pages.Thepagespersonallyservedthekingandwereeducatedatcourt.Fromthem
Philiprecruitedhisfutureofficers.Butatthesametime
380
theroyalpagesalsoservedasecondpurpose:theywerehostagesforthegood
behavioroftheirfamilies.
Theopompus,themoralizingcontemporaryhistorianofPhilipsreign,sarcastically
characterizedPhilipsexpandedcorpsofcompanionsascomposedofmenmore
suitedtobecourtesansthancourtiers.Nevertheless,theirpersonalloyaltyto
Philipwasstrong,andforgoodreason.Philipsvictoriesgavehimunprecedented
resourcesinlandandtreasure,andheusedthemtorewardhisfollowersliberally.
Philipsabilitytoattractandrewardloyalsupporterswasenhancedbyland
reclamationprojects,suchasthedrainingofmarshlandinLowerMacedonia,
combinedwiththefoundationofcoloniessuchasPhilippi.Asaresult,Philip
possessedwhatnopreviousMacedoniankinghadeverhadbefore:anextensiveand
loyalbaseofsupportforhispoliciesathomeandabroad.
PhilipBecomesaForceinGreece
MacedoniankingshadlongfearedthepotentialdangerposedbyaunitedThessaly,
withitslargepopulationanditsstrongmilitarytradition.Philipspredecessorshad
soughtunsuccessfullytoavertthatthreat.TheyrepeatedlysupportedLarisaagainst

JasonandAlexanderPheraesambitioustyrantsandtheirThebanallies.Jason,in
fact,nearlyreducedPhilipsfatherAmyntasIIItothestatusofavassalinthelate
370s,and,aswehavealreadyseen,AlexanderIIsunsuccessfulThessaliancampaign
in369resultedinPhilipsThebanexile.
Notsurprisingly,developmentsinThessalyinthemid350sledPhilipalsoto
interveneinthetangledpoliticsofMacedonssouthernneighbor.Theprimarycause
wastheconclusionofanalliancebetweenPhocisandMacedonsoldenemyPherae.
Phocishadsuddenlyemergedinthemid350sasoneofthemajorpowersincentral
andnorthernGreece.TheunionofPheraeandPhocisthreatenedtheinterestsofboth
LarisaandThebes(Phocisbitterenemy),andforcedthemtoinvitePhilips
intervention.Philipinitiallyunderestimatedtheseriousnessofthethreatposedby
theallianceofPheraeandPhocis.Hewasdisabusedbytwodefeatsinflictedby
Phocianforcesin353themostserioushesufferedinhisentirereignandhe
returnedtoThessalywithoverwhelmingforcethefollowingyear,crushingthe
PhociansattheBattleoftheCrocusField.
ThisbattletransformedPhilipsrelationshiptoThessalyandtherestofGreece.Inthe
immediateaftermathofPhilipsvictory,Pheraewasseized,anditslasttyrantfled
intoexile.FinallyfreedofthePheraeanthreat,theThessalianLeaguemetand
appointedPhiliparchn(commanderinchief)ofThessaly,effectivelyuniting
ThessalyandMacedoninthepersonofPhilip.TheunionofThessalyandMacedon
virtuallydoubledthemilitaryforcesatPhilipsdisposalandbroughtthefirstdecade
ofhisreigntoasuccessfulconclusion.ItalsoallowedPhiliptoexpandhisinfluence
deepintocentralGreece.
WhilePhilipwasbusyextendingMacedonianinfluenceinThessaly,centralGreece
wasconvulsedbytheconflicthistorianscalltheThirdSacredWar.Behindthe
outbreakofthewarwasThebesattempttoconsolidateitshegemonyincentral
Greece.ExploitingafavorablemajorityonthecounciloftheDelphicAmph
381
ictyony,ThebesarrangedtohavePhocisseverelyfinedin357forcultivatingland
sacredtoApollo.Phocisresponsewasunexpected.
PhocishadlongbeenThebeschiefrivalforpreeminenceincentralGreece.Thebes
hadexploiteditsvictoryatLeuctrain371toforcePhocistosignatreatyrecognizing
Thebansuzerainty.PhocisacceptanceofThebansuzeraintyhadbeengrudgingat
best,andin357thePhociansmadeadesperateefforttoregaintheirindependence.
InsteadofsubmittingtoThebanblackmail,theyseizedcontrolofDelphiandused
thetreasuresofApollotorecruitapowerfulmercenaryarmy.Althoughthesacrilege
outragedGreekopinion,ThebesattempttoformaunitedfrontagainstPhociswas
frustratedbyAthenianandSpartanhostilitytofurtherexpansionofThebanpower.

Asaresult,thePhociansquicklybroughtalmostthewholeregionfromtheGulfof
CorinthtoThessalyundertheirsway.
FrustratedattheirinabilitytodefeatthePhocians,ThebesanditsThessalianallies
appealedtoPhilip,thenewleaderofThessaly,tocometoDelphisaid.Hostilitiesin
ThraceaswellaswithAthensandOlynthusinthenorthAegeanpreventedPhilip
fromtakingactionagainstPhocisforseveralyears.In347hefinallyintervenedon
thesideofThebesintheSacredWar.AlthoughMacedonianinterventiontippedthe
scalesagainstPhocis,increasingThebanpowerwasnotinPhilipsinterest.Philip,
therefore,playedadoublegame.AtthesametimethathesupportedThebes
militarily,healsoopenednegotiationswithPhocisoverpossiblesurrenderterms.
ThetraditionalpenaltyforsacrilegesuchasthePhocianshadcommittedagainst
Delphiwastheexecutionofallmalesofmilitaryage.Withthatdirethreathanging
overtheirheads,thePhociansquicklyacceptedPhilipsofferandsurrenderedinthe
summerof346.AsPhiliphadpromised,thetermsimposedbytheDelphic
AmphictyonyonPhocisprovedtoberelativelymild.Phociancitieswerebrokenup
intotheirconstituentvillages.ThePhociansundertooktopaybackthetreasurethey
hadtakenfromDelphiatarateofsixtytalentsperyear.Mostimportant,Phocis
votesintheDelphicAmphictyonyweretransferredtoPhilip,whohenceforth,thanks
tohiscontrolofThessaly,enjoyedavotingmajorityontheAmphictyonicCouncil.
AsaresultofhistimelyinterventionintheSacredWar,Philiphadwonforhimself
animportantroleinDelphicaffairs.Justhowsignificantapositionhenowoccupied
wasmadecleartoallGreeksin346whenhebecamethefirstMacedoniankingtobe
grantedthehonorofpresidingoverthePythiangamessupervisedbythe
Amphictyony.PhilipsspectacularsuccessintheSacredWaralsotemporarilyhalted
thegrowinghostilitybetweenMacedonandAthens.
Philip,Athens,andthePeaceofPhilocrates
BecauseoftheAtheniansvestedinterestinChalcidice,theirtenserelationswith
Philipdatedbacktothebeginningofhisreign.In359,PhiliphadinducedAthensto
withdrawitssupportfromhisrival,Argaeus,bypromisingtorestoreAmphipolisto
itsauthority.TheAtheniansquicklylearned,however,thattheirtrustinPhilips
promiseshadbeenmisplaced.PhilipneededAmphipolitanlandtore
382
wardhissupporters;moreover,itsstrategiclocationnearthemouthoftheStrymon
RivermadethecitytoosignificanttoturnovertoAthens.Twoyearslater,in357,
PhiliphimselfoccupiedAmphipolisafterabriefsiege.Therapiditywithwhich
PhilipsnewsiegeenginesbrokethroughAmphipolisdefensesgavetheGreeksa
vividdemonstrationoftheeffectivenessofhisnewengineeringcorps.

RelationsworsenedayearlaterwhenPhilipalsocapturedAthensprincipal
remainingMacedonianallies,PydnaandMethone,aswellasPotidaea.Insodoing,
heeliminatedthemaincentersofAthenianinfluenceintheChalcidiceandonthe
coastsoftheGulfofTherma.ThoughmanyAthenianswantedtofightPhilip,andin
factthecitydeclaredwar,circumstancespreventedAthensfrommountingserious
militaryoperationsinthenorthAegean.
AthensslowrecoveryfromtheeconomicdevastationcausedbythePeloponnesian
WarrestrainedtheambitionsofallfourthcenturyAthenianpoliticians.Financial
resourceshadtobecarefullyhusbanded.Earlyinthe350sthismeantthatAthens
ignoredPhilipsactionsinnorthernGreecetofocusitseffortsoncopingwiththe
threattotheSecondAthenianLeaguecausedbytheoutbreakoftheSocialWarin
357.Athenianforeignpolicywasfurtherconstrainedbyanimportantpolitical
innovationofthe350s.
Untilthistime,surplusesfromtheannualgovernmentbudgetshadbeenchanneled
intoafundnormallydevotedtomilitaryexpenditures.Eubulus(c.405c.335BC),
however,theleadingpoliticianofthisera,persuadedtheAthenianstopassalaw
assigningallsurplusinsteadtowhatisknownastheTheoricFund;hehimself
servedasoneofthecommissionersoftheFund.SomeofthisFundwastobeused
forprojectssuchasrepairingroadsandfortifications.Therestwasearmarkedfor
distributiontoAtheniancitizensatreligiousfestivals;theFundreceiveditsname
fromthetheatricalperformancesthatplayedakeyroleinthesecelebrations.
BymitigatingthepovertyofAthensneediestcitizens,thisarrangementreduced
tensionsbetweenrichandpoor.Forgoodreason,theoratorDemadescalleditthe
glueofthedemocracy.TheTheoricFundalso,ofcourse,encouragedapacifist
foreignpolicy.Before,thepoorerclassesmightexpecttobenefitfromwar,during
whichtheywouldbepaidtorowinthefleet,whereasthosewhohadmorewere
sometimesinclinedtoprotectwhattheyhadbyvotingagainstmilitary
involvements.AftertheestablishmentoftheTheoricFund,however,thischanged,
sincetheoutbreakofwarwouldrequirethatfundsberedirectedtomilitary
operations,andthelevelofthepopulacesbenefitswouldbereduced.
Eubuluskeeninterestinfinanceshaddramaticresults.Underhisstewardship,
Athenianrevenuesrosefrom130talentsto400,enablingAthenstoconstructnew
triremesandimprovethedocksandfortifications.Workattheneglectedsilvermines
atLauriumwasrenewedandnewinducementsluredadditionalmeticstoAttica.
Thewealthofindividualcitizensgrewwiththatofthestate.Thissituationmakesit
easytounderstandwhyformostofthedecadetheAtheniansconfinedtheir
responsetoPhilipsactionstodesultoryraidsintoMacedonianterritorythatwere
littlemorethannuisances.Onlythethreatofpos

383
Figure10.4.PolyeuctusposthumousportraitofDemostheneswaserectedinthe
Athenianagorain280BCandsurvivesinthisRomancopy.Itshowstheoratoras
gaunt,worried,andthoughtful.(Note:Thepositionofthehandsisreproduced
incorrectlyinthiscopy.)
384
sibledirectmilitaryinterventionbyPhilipincentralGreeceinducedthemtotake
strongeraction.
WithaMacedonianinvasionofAtticaseeminglyimminent,theAthenians
dispatchedalargeexpeditionaryforcein352tooccupyThermopylae,toblockthe
Macedonianadvance.ThemotionwasmadebyacloseassociateofEubulus.Insuch
acrisis,concernforAthenssecurityclearlyoverrodeanyscruplesEubulusandhis
supportersmayhavehadaboutdippingintotheTheoricFund.Otherwise,however,
AthensfailedutterlytohindertheMacedoniankingsgrowinginfluenceinnorthern
andcentralGreece.
Athensactionsintheearly340sweresimilarlyineffective.WhenOlynthus,
increasinglysuspiciousofPhilipsgrowingpower,abandoneditsalliancewiththe
MacedoniankingandsoughttomakepeacewithAthens,Philipturnedonhis
formerally.AthensresponsetoOlynthusdesperateappealsforhelpweretoolittle,
andtoolate.TheAthenianscouldonlywatchindismaywhen,in348,Philip
capturedthecity,razedit,andcarriedoffitscitizenstobecomeslavesinMacedon.
Worse,hedismantledtheChalcidicLeague,MacedonsonlypotentialGreekrivalin
thenorthAegean.
AthensrestraintinthefaceofPhilipsgrowingpowerwasprudent.Nevertheless,its
inabilitytoregainAmphipolisortoaiditserstwhileallieswashumiliating.Not
surprisingly,proponentsofamoreaggressiveAthenianpolicytowardMacedon
becamemoreinsistentintheirdemands.
ThemostprominentofthesepoliticianswasDemosthenes.Themostfamousorator
oftheGreekworld,Demosthenesacquiredsuchareputationforeloquencethatthe
RomanstatesmanCiceronamedhisspeechesagainstMarkAntonyPhilippicsafter
theorationsinwhichDemostheneshadsoughttorousetheAtheniansagainstPhilip.
DemostheneshadenteredpoliticsinitiallyasasupporterofEubulus.By351,
however,hehadbecomedisenchantedwithEubuluspoliciesandconsequently
begantoforgeanewpoliticalidentityforhimself.InthefamousFirstPhilippic,
DemosthenesrevealedhisnewviewsbyvigorouslyattackingPhilipandberatingthe
AtheniansfortheirsluggishresponsetothedangerheposedtoAthens.

Simultaneously,heurgedtheAthenianstovotefortheestablishmentandsupportof
astrongnavalforcetoconductthedesiredwar.Demosthenescontinuedtoadvocate
resistancetoPhilipinsubsequentyears.Still,evenherecognizedthatthefallof
Olynthus,combinedwithPhilipstriumphintheSacredWarandthedefectionofthe
vitalAtheniannavalbaseofEuboea,madepeaceimperativeifAthenswastoavoid
totaldisaster.
TheAthenianpoliticianPhilocratesnegotiatedpeacewithPhilipinthesummerof
346.TheprocessofnegotiatingthetreatyandsecuringitsapprovalbytheAthenian
assemblywasbothcomplexandcontentious.BecausethePeaceofPhilocrates
quicklycollapsedamidstbitterdisputeovertheresponsibilityforitsnegotiation,
muchremainsunclearaboutthedetailsofthediplomacythatproducedit.Theterms
ofthetreaty,however,allownodoubtaboutitsmeaning.Facedwiththeunpalatable
alternativesofcontinuingthewarwithMacedonoracceptingthehumiliatingterms
offeredbyPhilip,Athenschosethelatter.Athenspubliclyrenounceditslong
cherishedclaimtoAmphipolis,acceptedtheexclusion
385
ofitsPhocianandThracianalliesfromtheprotectionofthetreaty,andagreedthat
thecityandtheremnantsoftheSecondAthenianLeaguewouldbecomepermanent
alliesofPhilipandhisdescendants.Athensimpotenceinthefaceofgrowing
MacedonianpowerandinfluenceinGreecewasnowrevealedforalltosee.
TheAftermathofthePeaceofPhilocrates
BysigningthePeaceofPhilocrates,theAtheniansrecognizedPhilipspreeminencein
northernandcentralGreece.Nevertheless,Philipsdiplomatictriumphwasshort
lived.Athenssupportforthetreatyhadbeentheresultofthefearofwarwith
Macedonanditsconsequences.Itwasthereforenosurprisethatsupportdissipated
assoonasthethreatofwarreceded.PhilipstreatmentofPhocis,moreover,notonly
angeredandembarrassedtheAthenians;italsocastdoubtonthecredibilityofthe
ambassadorssuchasPhilocratesandEubulusallytheoratorAeschines.Alongwith
Philocrates,AeschineshadpersuadedtheAthenianassemblythatnoharmwould
cometothePhociansasaresultoftheirexclusionfromthePeace.WhenPhocis
surrenderedtohim,however,Philip,asalreadymentioned,destroyedthetownsof
Phocisandresettledtheirinhabitantsinseparatevillages.TheAmphictyonicCouncil
transferredtoPhilipthetwovotesattheirmeetingsthathadpreviouslybelongedto
thePhocians.TheAtheniansandSpartansweresoangryattheCouncilsdecision
thattheydeclinedtosendtheircustomarydeputationstothePythiangames.
Aeschines,however,wasinattendance,apparentlyasPhilipsguest.
PhilipscriticsinAthenssteadilyunderminedthePeaceofPhilocratesandthemen
associatedwithit,usingthedestructionofPhocistopointoutthedishonestyof

PhilipandthequestionablecompetenceandintegrityofhisAtheniansupporters.
Philipsproposalstostrengthenthepeacewererebuffed.Indeed,Athensonceagain
demandedthathereturnAmphipolis.Philocrates,theprincipalarchitectofthe
peace,wasindictedforbriberyandfledintoexiletoescapeexecution.Demosthenes,
anotherofthetenambassadorswhohadbeensenttonegotiatewithPhilip,
nervouslysoughttoprotecthispositionbyalsoimpeachinghisfellowenvoy
Aeschinesonachargeofacceptingbribes.
AeschinesopenpartisanshipforPhilipevenafterthedestructionofPhociswas
foolish,anditseemsclearthathehadacceptedgiftsfromtheMacedonianking.
ThoughitwasnotnecessarilyacrimeinAthensforpoliticianstoreceivepresents
fromaforeignheadofstateunlessitcouldbedemonstratedthatthesegiftsledthem
intounpatrioticacts,thecaseagainstAeschineslooksfairlystrong.Itisatestimony
tothepowerofhisalliesthatwhenthecasefinallycametotrialin343hewas
acquitted,thoughbyaverysmallmargin.InhiscornerwasnotonlyEubulus,the
mostprominentpoliticianinAthensandastaunchadvocateofpeace,butthe
strategosPhocion(c.402/401318BC).Abitingdenigratorofdemocracywhowas
electedtothestrategiamoreoftenthananyotherman(fortyfivetimesbetween371
and318),PhocionwasfavorabletoMacedonandinfactwasexecutedforhis
Macedoniansympathiesin318.InadditiontoharboringmanyMacedonianpartisans
amongitsowncitizens,moreover,Athensopenlysupportedorshelteredenemiesof
Philipfromotherstates.
386
OnlyPhilipsneedforpeaceinGreeceduringhisThraciancampaignin342
preventedhimfromtakingstrongactionagainstAthens.Philipfinallydeclaredwar
in340,whenAthensinalliancewithseveralotherGreekstatesandPersiafrustrated
hissiegeoftheHellespontinecityofPerinthus.Athensrespondedwithitsown
declarationofwar.
Theactualoutbreakofhostilitieswasdelayedforanotheryear.First,Philip
unsuccessfullybesiegedByzantium;then,hecampaignedagainsttheScythians,who
ruledtheDobrujainmodernRomaniaandthreatenedMacedoniancontrolofThrace.
Nevertheless,hewasstillabletogiveAthensasharpreminderofthepotential
consequencesofwarwithMacedon.Athensdependedformuchofitsfoodongrain
importedfromtheBlackSea,sothatwhenPhilipseizedthewholeBlackSeagrain
fleetin340,panicbrokeoutinthecity.
PhilipslongawaitedopportunitytostrikedirectlyatAthensfinallycamein339,
whentheDelphicAmphictyonyinvitedhimtoleadasacredwaragainstthecityof
Amphissa,justsouthofDelphi.Hequicklyacceptedtheinvitation,andbytheendof

theyearheandhisarmyweresecurelyensconcedinPhocis,withineasystriking
distanceofAthens.
InoneofthemostfamouspassagesinGreekliterature,Demosthenesproudly
recalledthatonlyhehadthecouragetoaddresstheassembly,whennewsreached
AthensofPhilipspresenceinPhocis.
AtdawnthenextdaythePrytaneiscalledtheCounciltotheChamber,andcitizens
movedintotheAssembly....TheCouncilappeared,announcedthenewstheyhad
received,andbroughtforwardtheirinformanttorepeatit.Theheraldthenvoiced
thequestionWhodesirestospeak?Noonemoved.Thequestionwasrepeated
severaltimeswithoutamanstandingup,thoughallthestrategoiwerethere,allthe
orators,andthevoiceofAthenscalledforawordtosaveher....Icameforwardand
addressedtheAssembly.
(OntheCrown,pp.169172;Saunders1975)
TheAtheniansdespairwasunderstandable.Demostheneseffortstoformagrand
GreekallianceagainstMacedonhadonlylimitedsuccess.OnlyCorinth,Megara,and
Messenia,togetherwithanumberofothercitiesinthenorthernandwestern
Peloponnesus,hadheededDemosthenes,appeal.Sparta,stillbitteraboutthe
ThebansliberationofMesseniathreedecadesearlier,remainedalooffromthe
alliance.Throughouthistory,theAthenianshavebeencensuredforfailingto
respondquicklyandvigorouslytothegrowingMacedonianthreat,butitis
importanttoremembertheroleplayedinthefinalconfrontationbytheSpartans
refusaltostandbytheirfellowGreeks.Whenbattlewasfinallyjoinedinlatesummer
338atChaeroneainBoeotia,onlytheleviesofAthensandThebesandtheBoeotian
LeagueandafewPeloponnesianunitsfacedPhilip.
AmonumentalstonelionstillgazesovertheplainofChaeronea,markingthesiteof
thispivotalbattleinworldhistory.Otherwiselittleisknownaboutthebattleitself
beyondtwofacts:Greekcasualtieswereheavy,andthedecisiveblowwasstruckby
thecompanioncavalryledbyPhilips18yearoldsonandheir,Alexander.A
thousandAthenianswerekilledandanothertwothousandcap
387
Figure10.5.Thisburialmonumentmarksthegravesof254Thebansburiedatthe
siteofthebattleofChaeronea.
tured;theThebanscherishedSacredBandwasslaughteredtoaman.Philips
triumphoverhisGreekfoeswascomplete.WhetherPhiliphadplannedallalongto
conquerGreeceisunknown.AfterhisvictoryatChaeronea,however,anyresistance

tohisauthorityinGreecewouldhavebeenfutile.Allthatremainedtobedetermined
wastheformMacedoniandominationofGreecewouldtake.
MACEDONIANDOMINATIONOFGREECE
AccordingtothehistorianDiodorus,adrunkenPhilipcelebratedhisvictoryby
mockingtheGreekdeaduntilanAthenianprisoner,thepoliticianDemades,sobered
himupwiththeremarkthathisconductillbefittedagreatking.Whetherthestoryis
trueornot,PhilipsdecisionsafterChaeroneareflectedcarefulthought.Exactlywhen
PhilipdecidedtoattackPersiaisuncertain,buthisactionsintheaftermathofthe
battlemakeitclearthatthedecisionhadalreadybeenmadebytheearly330s.
Philipsimmediateconcernwashowtodealwithhistwoprincipalenemies.The
Thebansweretreatedwithexemplaryharshness.AsThebeshadalongrecordof
collaborationwithPersiaandwasMacedonschiefrivalforpowerincentraland
northernGreece,Philiptookadvantageofhisvictorytobreakthe
388
cityspower.ThebanandotherBoeotianprisonerswerereleasedonlyafterpayment
ofaheavyransom.Thebespoliticalleaderswereeitherexecutedorexiled.A
MacedoniangarrisonwasinstalledontheCadmea,thecitysacropolis.Finally,
ThebeswasstrippedofitstraditionalpositionofleadershipintheBoeotianLeague.
PhilipstreatmentofAthenswasdramaticallydifferent.Atheniansupportwas
essentialtothelongtermpacificationofGreece.Adifficultsiegewouldberequired
tocapturethecity,andinthemeantime,itsfleetcouldseriouslyinterferewithhis
projectedPersiancampaign.Consequently,Athensescapedsignificantpunishment
despiteitsleadingroleinthewar.Athenianprisonerswerereturnedwithout
ransom,andthebodiesoftheAtheniandeadwereescortedbacktothecitybyan
honorguardledbyAlexanderandAntipater,Philipsmosttrustedgeneral.Nordid
PhilipobjectwhenDemosthenes,hismostimplacableopponent,deliveredthe
funeralorationoverthedeadofChaeronea.
Philipsactionswerewellreceived.FewGreeksregrettedthehumiliationofThebes,
whosearbitrarybehaviorinthedecadessincetheBattleofLeuctrahadbred
widespreadresentment.Athens,foritspart,respondedtoPhilipsunexpected
leniencybyshoweringthecitysformerenemieswithhonors.Antipaterand
AlexanderweremadeAtheniancitizensandacultwasestablishedinPhilipshonor
inoneofthecitysgymnasia.Needlesstosay,AtheniansuspicionofPhilips
intentionsorthoseofhissupportersatAthensdidnotdisappear:alawpassedin337
promisedseverepenaltiesforanyonewhoconspiredtooverthrowthedemocracy
andestablishatyranny.Some,however,welcomedMacedonasaforceinAthenian

politics.AfterChaeroneaasbefore,allshadesofopinionthrivedinthecityalong
withavarietyofsentimentstowardPhiliprangingfromreverencetohatred.
Officially,however,relationswereamicable.AntipaterandAlexanderwerenotthe
onlyMacedoniansubjectstobenefitfromthethawinrelationsbetweenPhilipand
Athens.AthenianinscriptionsdemonstratethatcontactbetweenAthensandthe
MacedoniancourtbecameincreasinglycommonintheyearsaftertheBattleof
Chaeronea.Oneofthosewhotookadvantageofthenewrelationshipbetween
AthensandMacedonwasthephilosopherAristotle.AclosefriendofAntipaterand
theformertutorofAlexander,AristotlereturnedtoAthensin335andremained
thereuntil322,whenrenewedantiMacedoniansentimentforcedhimtofleeto
Euboea.Therehediedthesameyear.
TheschoolthatAristotlefoundedatAthens,theLyceum,becamethemodelforthe
greatresearchinstitutionsoftheHellenisticperiod.Philip,however,hadnosuch
elevatedgoalsinmindwhenhesodramaticallydispatchedAntipaterandAlexander
toAthensin337.Hisimmediatepurposewastoavoidadifficultsiegeandwin
AthensacquiescenceinhisplansforGreece,andhiscalculatedgenerositylargely
succeededinachievingthosegoals.Athensofferednofurtherresistanceto
MacedonianpreeminenceinGreece.Moreimportant,theAtheniansagreedtosend
representativestothegeneralmeetingofGreekstatesatCorinththatPhilipcalledin
thesummerof337BC,wherePhiliprevealedhisplansforthefuture.
389
TheCorinthianLeague
ExceptfortheSpartans,whorefusedtoattend,allthemajorGreekstatessent
representativestoCorinthtolearnPhilipsplans.Noaccountofwhattranspiredat
Corinthsurvives,butthemainpointsofPhilipsproposalsareknown.The
centerpieceoftheneworderwasanalliance,traditionallyreferredtoasthe
CorinthianLeague,butwhichPhilipcalledsimplytheGreeks.Thepurposeofthe
alliancewastwofold:tomaintainacommonpeaceinGreeceandtoretaliateagainst
thePersiansfortheinvasionof480BCandotheractsofaggressionagainstGreeks.
Toachievethoseends,thecouncil(synedrion)ofthealliancewasempoweredtopass
decreesbindingonmemberstates,toarbitratedisputesbetweenthem,andtotry
individualsaccusedofbetrayingthegoalsandpoliciesofthealliance.Memberstates
ofthealliancealsoreceivedpledgesofmutualnonaggressionandpromisesof
supportagainstattackorsubversionoftheirgovernments.Notsurprisingly,Philips
proposalswereapprovedbythedelegates,andhewasappointedhgemn,(leader)
oftheallianceandcommanderofthewarofrevengeagainstthePersians.

Document10.2OathofMembersoftheLeagueofCorinth(338337BC)Fragment
ofanAthenianinscriptionrecordingtheoathswornbytheAthenianswhenthey
ratifiedthetreatyestablishingtheLeagueofCorinth.
Oath.IswearbyZeus,Earth,Sun,Poseidon,Athena,Ares,andallthegodsand
goddesses.Iwillabidebythepeace,andIwillnotbreaktheagreementswithPhilip
theMacedonian,norwillItakeuparmswithhostileintentagainstanyoneofthose
whoabidebytheoathseitherbylandorbysea.Iwillnotseizeinwarbyanydevice
orstratagemanycityorfortorharborbelongingtothosewhosharethepeace,nor
willIsuppressthekingdomofPhiliporofhisdescendantsortheconstitutionsin
forceamonganyofthose[whosharethepeace],whentheysworetheoaths
concerningthepeace.Iwillnotcommitanyactthatcontravenestheagreementsnor
willIpermitanyothertodoso.Ifanyonebreakstheagreements,Iwillassistthose
whohavebeenwrongedinaccordancewiththeirrequestsandIwillfightagainst
thosewhobreakthecommonpeacejustasthecommoncouncilandtheleader
(hgemn)decide....
InscriptionesGraecae2.236.
HistorianshavelongrecognizedthattheprimarypurposeoftheLeagueofCorinth
wastolegitimizePhilipsdominationofGreece,anditdidsoinawaythatwasall
themoreeffectivebecauseitreflectedimportanttrendsincontemporaryGreek
thought.EversincetheendofthePeloponnesianWar,Greekpoliticiansand
thinkers,dismayedbychronicpoliticalandsocialunrest,had
390
soughtwaystoendtheconstantwarfarethatplaguedfourthcenturyGreece.In
worksliketheRepublicandtheLaws,Platoandotherphilosophersofferedutopian
visionsofidealcitiesfreeofstasisthattheythemselvesknewcouldnotberealized.
MorepragmaticthinkerssoughttoredefinetheplaceofwarinGreeklife.They
denouncedwarsbetweenGreeksascivilwars,whileinsistingthatwarsagainst
barbarianswereinherentlyjustorevendesirableasawayofreducinginternal
tensionsinGreece.Theseideaswereembodiedintherepeatedattemptstoestablish
commonpeaces,suchastheKingsPeaceanditsvarioussuccessors,thatareso
characteristicoffourthcenturyGreekdiplomacy.
ThemostprominentofthejustwartheoristswastheAthenianeducatorIsocrates.
Isocrateswasalmost100yearsoldwhentheBattleofChaeroneaoccurred.
Throughouthislongcareerasaspeechwriterandteacherofrhetoric,hehad
broodedonGreeceschronicsocialproblems.Hisproposedsolution,aswehaveseen
inChapter9,wasconqueringaportionofthePersianempire,providingaplaceto
whicheconomicallydeprivedandpotentiallydangeroussegmentsofGreeksociety
couldemigrate.HehadappealedinvaintovariousGreekrulers,including

DionysiusIofSyracuseandJasonofPherae,toforciblyuniteGreeceandleaditina
crusadeagainstPersia.PhilipmusthaveseemedIsocrateslastchancetoseehis
dreamrealized.Unfortunately,wedonotknowhowPhiliprespondedwhenhe
invitedhimtoleadsuchacrusadeafterhisvictoryattheBattleofChaeronea,butby
unitingintheLeagueofCorinththeideasofacommonpeaceandacrusade
againstPersiaPhilipwasexploitingideasthathaddeeprootsinfourthcenturyBC
Greece.
TheDeathofPhilipII
TheCorinthianLeaguesapprovalofPhilipsplanforaPersianwarwaswelltimed.
Theearly330swereatimeofseverecrisisforthePersianempire.Theablebut
ruthlesskingArtaxerxesIII(358338BC)hadstruggledthroughouthisreignto
rebuildPersianpower,andbythelate340shiseffortshadbeencrownedwith
success.Heendedthesatrapalrebellionsthathaddisruptedthereignofhisfather
ArtaxerxesII(405359BC),reestablishedPersianauthorityinPhoeniciaandAsia
Minor,andevenreconqueredEgypt,whichhadbeenindependentsincetheendof
thefifthcentury.
Artaxerxespowerrivaledthatofhisgreatsixthandfifthcenturyancestors.
DemosthenesandotherenemiesofPhiliplookedtothePersiankingforassistance
againstMacedon.ButdisasterstruckalmostassoonasPersiahadreemergedasa
significantfactorintheaffairsoftheeasternMediterraneanbasin.In338,an
ambitiouseunuchnamedBagoasassassinatedArtaxerxesIIIandprecipitateda
successioncrisisthatlastedforalmosttwoyears.OnlyafterarelativeofArtaxerxes
succeededinkillingthetreacherouseunuchandhimselfascendedthethroneof
PersiaasDariusIIIdidthecrisisendandasemblanceofstabilityreturn.
In336,PhilipquicklytookadvantageofthechaosattheheartofthePersianempire
bysendinganexpeditionaryforceacrosstheHellespont,commandedby
391
histrustedgeneralParmenion.AstheMacedonianarmymovedsouthwarddown
thewestcoastofAnatolia,PhilipssupportersinvariousGreekcitiesrevoltedand
overthrewtheirproPersiantyrants.AtEresusonLesbos,thenewgovernment
signaleditsadhesiontotheMacedoniancausebyestablishingaculttoZeus
Philippios;atEphesusPhilipssupportershadastatueofthekingplacedinthe
templeofArtemis.ThesuccessesachievedbyParmenionandhisexpeditionaryforce
in336auguredwellforthemaincampaignPhilipwastoleadthefollowingyear.
Beforethatcampaigncouldtakeplace,however,fateintervened.Inthesummerof
336,PhilipwasassassinatedatAegaebyamemberofhisownbodyguardnamed
Pausanias.Hisassassinationwastheclimaxoftheturbulencethathadmarkedhis

personallifeduringthelastyearsofhisreign,resultingfromhisseventhmarriagein
338.FormostofhisreignPhilipsqueenhadbeenhisfourthwife,theEpirote
princessOlympias,whoborehisdesignatedheir,Alexander.Hisothermarriagesto
Thessalian,Thracian,Illyrian,andevenScythianbrideshadserveddiplomaticends
withoutthreateningOlympiaspositionatcourt.Philipsseventhmarriagewas
different.Forthefirsttime,PhiliptookaMacedonianbride,ayoungwomannamed
Cleopatra,andalliedhimselftoapowerfulMacedoniannoblefamily.
ScholarshavebeenunabletoexplainPhilipsfinalmarriage.Ancientwriterssawitas
theresultofadisastrousinfatuationwithayoungerwoman.Somemodernscholars
havesuggestedthatPhilipmayhavehopedthatthenewmarriagemightresultin
additionalsonstostrengthenhisfamilysholdonthethrone.WhateverPhilipsplans
mayhavebeen,thedramaticconsequencesofhismarriagequicklybecameevident.
InshortorderbothOlympiasandAlexanderfellfromfavorandfledintoexile,
amidsttalkthatPhilipintendedtosupplanthissonwithaMacedonianheir.
Asitturnedout,thethreattoAlexanderspositionendedalmostassuddenlyasit
hadbegun.In337CleopatraborePhilipadaughternamedEuropa.Thechildsname
borewitnesstoPhilipsunderstandableprideinhisaccomplishments,butawoman
couldnotsucceedtotheMacedonianthrone.Withoutanewsontoreplace
Alexanderasheir,Philiphadnochoicebuttoreconcilewithhim.Amutualfriend,
DemaratusofCorinth,effectedtherapprochement.AlthoughOlympiasremainedin
exileinEpirus,AlexanderreturnedtoPellaandresumedhisplaceatcourt.Thecrisis
overthesuccessionhadended,itseemed,withoutseriousconsequences.
Indirectly,however,PhilipsilladvisedmarriagetoCleopatraprovedtobehis
undoing.TheunioninevitablyembroiledPhilipintheenmitiesofherfamily,and
oneoftheminvolvedhisassassin,Pausanias.AccordingtoAristotle,Pausaniaskilled
PhilipbecausehehadbeenabusedbyCleopatrasuncleAttalusandPhiliphaddone
nothingaboutit.ThedetailsarepreservedbyDiodorus,whomakesitclearthatthe
abusehadbeenextreme.AttalusservantshadrapedPausanias.Themotiveforthis
atrociousactwasrevengeforthedeathofayoungrelativeofAttalus,whom
PausaniashadslanderedbecausePhiliphadchosenthelatteras
392
hislover.Unwillingtoendangerhisalliancewithhisnewqueensfamily,Philip
soughttopalliatePausaniasgrievancebypromotinghimtothecovetedrankof
royalbodyguard.
Philipseffortstomollifytheyoungmanwereconspicuouslyunsuccessful,andthe
weddingofPhilipsdaughterCleopatragavePausaniasanopportunityfor
vengeance.Theclimaxoftheweddingfestivitieswasasplendidprocessionledby
Philip.AstheprocessionenteredthetheateratAegae,Pausaniasrushedforwardand

stabbedPhiliptodeathbeforethestartledeyesoftheguestswhohadcomefromall
overtheMacedonianempiretowitnessthekingstriumph.Soendedthereignofthe
mostcontroversialofallMacedoniankings.
***
CouldGreekunionandresolvehavepreventedtheMacedoniantakeover?
TwentiethcenturyhistorianshavesometimescomparedPhilipwithHitler,casting
DemosthenesintheroleofWinstonChurchill(aconstructdeeplyflatteringto
Demosthenes,whoseeffortsfailedconspicuously).Whetherornottheanalogyhas
validity,itraisesthequestionwhetherPhilipssuccesswasnotcontingentonGreek
vacillationandappeasementandonthecollusionofproMacedonianfactionsinthe
poleis:itisimportanttorememberPhocionslongstandingaffectionforMacedon.
Thisquestionseemsultimatelyunanswerable,forhistoryisnotalaboratoryscience,
andwehavenowayofreplayingthefourthcenturyBCwithahealthier,richer,and
lessdividedGreece.WhatisclearisthatPhilipIlwasaremarkableman.
Sinceantiquity,historianshavehaddifficultyassessingPhilipandhisachievements.
PolybiuswasbewilderedbytheopeningofTheopompusofChiosgreathistoryof
Philip.ItbeganwiththeobservationthatEuropehadneverproducedamanlike
PhilipandthenwentontocataloguePhilipscrimesandfollies,includinghis
unbridledsexualityanddrunkenness,hisbetrayalofhisfriendsandallies,andhis
destructionofGreekcities.Assoofteninsuchmatters,theproblemispartlyoneof
perspective.PolybiuswrotetwocenturiesafterPhilipsdeathandfounditdifficultto
sympathizewithTheopompus,afourthcenturyGreekwhohadviewedPhilip
primarilyasaforeign,malignantforceinGreekaffairsandnotasthefounderof
Macedoniangreatness.
Whichpointofviewiscorrect?Infact,bothhavemerit.Itisimpossibletodenythat
inmanywaysPhilipsinfluenceoncontemporaryGreekaffairswasnegative.The
destructionofcitiessuchasAmphipolis,Methone,Stagira,andOlynthusiswell
documented.Nevertheless,PhilipwasfirstandforemostkingofMacedon.His
primaryconcernwasthewelfareofMacedon,notthatofGreece.Inthatregardhe
succeeded.Inthetwentyfouryearsofhisreign,PhiliptransformedMacedonfroma
kingdomonthevergeofdissolutiontoaunifiedstate,rulinganempirethat
extendedfromtheDanubetosouthernGreece.Whetherhisplanstoextend
MacedonianpowerintoAsiawereasgrandioseasthosecarriedoutlaterby
Alexandercannotbeknown.Nevertheless,itisclearthatwithoutPhilipslegacyofa
united,powerfulMacedontheachievementsofAlexanderandhissuccessorswould
havebeenimpossible.
393
TRANSLATIONS

Chinnock,EdwardJames.1893.ArriansAnabasisofAlexanderandIndica.Londonand
NewYork:G.Bell&Sons.
Saunders,A.N.W.1975.DemosthenesandAeschines.Harmondsworth,England,
Penguin.
SUGGESTEDREADING
Adcock,F.E.1957.TheGreekandMacedonianArtofWar.BerkeleyandLosAngeles:
UniversityofCaliforniaPress.LucidintroductiontoGreekandMacedonianideasof
war.
Andronicos,Manolis.1984.Vergina:TheRoyalTombs.Trans.LouiseTurner.Athens:
EkdotikeAthenon.BeautifullyillustratedaccountofthediscoveryoftheMacedonian
royalcemeteryatVergina.
Borza,EugeneN.1990.IntheShadowofOlympus:TheEmergenceofMacedon.Princeton,
N.J.:PrincetonUniversityPress.InsightfulhistoryofthekingdomofMacedonfrom
itsorigintothereignofPhilipII.
Cawkwell,George.1978.PhilipofMacedon.London:Faber&Faber.Perceptive
biographyofPhilipfromaGreekviewpoint.
Ellis,J.R.1976.PhilipIIandMacedonianImperialism.London:ThamesandHudson.
LucidtreatmentofPhilipsreignfromaMacedonianviewpoint.
Martin,ThomasR.1985.SovereigntyandCoinageinClassicalGreece.Princeton,N.J.:
PrincetonUniversityPress.Importantstudyofthenumismaticevidencefor
MacedonianrelationswithThessaly.
Sealey,Raphael.1993.DemosthenesandHisTime:AStudyinDefeat.NewYork:Oxford
UniversityPress.ImportantrevisionistbiographyoftheAthenianstatesman.
394
11
ALEXANDERTHEGREAT
RarelyhasanepochmakingreignbeguninsuchuncertaintyasthatofAlexanderthe
Great.Inhisreignofalmosttwoandahalfdecades,Alexandersfather,PhilipII,had
transformedMacedonintoastrong,centralizedmonarchy.Philipsmilitaryreforms
hadmadeMacedonthepremiermilitarypowerintheregion,controllinganempire
thatstretchedfromtheDanubeRiverinthenorthtoThessalyinthesouth.By
creatingtheLeagueofCorinth,PhiliphadextendedMacedonianinfluencedeepinto

southernGreeceandgainedthepublicsupportofhisGreeksubjectsandalliesforhis
projectedinvasionofAsia.Philipsassassinationontheeveofhisdeparturetojoin
hisforcesintheeastthreatenedtoruinnotonlyhisAsianadventure,butallofhis
achievements.
Likehisfathers,Alexandersreignbeganwithasuccessioncrisis.AlexanderIIIwas
only20yearsoldatthetimeofhisfathersdeathinthesummerof336BC.Omens
werelatersaidtohaveforecasthisrule.Hismother,Olympias,whohadmuchto
gaininsecuringthesuccessionforherson,claimedtohavedreamedthatlightning
struckherwomb.ThegreattempleofArtemisatEphesuswasbelievedtohavebeen
destroyedbyfireonthedayAlexanderwasborn.AlthoughPhiliphadoffspring
fromseveralofhiswives,Alexanderwasclearlytreatedashisfathersheirformost
ofPhilipsreign.
PhilipandOlympiasgroomedAlexandercarefullyfortherolehewouldultimately
play.AseriesofGreektutorswhoincludedAristotleprovidedhimwiththe
educationinGreekliteratureandculturethatPhiliphadlacked.Fromthem
AlexandergainedhislifelongloveofHomerandhisdeterminationtoequalorexcel
theexploitsofhislegendaryancestors,HeraclesandAchilles.
Alexanderspracticaltraininginkingshipwasnotneglected.HegovernedMacedon
inPhilipsabsenceandsuppressedaThracianrebellion.Likehisfather,Alexander
foundedacitynamedafterhimselfinThrace.Finally,hetookpartinPhilips
campaigns,evencommandingthecompanioncavalryinthedecisiveBattleof
ChaeroneathatestablishedMacedonianruleinGreecein338BC.Nevertheless,
Alexanderssuccessionwasnotassured.Hewasisolatedatcourtatthetimeof
Philipsdeath.OlympiasandAlexandersfriendsandadvisersremainedinexile.Not
surprisingly,rumorsquicklyspreadafterPhilipsassassinationthat
395
AlexanderhadencouragedtheassassinandthatOlympiasevenhadmournedhim.
Therewasalsotalkofotherpossiblesuccessors.Themostimportantofthese
potentialrivalswasPhilipsnephew,ward,andsoninlaw,theformerking,
AmyntasIV.OnlytimelyinterventionbyAntipater,oneofPhilipsmostsenior
Figure11.1.Alexanderscampaign.
396
generals,savedthesuccessionforAlexander.AntipaterspresentationofAlexander
totheMacedoniantroopsatAegaeforthetraditionalacclamationasking,combined

withthedeathoftheassassinPausaniasandtherapidcondemnationandexecution
ofhisallegedfellowconspirators,securedthethronefortheyoungprince.Italso
changedthehistoryofwesternAsia.
397
SOURCESFORTHEREIGNOFALEXANDER
TheEnglishpoetChaucer(d.1400)wroteinTheMonksTale(lines641643)thatthe
storieofAlisaundreissocommune,/thateverywightthathathdiscrecioun/hath
herdsomewhatoralofhisfortune.FormostoftheMiddleAges,themostwidely
readnonreligiousbookintheOldWorldwasaromanticbiographyofAlexander
(thesocalledAlexanderRomance)thatfreelymingledhistorywithfiction.The
popularityofhisremarkablestoryhascontinuedtothepresent,inspiringfilmsand
novels.AselectivebibliographyofworksdealingwithAlexandercontainedthetitles
ofalmostsevenhundredstudiespublishedbetween1700and1970,anddozensof
newexplorationsofhisreignhaveappearedeveryyearsince.Despitethisvast
outpouringofscholarship,interpretationsofAlexanderscharacterandgoalsdiffer
widely.HistorianshavecastAlexanderinmanyroles:asthechiefagentinthe
spreadofHellenism,asanidealisticbelieverintheunityofmankind,asanAryan
superman,and,morerecently,asabrutalconquerorwithoutconstructiveplansfor
thefutureofhisempire.Thereasonsforthislackofagreementoneventhemost
basicissuesofAlexandersbiographyamongGreekhistoriansareclear:the
limitationsoftheavailablesourcesforhislifeandreignandhistoriansdifficultyin
transcendingtheirownhistoricalcontext.Althougharchaeologyhasrevealedmuch
aboutthetimesinwhichAlexanderlived,includingthediscoveryofunlootedtombs
thatmaybelongtohisfatherandson,historiansmuststillrelyontheevidence
containedinGreekandLatinliteraturefortheessentialdetailsofhislifeandcareer.
TheancientevidenceconcerningAlexanderoriginallywasvariedandextensive.
Alexanderhimselfactivelypromotedthedevelopmentofliteratureabouthimself
andhisachievements.Inadditiontoengineersandothertechnicalexperts,his
entourageincludedanofficialhistorian(anephewofAristotlenamedCallisthenes)
aswellaspoetsandscholarswhoweretocelebratehisconquestsanddescribethe
discoveriesmadeduringhiscampaign.Inthetwogenerationsfollowinghisdeath,
theliterarytraditionconcerningAlexanderwasenrichedbythepublicationof
numerousworksbothephemerasuchaspoliticalpamphletsandsubstantialhistories
ofhisreignwrittenbyparticipantsinhisexpeditionincludingtheadmiralNearchus,
theCynicphilosopherOnesicritus,andthelaterkingofEgypt,PtolemyI.The
treatmentofAlexandersreignintheseworksrangedfromofficialapologiai(i.e.,
defensesagainstcriticism)toheroicadventurestory.Unfortunately,noneofthe
historiesbyAlexanderscontemporariessurvivesinitsoriginalform.Ourlimited
knowledgeoftheircontentsisbasedonthecollectionandintensiveanalysisby

modernscholarsofthefewextantquotations,summaries,orallusionstothemfound
inlaterwriters.
TherecentpublicationofcuneiformtextsconcerningAlexanderholdsoutthehope
ofthediscoveryofnewsourcesthatwouldprovideamuchneededAsian
perspectiveontheMacedonianconquest.ModernhistoriansreconstructAlexanders
lifefromthefiveextantbiographiesofAlexander,namely,thosecontainedinthe
universalhistoriesofDiodorus(firstcenturyBC)andPompeiusTrogus(first
centuryBC),thelatterextantonlyintheformofanabridgmentpreparedin
398
thesecondcenturyADbyanotherwiseunknownwriternamedJustin;theHistoryof
AlexanderbyQuintusCurtiusRufus(firstcenturyAD);PlutarchLifeofAlexander
(secondcenturyAD);andtheAnabasisofAlexanderbyArrian(secondcenturyAD).
Thesebiographieswereallwrittenbetweenthreehundredandfivehundredyears
afterthekingsdeathandreflecttheinterestsandideasoftheearlyRomanempire,a
periodverydifferentfromthatinwhichAlexanderlived.Theirvaluedepends,
therefore,onthefactthattheydrewtheirinformationfromthenowlostworksof
Alexanderscontemporaries.Asnoinfalliblemethodofevaluatingtherelativemerits
ofeachofthefivelatebiographieshasyetbeendevised,thevariationinmodern
assessmentsofAlexanderresultsinlargepartfromthedifferingjudgmentsof
scholarsconcerningtheweighttobeassignedtotheirevidence.Ononematter,
however,allbiographersofAlexander,ancientandmodern,agree:Alexanders
personalactionswereofdecisiveimportanceinshapingtheremarkableeventsofhis
reign.
CONSOLIDATINGPOWER
Alexanderspersonalrolewasnevermoreimportantthaninthecriticalfirstyearof
hisreign.ThesupportofPhilipsseniorcommandershadbeenindispensablein
securingthesuccessionforAlexander.Intheaftermathofhisaccession,theyurged
theyoungkingtoproceedcautiously,consolidatinghisbaseinMacedonandusing
diplomacytoconciliateMacedonsnorthernsubjectsandallies,evenattheriskof
losinginfluenceinGreece.SuchcautionwasnottoAlexanderstaste,andnotforthe
lasttimeherejectedtheadviceoftheMacedonianoldguardinfavorofdecisive
action.
GreecefirstclaimedAlexandersattention.Immediatelyafterconductinghisfathers
funeral,Alexandermadeasuddenanddramaticappearancethere.AntiMacedonian
politiciansatAthensandThebesquicklyabandonedplanstoexploitapresumed
weaknessinMacedoninthewakeofPhilipsassassinationandtofreeGreecefrom
continuedMacedonianrule.AlexanderwasconfirmedinPhilipsformerpositionsas
archnofThessalyandhgemnoftheCorinthianLeague,andGreeksupportforthe

waragainstPersiawasreaffirmed.AfterabriefstayinMacedonfollowinghisreturn
fromGreece,Alexanderwagedanevenmorewiderangingnortherncampaignin
thespringof335,intendedtoimpressontheThraciansandIllyriansthatPhilips
deathwouldbringnoeasingoftheMacedonianyoke.
AlexandersfirstmajorcampaignextendedasfarnorthasthebanksoftheDanube.
Onlysketchyaccountsofthecourseofeventssurvive,butitisclearthatAlexander
achievedhisprincipalgoalsinthenorth.HismaintargetwastheTriballi,whohad
humiliatedPhilipin339duringhisreturnmarchtoMacedonafterhisvictoryover
theScythians.TheTriballisattempttoholdakeypassagainstAlexanderfailed,
thankstothedisciplineofhisMacedoniantroops,whoquicklyclearedapathforthe
wagonstheirenemiessentcareeningdownthemountaininthehopeofbreaking
theirline.Triballianresistancecollapsedshortlythere
399
afterwhenAlexanderdefeatedtheirmainforcesandthenlaunchedanamphibious
assaultonanislandwheretheTriballihadplacedtheirwomenandchildrenfor
safety.AlexandersdramaticraidinforceacrosstheDanubeintotheterritoryofthe
GetaegainedthesubmissionoftheremainingThraciantribes.Alexanderalso
concludedatreatyoffriendshipwithagroupofGauls,thevanguardofamigration
thatwasgreatlytoaffectsoutheasternEuropeandAnatoliaintheearlyHellenistic
period.
Havingsecuredhisnorthernfrontier,AlexanderturnedsouthwestwardintoIllyria
todealwithPhilipIIsoldenemy,KingCleitus.Alexanderreceivedthefirstofhis
manybattlewoundsduringthisphaseofthecampaign.Onlyhisintuitive
understandingofthepsychologicalimpactthatadisplayofMacedoniancloseorder
drillwouldhaveontheIllyriansenabledhimtoextricatehisarmyfromapotentially
disastroustrap.HeinflictedadecisivedefeatonCleitusthatfinallyendedthe
IllyrianthreattoMacedonswesternfrontierthathadloomedoversomanyofhis
predecessors.
AlexanderslongabsenceinthenorthsparkedrumorsofhisdeathinGreece.Hope
wasmothertothefact.Demosthenesevenintroducedasupposedeyewitnessof
AlexandersdeathtotheAthenianassembly.ConfidentofAthenianaid,theThebans
roseinrevolt,besiegingthecitysMacedoniangarrisonontheCadmeia,theacropolis
ofThebes,andinvitingotherGreekstatestojointheminthestruggleforfreedom.
ForcedmarchesbyAlexander,whohadbeeninformedoftheeventsunfoldingin
Greece,broughthimandhisarmyunderthewallsofThebesbeforetherebellion
couldspread.TheAthenians,whohadvotedmilitaryaidforThebes,nowhesitated.
TheSpartans,whohadfailedsostunninglytohelpatChaeronea,alsoheldback.
WhentheThebansnonethelessspurnedAlexandersdemandforsurrender,thecity

wasstormedandsacked.AlexanderorderedthatThebesBoeotianneighborsdecide
theultimatefateofthecityanditssurvivingcitizens.Alltoomindfulofpastefforts
byThebestosubduethem,theydecidedthatThebesshouldbedestroyedandthe
remainingThebanssoldintoslavery.Alexandercarriedoutthedecree,sparingfrom
destructiononlyThebestemplesandthedescendantsandhouseofitsillustrious
poet,Pindar.
ThedestructionofThebeswasrememberedforcenturiesasoneofthegreatatrocities
ofGreekhistory.Alexanderhimselfwassaidlatertohavegivenspecial
considerationtopersonalrequestsbyThebans.Forthemoment,hiscalculateduseof
terrorachieveditspurpose.AsnewsofthedestructionofThebesspread,active
resistancetoMacedonianruleceasedthroughoutGreece.Forthesecondtimeina
littleoverayear,theCorinthianLeagueacknowledgedAlexanderasitshegemon
andaffirmeditssupportforhispolicies.NowthattheexampleofThebeshorrible
fatehadsappedGreekresolve,Alexandercouldaffordtoadoptamoremoderate
stance,abandoninghisdemandsforthesurrenderofantiMacedonianleadersat
AthensandelsewhereinGreece.
Similarlyruthlessmethodswerealsousedtoneutralizepotentialoppositionin
Macedon.MeasuressuchasfreeingMacedoniansfromallpersonalobligations
exceptmilitaryservicewonAlexanderpopularityamonghissubjects,whilepotential
rivalswereeliminated.Thesourcesconcealthefullextentofthepurgebe
400
causetheyemphasizeinsteadthebrutalandunauthorizedmurderofPhilipIIslast
wifeCleopatraandherdaughterbyOlympiasduringAlexandersabsenceinGreece
in336BCInfact,themalemembersofCleopatrasfamily,whohadhopedtoprofit
fromherpositionasPhilipsqueen,werealsowipedout.Furthermore,AmyntasIV,
Alexandersonlylegitimaterivalforthethrone,wasassassinated.Thoseoftheir
supporterswhocouldescapefledtotheironlypossiblerefuge,Persia,leaving
AlexanderastheunchallengedrulerofMacedon.
InvasionofAsia
Inthespringof334BCwithhispositioninMacedonfinallysecure,Alexanderledhis
forcesacrosstheHellesponttoAsia.Hisformidablearmywasfully37,000strong.Its
coreconsistedofthe12,000Macedoniantroopswhoformedthephalanx.Theywere
supplementedby3000hypaspists(royalguards)and1800companioncavalry.In
additiontohisMacedoniantroopshisarmyincludedspeciallightarmedunitsfrom
IllyriaandThraceandalmost9000alliedGreekinfantryandcavalry.Afleetof
almosttwohundredshipsprovidedbyAlexandersGreekalliessupportedhistroops
andmaintainedhiscommunicationswithEurope.

AlexandersfirstactionsinAsiawerebold,eventheatrical.Hewasthefirst
MacedoniantolandonAsiansoil,leapingashoreandcastinghisspearintotheland
toclaimallthatheconqueredasterritorywonbythespear.Hethenwenttothe
traditionalsiteofTroy,wherehesacrificedtoAthena,askedpardonofthe
Figure11.2.LeoninehairaddstohisferocityinthisportraitofAlexanderashero
king.Romanmarblecopyaftertheheadofanoriginalstatuteofabout330Bc.
InscribedAlexandros,sonofPhilip,ofMacedon.
401
ancientTrojankingPriamforinvadingAsia,andpaidhomagetoAchilles,whohe
believedwasoneofhisancestors.
ThesymbolismsuitedtheleaderoftheGreekcrusade,butseriousproblemslay
behindallthebravado.TomaintainhisauthorityinMacedonandGreece,Alexander
hadbeencompelledtoleavealmosthalfhisMacedoniantroopsbehindinEurope
withAntipater.InAsiaeverythingwonbyPhilipsadvanceguardin336hadbeen
losttoavigorousPersiancounteroffensiveexceptforthebridgeheadatAbydus.
Worseyet,Alexanderhadsufficientfundsforonlyabriefcampaign;andhisfriends
didnotyetholdimportantpositionsinthegovernmentandarmy.InMacedon,
Antipatergovernedasregentinhisname.AlexanderssecondincommandinAsia
wasParmenion,aclosefriendofAntipater,anduntilPhilipsdeath,anallyof
Cleopatrasfamily.Moreover,Parmenionsrelativesheldkeycommandsinthe
armyscriticalcavalryunits.Alexanderneededaquickvictorytoachievethegoalsof
hiscampaignandensurehisfreedomfromthedominationoftheMacedonian
aristocratswhohadmadehimking.Fortunatelyforhim,thePersiansprovedtobe
convenientenemies.
TheBattleofGranicus(334BC)
ThevastsizeofthePersianempiremeantthatmobilizationofitsmainforcesto
confrontathreatonaremotefrontierwasalwaysslow.Inthemeantime,local
satrapshadtorelyonthelimitedforcesstationedintheirterritoriestocopewiththe
initialphasesofaninvasion.Insuchcircumstances,satrapsnormallyuseda
defensivestrategythataimedatcontrollingkeystrongpointswhiledenyingthe
enemyuseoflocalresourcesuntiltheGreatKingcouldmobilizetheempires
financialandmilitaryforces,andbringthemtobearontheinvader.Suchastrategy
wasinfactproposedbyMemnon,theRhodiangeneralwhohaddefendedAsia
MinoragainstParmenionsforcestheyearbefore.TheAnatoliansatraps,however,
werejealousofMemnonshighstandingwithDariusandunwillingtoriskhavingto
justifythelossesinrevenueandthedestructionofroyallandsthatsuchastrategy

wouldentail.Insteadtheychoseaboldercourse,decidingtoconfrontAlexander
directlyinbattleinthehopeofkillinghim.
Thestrategyalmostworked.ThePersiansmetAlexanderattheRiverGranicus,the
modernKoabas,innorthwestAnatolia.Theirpositionwasstrong.Theircavalrywas
stationedalongtheriverbankitselftopreventtheMacedoniansfromsuccessfully
crossingtheriver;theirinfantry,includingseveralthousandGreekmercenary
troops,werepostedbehindthemassupport.Thedetailsofthebattleitselfare
unclear.AlexanderapparentlyoverruledParmenionssuggestionthathewaituntil
thenextdaytoattackinordertoallowhissoldierstorecoverfromtheirmarch.
Instead,heorderedanimmediateattack.Thefightingwashard,anddisasterwas
barelyaverted.
ThePersiansnearlysucceededinkillingAlexander,whostoodoutclearlyinthe
flamboyantarmorofAchillesthathehadtakenfromthetempleofAthenaatTroy.
ThekingwassavedfromcertaindeathonlybythedaringactionofCleitustheBlack,
thebrotherofAlexandersnurse:atacrucialmomentCleitussliced
402
offthearmofaPersiannoblewhowasabouttodealafatalblowtoanalreadydazed
Alexander.BecausethePersianshadstakedeverythingonkillingAlexander,the
failureoftheirplanbroughtdisaster.TrappedbetweentheMacedoniansandtheir
owninfantry,thebulkofthePersiancavalrywasslaughtered.ThePersianinfantry,
whichhadtakennopartinthebattle,fledandabandonedtheGreekmercenaries
whoformedthecoreofthePersianarmy.Sincemanyofthesewereexiledenemiesof
MacedonianruleinGreece,itisnotsurprisingthatAlexanderorderedallbuttwo
thousandofthemmassacredastraitorstotheGreekcause.Thesurvivorsweresent
toMacedoniatoworkinchains.Alexanderboldlyannouncedhisvictorytothe
GreekworldbysendingtoAthensthreehundredsuitsofPersianarmorasa
dedicationtoAthenawiththeinscription:FromAlexander,thesonofPhilip,and
theGreeks,excepttheSpartans.HisbarbedreferencetotheSpartanshighlighted
theirrefusaltojointheLeagueofCorinthandshareinthePanhelleniccrusade
againstPersiathathewasleading.
AlexandersdecisivevictoryattheGranicuschangedthecharacterofthewar.Their
defeatdeprivedthePersiansofaprincipaladvantage:nolongercouldtheymountan
effectivedefenseinAnatoliawhileexploitingtheirnavalsuperiorityandfinancial
resourcestoharassAlexanderscommunicationswithMacedonandfomentrebellion
inGreece.WithmostofthePersiancommandersdeadandmuchoftheirbestcavalry
andGreekmercenarieslost,thePersianpositioninAnatoliadisintegrated.Although
thePhoenicianfleetfreelycruisedtheAegean,theGreeksasawholerefusedto
committhemselvestothePersiancause.Alexandersforces,meanwhile,sweptsouth

alongthewestcoastofAnatolia.FierceresistancebythePersiangarrisonsatMiletus
andHalicarnassusslowedtheMacedonianadvancebutcouldnotstopit.Inquick
successionthesatrapiesofLydia,Caria,andLyciafelltoAlexander.Bythespringof
333,AlexanderhadreachedGordium,thecapitaloftheancientkingdomofPhrygia,
nearmodernAncyraincentralAnatolia.Inlessthanayear,Isocratesonceseemingly
impossibledreamofseveringAnatoliafromthePersianempirehadbeenrealized.
Thefirstyearofthecampaignalsoexposedtheunresolvedconflictinherentin
AlexanderspositionashegemonoftheLeagueofCorinthandleaderoftheGreek
crusade,andkingofMacedon.AshegemonhewasrequiredtorespectGreek
opinionandthecommitmentsheandPhiliphadmadetotheLeagueofCorinth.
Consequently,hepunishedtheGreekmercenariesaftertheBattleoftheGranicus
andturneddeposedproPersiantyrantsovertothecounciloftheLeagueofCorinth
fortrial.AskingofMacedon,however,conqueredterritorywashistodowithashe
sawfit,andincreasinglyhisinterestsaskingoverrodehisobligationstotheLeague
andhisconcernforGreekopinion.
GreekReaction
AlexandermadehissupremacyclearimmediatelyafterhisvictoryattheGranicus.
HetoldrepresentativesofGreekandnonGreekcitiesthathadsurrenderedtohimto
obeytheirnewMacedoniansatrapandpaytohimthesametributetheyhadpaidto
thePersians.Alexanderretainedtheexistingpatternofsatrapalgov
403
ernmentelsewhereinAnatolia.Whenitbecameclearthathispreviousseverityhad
onlystiffenedtheresolveofGreekmercenariesinPersianservicetofight,heeased
thetermsforsurrenderofferedtothem.Similarly,activesupportfordemocracyin
theGreekcitiesofAsiabecameroyalpolicyonlywhendemocraticfactionsoffered
theirsupporttotheMacedonianforces.Citiessoliberated,however,foundtheirnew
freedomhedgedaboutwithrestraints.Theywerefreeoftheobligationtopay
tributetothePersians,buttheynowhadtomakefinancialcontributionstothe
Macedonianmilitaryeffortandwereseverelypunishediftheyobjected.Moreover,
asaseriesofinscriptionsfromChiosandotherAsiancitiesreveal,Alexanderfreely
intervenedintheinternalaffairsoftheGreekcitiesofAsiawheneverhethoughtit
necessary.
ThedevelopmentofhisrelationswithhisnewnonGreeksubjectswassimilar.
BefittinghispositionasthehegemonoftheLeagueofCorinth,thefirstnewsatraps
AlexanderappointedwereMacedonians.Inthecourseofthecampaign,however,
Alexandertookstepstowinlocalsupport.InCaria,heentrustedthecivil
administrationoftheareatoQueenAda,whoadoptedhimashersonandheir.At

thesametime,controlofmilitaryaffairsremainedinthehandsofaMacedonian
garrisoncommanderresponsibletohimself.
AlexanderpursuedthesamepolicyelsewhereinAnatolia,appointingPersian
satrapsforCappadociaandArmenia.Althoughcircumstancespreventedtheselatter
appointmentsfrombecomingeffective,thepolicywasclear.NonGreekleaderswho
recognizedAlexandercouldexpectroyalfavorandpromotion.AlthoughIsocrates
haddreamedofanewgreaterGreeceinAnatolia,thetruesituationwasmore
accuratelyreflectedinthesymbolismofAlexandersdramaticseveringofthe
Gordianknot.Accordingtoafamouslegend,ruleoverAsiawaspromisedto
whomeverloosedthecomplexknotthatconnectedthedrawpoletothewagonthe
firstMidashadriddenwhenhebecamekingofPhrygia.WhilehewasatGordium,
Alexanderfulfilledtheprophecybyslashingthroughtheknotwithhissword,
allowingnodoubtthatanewkinghadariseninAsia.
Document11.1LetterofAlexandertotheChians(334BC)Thetensionbetween
AlexandersclaimtohavefreedtheGreekcitiesofAsiaandtherealityof
Macedonianpowerisparticularlyclearinthisletterofinstructionsconcerningthe
reformofthecitysgovernmentthatAlexanderwrotetothecitizensofChios:
AlltheexilesfromChiosaretoreturnandthegovernmentatChiosistobea
democracy.Lawdraftersaretobechosenwhoshalldraftandcorrectthelaws,in
orderthatnothingmaybecontrarytothedemocracyortothereturnoftheexiles.
ThelawsthathavebeencorrectedordraftedaretobereferredtoAlexander.The
Chiansaretoprovidetwentyfullymannedtriremesattheirownexpense.Theseare
tosailaslongastheotherfleetoftheGreekssailswithus.Thosewhobetrayedthe
citytothebarbariansandhavees
404
capedaretobeexiledfromallthecitiesthatshareinthepeaceandaretobeliableto
arrestaccordingtothedecreeoftheGreeks.Those,whohavebeencaptured,
however,aretobebroughtbackandjudgedinthesynedrion(council)oftheGreeks.
Anydisputewhichmaydevelopbetweenthosewhohavereturnedandthoseinthe
cityistobejudgedbeforeus.UntiltheChiansarereconciledtooneanother,thereis
tobeagarrisonamongthemfromkingAlexander.Thegarrisonistobeofsufficient
strength;andtheChiansaretosupportit.
TranslatedbyA.J.Heisserer,AlexandertheGreatandtheGreeks:TheEpigraphicEvidence.
Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1980,pp.8081.
AseverefeverthatbroughtAlexandertothebrinkofdeathdelayedthedepartureof
theMacedonianarmyfromAnatoliauntilthesummerof333.Theancient
biographies,withtheirconcernforAlexandersheroicstature,focusonhissteadfast

trustinhispersonalphysicianinthefaceofParmenionswarningthathehadbeen
bribedbythePersians.Moreimportant,Alexandersbrushwithdeathrevealedto
everyonehisuniqueimportancetotheexpedition.Withoutanheirandwithno
plausibleavailablealternativeking,Alexanderwasindispensable.Onlyheheldthe
armytogetherandgaveitsactionsforceanddirection.Thearmysdependenceon
Alexanderandthepoweritgavehimwouldonlyincreaseasthearmysmarch
carrieditfurtherandfurtherawayfromMacedon.
TheBattleofIssus(333BC)
Afterrecoveringfromhisillness,Alexandermadeacharacteristicallybolddecision.
InsteadofmovingtoconfronttheforcesofDariusIIIdirectlyinMesopotamia,asthe
youngPersianprinceCyrushaddoneinhisrevoltagainsthisbrotherArtaxerxesII
almostseventyyearsearlier,Alexanderdirectedhisforcestowardthecoastalregions
ofSyria,Palestine,and,ultimately,Egypt.Behindthisdecisionlayarisky
calculation.HavingdisbandedmostofhisGreekfleetalmostayearearlier,
AlexanderhopedtoendPersiannavaloperationsintheAegeanbydeprivingthe
PersianfleetofitsSyrianandPhoenicianbases.
Thestrategywasdaringandalmostresultedincatastrophe.Alexandermarched
southalongtheSyriancoastduringthelatesummerandfallof333.Atthesame
time,DariusIII,whohadcompletedthemobilizationofthePersianempiresmain
forces,movednorthwestwardfromBabylonalongtheEuphratesRiverinthehopeof
catchingAlexanderbeforehesucceededinleavingAnatolia.Atonepoint,thetwo
armies,marchinginoppositedirections,passedeachotheratadistanceoflessthana
hundredmiles.OnlearningAlexanderslocation,Dariuswheeledhisarmyaround
thenorthernendoftheAmanusMountainsandhastenedsouthwardtotakethe
Macedonianforcesintherear.HavingbrilliantlycutAlexanderscommunications
withAnatoliaandhisMacedonianbase,how
405
ever,DariusyieldedtheinitiativetoAlexanderbyallowinghimtochoosethe
battlefield.AlexanderchosetomeetthePersiansatIssusinnorthernSyriaina
narrowcoastalplainconfinedbetweentheAmanusMountainsontheeastandthe
seaonthewest.BypreventingDariusfromfullydeployinghisforces,thischoiceof
battlegroundneutralizedthesignificantnumericalsuperioritythePersiansenjoyed
overAlexandersMacedonians.
WhenAlexanderenteredtheplainofIssushefoundthePersianforcespostedalong
thenorthsideoftheriverPayas,themodernPinarus.Dariushadstationedhis
cavalryonbothwingswhilehe,hisroyalguard,andhisremainingGreek
mercenariesoccupiedthecenterofthePersianline.Alexander,forhispart,drewup
hisMacedoniansintheunbalancedlinethathadbynowbecometraditional.

Parmenioncommandedthephalanxandmostoftheinfantryontheleftwing;
Alexanderplacedthebulkofthecavalryontherightwingunderhispersonal
command.
Theofficialhistorian,Callisthenes,whoseaccountistheultimatesourceofthe
severalextantnarrativesoftheBattleofIssus,treateditasaHomericcontest
betweenAlexanderandDariusIII,butwedoknowthemainoutlinesofthebattle.
Figure11.3.PlanoftheBattleofIssus.
406
TheMacedonianleftsufferedseverelyfromthePersianassault,untiladirectattack
byAlexanderandhiscavalryunitsonthecenterofthePersianlineforcedDariusto
abandonhisarmyandflee.Thismomentwasbrilliantlydepictedinafamous
paintingofthelatefourthcenturyBC,acopyofwhichappearsinamosaicthatwas
discoveredatPompeiiandisnowpreservedintheNaplesMuseum.Theflightof
DariusturnedthedefeatofthePersianarmyintoafearfulrout.YearslaterPtolemyI
recountedinhishistoryofAlexanderhowhisunitshadcrossedstreamsonthepiled
upbodiesofDariusdeadsoldierswhilepursuingthefleeingPersianforces.
AlexandersvictoryatIssuswasafundamentalturningpointinhiscampaign.
DariusIIIwasinheadlongflight.MostofthecoreofthePersianforceshadbeen
destroyed.TheroyaltreasurestoredatDamascusquicklyfellintoAlexandershands
andputanendtothefinancialproblemsthathadthreatenedhisplanssincetheir
inception.Inhishastetoescape,moreover,Dariushadabandonedhisfamily,which,
inaccordancewithPersiancustom,hadaccompaniedhimduringthecampaign.The
GreatKingsmother,wife,daughters,andsonandheirtothePersianthronewere
nowallAlexandersprisoners.
AlexanderhadnotmerelydefeatedtheGreatKing:hehadhumiliatedhim.This
humiliationcontinued,asAlexandersummarilyrejectedDariuswrittenof
Figure11.4.ThismosaicfromPompeiiisbelievedtobealateHellenisticor
RomancopyofafourthcenturyBCpaintingdepictingtheBattleofIssus.
407
feroffriendshipandallianceinexchangeforhisfamilysreturn.Healsoaccorded
thePersianroyalfamilytheprotectionandpublicdeferencetowhichtheirformer
stationentitledthem,butwhichtheyhadlostwhenDariusdesertedthem.The
symbolismwasclearandunambiguous:henceforthAlexanderandnotDariuswas
thearbiterofthefateoftheAchaemenids.

ThesignificanceofAlexandersvictorywasequallygreatfortheGreeks.AfterIssus
allhopeofPersianaidagainstMacedonianrulehadtobeabandoned.Not
surprisingly,therestofGreeceremainedpassivewhenAntipatercrushedaSpartan
rebellionin331BC.Finally,andmostimportant,theroadtoEgyptlayopentothe
Macedonianarmy.WiththeexpulsionofPersianpowerfromtheshoresofthe
Mediterranean,eventheconquestoftheempireitselfsuddenlyseemedpossible.
FROMISSUSTOEGYPT:CONQUESTOFTHEEASTERNMEDITERRANEAN
(332331BC)
WhileDariusfledeastward,Alexanderresumedhismarchsouthalongthecoastof
Syria.WithouthopeofPersiansupport,themajorityoftheSyrianandPhoenician
coastalcitiessurrendered,successfullyconcludingAlexandersplantodefeatthe
Persianfleetbydeprivingitofitsbases.Thesituationislessclearwithregardtothe
peoplesoftheinteriorofSyriaandPalestine,butthesurrenderoftheSamaritansin
northernJudaeasuggeststhattheyalsoquicklycametotermswithAlexander.
OnlyatTyreandGazadidAlexandermeetwithresistance,andhisresponsewas
characteristicallyvigorous.WhentheTyrians,trustingtothestrengthoftheirisland
fortress,rejectedAlexandersrequesttoenterthecityandsacrificetohisancestor
HeraclesintheguiseoftheirchiefgodMelqart,helaidsiegetothecity.Rightly
seeingintheTyriansrefusalarejectionofhisauthority,Alexanderpressedthesiege
ofTyreforalmosteightmonths.ThecityfellinAugust332andsufferedthesame
brutalfateasThebes:slaughterofmostofthemalepopulationandsaleofthe
survivingwomenandchildren.ThedecisionbyGazasPersiangovernor,aeunuch
namedBatis,tomaintainhisloyaltytoDariusinthefaceofAlexandersdemandfor
surrenderresultedinasimilarunhappyfateforhiscitytwomonthslater.Thefallof
GazaremovedthefinalbarrierbetweenAlexanderandthegreatestprizeofthefirst
phaseofhisAsianadventure:Egypt.
AlexanderinEgypt
AlexandersstayinEgyptdramaticallyalteredhisviewofhimself,buttheconquest
ofEgyptitselfwassomewhatanticlimactic.Isolatedinthemidstofarestive
populationandwithouthopeofaidfromDarius,Mazaces,thelastPersiansatrapof
Egypt,surrenderedhissatrapywithoutafight.
UnlikemostoftheotherpeoplesoftheancientNearEast,theEgyptianshadnever
acceptedPersianrule.ThefifthandfourthcenturiesBChadbeenmarked
408
byrepeatedEgyptianrebellionsandseverePersianrepression;thelastepisodewas
onlyafewyearsbeforeAlexandersinvasion.Notsurprisingly,therefore,the

EgyptianswelcomedAlexanderandhisMacedoniansduringtheirmarchthrough
theDeltatotheancientcapitalofMemphis,wherehecelebratedhisvictoryby
holdingGreekstylegamesandsacrificingtoZeus.Atthesametime,Alexander
soughttoconciliatetheEgyptiansbypubliclyhonoringtheApisbull,theliving
incarnationofPtah,chiefgodofMemphis,andotherEgyptiandeities.Alexander
doubtlessaccomplishedmuchduringthesixmonthshespentinEgypt,butthe
sourcesconcentrateononlytwoepisodes:hisconsultationofthefamousoracleof
ZeusAmmonandtheestablishmentofAlexandria,thefirstandgreatestofhis
foundations.
TheoracleofZeusAmmon,about300mileswestoftheNileintheoasisofSiwahin
theLibyandesert,wasoneofthethreeprincipaloraclespatronizedbytheGreeks.
BecauseofitsimpactonAlexandersconceptionofhimself,theancientsources
suitablyembellishedthetaleofhisvisittoSiwahwithmiracleandromance.
Unseasonablerainsprovidedhispartywithwater,andsacredanimals,suchas
snakesorcrows,guidedthemwhentheybecamelost.Unfortunately,Alexander
revealedneitherhismotivesforconsultingtheoraclenoritsreplytohim.Ancient
andmodernhistorianshaveproposedwidelydifferingexplanationsforhisvisit:he
mayhavehopedtoequalhislegendaryancestorHeracles,whowasreputedtohave
visitedtheoracle;ortohavedesiredtosurpassthePersiankingCambyses,whohad
failedtoconquertheoasis;orhemaysimplyhavesoughtdivineapprovalforthe
newcityhewasalreadyplanningtofoundinEgypt.
WhateverAlexandersoriginalmotivesmayhavebeen,alltheancientaccountsagree
thatthedecisivemomentofhisvisitwaswhenthechiefpriestoftheoraclegreeted
himasSonofAmmon.Throughtheprocesshistorianscallsyncretism(the
unificationofreligiousbeliefs),GreeksequatedAmmonwithZeus.TheGreeks,
therefore,understoodthatAlexanderwaspresentinghimselfasaSonofZeus.
WhetherornotthepriestwasmerelyaccordingAlexanderthewelcometraditionally
grantedakingofEgypt,Alexanderclearlytookitasadivinesignthat,ashismother
hadalwaysclaimed,therewassomethingmorethanmortalabouthisbirth.
AlexanderhadprobablyselectedthefishingvillageofRhakotisnearthewesterntip
oftheDeltaasthesiteforhisnewcityduringhistriptoSiwah,buttheactual
foundationofAlexandriawasdelayeduntilhisreturnfromtheoracleinApril331.
ThestrongHomericassociationsofthesiteplayedanimportantroleinhischoiceof
Rhakotis.LessthanamileoffshorewastheislandofPharos,whichHomerhad
mentionedintheOdyssey.Thesitewasalsoidealforagreatcommercialcenter,with
PharoscreatingashelteredanchorageforshipsandthenearbyLakeCanopus
affordingreadyaccesstotheNileandtheinteriorofEgypt.Understandably,the
sourcesdepictAlexandriaasmarkedoutforgreatnessatitsinception.Theytellhow
birdsconsumedthesacredflourwithwhichAlexanderwasmarkingitsboundaries,

therebyindicatingthatthecitywouldhaveabundantresourcesandnourishpeople
fromallovertheworld.
409
ThefoundationofAlexandriawasAlexanderslastmajoractinEgypt.Assessmentof
thefullsignificanceofAlexandersconductinEgyptisdifficult.Historianshave
assumedthatEgyptiansconsideredhimtheirliberatorfromPersiantyrannyandthat
heactedaccordingly.Supportforthisviewwasthoughttobeprovidedbythehonor
AlexanderpaidtoEgyptiangodsandthefactthathewascrownedPharaoh.They
havealsosuggestedthathehopedtoavoidthehostilityarousedbythesacrilegious
outragessupposedlycommittedbythePersiankingsCambysesandArtaxerxesIII
Ochus.
ConsiderationofAlexandersactionsinEgyptasawholeindicatessignificant
continuitybetweenhispoliciesinEgyptandthosehefollowedintheterritories
conqueredearlierinthecampaign.Thisisparticularlyclearwithregardto
Alexandria,whichwasfoundedasaGreekpoliswithcitizenshiplimitedtoGreeks
andMacedonians.AlexandersorganizationofEgyptitselflikewisefollowedthe
modelhehadusedinAnatolia.Thus,althoughhedidnotappointasinglesatrapfor
allofEgypt,AlexanderretainedmuchofthePersianorganizationofEgyptincluding
therequirementthatEgyptianspaytribute.Natives,bothEgyptiansandGreek,
exercisedonlycivilauthority.MilitarypowerremainedinthehandsofMacedonian
officers.
Onlyinoneareawastheresignificantchange,butthatareawasthemostimportant
ofall:Alexandersselfimage.TherevelationofhisdivineparentageatSiwahstruck
aresponsivechordinAlexander.Itconfirmedhissenseofhisownuniquenessand
heightenedhispersonalidentificationwithhisheroicancestorsHeraclesand
Achilles.Henceforth,althoughAlexanderneverrenouncedPhilipashisearthly
father,hisunshakablebeliefinhisconnectiontohisdivinefatherAmmonwouldbe
thelinchpinofhispersonality.Hisbeliefinhisdivinedescentalsoopenedarift
betweenhimandtheolderMacedonians.TheycouldnotacceptAlexandersviewof
hisspecialtietoabarbariangodandtheimpliedslighttoPhilip,thekingthey
believedresponsibleforMacedoniangreatness.
FROMALEXANDRIATOPERSEPOLIS:THEKINGOFASIA(331330BC)
AfewweeksafterthefoundationofAlexandria,AlexanderleftEgypt,intenton
seekingafinalanddecisiveconfrontationwithDariusIII.WhileAlexandermarched
northtowardtheEuphratesRiver,Dariusmadeonelastdesperateefforttoavoid
battle,offeringAlexandermarriagetohiseldestdaughter,cessionofallterritory
westoftheEuphratesRiver,andanenormousransomforhisfamily.Dariusoffer
wasunprecedented.Itinvolveddivisionoftheempire,surrenderofseveralofits

richestsatrapies,andpermanentexclusionofPersianpowerfromtheshoresofthe
Mediterranean.
ParmenionprobablyspokeformostofthearmywhenheadvisedAlexanderto
acceptDariusproposal.Alexander,however,wouldhavenoneofit,curtly
observingthathewouldacceptittooifhewereParmenion!FacedwithAlexanders
410
Figure11.5.RepresentationofAlexanderasPharaohbeforeAmmonRaand
KhonsuThothintheBarkshrineatLuxortempleatThebes.Ca.330325BC.
411
refusal,Dariushadnochoiceexcepttohastilygathertogetheranotherarmytoface
theMacedonians.ThetwoarmiesfinallymetonOctober1,331BC,atGaugamela,
justsouthofMosulinnortheasternIraq.ThankstothecaptureofthePersian
headquartersafterthebattle,whichgaveAlexandershistoriansauniqueinsightinto
Persianplans,theBattleofGaugamelaisthebestdocumentedofallbattlesinancient
Greekhistory.
TheBattleofGaugamela(331BC)
LearningfromhisdefeatatIssusthepreviousyear,Dariuscarefullychosea
battlefieldthatsuitedthepeculiarstrengthsandweaknessesofhisarmy.Deprivedof
almostallitsGreekmercenariesandotherunitsdrawnfromthewesternportionsof
theempire,DariusnewarmywascomposedprimarilyofleviesdrawnfromPersia
andtheeasternportionsofhisempire.Thismeantthathisforcesweremorecohesive
thanmostPersianarmiesandparticularlystrongincavalry,butweakinfirstline
infantry.DariushopedthatthebroadplainofGaugemelawouldallowhimto
exploithissuperiorityincavalrytooutflankandultimatelyenvelopAlexanders
Macedonians,whilerelyingonshockandterrorweaponssuchasscythedchariots
andelephantstocompensateforhislackofgoodinfantry.
Thesehopesweredisappointed.Alexanderemployedamodifiedversionofthe
tacticsthathadworkedsowellatIssus.Hestationedthebulkofhisinfantryunder
thecommandofParmeniononhisleftwingandpostedhisbestcavalryunitsunder
hispersonalcommandonhisrightwing.AstrongforceofalliedGreekinfantrywas
heldinreservetopreventthePersiancavalryfromencirclinghisforcesandattacking
themfromtherear.Althoughthefightingwasfierce,particularlyontheleftwing,
wheretheMacedonianphalanxwashardpressed,thebattleendedasatIssus,when
theattackofAlexanderandthecompanioncavalryonthecenterofthePersianarmy
forcedDariustoabandonhisforcesandfleethebattlefield.

AlexandersvictorywasmarredonlybyhisfailuretocaptureDarius.Thesources
characteristicallyblamedthisfailureonParmenion,whowasreportedtohave
recalledAlexanderfromhispursuitofthePersiankinginordertorescuethe
Macedonianleftwing.Otherwise,however,theheartlandofthePersianempirewas
nowAlexandersforthetaking.Withjustificationhistroopssalutedhimaskingof
Asia.Inrapidsuccession,thethreewesternmostcapitalsofthePersianempire(
Babylon,Susa,andPersepolis)felltoAlexander,whileDariusandhisimmediate
entouragesoughtrefugeineasternIran.
Alexanderstreatmentofhisthreegreatprizesdifferedsharply.Alexanderentered
BabylonintriumphinmidOctober,331.Cuneiformtextsleavenodoubtthat,asin
Egypt,heactivelysoughttoconciliatethelocalpopulationandespeciallythe
influentialBabylonianpriesthood.Histroopswereorderedtorespectproperty
duringthemarchtoBabylon.DuringhisstayinthecityAlexanderofferedsacrifice
toitschiefgodMardukandorderedthereconstructionofMarduksgreatziggurat,
Esagila,whichthePersianshaddestroyedacenturyanda
412
Figure11.6.PlanoftheBattleofGaugamela.
halfearlieraspunishmentforaBabylonianrebellion.Mazaeus,thePersiansatrapof
Babylonia,hadplayedakeyroleinthesurrenderofBabylon,andAlexander
rewardedhimappropriatelybyconfirminghiminhisformerposition.Ashehad
doneinEgypt,however,AlexanderstrovetoensureMazaeusloyaltybyassigning
commandoftheBabyloniangarrisontooneofhisownofficers,aGreekfrom
AmphipolisnamedApollodorus.InlikemannerAbuleites,whosurrenderedSusato
Alexanderwithitsroyalpalaceandtreasureintact,wasreappointedSatrapof
Susiana.Fardifferent,however,wasthefateofPersepolis,thethirdofthePersian
capitalstofallintoAlexandershands,anditscitizens.
TheDestructionofPersepolis
IndecidingthefateofPersepolis,Alexandercouldnotconsiderexpediencyalone,as
hehaddonewithregardtoBabylonandSusa.Persepoliswasthespiritualcenterof
thePersianempire.ThecentraleventsandritualsofPersianrule,includingthenew
yearsfestivalandtheceremonialpresentationoftheirtributetotheGreatKingby
thesubjectsoftheempire,alltookplacethere.ItwasalsoatPersepolisthatGreek
ambassadorshadbeenrequiredtoabasethemselvesbeforePersiankingssincethe
reignofDariusI.PersepoliswasthereforeidentifiedwithPersianruleintheeyesof
GreeksandPersiansalike,anditstreatmentwouldsendaclearmessagetoboth
peoples.ThemessageAlexanderchoseto

413
sendwasoneofvengeanceforthedestructionofthetemplesofAthensduringthe
Persianwarsacenturyandahalfearlier.OntheeveofAlexandersdeparturefrom
PersepolisinApril,330BC,theMacedonianstorchedtheciwspalaces.
ThesourcesheightenedthesenseofpoeticjusticeinthedestructionofPersepolis
byassigningcreditfortheburningofthecitytoanAthenian,thecourtesanThais,
whowassaidtohavesuggestedittoAlexanderandhisfriendsduringadrunken
revel.ThaismayhaveinspiredtheactualburningofPersepolis,butthereareclear
signsthatAlexanderalreadyhaddecidedfourmonthsearlierthatthecitywastobe
destroyedatthetimeofitscapture.Despiteitssurrender,Persepolissufferedallthe
samerigorsofasackashadThebesandTyre.Modernexcavationshavealso
revealedthatitspalaceswerecompletelystrippedoftheirtreasures,theaccumulated
wealthoftwocenturiesofPersianimperialrule,beforetheyweresetonfire.With
theflamesrisingovertheruinsofPersepolisAlexanderunmistakablysignaledthe
triumphantendoftheGreekcrusade.
THEHIGHROADTOINDIA:ALEXANDERINCENTRALASIA
AsAlexanderwatchedPersepolisburn,hecouldnothaveanticipatedthatthenext
fouryearswouldbethemostdifficultofthecampaign.Atfirst,hisgoodfortune
seemedtocontinueunabated.NewsoftheendoftheSpartanrebellionhadalready
reachedhimbeforeheleftPersepolis.Meanwhile,Dariushadfledeastwardfrom
Media,leavingEcbatana,thelastofthePersiancapitals,tofallintoAlexanders
handswithitstreasuresintact.HavingsecuredPersiaandMedia,thehistorical
heartlandofthePersianempire,AlexanderliquidatedthelasttracesoftheGreek
crusadebydischarginghisremainingGreektroops.Allthatwasneededtocomplete
hisvictorywastocaptureDariusIIIhimselfandputanendtothelonglineof
Achaemenidrulers.
TheDeathofDarius(330BC)
LeavingParmenionbehindatEcbatanatosecurehiscommunicationswiththewest,
AlexanderracedtowardtheCaspianGates,thegatewaytotheeasternsatrapies.He
hopedtointerceptDariusbeforehecouldreachBactria,roughlymodern
Afghanistan,andcontinueresistancefromthere.BeforeAlexandercouldovertake
thefleeingGreatKing,newsreachedhimthatacabalofeasternsatrapsheadedby
Bessus,thesatrapofBactrialhadarrestedandthenassassinatedDariusIIIinJuly,
330BC.Worseyet,BessushadescapedtoBactria,wherehehadassumedthethrone
ofPersiaasArtaxerxesIV.
TheassassinationofDariusIIIchangedthedynamicsofthecampaign.Asthesackof
Persepolisclearlyindicated,AlexanderhadhithertoactedinPersiaastheavengerof

pastPersianmisdeeds.ItwasastancethatwaspopularwithGreeksbuthardly
calculatedtofosterPersianacceptanceofthenewregime.Dariusassassinationgave
Alexandertheopportunitytoescapefromthisdilemma.Upon
414
learningofDariusdeathAlexanderimmediatelyassumedtheroleofhissuccessor
anddefenderofAchaemenidlegitimacyagainsttheregicides.Tosymbolizehisnew
roleAlexanderadoptedanewstyleofdressthatcombinedelementsfromboth
MacedonianandPersianroyalstyle.DariusbodywasbroughtbacktoPersiaand
buriedwithfullroyalhonorsattheroyalcemeteryatNakshiRustam.Arumoreven
begantospreadthatDariuslastwishhadbeenthatAlexanderavengehim.
Alexandersstrategywascleverandeffective.WhilePersiannoblesandevensome
survivingmembersoftheAchaemenidhousejoinedAlexander,Bessusalienated
potentialsupportersbyrelyingonascorchedearthdefensetohaltAlexanders
advanceinsteadofattemptingtoconfronthimdirectly.Asaresult,resistancemelted
awayasAlexandermovedfurtherandfurtherintoeasternIran.Finally,inthespring
of329,Bessusfellowregicides,fearfulfortheirownsurvival,seizedBessusand
surrenderedhimtoAlexanderinexchangeforapardonandconfirmationintheir
offices,muchastheyhadbetrayedDariusIIIafewmonthsearlier.Alexander
remainedtruetohisnewroleasthesuccessoroftheAchaemenids.Bessuswas
turnedovertoAlexandersPersiansupportersfortrialandexecutionasaregicide.
TheStruggleforBactriaandSogdiana(330327BC)
AlexandersignoranceofconditionsineasternIranalmostcosthimeverythinghe
hadgainedthroughhisastutedynasticpolicy.Bymisunderstandingthecloseties
thatconnectedthepeoplesofeasternIranwiththenomadicScythiantribesofthe
centralAsiansteppe,Alexanderignitedarebellionthatquicklyspreadthroughout
muchofSogdianaandBactriawhenhetriedtoestablishacontrolledborderbetween
SogdianaandScythiaattheJaxartesRiver.Therevoltwasmarkedbyatrocitieson
bothsides.Itwasledbyaguerrillacommanderofgenius,Spitamenes,aSogdian
nobleandformerregicide,whobetrayedAlexanderasreadilyashehadpreviously
betrayedDariusIIIandBessus.Therevoltlastedalmostthreeyearsandendedwith
themurderofSpitamenesbyhisScythianalliesinthespringof327.Bythetimeit
wasover,Alexanderhadsufferedsomeoftheworstmilitarydefeatsoftheentire
campaignandhadbeenforcedtodevelopawholenewapproachtothecontrolof
conqueredterritory.
AlexanderreplacedIraniansatrapswithGreekandMacedonianofficials.Healso
settledGreekmercenariesandsuperannuatedveteransinaseriesofmilitarycolonies
establishedatstrategicsitesthroughoutSogdianaandBactria.Mostimportant,the

crisisincentralAsiastarklyrevealedthegrowingtensionsinthearmyandeven
withinAlexanderscourtitself.
MacedonianUnrest
NoGreekorMacedonianarmyhadevercampaignedforsolongorsofarawayfrom
home,andAlexanderssoldiersbecameevermorereluctanttogoonastheirmarch
ledthemdeeperintoAsia.IthadtakenallofAlexanderspersua
415
sivepowerstodissuadehistroopsfromgoinghomeassoonastheylearnedof
Dariusdeath.ThemiseriesofthesubsequentstruggleagainstSpitamenesinthe
forbiddingenvironmentofSogdianaandBactriaonlyincreasedtheirfrustrationand
longingforhome.MoreworrisometohisofficerswasAlexandersgradual
abandonmentofthetraditionallyinformalMacedonianstyleofkingshipandthe
growingprominenceofIraniansandIranianpracticesathiscourt.Themost
dramaticexampleofthetrendwasAlexandersmarriageinthespringof327to
Roxane,thedaughterofapowerfulSogdiannoble.Theadvantagesofthemarriage
wereobvious:AlexandergainedanimportantallyinBactriaandSogdiana.
Nevertheless,thefactremainedthatAlexandersqueenandthepotentialmotherof
hissuccessorwasnotaMacedonianorevenaGreekbutanIranian!
TensionatcourtwasincreasedstillfurtherbyAlexandersunsuccessfuldemandfor
theritualprostrationknownasproskynsisonthepartofallmembersofhiscourt.
BothancientandmodernthinkershaveseenaconnectionbetweenAlexanders
attempttoimposeproskynesisonhiscourtandhisclaimtobesonofAmmon,but
theydisagreeastohisintentions.AccordingtoArrian,Alexanderdesiredthat
peoplerecognizehisdivinedescent:
ThefactisthatthereportprevailsthatAlexanderdesiredpeopleactuallytodohim
obeisance,fromtheunderlyingideathathisfatherwasAmmonandnotPhilip,and
ashewasnowexpressinghisadmirationforthewaysofthePersiansandMedes,
bothinhischangeofdressandinadditionbythealteredarrangementsforhis
attendance,andthatevenastoobeisancetherewasnolackofflattererstogivehim
hiswish.
(Anabasis;Brunt1976)
Plutarch,ontheotherhand,thoughtthatAlexanderhopedtouseproskynesisasa
meansofdominatinghiseasternsubjects:
Ingeneral,heborehimselfhaughtilytowardstheBarbarians,andlikeonefully
persuadedofhisdivinebirthandparentage,butwiththeGreeksitwaswithinlimits

andsomewhatrarelythatheassumedhisowndivinity.However,inwritingtothe
AtheniansconcerningSamos,hesaid:Icannothavegivenyouthatfreeand
illustriouscity;foryoureceiveditfromhimwhowasthenyourmasterandwas
calledmyfather,meaningPhilip.Atalatertime,however,whenhehadbeenhitby
anarrowandwassufferinggreatpain,hesaid:This,myfriends,thatflowshere,is
bloodandnotIchor,suchasflowsfromtheveinsoftheblessedgods....Fromwhat
hasbeensaid,then,itisclearthatAlexanderhimselfwasnotfoolishlyaffectedor
puffedupbythebeliefinhisdivinity,butuseditforthesubjugationofothers.
(LifeofAlexander;Perrin1919,adapted)
MostmodernscholarsadoptaviewsimilartothatofPlutarch,especiallysinceitis
clearthatPersiansviewedproskynesisprimarilyasanaffirmationofthehi
416
erarchicalorderofsociety.Whateverhisintentionsmayhavebeen,however,
Alexanderunderestimatedtheresistancehisplanswouldencounter.Greeksand
Macedonianssawproskynesisasarecognitionofdivinityandanunwelcome
reminderofpastPersianarrogance.TheytolerateditsperformancebyPersiansat
Alexanderscourt,butbitterlyresentedhisefforttomakethemalsoperformit.Itis
notsurprising,therefore,thatthesourcesforthefirsttimerefertoopenresistanceto
Alexanderspoliciesandevenconspiraciesagainsthislifeduringhisstayincentral
Asia.
Thefirstsignoftroubleappearedlatein330andinvolvedoneofAlexanderssenior
commanders.Philotas,thecommanderoftheCompanionCavalryandsonof
Parmenion,wasexecutedafterfailingtoinformAlexanderofanallegedplottokill
him.Philotasguilthasbeendebatedsinceantiquity.Somescholarsevensuggestthat
PhilotaswasthevictimofaplotdevisedbyAlexander.Whetherthechargesagainst
Philotasweretrueornot,Alexanderhenceforthtookseriouslythepossibilityof
conspiraciesagainsthimandactedaccordingly.PhilotasfatherParmenionwas
assassinated,andoneofhisbodyguards,whowassuspectedofcomplicityinthe
plot,wascashiered.AlexanderofLyncestis,asoninlawofAntipater(Alexanders
regentinMacedon),hadbeenheldunderarrestsincethebeginningofthecampaign;
nowhewasexecutedinordertoremoveapotentialfocusforrebellion.Alexander
alsoinstitutedcensorshipofhissoldiersandofficerscorrespondence.
Thesemeasuresmutedtherancoratcourt,butaslatereventsrevealed,theydidnot
eliminatediscontent.ThemostdramaticincidentwasAlexandersdrunkenmurder
inautumn328ofCleitustheBlack,whohadsavedhislifeattheGranicusandhad
justbeenappointedsatrapofBactriaandSogdiana.Cleitusoffensewascriticizing
AlexanderseffortstoaccommodatethePersiansandhisunwillingnesstorecognize
thecontributionofhisofficersandsoldierstohissuccesses.Moreseriously,

Alexanderbarelyescapedassassinationsixmonthslaterbyagroupofhisown
pages,whoclaimedattheirtrialthattheyhopedtofreetheMacedoniansfrom
Alexandersgrowingtyranny.AsthecaseofPhilotashadrevealed,Alexanderwas
implacableinthefaceofdisloyaltybymembersofhispersonalentourage.Thepages
weresummarilytriedandsentencedtodeath.Callisthenes,Alexandersofficial
historianandthepagestutor,whosepublicoppositiontoproskynesiswasneither
forgottennorforgiven,wasarrestedandlaterdiedundermysteriouscircumstances.
Bythesummerof327AlexandercouldconsiderSogdianaandBactriasecure.
SpitameneswasdeadandopenresistancetoMacedonianrulehadended.Beforethat
happyoutcome,theyearsofhardfightingandsufferinghadresultedinmajor
changes.Mostobviouswerethechangesinthearmy.Forcedtocopewithamobile
andresourcefulenemyandcutofffromEuropeanreinforcements,Alexander
reorganizedhisarmytoallowgreaterflexibilityinitsuse.Inparticular,he
extensivelyrecruitedIranianunitstosupplementhissteadilydwindlingsupplyof
MacedonianandGreektroops.
417
Document11.2PlutarchsAccountoftheMurderofCleitustheBlackin328BC
TheriftthatopenedbetweenAlexanderandhisMacedonianofficersandsoldiers
duringhiscampaignsincentralAsiaisparticularlyclearinPlutarchsvividaccount
ofthemurderofCleitustheBlackatadinnerpartyinBactria:
Afterthecompanyhaddrunkagooddealsomebodybegantosingtheversesofa
mannamedPranichus...,whichhadbeenwrittentohumiliateandmakefunof
someMacedoniancommanderswhohadrecentlybeendefeatedbythebarbarians.
Theoldermembersofthepartytookoffenseatthisandshowedtheirresentmentof
boththepoetandthesinger,butAlexanderandthosesittingnearhimlistenedwith
obviouspleasureandtoldthemantocontinue.ThereuponCleitus...became
angrierthaneverandshoutedthatitwasnotrightforMacedonianstobeinsultedin
thepresenceofbarbariansandenemies....AlexanderretortedthatifCleituswas
tryingtodisguisecowardiceasmisfortune,hemustbepleadinghisowncase.Atthis
Cleitussprangtohisfeetandshoutedback,Yes,itwasmycowardicethatsaved
yourlife,youwhocallyourselfthesonofthegods,whenyouwereturningyour
backtoSpithridatessword.AnditisthebloodoftheseMacedoniansandtheir
woundswhichmadeyousogreatthatyoudisownyourfatherPhilipandclaimtobe
thesonofAmmon!ThesewordsmadeAlexanderfurious.Youscum,hecriedout,
doyouthinkthatyoucankeeponspeakingofmelikethis,andstiruptrouble
amongtheMacedoniansandnotpayforit?Oh,butweMacedoniansdopayforit,
Cleitusretorted.Justthinkoftherewardswegetforallourefforts.Itsthedead
oneswhoarehappy,becausetheyneverlivedtoseeMacedoniansbeingbeatenwith
Medianrods,orbeggingthePersiansforanaudiencewithourownking.The

argumentbetweenAlexanderandCleitusbecamemoreheated,andCleitusfriendshustled
himoutofthediningarea.Butsoonafterwardshecameinbyanotherdoor,and,ashe
didso,recitedinaloudandcontemptuousvoicethislinefromEuripides
Andromache(line683):Alas,whatevilcustomsreigninGreece.AtthisAlexander
seizedaspearfromoneofhisguards,facedCleitusashewasdrawingasidethe
curtainofthedoorway,andranhimthrough.
Plutarch,LifeofAlexander5051,translatedbyIanScottKilvertTheAgeofAlexander.(
London:PenguinBooks,1973,pp.307308).
EquallyimportantchangesoccurredinAlexanderscourt.TheMacedonianold
guardhadlargelydisappearedinthepurgesthatresultedfromtheperiodsvarious
conspiraciesandtumults,leavingpreeminentmenpersonallytiedtoAlexandersuch
asPerdiccas,Craterus,Lysimachus,andPtolemy.Thesemenwouldplaycritical
rolesintheturbulenteventsthatfollowedAlexandersdeath.
418
Finally,therelationshipbetweenAlexanderandhissoldiershadalteredinasubtle
butsignificantway.Theirloyaltyremainedunchallenged,but,aseventsinIndia
weretodemonstrate,Alexanderwouldneveragainbeabletocountontheir
unquestioningobedienceafterthestrainsofthecentralAsiancampaign.
INDIAANDTHEENDOFTHEDREAM
WhenAlexandercrossedtheHinduKushmountainsinthesummerof327BC,he
believedhewasapproachingtheendoftheinhabitedworld.ForGreeksand
Persiansalike,IndiawasthelandoftheIndusRiver,essentiallymodernPakistan.
AristotlebelievedthatbeyondIndiatherewasagreatdesertandthenocean,which
supposedlywasvisiblefromthepeaksoftheHinduKushMountains.Although
DariusIhadconqueredIndiaandbrieflymadeitapartofthePersianempire,
PersianrulehadlongsinceendedwhenAlexanderenteredtheregion.Hewouldbe
campaigninginamysteriouslandthatDionysus,Herades,andthelegendary
AssyrianqueenSemiramisallhadfailedtoconquer,alandwherefactandfictionco
existed,wherecannibalsandmonstrousmenandanimalslived,whereclothgrewon
trees,andantsminedgold.WhatAlexanderactuallyfoundwasalmostas
remarkable:avastsubcontinentoccupiedbyacomplexnetworkofpeoplesand
states,whoviewedAlexanderasanewpiecetobeplayedintheircomplexpolitical
chessgame.
ItwasvirtuallyanewworldthatAlexanderandhisarmyenteredinthesummerof
327BC.NorcanhehaveremainedlongindoubtaboutconditionsinIndia.Asthe
MacedonianarmypassedalongthefamousroutethroughtheKhyberPasstothe
plainoftheIndusRiverinthesummerandfallof327,it

Figure11.7.TheGreekviewoftheinhabitedworld.
419
encounteredsomeofthefiercestresistanceinthecampaign.Oppositionendedonly
whenthearmyreachedthecityofTaxila,whoseruler,calledTaxiles,hadalready
solicitedAlexandersaidwhilehewasstillincentralAsia.Taxilawasoneofthe
principalcentersofIndianreligiousthought.ThroughoutantiquityGreekand
RomanmoralistscontinuedtobefascinatedbyAlexanderssojournthereandhis
meetingwithagroupofnakedphilosophersasceticIndianholymen,oneof
whom,Calanus,evenjoinedhisexpedition.
TaxileshadsoughtAlexandersaidagainsthiseasternneighbors,Abisares,theruler
ofKashmir,andespeciallyPorus,whosekingdomincludedalltheterritorybetween
theJhelumandChenabrivers.WhenAbisaresofferedhissubmission,Alexander
movedagainstPorusinearly326.
TheBattleoftheHydaspes(326BC)
ThetwoarmiesmetattheHydaspesRiver,themodernJhelum.ThereAlexander
foundthatPorushadestablishedastrongdefensiveposition,usinghisinfantryand
histwohundredelephantstoformalivingwallalongtheeastbankoftheriver.
SolvingthisdifficultmilitaryproblemtookallofAlexanderstacticalskills
Figure11.8.InthisimageinanIslamicmanuscriptAlexanderisdepictedwearing
IndiancostumewithphilosophersinIndia.
420
andinvolvedadaringsecretcrossingofthefloodedriver.Intheend,however,the
outcomewasthesameasthatofhisearlierbattles:thetotaldestructionofhis
enemysforces.MuchtothedispleasureofTaxilesandhisotherIndianallies,
AlexanderdidnotexploithisvictorytodestroyPorus.Instead,impressedbythe
nobilityofhisdefeatedopponent,whoaskedonlytobetreatedlikeaking,
AlexanderrestoredhiskingdomtoPorusandevenaddednewterritoriestoit.
AlthoughAlexanderdidnotrealizeitatthetime,theconfrontationattheHydaspes
wastobehislastpitchedbattle.Asthearmymarchedfurthereastwardthroughthe
Punjab,moraledroppedsteadily.ThecrisiscamewhenAlexanderreachedtheriver
Hyphasis,themodernBeas.Exhaustedbythestressesoffightingandmarching
duringtheendlessrainsofthesummermonsoon,terrifiedbyrumorsofyetanother
greatrivervalleyoccupiedbygreatkingdomspossessingthousandsofwar
elephants,anddoubtfulthattheywouldeverreturnhome,thearmymutinied.This

timenotevenAlexandersformidablepowersofverbalandmoralpersuasioncould
convincehissoldierstogoon.Ultimately,Alexanderyielded,defeatedbyhisown
army,andagreedtoreturntotheIndus,wherehehadalreadyorderedthe
constructionofagreatfleet.
TheEndoftheCampaign
Alexanderdidnotannouncehislongrangeaimstohiscontemporaries.From
antiquitytothepresent,therefore,historianshavespeculatedabouthisgoals.After
hehaddefeatedDarius,avengedthePersianwars,andtakencontrolofthePersian
empireanditsvasttreasures,whydidhecontinuetopushevereastward?Didhe
haveamasterplanforworldconquestwhenheleftMacedonia,ordidhisambitions
growwitheachnewsuccess?Unfortunately,nodefinitiveansweris
Figure11.9.SilverfiveshekelcoinfromBabylonia(c.326323BC).Obverse:
AlexanderattackingPorusonhiselephant.Reverse:Alexanderholdingscepterand
thunderbolt,attributesofZeus.
421
possible.WhateverAlexandersultimateintentionsmayhavebeen,theresistanceof
hisarmyforcedhimtoadoptamoremodestgoal:theconquestoftheentireIndus
Rivervalleytoitsmouth.
Fromearlywinter326tomidsummer325,Alexandersarmymovedsteadily
southwardagainstheavyresistance.Thetaleofslaughtertoldintheancientsources
isunparalleledelsewhereinthecampaign.Alexanderhimselfreceivedanearfatal
wound,leadinghisincreasinglyreluctanttroopsinstormingacityoftheMalli.
Finally,inJuly325,thearmyreachedthemouthoftheIndusandtheocean.Onan
islandnearthemouthoftheIndusAlexandermadeofferingstogodsforwhomhis
fatherAmmonhadorderedsacrifices;thenhesailedoutontotheIndianOceanto
praytoPoseidonforasafevoyagetoBabylonia.Alexandersseeminglyendless
eastwardadvancewasatanend,andthepreparationsforthejourneyhomehad
begun.
ResultsoftheIndianCampaign
AlexandersinvasionwasthefirstmajorincursionintoIndiafromthewestsincethe
reignofDariusIalmosttwocenturiesearlier.LikethatofhisPersianpredecessor,
AlexanderscampaignresultedinafloodofnewinformationabouttheIndian
subcontinentanditspeoples.AlsolikethePersians,theMacedoniansweretoremain
onlybrieflyinIndia.WithinlittlemorethanadecadeafterAlexandersdeath,most
tracesofhiscampaignanditsresultshaddisappearedfromtheIndianlandscapeand

evenIndianconsciousness.IndiancultureknowsonlytheromanticAlexanderof
medievallegend,nottheAlexanderofGreekhistory.
TheephemeralcharacterofAlexandersachievementsinIndiahasledsome
historianstosuggestthathelostinterestintheareaoncehisarmypreventedhim
fromextendinghisconqueststotheGangesValley,butthisistoconfuseresultswith
intentions.Alexanderspoliticalarrangementssuggestthatheintendedtomaintain
controlofhisIndianconquestsafterhisreturntothewest.ThreeMacedoniansatraps
supportedbystrongdetachmentsofmercenarytroopsgovernedtheIndusValley
fromitsnorthernapproachestothesea.LocalrulerssuchasTaxiles,whohad
demonstratedtheirloyalty,retainedtheirthronesbutwereplacedunderthe
supervisionofoneoftheMacedoniansatraps.ThreenewGreekcitieswerefounded
atstrategiclocationsinthenorthernsatrapy,andseveralfoundationswerealso
plannedfortheothersatrapies.Finally,theMacedonianeasternflankwasprotected
bytheexpandedkingdomofAlexandersally,KingPorus.Alexanderhadplanned
carefullyforhisIndiandomain,buttheresourcesavailabletohisagentsproved
inadequatetomaintainMacedonianruleinthisremotepartofhisempire.
RETURNTOTHEWEST
AlexanderleftIndiaforPersiainlateAugust325.Heintendedtoleadhisarmy
throughGedrosia,anandregioninsouthwesternPakistan.Hispurposewasto
establishsupplydepotsforhisfleet,whichwastofollowthetimehonoredroute
422
alongthenorthcoastoftheIndianOceanfromthemouthoftheIndusRivertothe
PersianGulf.Nearchus,thecommanderofAlexandersfleetandoneofhisclosest
friends,laterclaimedthatAlexander,everthecompetitor,wasalsodeterminedto
surpassSemiramisandCyrusIIofPersia,whoweresaidtohavelosttheirarmiesin
Gedrosia.Foralmosttwomonths,Alexandersmenstruggledthroughtheand
wastesofGedrosia.Includingthewivesandchildrenthesoldiershadacquiredinthe
courseoftheircampaignsandthecampfollowersthathadattachedtothegroup,
possiblyasmanyaseightythousandsoulscomprisedwhatwasvirtuallyamoving
city.BeforethearmyfinallyreachedCarmaniaandsafety,thousandsdied,including
mostofthesoldiersfamilies,whoweresweptawaytogetherwiththebulkoftheir
possessionsinaflashflood.Onlynewsofthesafearrivalofthefleetattheheadof
thePersianGulfsometimeinDecember325afteradifficultandadventurefilled
voyagethatincludedencounterswithwhalesandexplorationofahauntedisland
lessenedAlexanderssenseofhavingbarelyescapedtotaldisaster.
ReorganizationoftheEmpire

AlexandersreturnfromIndiasparkedturmoilthroughouthisvastempire.Inshort
order,eightsatrapsandgeneralsbothMacedoniansandIraniansweredeposedand
executed.OneofAlexandersoldestfriends,theroyaltreasurer,Harpalus,fledto
Athenswithahugefortunelootedfromthekingsfundsandaprivatearmyofsix
thousandmercenaries.Theancientsourcesarguedthattheupheavalwascausedby
thedeteriorationofAlexanderscharacter.Modernadmirerscitehisoutrageatthe
reportsofcorruptionandoppressionbyhisofficialswhilehewasaway.Thetruthis
morecomplex.Somevictimsofthekingswrath,suchasthegovernorsofthe
satrapiesalonghislineofmarchthroughGedrosia,clearlywerescapegoatsfora
disasterthatwaslargelyofAlexandersownmaking.Otherswerevictimsofcourt
politicsandjealousies,butastheRomanhistorianCurtiusRufus(10.1.7)
perceptivelynoted,mostwereguiltyoftheoneunforgivablecrime:theyhad
assumedAlexanderwouldnotsurviveandhadbeguntoexploithisempirefortheir
ownpersonalbenefit.
Alexandersactionswerenotlimitedtopunishingoverlyambitiousandcorrupt
subordinates.Healsoattemptedtopreventsimilarproblemsinthefuture.All
satrapswereorderedtodisbandimmediatelytheirmercenaryforces.Whenthe
securityofhisAsianrealmwasthreatenedbyrovingbandsofembitteredcashiered
soldiers,afurtherorderwassenttothecitiesofEuropeanGreecerequiringthemto
permittheirexilestoreturnhome.Fullytwentythousandexilesaresaidtohave
heardAristotlessoninlawNicanorreadtheroyaldecreeatOlympiainthesummer
of324BC.Theproblemsofreintegratingthemintothelifeoftheirvariouscitieswere
tocauseturmoilinGreeceforyearstocome,sparkingalastdesperateattemptbythe
GreekcitiestofreethemselvesfromMacedonianruleimmediatelyafterAlexanders
death.
423
UnificationofMankind
AlmostasseriousathreattoAlexanderwasposedbythedismayandsuspicionof
hisveteranMacedoniantroopsatthechangesintheirrelationshiptotheirking.In
theearlyspringof324AlexandercelebratedtheconquestofIndiaingrandstyle.
Decorationsweredistributedtoofficersofthearmyandfleet.Theclimaxofthe
celebrationwasagrandmarriageceremonyinwhichAlexanderhimselftooktwo
Persianwives,daughtersrespectivelyofArtaxerxesIIIandDariusIII.Ninetyofhis
principalofficerstooknoblePersianandMedianwives.Giftsweredistributedtoten
thousandofhissoldierswhohadfollowedAlexandersexampleandmarriedAsian
women,andtheirdebtswerepaidbytheking.
ThegoodfeelingsquicklydissipatedwhenAlexanderintroducedintothearmy
thirtythousandyoungIraniantroopstrainedtofightinMacedonianstyle,whomhe

referredtoashisSuccessors.Theirnamesuggestedthattheywereeventuallyto
replacehisMacedonians.Itisnotsurprising,therefore,thatwhenAlexander
announcedatOpisinthesummerof324thatheintendedtodischargeandsend
homeveteranswhoweretoooldortooilltofight,thearmymutinied.Thesoldiers
demandedthatthekingdischargethemallandsarcasticallyurgedthathehenceforth
relyonhisfatherAmmon.OnlyafterAlexanderreassuredthemthathis
Macedonianswerehisonlytruecompanionsdidthemutinysubside.
Thevictoryofhisveteranswasonlysymbolic.AlthoughMacedoniansoccupiedseats
ofhonoratagreatbanquetAlexanderheldatOpistocelebratetheendofthe
mutiny,heremainedsteadfastincarryingouthisoriginalplans.Hedischargedthe
veteransshortlythereafterandsentthembacktoMacedon,whileretainingthe
childrenproducedbytheirmarriagestoAsianwomenwithhimasthenucleusofa
newgenerationofsoldiersloyalonlytohimself.Inthemeantime,theintegrationof
Iranianunitsintothearmycontinued.
DeathinBabylon
ThefinalyearofAlexandersreignwasfullofactivityandunfulfilledplans.Itbegan
withapersonaltragedy.InNovember324,Hephaestion,Alexandersmostintimate
friend,drankhimselftodeath.ThegriefstrickenkingexecutedHephaestionsdoctor
andorderedamonstrouszigguratlikemonumenttoHephaestiontobebuiltat
Babylon.WhenhebelievedhehadreceivedapprovalfromAmmon,heorderedthe
Greekcitiestogranthisdeadfriendheroichonors.Itmayalsohavebeenatthistime
thatAlexanderissuedanotherdecreedemandingthattheGreeksworshiphimasa
god.
AlexanderfurtherassuagedhisgriefwithawintercampaignintheZagros
MountainsbeforereturningtoBabyloninthespringof323.Therehereceiveda
seriesofdelegationsbearingcongratulationsandpetitionsfromtheGreeksandother
peoplesoftheMediterranean.Healsobegantoformulateplansforhisnextmajor
project,theconquestoftheArabians,who,heclaimed,hadnotsentanembassyto
honorhim.Butomensofhisimpendingdeathwerealreadybeing
424
bruitedabout.Indesperation,theBabylonianpriestsevenrevivedtheancient
substitutekingritual:acriminalwasseatedonthekingsthronedressedintheroyal
regalia,thenexecutedinthehopeofavertingthedoomthreateningtheking.
Thisfranticeffortwastonoavail.OnMay29,Alexanderfellillatapartyhostedby
oneofhisofficers.Aftersufferingfromfeveranddeliriumforalmosttwoweeks,he
diedonJune10,323BC.Legendwouldlaterclaimthathewasthevictimofaplot
concoctedbyAristotleandAntipater,whomhehaddecidedtoreplaceashisregent

inEurope.Morelikely,hisbody,exhaustedbythestrainofconstantcampaigning
andnumerouswounds,wasunabletofightoffadisease,possiblymalaria,thathe
contractedduringhisfinalsojournatBabylon.Hewasalmost33yearsold.
***
OnlearningofAlexandersdeaththeAthenianpoliticianDemadesremarkedthathe
couldnotbedeadbecausethewholeworldwouldstinkfromthestenchofhis
corpse.Alexanderhadrousedstrongpassionsduringhislifeandcontinuedtodoso
afterhisdeath.Hehadconductedthelongestandmostfarreachingmilitary
campaigninGreekhistory,andinsodoinghehadchangedforevertheworldthe
GreeksandMacedoniansknew.FromtheMediterraneantoIndia,Eurasiahadbeen
linkedtogetherandwouldremainsountiltheendofantiquity.Thecitieshe
establishedinEgyptandcentralAsiaprovidedthefoundationsforasignificant
Greekpresenceinthoseareas.
Sinceantiquity,scholarshavedisagreedaboutAlexandersplansforthefutureofhis
empire.Acleartendencytowardincreasingautocracycanbedetectedoverthe
courseofAlexandersreign,culminatinginactionssuchasthedecreesorderingthe
returnofexilesandhisowndeification.Noclearevidenceexiststhatmightreveal
howAlexanderenvisionedthefinalformofthatautocracyortherolesheexpected
thevariouspeoplesofhisempiretoplayinit.Inpart,ofcourse,thisisbecause
Alexanderdidnotexpecttodiewhenhedid.Thereis,however,amorefundamental
reason.WhenheheardthatAlexanderhadcompletedmostofhisconquestsbythe
ageof32andwasperplexedaboutwhatheshoulddowiththerestofhislife,the
RomanemperorAugustusissaidtohaveexpressedsurprisethatAlexanderdidnot
considergoverninghisempireagreaterchallengethanconqueringit.Not
surprisingly,hispaperscontainedonlyschemesforgrandiosemonumentsand
futurecampaigns,notplansforthegovernanceofhisempire.
Inaveryrealsense,therefore,Alexandersgreatestachievementwasnegative.He
destroyedthePersianempire,therebyliquidatingastatesystemthatgoverned
relationsintheNearandMiddleEastforovertwocenturies.Healsoendedtherole
oftheGreekstatesassignificantplayersinthepoliticsoftheeasternMediterranean
basin.Hissuccessors,however,andnotAlexanderhimself,wouldshapethenew
politicalorderthatwouldreplacethePersianempireandprovidetheframeworkfor
socialandculturalrelationsinmuchofwesternAsiafortherestofantiquity.
425
TRANSLATIONS
Brunt,P.A.1976.Arrian:AnabasisofAlexander.Vol.I.LoebClassicalLibrary.
Cambridge,Mass.andLondon:HarvardUniversityPress.

Perrin,Bernadotte.1919.PlutarchsLives.Vol.VII.LoebClassicalLibrary.Cambridge,
Mass.andLondon:HarvardUniversityPress.
SUGGESTEDREADING
Bosworth,A.B.1988.ConquestandEmpire:TheReignofAlexandertheGreat.
Cambridge,Eng.:CambridgeUniversityPress.Unsentimentalandclearlywritten
politicalandmilitaryhistoryofAlexandersreign.
Bosworth,A.B.1996.AlexanderandtheEast:TheTragedyofTriumph.Oxford:The
ClarendonPress.ArevealingstudyofAlexandersIndiancampaignandits
treatmentbyancientandmodernhistorians.
Engels,DonaldW.1978.AlexandertheGreatandtheLogisticsoftheMacedonianArmy.
BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Anilluminatingaccountof
thepracticalproblemsofsupplyingAlexandersarmyduringitslongcampaign.
Holt,FrankL.1989.AlexandertheGreatandBactria.Leiden:E.J.Brill.Lucidaccountof
AlexanderscentralAsiancampaignanditssignificancefortheestablishmentof
GreekcultureinBactria.
Stewart,Andrew.1993.FacesofPower.AlexandersImageandHellenisticPolitics.
BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Detailedstudyofthe
developmentanduseofthebestknownroyalportraitimageinantiquity.
Wheeler,Mortimer.1968.FlamesoverPersepolis:TurningPointinHistory.NewYork:
ReynalandCompany.Illuminatingsurveyofthearchaeologicalevidencefor
Alexanderscampaign.
426
ALEXANDERSSUCCESSORSANDTHECOSMOPOLIS
AlexandersconquestschangedforevertheworldtheGreeksknew.Fromcitizensof
minusculecitystatesonthefringesofthePersianempire,theGreekshadbecome
partnersintheruleofavastterritorythatstretchedfromtheMediterraneantothe
bordersofIndia.Thisenormouscosmopolis(literally,acitystatecomprisingthe
world)wasunifiedbytheuseofGreekasthecommonlanguageofgovernmentand
cultureandbythecreationofislandsofGreekcultureinsettlementsscattered
throughoutthisbroadarea.Thecosmopolisservedasahugearenaforthemilitary
andpoliticalstrugglesofAlexanderssuccessors.Againstthisbloodybackdrop,
ordinarypeople,bothGreeksandtheirsubjects,attemptedtoretaintraditional
valueswhilemakinginnovationsthatenabledthemtoliveinaworldthatwasvastly
differentfromthatoftheirgrandparents.

TheMacedonianconquestendedtheGreekworldknowntodayasClassical.
ClassicalGreececertainlysetstandardsinanumberofareas,suchassculpture,
architecture,philosophy,andpoliticaltheory,thatcontinuetoshapethedirectionof
westerncultureeventoday.Themodernworld,however,issharplydifferentfrom
thenarrowandintenselypoliticaluniverseofthepolis;inmanyrespectsitsclosest
affiliationiswiththeerawecallHellenistic.
ANEWWORLD
TheHellenisticperiodspansthethreecenturiesfromthedeathofAlexanderin323
BCtothedeathofCleopatraVIIofEgyptin30BC.Thisperiodwitnessedthe
attemptsofpeoplefromdifferentculturestobuildcommunitiesinwaysthatwould
havebeenunthinkableintheageofthepurelyHellenicpolis.Inmanyways,the
challengesoftheHellenisticageanticipatedthosefacedbymodernim
427
perialpowers.Moreover,inthelargemultiethnicHellenisticstatestheaverageman
wasnolongerasintenselyinvestedinpoliticsashehadbeenin,say,Classical
Athens.Privatelifeoccupiedalargershareofpeoplesenergy.Schoolsofthought
likeStoicism,Epicureanism,Cynicism,andSkepticismaddressedthesamefeelings
ofstressandanxietythattroublemenandwomentoday.Whereasthephilosophies
ofPlatoandAristotleweredesignedforaffluentmenwhocouldexpecttoparticipate
inthegovernmentoftheirpoleis,thephilosophiesthatdevelopedduringthe
HellenisticAgespoketoabroaderspectrumofthehumancommunity.Inthevisual
arts,theClassicalpreoccupationwiththebeautiful
Figure12.1.ThisoldmarketwomansurvivesinaRomanmarblecopyofan
originalofthethirdorsecondcenturyBC.
428
youngmalediminishedandthesculpturalrepertoireexpandedtoincludesuch
groupsastheelderly,children,women,nonGreeks,andeventhedeformed.
SOURCESFORTHEHELLENISTICPERIOD
LikeAlexandersconquests,hisempirescollapsegeneratedanextensivehistorical
literature,muchofitwrittenbyparticipantsintheevents.Themostimportantwere
twogreathistoriesthatcoveredthewholeperiodfromthedeathofAlexandertothe
lastconflictofhissuccessorsinthelate280SBC.OnewaswrittenbyHieronymusof
Cardia,adiplomatandcourtierwhoservedseveralofAlexanderssuccessors,and
theotherbyDuris,astudentofthephilosopherTheophrastusandtyrantofthelarge

islandofSamos.Thewrittenevidencethatonceexistedwasnotlimitedtogeneral
histories.Cityandregionalhistories;biographiesofrulers,intellectuals,andartists;
descriptionsofthelandsconqueredbyAlexander;politicalpamphlets;andeven
collectionsofinscriptionswereallcomposedduringthetwogenerationsfollowing
Alexandersdeath.
Unfortunately,virtuallyallofthisextensivebodyofevidencehasdisappeared,and
thereasonisclear.ThemodernviewoftheHellenisticperiodasoneoftheformative
erasofhistorywasnotsharedbytheGreeksoflateantiquity,whodecidedwhat
bookswouldbecopiedandthuswouldsurviveintotheMiddleAges.Intheir
opinion,thesecenturieswereatimeofforeignruleandhumiliationthatcontrasted
unfavorablywiththeClassicalperiod,whenGreecewasindependentand
triumphantoveritsenemies.Theirmedievalsuccessors,theByzantines,were
likewiseuninterestedinthehistoryoftheHellenisticperiod,butforadifferent
reason.SincetheyviewedthemselvesasChristiansandRomans,theirinterestin
HellenistichistorywaslimitedtothestoryofRomanexpansionintheeastandthe
fateoftheJewsintheintertestamentalperiod.Asaresult,interestinandcopiesof
theworksoftheHellenistichistorianssteadilydeclined.Intheend,onlyonedetailed
accountofthethreecenturiesthatfollowedthedeathofAlexandertheGreat
survivedintotheByzantineperiodthatcontainedinBooks21to40oftheLibraryof
HistoryofDiodorusofSicilyandthelastmanuscriptofDiodorusworkthat
includedthosebookswasdestroyedduringtheTurkishsackofConstantinoplein
1453AD.
FormuchofHellenistichistory,therefore,modernhistoriansareforcedtocobble
togethertheirnarrativeofeventsfromdisparate,fragmentary,andoftenintractable
sources.Fortunately,thesituationislessdesperatewithregardtothecriticalhalf
centuryafterAlexandersdeath,whenthefateofhisempirewasdecided.Diodorus
accountofthelasttwodecadesofthefourthcenturyBCsurvivesintact.Whenhis
narrativefails,historiansstillcandrawonavarietyofsourcesthatincludePlutarchs
livesofDemetriusandPyrrhus,JustinsepitomeofthePhilippicaofPompeius
Trogus,andanumberofinscriptionstoreconstructthehistoryofthenextquarterof
acentury.Historiansarefarbetterserved,however,withregardtosourcesfor
everydaylifeandadministrativeandeconomichistory.
429
FormostwritingtheGreeksandtheotherpeoplesoftheancientMediterranean
worldusedpapyrus,flatsheetswovenfromstripscutfromthepapyrusreed.
Becauseofdampnesselsewhere,documentswrittenonthismaterialhavesurvived
inlargenumbersonlyinEgypt.Therearchaeologistshavediscovereddocuments
writteninseverallanguages,includingGreek,Latin,Egyptian,andAramaic.These
documentsilluminateallaspectsofthelivesoftheinhabitantsofHellenisticEgypt.

Theyincludeprivateletters,wills,marriagecontracts,leasesandotherfinancial
documents,andevenelementaryschooltexts.Papyrialsooftenprovideourmain
evidenceforactivitiesofthegovernmentofAlexanderssuccessors,thePtolemies,
includingtaxcollection,religiousaffairs,andlegalproceedings.Thisrich
documentationgivesusuniquesnapshotsofthePtolemaicgovernmentatwork,
fromtheroyalcourttothesmallestEgyptianvillage.
PapyrihavealsopreservedlonglostworksofGreekliterature,manyofwhich
surviveonlyinfragmentarycopiesdiscoveredintheruinsofGreektownsinEgypt.
Thus,someofSapphospoetryandAristotleConstitutionofAthens,soimportantfor
thehistoryoftheAtheniandemocracy,surviveonlybecauseGreekslivinginEgypt
hadtheirowncopiesofthesetexts.Likewise,theplaysoftheAthenianplaywright
MenanderandtheLockofBereniceoftheAlexandrianpoetCallimachusareextant
onlyinpapyruscopies.Thevastnumberofpapyrithathavebeendiscoveredinthe
EgyptiancountrysidetestifytoboththeuseoftheGreeklanguageandthespreadof
Greekculture,oneofthemostenduringresultsofAlexandersconquests.Equally
important,notallpapyriarewritteninGreek.Scholarshavejustbeguntostudyin
detailthenumerousDemotic(vernacularEgyptian)papyri,whichshowthat,despite
theinfluxofGreeks,theEgyptianwayoflife,legalsystem,andreligiousinstitutions
allenduredandevenflourishedintheHellenisticperiod.
Figure12.2.LettertoZenoncomplainingaboutilltreatment:...toZenon,greeting.
Youdowellifyoukeepyourhealth.Itooamwell.Youknowthatyouleftmein
SyriawithKrotosandIdideverythingthatwasorderedinrespecttothecamelsand
wasblamelesstowardyou.Whenyousentanordertogivemepay,hegavenothing
ofwhatyouordered.WhenIaskedrepeatedlythathegivemewhatyouordered
andKrotosgavemenothing,butkepttellingmetoremovemyself,Iheldoutfora
longtimewaitingforyou;butwhenIwasinwantofnecessitiesandcouldget
nothinganywhere,IwascompelledtorunawayintoSyriasothatImightnotperish
ofhunger.SoIwroteyouthatyoumightknowthatKrotoswasthecauseofit.When
yousentmeagaintoPhiladelphiatoJason,althoughIdoeverythingthatisordered,
forninemonthsnowhegivesmenothingofwhatyouorderedmetohave,neither
oilnorgrain,exceptattwomonthperiods,whenhepaystheclothing(allowances).
AndIamindifficultybothsummerandwinter.Andheordersmetoacceptordinary
wineforsalary.Well,theyhavetreatedmewithscornbecauseIamabarbarian.I
begyoutherefore,ifitseemsgoodtoyou,togivethemordersthatIamtoobtain
whatisowingandthatinfuturetheypaymeinfull,inorderthatImaynotperishof
hungerbecauseIdonotknowhowtoactlikeaGreek.You,therefore,kindlycausea
changeinattitudetowardme.Ipraytoallthegodsandtotheguardiandivinityof
theKingthatyouremainandcometoussothatyoumayyourselfseethatIam
blameless.Farewell.BusinessPapersoftheThirdCenturyB.C.DealingwithPalestineand
Egypt,Vol.2,eds.W.L.Westermann,C.W.KeyesandH.Liebesny[NewYork:
ColumbiaUniversityPress,1940]NR.66.

430
THESTRUGGLEFORTHESUCCESSION
Alexandersreignbeganandendedwithacrisisoverthesuccessiontothe
Macedonianthrone.WhenAlexanderdiedsuddenlyinthesummerof323BC,
MacedonianpowerextendedfromMacedontoIndia.ThePersianempire,whichhad
dominatedtheNearandMiddleEastforovertwocenturies,haddisappeared,butno
newpoliticalstructurehademergedtoreplaceit.OnlyAlexanderscharismatic
personalityheldhisvastrealmtogether.Hissuddendeathremovedthatfocusof
loyalty.Survivaloftheempirerequiredthatanewkingbechosenquickly,butthere
wasnoobviousheir.Alexanderhadmarriedlateinhisreign

431
andnoneofhiswiveshadproducedachildatthetimeofhisdeath,althoughRoxane
waspregnant.OfAlexandersownimmediatefamily,onlyhismentallydeficient
halfbrotherArrhidaeussurvived.Aregency,therefore,wasinevitable.Thequestion
waswhowouldleadtheregencyandforwhomwouldheberegent?
SpeculationwasrifeamongtheMacedoniansatBabylonaboutAlexanderswishes
concerningthesuccession,butallthatwasknownforcertainwasthatonhis
deathbedhehadgivenhissignetringtohischiefminister,Perdiccas.Not
surprisingly,Perdiccastooktheinitiative,proposingthatnodecisionbemadeuntil
Roxaneschildwasborn.Alexandersbodyguardsandthecavalrysupported
Perdiccasproposal.TheMacedonianinfantrywasnotsosupportive.Facedwith
continuinguncertaintyaboutthesuccessionandenragedattheideaofahalfIranian
heirshouldRoxanebearason,theymutiniedanddemandedthatArrhidaeusbe
recognizedastheirnewking.
Foraninstant,civilwarthreatenedbetweentheMacedonianinfantryandcavalry,
onlytobeavertedatthelastmomentbyabizarrecompromise.Itwasdecidedthat
Roxaneschild,ifitweremale,andArrhidaeuswouldbejointkings!Withtheir
demandforaMacedoniankingsatisfied,theinfantryabandoneditsrebellionand
watchedpassivelywhilePerdiccasseizedandsummarilyexecuteditserstwhile
leaders.WhenRoxanegavebirthtoasonshortlythereafter,heandArrhidaeuswere
proclaimedkingsunderthenamesofAlexanderIVandPhilipIII.Thecrisis,it
seemed,hadendedalmostassuddenlyasithadbegun.Eventsweretoprove,
however,thatAlexanderhadspokenthetruthwhenhesaidthatheforesawgreat
funeralgamesoverhiscorpse.

ThestruggleforAlexandersempirethefuneralgameshehadforeseenlasted,in
fact,foralmosthalfacentury.Thehopeofmaintaininghisvastempireintactproved
tobeaseductivewillothewisp.RepeatedeffortsbyAlexandersSuccessorsto
holdtheempiretogetherwerefrustratedbycoalitionsoftheirrivals.Whenthelastof
themfinallydiedin280BC,thevisionofasinglegreatempireoccupyingthewhole
areafromtheMediterraneantoIndiahaddisappeared.Initsplacewerethefirst
glimmeringsofanewpoliticalsystemthatwouldbedominatedbythreekingdoms
ruledbyMacedoniandynasties:thePtolemies,whoserealmincludedEgypt,
Palestine,Libya,andCyprus;theSeleucids,whoseterritoriesincludedmuchofthe
NearandMiddleEast;andtheAntigonids,whoruledMacedonandnorthern
Greece.ThisarrangementformedtheframeworkforpoliticalandsociallifeinEgypt
andwesternAsiaforovertwocenturies.Italsofacilitatedavibrantculturethat
providedthebasisformuchoftheculturallifeoflaterantiquityandthemiddleages.
THEREGENCYOFPERDICCAS
ThevastextentoftheHellenisticworldandtheinadequaciesofthesourcesgiveits
historyakaleidoscopicqualitythatmakessynthesisdifficult.Thesourcesleaveno
doubt,however,thatmorewasatstakeatBabylonduringtheturbulent
432
summerof323thanmerelydeterminingtheidentityofAlexanderssuccessor.
Decisionsalsohadtobemadeconcerningthegoalsofthenewimperialgovernment.
ConquestandexpansioncharacterizedAlexandersreign,andtherewerenosignsof
anychangeinpolicy.Quitethecontrary:evenduringhisfinalillness,Alexanderwas
stillmakingplansforhisprojectedinvasionofArabia.Afterhisdeath,theregent
Perdiccasclaimedthathefoundamongthekingspapersplansforevenmore
grandioseschemes,includingtheconquestofCarthageandtheconstructionofa
tombforPhilip11equalinsizetothegreatpyramidofKhufuatGizehinEgypt.
Adecisionhadtobemadeconcerningthestatusofalltheseprojects,andPerdiccas
hadnodoubtastowhatthatdecisionshouldbe.Helaidbeforeanassemblyofthe
MacedonianarmyheldatBabylonthemostextravagantandambitiousof
Alexandersplansandaskedforthesoldiersopinion.Exhaustedbyyearsofarduous
campaigningandfearfulthattheywouldneverseeMacedonagain,thesoldiers
respondedasPerdiccasexpected,demandingthatAlexandersfinalplansbe
abandoned.ThefantasticcareerofconquestthathadbegunwithAlexanders
crossingoftheHellespontadecadeearlierwasover.Thephaseofimperial
expansionhadended.ThetimeforconsolidationofMacedonianruleandenjoyment
ofthefruitsofvictoryhadarrived,orsothesoldiersthought.
Withthequestionofthesuccessionsettled,Perdiccasmovedquicklytogiveformto
theregency.Thefirstorderofbusinesswasreallocatingthesatrapiesoftheempire.

Thesourcesanachronisticallyhighlightthesatrapiesassignedtothemenwhowould
dominatetheeventsofthenextfewdecades:CappadociatoEumenes,Egyptto
Ptolemy,ThracetoLysimachus,andmuchofwesternAnatoliatoAntigonusthe
OneEyed.Cappadocia,however,hadyettobeconquered.Egyptwasheldbythe
notoriouslycorruptusurperCleomenesofNaucratis,whilethesatrapyofThracewas
vacantandmuchofitsterritoryhadbeenlostinaThracianrebellion.Thisisnot
surprising.InthewakeofthecrisisatBabylon,Perdiccasneededtoavoidalienating
thepowerfulMacedoniansatrapsinAsiatosurvive,andsuchappointmentsmetthis
need.
ThesamecautiousandconciliatoryapproachcanalsobedetectedinPerdiccasplans
fortheorganizationoftheregencyitself.Threemenweretogoverntheempireinthe
nameofthekings:Antipater,AlexandersstrategosinEurope;Craterus,themost
prominentfieldcommanderinthelastyearsofAlexandersreignandhisintended
successortoAntipaterinEurope,whobecameprostates(protector)ofthekings;and,
ofcourse,Perdiccashimself.ThepotentialdisruptionofMacedonianunity
threatenedbyAlexandersplantosupersedeAntipaterinEuropewasavoided,and
Perdiccastwomostpowerfulpotentialenemiesweretransformedintoalliesinthe
jointgovernanceoftheempire.Antipater,forhispart,respondedintraditional
Macedonianfashion,seekingtocementthenewalliancebyarrangingtomarrytwo
ofhisdaughterstoPerdiccasandCraterus.
HardlyhadtheregencybeenformedthanPerdiccaspositionbegantocrumble.
Revoltsbrokeoutatboththeeasternandwesternendsoftheempire.Alexanders
Asiansubjectshadremainedpassivespectatorsofthecrisisthathadfollowedhis
death;notsotheGreeks.TheGreeksettlersandgarrisonsincentral
433
Asiawerethefirsttorevolt.BactriawastobecomehometoaremarkableGreek
kingdomthatwouldexertasignificantinfluenceontheculturesofcentralAsiaand
India.ThegloriesofBactrianHellenism,however,layinthefuture.In323theGreek
settlersandgarrisontroopslefttherebyAlexandersawitasaplaceofbitterexile,
andonlearningofhisdeath23,000ofthemmutiniedandsetoutonthelongmarch
home.Perdiccasresponsewaspromptanddecisive.Pithon,oneoftheRoyal
Bodyguards,interceptedtherebelsandcrushedthem,forcingthesurvivorstoreturn
totheirpostsinBactria.AlmostsimultaneouslywiththerevoltinBactria,the
EuropeanGreeksroseinanevenmoreseriousrebellionthatbrieflyseemedto
threatentheverysurvivalofMacedonianruleinGreece.
LiketherevoltoftheBactrianGreeks,therootsoftheEuropeanuprisinglayinthe
lastyearsofAlexandersreign.Alexandersdecreeof324,orderingthereturnhome
ofGreekexiles,threatenedthegovernmentsofmanyGreekcitieswithsocialand

politicalupheaval,aslargenumbersoferstwhilecitizenscamehomeanddemanded
thereturnoftheirproperty.Atthesametime,hisorderthathissatrapsdisbandtheir
mercenaryforceshadcreatedabuyersmarketintrainedsoldiersreadytofightfor
anyonewhowouldpaythem.TheleadersoftherevoltwereAthensandAetolia,the
twostateswhoseinterestsweremostthreatenedbytheexilesdecree.Adecadeof
financialreformsdesignedandimplementedbytheconservativearistocratLycurgus
hadrestoredAthensfiscalandnavalstrength.Withnewfoundfinancialresources,
Athenshiredamercenaryarmyandlaunchedthestrongestnavalforcemobilizedby
thecitysincethePeloponnesianWar.
VictoryinitiallyseemedtobealmostwithintheGreeksgrasp.Caughtbysurprise
andoutnumberedbyhisGreekenemies,Antipaterwasforcedtotakerefugeinthe
ThessahancityofLamia,fromwhichtherevoltgetsitsname,theLamianWar(323
322BC).WhiletheGreekforcesbesiegedLamia,theAthenianfleetdominatedthe
Aegean.ButtheneventsturnedinexorablyagainsttheGreeks.TheAtheniangeneral
Leosthenes,themanresponsibleforbuildingthealliesmercenaryarmy,waskilled
inbattle,andtheAthenianfleetwasdecisivelydefeatedneartheislandofAmorgos.
Meanwhile,thearrivalofMacedonianreinforcementsfromAsiaenabledAntipater
toescapefromLamiaandthentocrushtheforcesoftheGreekrebelsatCrannonin
Thessalyin322.UnliketheBactrianGreeks,theEuropeanGreekswouldhaveno
gloriousfuturetocompensatethemforthefailureoftheirrevolt.Antipaterintended
thatthereshouldbenofurtherrevolts.TheLeagueofCorinthwasdissolvedand
withitthelasttracesofthefiction,socarefullyfosteredbyPhilipIIandAlexander,
thattheGreekswerealliesandnotMacedoniansubjects.
Notsurprisingly,theheaviestpunishmentfellontheprimeinstigatoroftherevolt:
Athens.DemosthenesandtheotherleadingantiMacedonianpoliticianswere
hunteddownandexecuted,ortheycommittedsuicide.ThepillarsoftheAthenian
democracyselectionofofficialsbylot,payforoffice,andtheenfranchisementofall
Athenianswereabolished.TwelvethousandAthenians,overhalfthecitizenbody,
failedtomeetthenewfinancialrequirementsforcitizenshipandweredisfranchised.
Forthefirsttimeinalmostacentury,Athenswas
434
ruledbyanoligarchybeholdentoaforeigngovernment,andmaintainedinpower
byaforeigngarrison.
TheDeathofPerdiccas
UnliketheAthenians,theAetoliansescapedAntipaterswrath,asdisturbingnews
concerningPerdiccasactivitiesforcedAntipaterandhisalliestoturntheirattention
toAsia.WhileAntipaterandCrateruswereoccupiedwiththeLamianWar,
Perdiccaswasunsuccessfullystrugglingtoimposehisauthorityonthesatrapsin

Asia.In322BC,AntigonustheOneEyed,thesatrapofPhrygia,firstdefiedthe
regentsordertohelpEumenestakecontrolofhissatrapyofCappadociaandthen
fledtoMacedon.Worse,AntigonusbroughttoMacedonthedisconcertingnewsthat
PerdiccaswasnegotiatingwithOlympiastomarryCleopatra,Alexanderssister,
despitehispromisetowedoneofAntipatersdaughters.Antigonusnewsoutraged
Antipaterandsplittheregency.Thesparkthatignitedthefirstofthewarsof
Alexanderssuccessors,however,waslitbyPtolemy,whointerceptedtheelaborate
funeralcortegethatwasbringingAlexandersbodytoMacedonforburialand
divertedittoEgypt.Insodoing,Ptolemymayhavethoughtthathewasonly
followingAlexanderswishes,sincethereisevidencethatAlexanderdesiredtobe
buriedatSiwahnearthesanctuaryofhisdivinefather,Ammon.Still,Perdiccas
couldnotignoresodirectandhumiliatinganaffronttohisauthority.In321,
therefore,hemovedagainstPtolemyinforce,onlytohavehisinvasionofEgypt
thwartedwhenPtolemyopenedthedikesthatheldintheNileandfloodedthe
easterndelta,drowningthousandsofPerdiccassoldiersintheprocess.Inwar,asin
everythingelse,timingisallimportant.Perdiccasofficers,demoralizedbydefeat
andseducedbyPtolemyspromises,assassinatedhim.Soonafterthedeathof
PerdiccasamessengerbroughtthenewsthatCraterushadbeenkilled,andthat
PerdiccasallyEumeneshaddefeatedinAnatoliatheforcesentwithhimby
AntipatertosupportPtolemy.
ShortlyafterPerdiccasdeath,thevictorsmetatTriparadeisusinSyriatoreorganize
theregency.Theiractionswerefewbutsignificant.AntipaterreplacedPerdiccasas
regentforthekings,andtheSatrapieswerereassignedyetagain.Somesatrapssuch
asPtolemyandLysimachusweretooentrenchedintheirpositionstobetouched.
Perdiccasrelativesandalliesamongthesatraps,however,werereplacedbymen
uncompromisedbytieswiththeformerregent,suchasSeleucus,whoreceived
Babylonashissatrapy.TheheaviestblowwasreservedforEumenes,theonlyGreek
amongthemajorsatrapsandPerdiccasclosestally;hewascondemnedtodeath.At
thesametime,AntipaterrewardedAntigonustheOneEyedforalertinghimto
PerdiccasambitionswiththepositionofstrategosinAsia.Healsoassigned
AntigonusthetaskofhuntingdownEumenesandPerdiccasothersurviving
supporters.Withthereorganizationofthegovernmentcomplete,Antipaterreturned
toMacedonwiththetwokings.ForthefirsttimesinceAlexanderhadcrossedinto
Asiaoveradecadeearlier,akingwouldoccupytheroyalpalaceatPella.
435
Atfirstglance,littlehadchangedatTriparadeisus.Theempirewasstillintact.
ArgeadrulecontinuedinthepersonsofPhilipIIIandAlexanderIV.Onlythe
identityoftheirregentandofsomeofthesatrapsseemedtohavechanged.
Nevertheless,theappearanceofcontinuitywasdeceptive.Macedonianloyaltyto
Argeadrulemightstillbefirm,buttheMacedonianaristocracysdeepseated

hostilitytoroyalpowerburstforthagainafterAlexandersdeath.Perdiccashad
failedtoreimposeroyalauthority.Antipater,whowasoldandhad,moreover,been
deeplysuspiciousofAlexandersgrowingautocracy,wasunlikelyeventotry.
Moreover,bytakingthekingsbacktoMacedonwithhim,Antipaterhadmadeclear
thatMacedonwascentralinhisviewoftheempire,whileatthesametimehe
eliminatedwhateverrestraintthepresenceofthekingshadimposedontheAsian
satraps.ThepersonbestsituatedtoexploitthenewsituationwasAntigonusthe
OneEyed,whosepositionasstrategosinAsiagavehimfullcontrolofallroyalforces
andresourcesinAsiaandcompletelibertytousethemashethoughtbest.
THEPRIMACYOFANTIGONUSTHEONEEYED
AntigonusrisetopreeminenceinAsiawasrapid.Inalittleoverayearhesucceeded
insuppressingPerdiccasremainingalliesinAnatolia,drivingEumenesfromhis
satrapyofCappadociaandbesieginghiminthefortressofNoraincentralAnatolia.
ThedecisionsmadeatTriparadeisusseemedonthevergeofbeingimplemented,
whenAntipaterssuddendeathin319BCprecipitatedanewroundofconflict
amongAlexanderssuccessors.AntipaterssonCassanderrefusedtoaccepthis
fatherschoiceofPolyperchonasregentforthetwokingsandfledtoAntigonus.
Antigonus,Cassander,Ptolemy,andLysimachusquicklyformedagrandalliance
againstthenewregent.
Thestrugglelastedforthreeyearsandendedwiththecompletecollapseoftheroyal
causeinbothEuropeandAsia.WhenitbecameclearthatCassanderwaswinning,
PolyperchonturnedindesperationtoOlympiasforhelp.Intheabsenceofcompetent
maleArgeads,thesurvivingfemaleArgeadsincreasinglyembodiedthecharismaof
Philip11andAlexanderintheeyesoftheMacedonians.Olympiasentryintothe
frayenergizedPolyperchonscause,butitdidsoatthecostofsplittingthedual
kingship.HersinglemindedpassionforthecauseofhergrandsonAlexanderIV
forcedEurydice,thedaughterofAmyntasIVandqueenofPhilipIII,torecognize
Cassandersclaimtoberegentforherhusband,buttonoavail.In317thetwoqueens
finallycommandedopposingarmiesinabattle,whereOlympiasfirstcrushedher
rival,Eurydice,andthenorderedtheexecutionofbothherandPhilip111.
Olympiastriumph,however,wasbrief.Sixmonthslatershesufferedthesamefate
asEurydice,leavinghergrandsonandMacedoninthehandsofCassander.
Outwardly,CassanderclaimedonlytoberegentforAlexanderIV,butthereality
wasdifferent.CassanderwasthenewrulerofMacedon,andhequicklyconsolidated
hispower.ThechildkingandhismotherRoxanewereconfinedunder
436

housearrestinAmphipolis,nevertobeseeninpublicagain.Meanwhile,Cassander
himselfsoughttolegitimizehisholdonpowerbymarryingAlexandershalfsister
Thessalonice.
CassandersfirstactsleftnodoubtaboutthenatureoftheneworderinMacedonand
Greece.Macedoniantraditiongavekingstheprerogativeoffoundingcitiesnamed
afterthemselvesormembersoftheirfamilies,andCassanderfoundedtwosuch
cities.OnewasnamedThessaloniceafterhisnewqueenandtheother,onthesiteof
Olynthus,wascalledCassandreaafterhimself.Inaddition,heorderedthe
restorationofThebes,thecitywhosedestructionhadmarkedthebeginningof
AlexandersdominanceinGreece.TheregimeofAlexandertheGreatandhisfamily
wasover;thatofhissuccessorshadbegun.
AsimilarfatebefelltheroyalcauseinAsia.AlthoughAlexandersformersecretary
Eumenesunexpectedlyprovedtobeabrillianttactician,hismilitaryskillswere
ultimatelyinsufficienttosavehim.IsolatedfromEurope,Eumenesreceivedonly
grudgingsupportfromtheAsiansatraps,whodespisedhimasaGreekupstart.
Nevertheless,hemanagedtoavoiddefeatforthreeyearsbeforehisownsoldiers
betrayedhimin316toAntigonus,whoorderedtheimmediateexecutionofhis
resourcefulfoe.
AsinEurope,soinAsiaavictorywoninthenameoftheheirsofAlexander
resultedinsteadintheusurpationofArgeadrule.WithEumenesdead,Antigonus
replacedhissupportersamongtheeasternsatrapswithmenloyaltohimself.
SeleucusthoughtitbesttoabandonBabylonandfleetoPtolemy.Althoughofficially
onlystrategosinAsiaforAlexanderIV,Antigonus,infact,controlledthechildkings
vastAsianterritoriesassecurelyasCassanderdidhisEuropeanones.
TheFreedomoftheGreeks
AntigonusemergenceasthedominantpowerinAsiaalsodestabilizedthealliance
thathadbroughtdowntheregencyandmaderenewalofwarinevitable.Thenew
alignmentofforceswasquicklyrevealed.OnhisreturntoPhoeniciain315,
Antigonuswasgreetedbyanultimatumfromhisallies,demandingthatheshareall
thetreasureandterritoriesthathehadcaptured.Notsurprisingly,Antigonus
rejectedtheirultimatumandcounteredwithanultimatumofhisowndemanding
thathisrivalsrecognizetheprinciplethatallGreekstatesshouldbefreeandself
governing.Asbothancientandmodernhistorianshaverecognized,theserival
ultimatumswereessentiallypropagandaintendedtoseizethediplomatichigh
groundandwooMacedoniansupportwhilebothsidespreparedforwar.Antigonus
invocationoftheprincipleofGreekfreedom,however,wasaddressedtoadifferent
audience:theGreeks.

AntigonusassertionoftheprincipleofGreekfreedomhasbeenthesubjectofmuch
discussion.ScholarshaverightlypointedoutthatAntigonusneverfreedtheGreek
citiesunderhiscontrolandhaveconcluded,therefore,thathissupportofGreek
freedomwasonlypropaganda.Itwaspropaganda,however,thatAntigonushad
goodreasontobelievewouldhaveastrongresonanceinGreece.
437
TheGreekswerefiercelydevotedtotheindependenceoftheirpoleis,andthe
MacedoniankingshadfoundnowaytosolvetheproblemofreconcilingtheGreeks
hungerforindependencewithmaintainingcontrolofthecitieslocatedintheir
territories.AftertheLamianWar,AntipatersandCassandersnewpolicyof
controllingtheGreekcitiesdirectlythroughpuppetgovernmentsbackedbyresident
garrisonsmadetheissueparticularlycontentious.Theresultwasinevitable:
increasingresentmentofMacedonianrule.Alreadyin319,Athenshadrebelledin
responsetoanearlierpromisebyPolyperchontorestoredemocracyandfreedomto
theGreeks.AntigonushopedthathisdeclarationofhissupportforGreekfreedom
wouldhaveasimilareffectamongCassandersotherembitteredGreeksubjects
whenhelaunchedhisprojectedinvasionofMacedon.
AlthoughAntigonuscontinuedmakingpreparationsforwarthroughout314and
313,hisinvasionofMacedonnevermaterialized.Antigonusfacedthesametactical
problemthatPerdiccashadalmostadecadeearlier:attackingoneenemywhile
simultaneouslydefendingagainstanotherinhisrear.Asbefore,theeffortfailed.
BeforeAntigonuscouldcrosstoEuropetoconfrontCassander,Ptolemyinflicteda
massivedefeatonhissonDemetrius,whohadbeenguardinghisfatherssouthern
flank,atGazain312BC.PtolemycompletedthedebaclebyhelpingSeleucusreturn
toBabylonthesameyear,whereheimmediatelybegantoincitedefectionsamong
theeasternsatraps.Withhissouthernandeasternfrontsinruins,Antigonushadno
choiceexcepttomakepeacewithhisformerallies,whichhedidin311.
ThePeaceof311BCrepresentedAntigonusadmissionthattemporarily,atleast,his
ambitiousplanstogaincontrolofallofAlexandersempirehadfailed.Thetermsof
thetreatyitselfrevealthemagnitudeofthefailure:Cassandertoremainasstrategos
inEuropeuntilAlexanderIVcameofage,Antigonustocontinueasstrategosoverall
Asia,PtolemyandLysimachustoretaintheirsatrapies,andtheGreekcitiestobe
free.InreturnforapledgetosupporttheprincipleofGreekfreedomthatneitherhe
norhisrivalsintendedtofulfill,Antigonushadretractedallthesubstantivedemands
hehadmadeagainsthisenemiesatTyreandagreedtothecontinuationofthe
divisionoftheempireasithadexistedatthebeginningofthewar.
Document12.1LetterofAntigonustheOneEyedtoScepsis(311BC)The
importanceofthethemeoftheFreedomoftheGreeksinthewarsofAlexanders

successorsisreflectedinthislettersentbyAntigonustheOneEyedtothecitizensof
ScepsisinnorthwestAnatoliashortlyaftertheconclusionofthePeaceof311BCand
preservedinaninscriptiondiscoveredatScepsis.
...weexercisedzealforthelibertyoftheGreeks,makingforthisreasonnosmall
concessionsanddistributingmoneybesides.Tofurtherthiswesentouttogether
AeschylusandDemarchus.Aslongastherewasagreementonthisweparticipated
intheconferenceontheHellespont,andifcertainmenhadnotinterferedthematter
shouldthenhavebeensettled.Nowalso,whenCassanderandPtolemywere
conferringaboutatruceandwhen
438
PepalausandAristodemushadcometousonthesubject,althoughwesawthat
someofthedemandsofCassanderwereratherburdensome,stillastherewas
agreementconcerningtheGreekswethoughtitnecessarytooverlookthisinorder
thatthemainissuemightbesettledassoonaspossible.Weshouldhaveconsidered
itafinethingifallhadbeenarrangedfortheGreeksaswewished,butbecausethe
negotiationwouldhavebeenratherlongandinadelaysometimesmanyunexpected
thingshappen,andbecausewewereanxiousthatthequestionoftheGreeksshould
besettledinourlifetime,wethoughtitnecessarynottoletdetailsendangerthe
settlementoftheprincipalissue.WhatzealwehaveshowninthesematterswillI
thinkbeevidenttoyouandtoallothersfromthesettlementitself.Afterthe
arrangementswithCassanderandLysimachushadbeencompleted,toconclude
whichtheyhadsentPepalauswithfullauthority,Ptolemysentenvoystousasking
thatatrucebemadewithhimalsoandthathebeincludedinthesametreaty.We
sawthatitwasnosmallthingtogiveuppartofanambitionforwhichwehadtaken
nolittletroubleandincurredmuchexpense,andthattoowhenanagreementhad
beenreachedwithCassanderandLysimachusandwhentheremainingtaskwas
easier.Nevertheless,because...wesawthatyouandourotherallieswereburdened
bythewaranditsexpenses,wethoughtitwaswelltoyieldandtomakethetruce
withhimalso.WesentAristodemusandAeschylusandHegesiastodrawupthe
agreement.Theyhavenowreturnedwiththepledges,andtherepresentativeof
Ptolemy,Aristobulus,hascometoreceivethemfromus.Wehaveprovidedinthe
treatythatalltheGreeksaretosweartoaideachotherinpreservingtheirfreedom
andautonomy,thinkingthatwhilewelivedinallhumanexpectationthesewouldbe
protected,butthatafterwardsfreedomwouldremainmorecertainlysecureforall
theGreeksifboththeyandthemeninpowerareboundbyoaths.Forthemtoswear
alsotohelptoguardthetermsofthetreatywhichwehavemadewitheachother,
seemstousneitherdiscreditablenordisadvantageousfortheGreeks;thereforeit
seemstomebestforyoutotaketheoathwhichwehavesent.Inthefuturealsowe
shalltrytoprovidebothforyouandfortheotherGreekswhateveradvantagewe
haveinourpower....Farewell.

OrientisGraeciInscriptionesSelectae(ed.W.Dittenberger,2vols.,Leipzig:S.Hirzel
19031905,Nr.5)translatedbyC.B.Welles,RoyalCorrespondenceintheHellenistic
Period.London:YaleUniversityPress1934,pp.45.
AntigonusLastGamble
ThePeaceof311wasnotatruepeace,merelyatruceinthestrugglebetween
Antigonusandhisenemiesthatbothsidesusedtorebuildtheirstrength.Afteran
unsuccessfulattempttoexpelSeleucus(whohadnotbeenincludedinthetruce)
fromBabylon,Antigonuswascompelledtomakepeacewithhimin308.Hethen
turnedhisattentiontothewest,wherehetriedtoexploitthedivisions
439
betweenCassanderandPtolemy.In307Demetrius,Antigonusson,intervenedin
Greeceattheheadofastrongexpeditionaryforcewithamandatetofreeallthe
citiesofGreece.
Successwasimmediate.DemetriusdroveDemetriusofPhalerum,whomCassander
hadappointedgovernorofAthensin317,intoexileinEgyptandrestored
democraticgovernmentinAthens.WithhisbaseinGreecesecure,Demetriuscrossed
toCyprusin306,wherehequicklybegantounderminePtolemysholdontheisland,
focusingonthecityofSalamisonthesoutheastcoastoftheisland.Thesiegeof
SalamiswasthefirstoftheepicsiegesthatwouldlatergainforDemetriusthe
sobriquetPoliorcetes(theBesieger).ThefallofSalamisandtherestofCyprusleft
thewholeislandinAntigonidhands.Demetriusfinallyhadhisrevengeforhis
humiliationatthehandsofPtolemyatGazasixyearsearlier.Moreimportant,
possessionofCyprusgaveAntigonusandDemetriusaninvaluablebasefromwhich
theirfleetcoulddominatethewholeoftheeasternMediterraneanbasin.
Demetriussuccessesradicallytransformedthepoliticalworldofthelatefourth
centuryBC.PreviouslynoneofAlexanderssuccessorshaddaredtoputasidethe
fictionthathewasanythingbutadeputyofthemurderedchildkingAlexanderIV.
InEgyptandAsia,documentsevencontinuedtobedatedbytheyearsofthereignof
AlexanderIVforalmosthalfadecadeafterhisdeath!WhenthenewsofDemetrius
victoryinCyprusreachedAntigonusandhistroopsinSyria,however,allthis
changed:thesoldiersacclaimedDemetriusandAntigonusaskingsofMacedonia.
ThecrowningofAntigonusandDemetriusannouncedanewreality:the
replacementoftheArgeadsbyanewroyaldynasty.
ThebasisofAntigonusandDemetriusclaimtobekingsandthenatureoftheir
kingdomareevident.LiketheheroesofHomericepic,Macedoniankingswerefirst
andforemostmilitaryleaders,andthesourcesleavenodoubtthatitwasthegloryof
DemetriusdecisivevictoryatSalamisthatjustifiedtheacclamationofhisfatherand

himselfasking.Macedoniankingsruledsubjects,notterritories.Antigonusand
Demetrius,therefore,didnotclaimtobekingsofAlexandersempireoranyother
territorybuttobekingspureandsimple.Theextentoftheirrealmwouldbe
determinednotbygeographybutbyhistory,thatis,bytheirsuccessinsubduing
theirrivals.
TheelationofAntigonusandDemetriusprovedshortlived.Insteadofintimidating
theirrivals,theirassumptionoftheroyaltitlehadtheoppositeeffect.Withinayear
Cassander,Lysimachus,Ptolemy,andSeleucusalsohadassumedthetitleKing,
therebydenyinganyclaimbyAntigonusandDemetriustosovereigntyovertheir
territories.Norwastheirdefiancepurelysymbolic.In305BCPtolemybeatoffan
attemptedinvasionofEgyptbyAntigonusforces.Ayearlaterhejoinedwith
CassanderandLysimachustohelpfoilthesecondandmostfamousofDemetrius
greatsieges,hisyearlongefforttosubduethecityofRhodes,acloseallyofPtolemy
andtheonlysignificantremainingindependentGreeknavalpowerintheeastern
Mediterranean.AntigonusandDemetriusregalpretensionsandaggressiveactions
hadreunitedtheirenemies,settingthestageforafinalrenewalofthestrugglefor
controlofAlexanderslegacythathadbeeninterruptedbythePeaceof311.
440
betweenCassanderandPtolemy.In307Demetrius,Antigonusson,intervenedin
Greeceattheheadofastrongexpeditionaryforcewithamandatetofreeallthe
citiesofGreece.
Successwasimmediate.DemetriusdroveDemetriusofPhalerum,whomCassander
hadappointedgovernorofAthensin317,intoexileinEgyptandrestored
democraticgovernmentinAthens.WithhisbaseinGreecesecure,Demetriuscrossed
toCyprusin306,wherehequicklybegantounderminePtolemysholdontheisland,
focusingonthecityofSalamisonthesoutheastcoastoftheisland.Thesiegeof
SalamiswasthefirstoftheepicsiegesthatwouldlatergainforDemetriusthe
sobriquetPoliorcetes(theBesieger).ThefallofSalamisandtherestofCyprusleft
thewholeislandinAntigonidhands.Demetriusfinallyhadhisrevengeforhis
humiliationatthehandsofPtolemyatGazasixyearsearlier.Moreimportant,
possessionofCyprusgaveAntigonusandDemetriusaninvaluablebasefromwhich
theirfleetcoulddominatethewholeoftheeasternMediterraneanbasin.
Demetriussuccessesradicallytransformedthepoliticalworldofthelatefourth
centuryBC.PreviouslynoneofAlexanderssuccessorshaddaredtoputasidethe
fictionthathewasanythingbutadeputyofthemurderedchildkingAlexanderIV.
InEgyptandAsia,documentsevencontinuedtobedatedbytheyearsofthereignof
AlexanderIVforalmosthalfadecadeafterhisdeath!WhenthenewsofDemetrius
victoryinCyprusreachedAntigonusandhistroopsinSyria,however,allthis

changed:thesoldiersacclaimedDemetriusandAntigonusaskingsofMacedonia.
ThecrowningofAntigonusandDemetriusannouncedanewreality:the
replacementoftheArgeadsbyanewroyaldynasty.
ThebasisofAntigonusandDemetriusclaimtobekingsandthenatureoftheir
kingdomareevident.LiketheheroesofHomericepic,Macedoniankingswerefirst
andforemostmilitaryleaders,andthesourcesleavenodoubtthatitwasthegloryof
DemetriusdecisivevictoryatSalamisthatjustifiedtheacclamationofhisfatherand
himselfasking.Macedoniankingsruledsubjects,notterritories.Antigonusand
Demetrius,therefore,didnotclaimtobekingsofAlexandersempireoranyother
territorybuttobekingspureandsimple.Theextentoftheirrealmwouldbe
determinednotbygeographybutbyhistory,thatis,bytheirsuccessinsubduing
theirrivals.
TheelationofAntigonusandDemetriusprovedshortlived.Insteadofintimidating
theirrivals,theirassumptionoftheroyaltitlehadtheoppositeeffect.Withinayear
Cassander,Lysimachus,Ptolemy,andSeleucusalsohadassumedthetitleKing,
therebydenyinganyclaimbyAntigonusandDemetriustosovereigntyovertheir
territories.Norwastheirdefiancepurelysymbolic.In305BCPtolemybeatoffan
attemptedinvasionofEgyptbyAntigonusforces.Ayearlaterhejoinedwith
CassanderandLysimachustohelpfoilthesecondandmostfamousofDemetrius
greatsieges,hisyearlongefforttosubduethecityofRhodes,acloseallyofPtolemy
andtheonlysignificantremainingindependentGreeknavalpowerintheeastern
Mediterranean.AntigonusandDemetriusregalpretensionsandaggressiveactions
hadreunitedtheirenemies,settingthestageforafinalrenewalofthestrugglefor
controlofAlexanderslegacythathadbeeninterruptedbythePeaceof311.
440
Ironyiswovendeepintothefabricofhistory.Confrontedbytheallianceof
PtolemyandLysimachus,Seleucussoughtanallyofhisownandfoundanunlikely
oneinDemetrius,thesonofAntigonustheOneEyed,whohadescapedfromthe
fieldofIpsusandnowruledakingdomcomprisinghisfathersfleetandahandful
ofcitiesinwesternAnatolia,theAegean,andGreece,includingthekeyportsof
EphesusandCorinth.Onceagainwarseemedimminentbetweenrivalalliancesof
Alexanderssuccessors,butthistimetheoutbreakoffightingwasdeferredforovera
decade.
BuildingNewKingdomsandCities
TheprolongedconflictwithAntigonushadforcedhisrivalstoputofftheirplansfor
thedevelopmentoftheirownkingdoms.Freedfromthisconcernbyhisdeath,they
devotedthemselvestolocalaffairsduringthe290s.ThusLysimachusstruggledwith
limitedsuccesstosecurehisnorthernfrontieragainsttheGetae,wholivedacrossthe

Danube,whilesimultaneouslyfoundingorreorganizingseveralmajorcitiesin
westernAnatolia.ThemostimportantofthesecitieswasEphesus,whichhemoved
toanewsiteclosertotheseaandrenamedArsinoeaafterhisnewwifeor,perhaps,
hisdaughterofthesamename.Asweshallsee,Ptolemyalsobuiltonalargescalein
thisperiod,transformingAlexandriaintoaworthycapitalforhiskingdom.The
greatestbuilderoftheperiod,however,wasSeleucus,whofoundednumerouscities
andmilitarysettlementsinSyria,includinghisnewcapitalofAntioch,whichhe
builtonthesiteofAntigonustheOneEyedsnamecityofAntigoneianearthemouth
oftheOrontesRiver.
AsthousandsofGreeksemigratedtoEgyptandtheNearandMiddleEast,thenew
citiesgrewandprospered.Ultimately,AlexandriaandAntiochsupported
populationsnumberinginthehundredsofthousandsandboastingsplendidpublic
buildingsandamenitiesunknowntothecitiesofoldGreece.Littleisknownof
HellenisticAntiochandAlexandria,althoughtherecentdiscoveryofextensive
archaeologicalremainsunderthewatersofAlexandriaharborpromisesfinallyto
revealsomeofthegloryofancientAlexandria.Inthemeantime,anideaoftheir
splendorandprosperitycanbegainedfromthesiteofAiKhanum,probably
AlexandriaontheOxus,innorthernAfghanistan,whereFrencharchaeologistshave
discoveredalargecitywithbroadstreets,elegantmansions,andallthepublic
buildingsessentialtoaGreekpolis:monumentaltemples,agymnasium,atheater,
andanagora.Thepreoccupationwithdomesticaffairsthatoccupiedmuchofthe
decadeafterthedeathofAntigonuswasended,however,bytheactionsofhisson
Demetrius.
TheFinalStruggle
UnliketheothersuccessorsofAlexander,DemetriusPoliorcetes(theBesieger)
possessedakingdomwithoutaterritorialbase,andhespentmostofthe290s
tryingtoremedythatdeficiency.In295heoccupiedAthens,andayearlaterhis
442
effortswerefinallycrownedwithsuccesswhenheseizedcontrolofMacedonfrom
thefeudingsonsofCassander.
Demetriussuccess,however,wasshortlived.Whiletheotherkingsmighthave
acquiescedinhisruleofMacedon,DemetriussawMacedononlyasabasefrom
whichtolaunchonelastefforttogainpowerinAsia.Beforehecouldcompletehis
preparationsforhisinvasionofAsia,hisrivalsstruck.WhilePtolemysupportedyet
anotherAthenianrevolt,LysimachusjoinedwithPyrrhus,thekingofEpirus,to
occupyMacedonandtoforceDemetriusintoprematurelylaunchinghisAsian
campaignin286.Theresultwasinevitable.Badlyoutnumberedandill,Demetrius
hadlittlechoiceexcepttoresignhimselftohisfateandsurrendertothejointforces

ofSeleucusandLysimachus.In283,thismostflamboyantofAlexanderssuccessors
diedwhileconfinedunderhousearrestnearAntioch.
Demetriusconquerorsdidnotlongsurvivehim.Abittersuccessioncrisis,inwhich
LysimachusexecutedhisowneldestsonAgathocles,splittheThracianmonarchs
court.AgathoclessupportersfledtoSeleucusandurgedhimtosupporttheircause,
therebysettingthestagefortheresumptionofthestruggleforcontrolofAlexanders
empirebetweenthelastofhisgenerals.Theforcesofthetwoagingmonarchsboth
wereover80metinearly281atCorupedium(theFieldofCrows),inPhrygia.At
theendofthebattle,LysimachuslaydeadonthefieldandSeleucus,itseemed,
finallyhadachievedthedreamthathadhauntedPerdiccasandAntigonustheOne
Eyedandhisson:thereunionoftheEuropeanandAsianportionsofAlexanders
empire.
Theroleofchancecanneverbeignoredinhistory.WithinayearSeleucuswasdead,
assassinatedbyanexiledsonofPtolemy,PtolemyCeraunus(TheThunderbolt),to
whomhehadgivensanctuary.TheThunderboltsmomentofgloryalsopassed
quickly.Alittleoverayearlater,in279,hewasalsodead,killedtryingtostemthe
invasionofMacedonbybandsofmigratingGauls.ACelticpeople,whosemigration
fromtheirwestEuropeanhomehadbegunintheearlyfourthcenturyBC,theGauls
tookadvantageofthechaosinMacedoncausedbythedeathofLysimachusand
overranMacedonandnorthernGreeceasfarsouthasDelphi.
Despiteitshorrors,theGalliceruptionwasonlyanisolatedepisodeinthehistoryof
EuropeanGreece,butitwasonethathadsignificantconsequences.Althoughthe
GaulssoontransferredtheirterrortoAnatolia,twooftheirraidingpartiessuffered
humiliatingdefeatsatDelphiandLysimacheiaatthehandsoftheAetoliansand
AntigonusGonatas(Knockknees),thesonofDemetrius,whohadmaintaineda
precariousholdonthefewremainingAntigonidpossessionsinGreecesincehis
fathersdeathalmostadecadeearlier.TheirvictoriesovertheGaulstransformedthe
positionofboththeAetoliansandAntigonus,legitimizingtheemergenceofthe
formerasthepreeminentpowerincentralGreeceandtheprotectorofDelphiand
thelatteraskingofMacedon.Thefinalpiecesofthenewpoliticalsystemthathadso
graduallyandpainfullyemergedfromthewreckageofAlexandersempirehad
fallenintoplace.
443
Figure12.3.TheHellenisticworld.
444
THEPLACEOFTHEPOLISINTHECOSMOPOLIS

AlthoughtheemergenceofthenewMacedoniankingdomschangedthecharacter
andshapeoftheworldtheGreeksknew,oneaspectofGreekliferemainedlargely
unchanged:thepoliscontinuedtoformthebasicframeworkforthelifeofmost
Greeks.OldpoleissuchasAthens,Syracuse,andEphesusgrewandprospered.At
thesametime,theincidenceofwarbetweenpoleisactuallydeclined,andthe
peacefulsettlementofinternationaldisputesthrougharbitrationbecamealmost
routine.Eventhenotoriousparticularismoftheclassicalpoliswaspartially
overcomebytheAetolianandAchaeanleagues.Theysucceededinbuildingstrong
federalstatesthatcoulddealwithMacedonandtheotherMacedoniankingdomson
aroughlyequalbasisbyexpandingtheirmembershiptoincludecitiesoutsidetheir
traditionalhomesincentralGreeceandthenorthernPeloponnesus.Unlikethe
polarizingAthenianandSpartanleaguesoftheClassicalera,thefederalleaguesof
theHellenisticAgewereinvokedasinspiringmodelsbylateraspirantstofederalism
suchastheintellectualsofrevolutionaryAmericaintheeighteenthcentury.
Atthesametime,politicaltrendsthathadappearedalreadyinthefourthcenturyBC
intensifiedinthecenturiesfollowingthedeathofAlexander.Whilenominal
democracybecamethenorminGreekcities,democracyitselflostmuchofits
meaning,comingtosignifylittlemorethantheabsenceoftyranny.Inreality,therole
ofaveragecitizensingovernmentsteadilydwindled,andaristocraticoligarchies
managedaffairsfrombehindthescenes.Althoughnumerousinscriptions
documentingtheirgenerosityandpublicserviceattesttothepatriotismofthesenew
leaders,suchcoreinstitutionsofpolislifeaspopularassembliesandelectedcouncils
inevitablydeclined,aspoleiscametorelymoreandmoreontheassistanceofsuch
mentorescuethemfromrecurrentfinancialanddiplomaticcrises.
AthensandSparta
Asusual,AthensandSpartawereexceptionstotheprevailingpoliticaltrends.
Althoughitsdemocracywasneverfullyrestored,Athenscontinuedtobethecultural
centerofGreeceandprospered.ThetoneofHellenisticAthenianculturediffered
greatlyfromthatofthefifthandfourthcenturycity.Thechangeismostobviousin
drama,theprincipalAthenianliteraryform.Thegrandtragediesandbitingpolitical
comediesoftheClassicalerawerereplacedbyalightergenreknownasNew
Comedy.Thegentle,amiableplaysofMenander(344c.292BC),whichreflectthe
newpoliticalorderandtheinterestsofitsupperclassaudience,areourchief
survivingrepresentativesofthisliterarygenre.
MenanderhadbeenapupilofTheophrastus,headoftheLyceumafterthedeathof
Aristotle.HewasalsoafriendofDemetriusofPhalerum,anotherpupilof
Theophrastus,whomCassanderappointedasgovernorofAthensin317.Historians
aredisposedtobelievethatMenandersplaysprovidereliablehistoricalevidence:a
scholarinAlexandriawrote,OMenanderandOlife,whichoneofyouhasimi

446
tatedtheother?ARMenandersplaysarecontemporaryanddepictaGreekworld
populatedbyswaggeringmercenariesinsearchofplunderandromance,
impoverishedcitizenswholivenextdoortoextremelywealthypeople,courtesans
andpimps,spendthriftyouths,andrespectableyoungwomenwhoseonly
appropriatedestinyismarriage.Menanderscharactersarecompletelywrappedup
intheirprivateworlds,asthoughwearyofwarandpoliticalupheaval.
SlavesareubiquitousinNewComedy,andinfactwhenDemetriusconducteda
censusinAthenstherewere21,000citizens,10,000metics,and400,000slaves
(includingthosewhoworkedinthemines).Evenifthefiguresforslavesare
exaggerated,stilltheratioofslavestofreeislikelytohavebeenunusuallyhigh.The
quartercenturyofcampaignshadcertainlyreducedmanypeopletoslavery.
Entrepreneurialslavedealersalsotookadvantageofthehabitofexposingunwanted
newborns.Theabandonmentofinfants,especiallyfemales,wasanacceptablemeans
ofcopingwiththeinsecurityoflifeintheHellenisticperiod.Infantexposureforms
thethemeofseveralofMenandersplots(thoughliteratureascribedabandoned
babieshappierdestiniesthanthosethatawaitedtheminreallife).Significantly,the
chiefdivinityinNewComedyisTyche(Fortune),afittingemblemofthischaotic
era.
Figure12.4.Fortune(Tyck),personifiedasagoddesswearingacrown
representingcitywalls,wasacommonthemeinHellenisticsculpture.ThisRoman
bronzestatuettereflectstheloststatueoftheTycheofthecityofAntiochby
Eutychides.
447
Thealteredtemperofthetimeswasevidentalsoinnewdevelopmentsintherealm
ofphilosophy.Thoughtheyhadmuchtosaytoordinarymenandwomen,and
continuetobestudiedtodaywithinterestbypeopleofvariedsocialandeconomic
backgrounds,ClassicalphilosopherslikePlatoandAristotledirectedtheirteachings
toaffluentmenofleisurewhowereinterestedinimprovingtheirpoliticalactivities
intheautonomouspoleis.Hellenisticphilosophies,ontheotherhand,weredesigned
tohelppeoplecopewithaworldoverwhichtheyhadlittlecontrol.
LiketheestablishmentsofPlatoandAristotle,twoofthemostimportantschoolsof
HellenisticthoughtfloweredinAthens.ThesewereStoicismandEpicureanism.Born
inCitiuminCyprus,Zeno(335263BC),thefounderofStoicism,wasafriendof
AntigonusGonatasandspentmanyyearsinAthens,wherehelecturedonthe
terraceknownastheStoaPoikil(PaintedPorch).Forthisreasonhisfollowers
receivedthenameofStoics(i.e.,Porchers).

Zenosphilosophyreflectedtherealitiesofthenewpoliticalorder.Accordingto
Zeno,theearthstoodatthecenteroftheuniversewithZeusitsprimemover.justas
cosmicmotionsneverchangedandZeusremainedkingofthegods,somonarchy
wasthedivinelyorderedsystemofgovernment.Revolution,consequently,violated
thenaturalorganizationoftheworld,whereaspatriotismandpublicservice
harmonizedwiththecosmicorder.Serenity,theStoicsbelieved,wasimpossible
withouttheconfidencethatonehadfulfilledonesdutiestoothers,andStoicism
entailedalargedoseofhumanitarianism.
Zenourgedhisfollowerstoattainaninnertranquillitythatwasproofnotonly
againstagonizingpainhenceourwordstoicalbutagainstexcessivepleasureas
well.Hedidnot,however,advocatewithdrawalfromthesocialandpoliticalrealm
asdidsomeofhiscontemporaries.Instead,heencouragedStoicstoupholdjustice
butnottoengageinanyseriousattemptsatreform.Thus,whileinprincipleStoics
consideredslavesjustasfreeastheirowners,theymadenoattempttoabolish
slavery.Itwasconsideredenoughforslavestobemadeawarethat,deepinside,they
enjoyednomoreorlessfreedomthantheirmastersandmistresses,whomightbe
themselvesslavestogreedorlust.Becausetheyrejectedexcessivepleasure,
moreover,Stoicsembracedsexonlyforpurposesofprocreation.Theiracceptanceof
ahierarchicalsociopoliticalorderandtheirrejectionofsexualpleasurearetwo
importantarenasinwhichStoicismanticipatedtheteachingsofearlyChristianity.
Inkeepingwiththeirbeliefinanorderlyuniverse,Stoicsbelievedthatlifewas
rationalandcouldbeplanned.AverydifferentpositionwastakenbyEpicurus(341
270BC),anativeofSamoswhomovedtoAthens,whereheestablishedinhishomea
schoolcalledTheGarden.Epicurusevenincludedwomenamonghisstudents.
AdoptingtheatomictheoryfirstputforwardbyLeucippusandDemocritus,he
rejectedthedeterminismoftheearlyatomists.Thoughheagreedthatatomsfellin
straightlinesfromthesky,headdedanewelement.Epicurusarguedthatthe
multiplicityofsubstancesintheuniversearosefromperiodicswervesintheatoms
paths,causingthemtocollideatavarietyofangles.Likethedomainscontinually
carvedoutandalteredbyAlexanderssuccessors,theentireuniversecombinedby
chance,andwouldperishandregeneratebychanceaswell.
448
Thisconstructionleftlittleroomforthegods,andinfactEpicuruscontendedthat
thoughthegodsmustexistsincepeoplesawtheirimagesindreams,theyhadno
interestinhumans.IntheEpicureansystem,thegodslivedserene,untroubledlives,
indifferenttosuchstaplesofGreekreligiousandsociallifeasprayers,offerings,and
rituals.(Thegoodnewswasthatthehorrificpunishmentsassociatedwiththe
underworldwerefictions;thebadnewswasthatnobodyonOlympuswasinterested

inlisteningtocomplaints,offeringsolace,oravenginginjustices.)Afterdeath,the
atomsthathadcomprisedthesoulandbodyofeachpersonmerelydissolved.
Intheabsenceofeternalrewardsandpunishments,Epicurusviewedhappinesson
earthasthepurposeoflife,thuswinningforhimselfthenameofhistorysfirst
humanistphilosopher.Hedefinedhappinessastheattainmentofataraxia,an
untroubledstatefreefromexcessivepleasureandpain,muchliketheserenity
advocatedbyZeno.UnlikeZeno,however,Epicurusadvocatedwithdrawalfroma
widevarietyofactivitiesthatmightbringpain,boththeriskyquestforloveor
money(whichtheStoicswouldalsoseeasproblematic)andparticipationinpolitics
(whichtheStoicspraised).ForEpicureans,anythingthatmightthreatenataraxiawas
tobeavoided.ThoughinmodernparlancethelabelEpicureanconnotesindulgence
inpleasure,particularlyinthepleasuresoffinedining,Epicurusactuallycounseled
moderationinfoodanddrinkinordertoavoidindigestionandhangovers.Unlike
theStoics,Epicureansapprovedofsexaslongasitdidnotentailfallinginlovewith
alltheattendantpitfalls.
Despitetheirsubstantialdifferencesoversexandpolitics,StoicsandEpicureans
sharedacommongoal:attainingtranquillityinaturbulentworld.Asimilaraim
characterizedtwootherschoolsofthoughtthatevolvedaroundthesametime,
CynicismandSkepticism.TheprincipaltheoristoftheCynicmovementwas
DiogenesofSinope(c.400325BC),whoencouragedhisfollowerstobecomeself
sufficientbysheddingthetrappingsofcivilizationforthenaturalnessofanimals.
Denyingthathumanshadneedsdifferentfromthoseofothermammals,Diogenes
scandalizedcontemporariesandearnedhimselfthenameoftheCynic(dog,kun
inGreek)bybrazenlymaintainingthatpeopleshouldfollowinstinctsjustasanimals
dourinatingormasturbatinginpublic,forexample.TheheirstotheCynics
rejectionofcivilizednormsweretheSkeptics,whoalsosharedtheEpicureans
disillusionmentwithpubliclife.Skepticism,associatedwiththenameofPyrrhonof
Elis(c.365275BC),becamepopulararound200BC.Stressingtheimpossibilityof
certainknowledge,Skepticsurgedpeopletowithdrawfromtheworldaroundthem.
Thequestfortruth,afterall,washopeless,aswasthequestforpower.Today,the
wordsskepticalandcynicalarelinkedwhenwetalkaboutpeoplewhoarenot
easilypersuaded.InthisrespectthephilosophiesweassociatewiththeHellenistic
world(thoughCynicismbeganinthefourthcentury)contrastsharplywiththoseof
PlatoandAristotle,whoreallybelievedthatknowledgewaspossibleandcouldbe
gainedthrougheducation.
WhileAthenscontinuedtoserveasamagnetforintellectuals,itissignificantthatthe
centerofphilosophicalspeculationintheHellenisticerashiftednotonly
449

awayfromAthensbutalsoawayfrommainlandGreeceingeneral.Thebestknown
Stoicthinkers,forexample,camefromplaceslikeCyprusandSyria,whileTarsus,
Alexandria,andRhodesbecamethemostfamousStoicuniversitytowns.Intime
StoicismtookrootfirmlyintheRomanempire,whereitanchoredthemindsand
soulsofmanymenandwomenseekingtocopewiththedecadenceandautocracyof
theimperialgovernment.
AlmostasremarkablewasthefateofSparta.Afteracenturylongdeclinethatsaw
thenumberofSpartiatesdwindletofewerthanathousandandtensionsbetween
richandpoorbecomeacute,tworeformerkings,AgisIV(262241BC)and
CleomenesIII(260219BC),revitalizedSpartasLycurganinstitutions.Debtswere
canceled,landwasredistributed,andthetraditionalSpartaneducationalsystem,the
agg,wasreestablished.Forabriefwhile,SpartabecametheStoicmodelstate.The
Stoicnotionthatindividualsufferingispartofsomegreatnaturalschemeand
shouldbebornewithoutlamentationstruckaresponsivechordinSpartans,andthe
ideathatausteritywaspreferabletoselfindulgencereverberatedwithSpartanideals
aswell.ForafewyearsSpartanarmswereinvincibleandthecityseemedonthe
vergeofdominatingthePeloponnesusagain.Greekintellectualstrumpetedonce
morethevirtuesoftheLycurgansystem.TheirdreamsofGreekrenewalwere
shatteredwhenthejointforcesofMacedonandtheAchaeanLeaguecrushedthe
SpartansatSellasiain222BC.AsthefateofSpartarevealed,noteventhestrongest
poliscouldresistindefinitelythepoweroftheMacedoniankingdomsthatstroveto
subduethemortousethemaspawnsintheirowndiplomaticandmilitarystruggles.
THEMACEDONIANKINGDOMS
Greekliterature,withitspolisbias,containslittleinformationabouttheorganization
anddaytodayoperationoftheMacedoniankingdomsthatdominatedthe
Hellenisticpoliticalworld.Fortunately,thediscoverybyarchaeologistsofextensive
nonliteraryevidenceintheformofinscriptionsandespeciallypapyrihasenabled
historianstoremedythisdeficiency.Morethanacenturyofintensivestudyofthese
newsourceshasdemonstratedthattheHellenistickingdomswereconqueststates
whoseorganizationwasbasedontwofundamentalprinciples:first,thatasspearwon
land,thekingdomanditspopulationbelongedtotheking;andsecond,thatthe
conductofthekingsbusinessandtheperformanceofthekingsworktook
precedenceoverallotherconsiderations.Thesetwoprincipleswerecommontoan
theMacedoniankingdoms.Theiroperationisclearest,however,inthecaseof
PtolemaicEgypt,wheretherichpapyrologicalevidencehasprovidedscholarswitha
detailedviewofthegovernmentandsocietyofamajorHellenistickingdom.
TheCaseofEgypt

ThebasisofEgyptswealthwasitsagriculturalland.LikethePharaohsbeforethem,
thePtolemiesclaimedownershipofallEgypt.Nevertheless,forpracticalpurposes
thePtolemaicgovernmentdividedEgyptianlandintotwobroadcate
450
gories:royallandforbasicagriculturalproductionandreleasedland.Thelatter
categorywasfurtherdividedintofoursubcategories:cleruchicland,usedtoprovide
landgrantstosoldiers;giftland,usedtorewardgovernmentofficials;templeland,
usedtoprovideeconomicsupportforEgyptsnumeroustemples;andprivateland,
usedforindividualhouseandgardenplots.Thenonagriculturalsectorsofthe
economywerealsotightlyorganized.Majoreconomicactivitiessuchastextile,
papyrus,andoilproductionwerestatemonopolies,intendedtogeneratethe
maximumrevenueforthekingfromfeesandtaxes.Foreigncompetitionforthe
profitsofEgyptiancommercewasminimizedbystrictcurrencycontrolsand
limitationsonimports.AnextensiveadministrationheadquarteredinAlexandria
supervisedtheentiresystem.ItsagentsGreekattheupperlevelsandEgyptianat
theloweronescouldbefoundineventhemostremotevillage.Toensurethatthe
kingsworkwasdone,thattaxeswerepaid,andthattheallimportantirrigation
systemfunctionedproperly,everyadultfrompeasanttoimmigrantsoldierwas
registeredaccordingtoplaceofresidenceandeconomicfunction.Finally,theking
and,eventually,alsothequeenpresidedoverthewholesystemwithallthepowers
ofautocratswhoseeverywordwaslaw.Thesupremacyoftheroyalfamilyoverall
levelsofsocietywassymbolizedbytheinstitutionofanofficialcultoftheliving
rulerandhisancestors.Monarchsencouragedbeliefintheirowndivinityasawayof
legitimizingtheiruseofabsolutepower,whilesubjectsenjoyedparticipatinginruler
cultsasameansofdemonstratingpatriotism,loyalty,andgratitude.Inrecognitionof
theirbeliefinmonotheismandoftheirsupportoftheregime,onlytheJewswere
formallyexcusedfromtheseobservances.
PtolemyIIusedbothsculptureandcoinagetoannouncetheapotheosesofmembers
ofhisfamily.InrulercultsmengenerallyrepresentedthemselvesasDionysusor
Heracles,whilefemaleswereportrayedasAphrodite.Throughsyncretism,however,
theywereoftenequatedwithOsirisandIsisandconsideredtobeactualincarnations
ofthedivinities.ThecoexistenceofGreekandEgyptiancultureisevidentinthe
portraitsofthedeifiedPtolemies.Dependingonwhichelementsofthepopulation
weremorelikelytoviewtherepresentation,kingsandqueensmightbedepictedin
purelyEgyptianstyle,inpurelyGreekstyle,orinsomecombinationofthetwo.
Figure12.5.ThisgoldoctodrachmshowingPtolemyIIandArsinoeIIwasminted
byPtolemyIII(246221BC).
451

Figure12.6.LimestonestatueofArsinoeII.Ahieroglyphicinscriptionontheback
pillarofArsinoesportraitindicatedthatthefigurewasdedicatednotlongafterher
deathanddeificationin270.Hercorncurlswerepaintedblack,andthefaceand
partsofthebodywereoriginallygilded.Thefull,curvedlips,highlyarchedbrows,
andlarge,wideopeneyesaredepictedintheEgyptianstyle,butthequeencarriesa
doublecornucopia,anattributeofGreekgoddessesreferringtotheirpowersof
fertility.
TheapparentrationalityofHellenisticstateorganizationgreatlyimpressedlate
nineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturyhistorians,leadingthemtoviewthe
HellenistickingdomsasessentiallyGreekinstitutionswithfewtiestotheirPersian
andEgyptianpredecessors.CloserscrutinyofEgyptianandCuneiformtextsandthe
Greeksources,however,hasrevealedgreatercontinuitywithEgyptianandancient
NearEasternpoliticaltraditionsintheadministrationoftheMacedoniankingdoms
thanearlierhistorianshadrealized.Theseregionsmaintainedmanyoftheir
traditionaladministrativestructures,togetherwithmanyoftheirkeyinstitutions.
TheadministrativeorganizationofPtolemaicEgyptandSeleucidAsia,forexample,
remaineddividedintotraditionalsubdivisions,suchasnomesandsatrapies,justas
theyhadbeenundertheMacedoniansPersianpredecessors.Notsurprisingly,the
Greekterminologyofmanyofoursourcesoftenprovesuponanalysistobeafacade,
hidingtraditionalinstitutionsandpractices.
452
InHellenisticEgyptandAsia,thetemplesstillplayedmajorrolesinthesocialand
economiclivesoftheirpeoples.InEgypt,thepriestsusedthenamesoftheGreek
gods,equatedthemonthsoftheMacedonianandEgyptiancalendars,andtranslated
theroyaltitularyintoGreekinordertogiveaHelleniccasttothemillenniaold
traditionsofEgyptianreligionandkingship.Thiscontinuitywiththepastisnot
surprising,since,likeAlexander,thePtolemiesandSeleucidsweresimultaneously
bothMacedoniankingsandpharaohsandkingsofBabylon,whoseresponsibilities
includedsupportoftraditionalinstitutions.
InadditiontocontinuitiesbetweentheEgyptianandNearEasternpastandthe
organizationofthelaterHellenistickingdoms,scholarshavealsoobserved
irrationalitiesandinefficienciesintheireverydayoperations.PtolemaicEgyptand
SeleucidAsiawerepersonalautocracies.Officialdocumentsdescribetheir
governmentsasconsistingoftheking,hisfriends(thekingspersonalentourage),
andthearmy.Theonlyeffectivelimitonthekingsexerciseoftheirpowerwasfear
oflosingthesupportoftheirarmiesandgenerals,whoalonehadthepowerto
unseatakingifprovokedtoofar.Governmentofficialswerepoliticalappointees
withoftenmultipleandsometimesevenoverlappingresponsibilities,whofulfilled
whateverpositionthekingpostedthemtoirrespectiveoftheirpreviousservice.

Insteadofthesmoothlyfunctioningbureaucraticmachinesenvisionedbytheirlate
nineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturypredecessors,therefore,thesourcesreveal
thattheHellenisticgovernmentswereinefficientandoftenarbitraryinstruments,
primarilydesignedtoextractthemaximumrevenuefromtheirrulerssubjects.
DocumentssuchasPtolemyIIs(282246BC)recentlydiscoveredorderfora
completeeconomicsurveyofEgypt,andhisletterforbiddinglawyersfromassisting
individualsindisputesconcerningtaxes,bearwitnessnottorationalcentral
planningbuttotheHellenistickingsinsatiableneedformoneytosupporttheir
ambitiousforeignpoliciesanddomesticprojects.Similarly,thenumerousroyal
ordersforbiddinggovernmentofficialsfromexploitingthekingssubjectsfor
personalgain,andthefrequentrecoursetoblanketamnestiesforunfulfilled
obligationsowedthegovernmentandforchargesofwrongdoingbygovernment
officials,attesttotheinherentinefficiencyandcorruptionofthesesystemsinactual
practice.
HELLENISTICSOCIETY
WhiletheemergenceofnewMacedonianmonarchiesintheearlythirdcenturyBC
posedasignificantthreattotheindependenceofthecitiesofAegeanGreece,they
alsocreatedunprecedentedopportunitiesforindividualGreeksfromthosesame
cities.WhateverAlexandersplansforthegovernanceofhisempiremayhavebeen,
hissuccessorsclearlyjudgedthathehadmadeaseriousmistakeinappointing
Iranianstoimportantposts.Instaffingtheupperlevelsoftheirgovernments,
therefore,theyreliedonGreekimmigrantsinstead.
453
NewOpportunitiesinaColonialWorld
TheresultingopportunitiesweregreatestforthemalemembersoftheGreekelite,
whoquicklyformedapowerfulclassofexpatriatecivilianandmilitaryofficials.
Inscriptionsandpapyriamplydocumentthewealthandinfluenceofmembersof
thisnewgoverningclassmensuchasApollonius,thechieffinancialofficerof
PtolemyII,andZenon,theCarianimmigrantwhomanagedhisestate.Less
glamorous,butequallyrealandfarmorenumerous,weretheopportunitiescreated
bythekingsincessantneedforGreekstoserveintheirarmiesandtofillthe
multitudeofminor,butpotentiallylucrative,administrativejobsrequiredtogovern
theirkingdoms.Forambitiousmenofthissort,thecourtpoetTheocritusspokethe
literaltruthwhenhedescribedEgyptasalandofopportunityforimmigrantsand
characterizedPtolemyIlasagoodpaymaster.
Document12.2LetterofKingPtolemyIItoApolloniusconcerningtherevenuesof
Egypt(259BC)

KingPtolemytoApollonius,greeting.Sincesomeoftheadvocateslistedbeloware
interveninginfiscalcasestothedetrimentoftherevenues,issueinstructionsthat
thoseadvocatesshallpaytothecrowntwicetheadditionaltenthandthattheyshall
nolongerbeallowedtoserveasadvocatesinanymatter.Andifanyofthosewho
haveharmedtherevenuesbediscoveredtohaveservedasadvocateinsomematter,
havehimsenttousunderguardandhavehispropertyassignedtothecrown.
TheAmherstPapyri(eds.B.P.GrenfellandA.S.Hunt,Vol.2,London,1901,Nr.33)
translatedbyStanleyM.Burstein,TheHellenisticAgefromtheBattleofIpsostothe
DeathofKleopatraVII.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1985,pp.121122.
Opportunitieswerenotlimited,however,tomen;theyexpandedalsoforwomen,
althoughnottothesameextent.Asinthecaseofmen,theyweregreatestforwomen
ofwealth.QueenslikeArsinoeIIandCleopatraVIIofEgyptstandoutintheancient
sources,butsomeGreekcitiesallowedwomentoholdminorpublicofficesinreturn
fortheirwillingnesstousetheirwealthforcivicpurposes.Education,whichbecame
commonforupperclasswomenintheHellenisticperiod,alsocreatedthepossibility
ofcareersforindividualwomen,suchastheCynicphilosopherHipparchiaandthe
professionalmusicianPolygnota
454
ofThebes,whosecareerisdocumentedinaseriesofinscriptionsfromDelphi.More
women,however,probablybenefitedfromthemodestbutsignificantchangesin
theirrightsthatoccurredinthecolonialsocietyoftheMacedoniankingdoms,where
marriagecontractsandotherlegaldocumentspreservedonpapyrusrevealwomen
capableofconductingtheirownbusinessandseekinglegalredressfortheir
husbandsmisconduct.Notsurprisingly,theexplosionofnewopportunitiesmade
theHellenisticperiodoneofthegreatcreativeagesofGreekcivilization.
ALEXANDRIAANDHELLENISTICCULTURE
AlexandriawasthemostfamousandenduringofAlexandersfoundations,andthe
siteofhistomb.Responsibilityforembellishingthecity,however,laywiththefirst
threePtolemies,whotransformeditintotheforemostcityoftheHellenisticworld.A
liberalimmigrationpolicycreatedamultiethnicpopulationincludingMacedonians,
Greeks,Egyptians,andavibrantJewishcommunityoccupyingonefifthofthecitys
area.Perhapstheclearestsymbolofthedynamismandoriginalityofearly
HellenisticAlexandriawasitssignaturemonument,thePharos.Builtbythearchitect
SostratusofCnidusforPtolemyII,thePharoswasthefirstskyscraper,a400foot
highpolygonaltowertoppedbyastatueofZeusSoter(Savior)whosebeaconfire,
reflectedfarouttoseabygiantmirrors,guidedshipstoAlexandria.ThePharoswas
consideredoneoftheSevenWondersoftheAncientWorld.Itisnoaccidentthat
threeofthesevencreationsthatwounduponthislistdatedfromtheHellenistic

period,forthiswasatimewhenrulerswereparticularlyeagertoadvertisetheir
citieswealthandprestige;the
Figure12.7.TetradrachmoftheRomanEmperorCommodus(180192AD)struck
atAlexandriashowingship(s?)passingthePharos.
455
othertwoweretheColossusofRhodesandthetempleofArtemisatEphesus.In
scaleandstylethesewereallappropriatemonumentstoanageofcompetitionand
largerthanlifehistoricalfigures.
Document12.3MarriageContractofHeracleidesandDemetria(311BC)The
improvedlegalpositionofmarriedwomenintheHellenisticperiodisclearinthis
marriagecontractfromEgypt.ThediverseoriginofGreekimmigrantstoEgyptis
evidentinthevarietyofethnicsamongthewitnessestoHeracleidesandDemetrias
marriagecontract.
SeventhyearofthereignofAlexander,thesonofAlexander,fourteenthyearofthe
satrapyofPtolemy,monthofDius.MarriagecontractofHeracleidesandDemetria.
Heracleides,afreebornman,takesashislawfulwifeDemetria,afreebornwoman
fromCos,fromherfatherLeptines,fromCos,andfromhermotherPhilotis.
Demetriawillbringwithherclothingandornamentsworth1,000drachmas.
HeracleideswillfurnishtoDemetriaeverythingthatisappropriateforafreewoman.
Weshalllivetogetherinwhateverplaceseemsbestinthecommonopinionof
LeptinesandHeracleides.
IfDemetriashallbedetecteddevisingsomethingevilforthepurposeofhumiliating
herhusbandHeracleides,sheshallbedeprivedofeverythingshebroughttothe
marriage.HeracleidesshalldeclarewhateverchargehemaymakeagainstDemetria
beforethreemenwhombothapprove.Heracleidesmaynotintroduceanother
womanintotheirhometoinsultDemetria,norhavechildrenfromanotherwoman,
nordeviseanyeviltowardDemetriaforanyreason.IfHeracleidesshallbedetected
doinganyofthesethingsandDemetriadeclaresthisbeforethreemenwhomboth
approve,HeracleidesshallreturntoDemetriathedowryof1,000drachmaswhich
shebrought,andheshallpaytoherinaddition1,000silverAlexandriandrachmas.
Demetria,andthosewithDemetria,shallbeabletoexactpayment,justasthough
therewerealegaljudgmentfromHeracleideshimself,andfromallofHeracleides
propertyonbothlandandsea.
ThiscontractshallbewhollyvalidineverywaywhereverHeracleidesproducesit
againstDemetria,orDemetriaandthosewithDemetriaproduceitagainst
Heracleides,inordertoexactpayment.HeracleidesandDemetriaeachhavethe

righttopreservetheircontractsandtoproducethecontractsagainsteachother.
Witnesses:CleonofGela,AnticratesofTemnos,LysisofTemnos,Dionysiusof
Temnos,AristomachusofCyrene,AristodicusofCos.
ElephantinePapyri(ed.O.Rubensohn,Berlin,1907,Nr.1,lines118).
456
ThePtolemiesalsostrovetomakeAlexandriatheculturalcenteroftheGreekworld.
LikeAlexander,whoseentouragehadincludedartistsandintellectualssuchas
Aristotlesnephew,Callisthenes,hiscourthistorian,PtolemyIandhisimmediate
successorsencouragedprominentGreekscholarsandscientiststocometoEgypt.
WiththeenormouswealthofEgyptattheirdisposal,thePtolemiescouldaffordto
subsidizeintellectuals,encouragingartisticandscientificworkbyestablishing
culturalinstitutionsofanewtype.
TheirprincipalculturalfoundationwastheresearchcenterknownastheMuseum
becauseofitsdedicationtothenineMuses,thepatrongoddessesofthearts.There
distinguishedscholars,supportedbygovernmentstipends,couldpursuetheir
studiesincongenialsurroundingsincludingdormitories,diningfacilities,and
pleasantgardens.ToassisttheMuseumsscholars,PtolemyIestablished(withthe
aidofDemetriusofPhalerum)alibraryintendedtocontaincopiesofeverybook
writteninGreek.Thelibraryscollectionissaidtohaveultimatelyreached700,000
papyrusrolls.
ThePtolemiespassionforexpandingtheroyallibraryscollectionswaslegendary.
TheGreektranslationoftheJewishBible,theSeptuagint,wassupposedlyproduced
onorderofPtolemyII,andtheofficialAtheniancopyoftheworksofthethree
canonicaltragedianswasallegedlystolenbyPtolemyIII.Eventhebooksofvisitors
toEgyptwerescrutinizedandseizedtheownerreceivedacheapcopyiftheywere
notinthelibrary.Howeveritsbookswereacquired,thelibraryoffered
unprecedentedresourcesforscholarlyresearchineveryfieldofintellectualendeavor
(althoughanenviousrivalmightsneeratthesuccessfuloccupantsofPtolemysbird
coopwithsomejustification,sincesubsidizedintellectualswereexpectedtoearn
theirkeep).Doctorsandwritersreceivinggovernmentstipendsservedasphysicians
andtutorstomembersoftheroyalfamily,andcelebrateditsachievements.The
scholarandpoetCallimachuscreatedamonumentalcataloguein120booksofthe
librarythatlaidthefoundationforthehistoryofGreekliterature.InhispoemThe
LockofBereniceCallimachusalsocelebratedthetransformationintoacometofalock
ofhairdedicatedbyBereniceIIin246BCtocommemoratethebeginningofthe
ThirdSyrianWar.Inasimilarvein,TheocritusseventeenthIdyllextravagantly
praisedthefirstdecadeofPtolemyIIsreign.
NewDirectionsinLiterature

TheworkofAlexandrianintellectualswasnotlimited,however,tosatisfyingthe
whimsoftheirroyalpatrons.Alexandrianwritersmadeimportantinnovationsin
Greekliterature.InhisIdylls,briefdialoguesormonologuessetinanidealized
countryside,Theocritusintroducedthepastoralmodeintowesternliterature.
Callimachusinauguratedthetraditionoflearnedpoetryinworkssuchashis
HymnsandAetia,inwhichheretoldinelegantverseobscuremythsandtheorigins
ofstrangecustomsandfestivalscollectedfromallovertheGreekworld.
CallimachusyoungercontemporaryandrivalApolloniusofRhodesreinvigorated
theoldepicgenrewithhisacutepsychologicalportraitsofJasonandMedeain
457
hisvividretellingofthestoryofJasonandtheArgonauts,theArgonautica.Another
contemporaryofCallimachus,Euhemerus,anambassadorofCassandertoPtolemyI,
putforwardaradicalandimportanttheoryabouttheoriginsofmythology:he
inventedtheutopiantravelromanceinordertopropoundinhisSacredTalethe
notionthatthegodsweregreatrulersworshipedaftertheirdeathsfortheirgiftsto
humanity.
TheVisualArts
Thevisualartsreflectthecombinationofoldandnewthatisadistinctivefeatureof
theHellenisticage.IntheClassicalperiodartistshaddevotedthemselvestothe
perfectionofalimitednumberofartisticgenresortypes.Forexample,theepitomeof
fifthcenturysculpturewastheidealizedfigureofanunemotionalyouthfulnude
male.Thistypeoffigurecontinuedtobesculptedasaheroicrepresentationof
Hellenistickings.ThoughHellenisticartevolvedfromClassical,itischaracterizedby
varietyandexperimentation.Sculptorsperfectedanidealizedfigureoftheyouthful
femalenudeandalsoproducedrealisticrenderingsofacrosssectionofthe
populationofthecosmopolisdisplayingavarietyofhumanemotions.Sculptures,
bothlargeandsmall,areadditionaltestimonytothenewfocusontheindividualas
specialandunique,ratherthanasanequalmemberofademocraticpolis.
Theproductionofsmallterracottafiguresbeganinthefourthcenturyandcontinued
toflourishintheHellenisticperiod.Thesefigurinesweremadeinmoldsinmultiple
copies,andwererelativelyinexpensive.Likethepeopletheyrepresented,theywere
widespreadintheGreekworld.Thefigurinesareourbestevidenceforthevisual
artsasareflectionofreality.Aswehavementionedpreviouslyinourdiscussionof
Menandersplays,artcouldbeconsideredamirroroflife.Thefigurinesportray
peopleofallages,everysocialstatus,andarangeofethnicities,includingchubby
children;stooped,stout,andwrinkledelderlypeople;elegantandgracefulsociety
women;andmembersofthelowerclasses.Smallbronzesculptures,thoughmore
expensive,alsodepictabroadvarietyofpeople.

Thedevelopmentofportraitureoncoinsandinsculpturewasfosteredbyinterestin
theindividualandinthepersonality:suchthingswereparticularlyimportantfor
peoplewhoselivesweresubjecttothewhimsofmonarchs.Astheportrayalsof
AlexanderandhissuccessorsinthischapterandChapter11indicate,aportraitwas
notonlyanattempttoportraytheactualfeaturesofthesubject,butalsoanattempt
toinfluencetheviewersperceptionofthecharacter.Coinsmaybesmall,butbecause
theyarenumerousandcirculatewidelytheyareveryinfluential.Inlargerworksas
well,artnotonlyreflectstheworldbutattemptstoshapeit.ThePtolemies,for
example,wereadeptattheuseofvisualimageryaspropagandatogainsupportfor
theirreign.LikeAlexander,whoencouragedbeliefinhisowndivinityandwas
worshipedasagodafterhisdeath,theHellenisticrulersmanipulatedreligionin
theirowninterests.Themonarchsdefinitionofthemselvesasdivinewasnotmere
immodesty;italsoservedtolegitimizetheiruseofabsolutepower.Membersofthe
rulingdynastieswerecommonlyportrayedoncoinsandinsculpturewiththe
attributesandepithetsof
458
a b cFigure12.8.MiniatureHellenisticsculptures.a.Terracottafigurineof
oldnurseandchild.LatefourthcenturyBC.b.Terracottafigurineofschoolgirl
readingapapyrusroll.c.Bronzestatuetteofblackyouthincraftsmansgarb.Third
tosecondcenturyBc.
godsandheroes.Thevalueofsculptureasapoliticaltoolisobviousintheimageof
AlexanderinthecompanyofEgyptiandivinities(Chapter11,Figure11.5)andinthe
sculptureofArsinoeII(thischapter,Figure12.6)thatportraysthequeenasan
Egyptiangoddess.Evenanilliterateviewerwouldimmediatelyunderstandthe
message:Alexanderandhissuccessorsarenotmeremortalsbutincarnationsof
divinities.Furthermore,theyarerightfulheirstothethroneofthepharaohsaswell
asmonarchswhoruleovertheGreekworld.
LargerthanlifemonarchsstruttedproudlyonthehugestageofEgyptandthe
easternMediterranean.Manyofthemonumentstheycommissionedarenow
fragmentaryorhavecompletelydisappeared,butlikethePharostheyareknown
throughimagesoncoins,copiesmadebytheRomans,andverbaldescriptions.They
conveyavividimpressionofthewealthandpowerofthemonarchsandproudcities
whoconstructedthem.Artistswereavailabletotravelwhensuchpatronsbeckoned.
BravuracharacterizesmanymajorHellenisticsculptureslikeoneofthebestknown,
theVictory(Nik)ofSamothrace.Thishugeworkwas
459

dedicatedbythepeopleofRhodestocommemoratetheirvictoriesoverAntiochusIII
ofSyria(222187BC).ItwaserectedatSamothrace,aninternationalreligiouscenter
whereitwouldbeseenbytravelers.Victoryalightsontheprowofaship.Herwet
andwindblowndressrevealsthecontoursofherbody,whiletheclothflaringout
behindthegoddesssymbolizestheagitation,restlessness,andcontinuouschange
characteristicnotonlyoftheartbutalsooflifeintheHellenisticperiod.Herraised
wingsalsosuggestthatherpresenceisnotnecessarilypermanent,butlinkedtothe
donorsfortune.LikethegoddessTyche(Fortune),Victorycanbefickle.
Thevisualartsalsorevealnostalgiaforthepast,whichmusthaveseemedasafer,
moresecuretime.Portraitsofphilosophers,poets,andotherhistoricalfigures
decoratedpublicareasandprivateenclosedspacessuchaslibraries(cf.
Demosthenes,Chapter10,Figure10.4).Someauthorsandotherintellectualswere
worshippedasdivine.Theyhadbecomeasimmortalastheirwordsandthoughts.
Forexample,portraitbustsofHomer(aboutwhoseappearancenothingwasknown),
werecommon,nodoubtbecausetheIliadwasthemostlywidelyreadbookinthe
Greekworld,and,wasusedasatextinprimaryschool.Nevertheless,despitethe
reverenceforthepast,theevidenceofthevisualartsleavesnodoubtthattheworld
hadchangeddrasticallysincethedaysofAchillesandthebardswhofirstrecitedhis
exploitsinregularlinesofverse.
ScholarshipandScience
ThegreatestachievementsofHellenisticintellectuals,however,wereintheareasof
literaryscholarshipandappliedscience,wheretheirworksremainedunmatched
duringtherestofantiquity.Callimachus,togetherwithotherscholarssuchasthe
philologistsZenodotusandAristarchus,foundedthecriticalstudyofGreek
languageandliterature,andpreparedstandardtextsofHomerandtheotherpoets
thataretheancestorsofthosewestilluse.Themathematicianandgeographer
Eratosthenesestablishedtheprinciplesofscientificcartography,andproduceda
strikinglyaccurateestimateofthecircumferenceoftheearthonthebasisofevidence
collectedbyHellenisticexplorers.ThephysicistCtesibiuspioneeredthestudyof
ballisticsandtheuseofcompressedairasasourceofpower,whileotherscientists
experimentedwiththeuseofsteamtooperatesimplemachines.Moremundanely,
anunknownPtolemaictechnicianinventedthesaqqiyah,ananimalpoweredwater
wheelthatisstillusedtodayinEgyptandtheSudan.
ThedoctorsHerophilusandErasistratusmadefundamentaldiscoveriesconcerning
theanatomyandfunctionsofthehumannervous,optical,reproductive,and
digestivesystemsbydissectingcorpses,andevenvivisectingcriminalswhomthe
governmentprovidedfortheadvancementofscience.TheHippocraticOath,which
inmanypartsofthewesternworldphysicianstakeupongraduationfrommedical
school,datestotheHellenisticperiod.Intheoaththephysicianspromisetorespect

thephysicianswhotaughtthemandtohandontheirknowledgeonlytotheir
teacherssonsandpayingapprentices.Theysweartoabstainfromusingtheircraftto
harmorwronganypersonandtorefrainfrom
460
Figure12.9.Victory(Nik)ofSamothrace.Themassivestatueknownasthe
WingedVictorydatesfromaround200BCandisoneofthebestknownworksofart
intheLouvreMuseuminParis.
461
Figure12.10.ThissculptedreliefoftheApotheosisofHomerbyArchelausof
Priene,foundinBovillae,Italy,datesfromaround221205BC.Thedeifiedpoet,
seatedatthelowerleftholdingascrollandscepter,iscrownedbytheMuseofepic
poetry.TheotherfiguresincludeZeusandMnemosyne(Memory)andtheir
daughters,theMuses.Thesculpturewasprobablymadeforapoetwhowas
victoriousinacompetitionatAlexandria.
practicingabortionandeuthanasiaandfromdivulgingwhatpatientstellthemin
confidence.Sincetherewasnolicensingofphysiciansinantiquityandmany
conflictingmedicaldoctrinesandviewsofthephysiciansethicalrole,theoathwas
bynomeansuniversallyadheredtobyGreekphysicians,asisobviousfromother
medicaltextsthatdodiscussabortion,andfromtheuseofvivisection.
TheimportanceofroyalpatronageinPtolemaicculturalactivitydid,however,have
adrawback.Areasthatdidnotreceiveroyallargesstendedtostagnate.
462
Figure12.11.EratosthenesCalculationoftheCircumferenceoftheEarth.
EratosthenesmeasuredatAlexandriatheshadowcastbyapointerontheinteriorof
ahemisphericalbowlatnoononthedayofthesummersolsticewhenthesunwas
directlyoverheadatAswan.Byapplyingtwosimplegeometricaltheoremsthe
anglesofsimilartrianglesareequalandequalanglessweepoutequalarcshe
concludedthatthe5000stadedistancebetweenAlexandriaandAswanrepresented
1/50ofaspherewithacircumferenceofapproximately250,000stades.Despiteminor
errorsoffactthatEratosthenescouldnotknow,hisprocedurewasmethodologically
correctandresultedinameasurementofthecircumferenceoftheearththatwas
eitheralmostexactlycorrector,atthemost,20percenttoolarge,dependingon
whetherEratosthenesstadeshouldbecountedasequalto10tothemileor81/3to
themile.(DiagramofEratosthenesprocedureforcalculatingthecircumferenceoftheearth.)

Thus,apartfromtheworksofthemathematicianEuclid,whoseElementsisstillused
tointroducestudentstogeometry,theAlexandriancontributiontothetheoretical
sciencesandphilosophy,whichwereoflimitedinteresttothePtolemies,was
undistinguishedinqualityandlimitedinquantity.
SOCIALRELATIONSINTHEHELLENISTICWORLD
TheimportanceoftheirculturalachievementstendstoobscurethefactthatGreeks
wereaminorityintheHellenisticworldeverywhereoutsidetheAegean.Thiswas
trueevenincitieslikeAlexandriaandAntioch,whichwerethemselvesonlyislands
ofGreekdominationandcultureinapredominantlynonGreekworld.Not
surprisingly,therefore,therelationshipbetweenimmigrantGreeksandthenative
populationsisoneofthecentralissuesofHellenistichistoriography.Those
Hellenistichistorianswhowroteearlyinthetwentiethcenturywereheartenedby
theresultsoftheencounterbetweenGreeksandnonGreeksintheHellenistic
period.TheyviewedtheHellenisticcitiesasmeltingpotsinwhichGreekandnon
Greekculturesandpeoplesblendedintoanewcosmopolitanciv
463
ilization.AmuchharsherinterpretationofHellenisticsocialrelationshasbecome
popularrecently,reminiscentofIsocratesdreamofaconqueredAsiainwhich
nativesworkedjustashardtosupportthenewGreekcolonistsandtheir
MacedonianmastersastheyhadfortheirPersianoverlords.Supportersofthisnew
interpretationviewtheMacedoniankingdomsassegregatedsocietiesinwhichsocial
statusandprivilegewereprimarilydeterminedbyethnicity.Needlesstosay,inthis
interpretationtheethnicitiesthatcountedwereMacedonianandGreek.
Aconsiderabledegreeofsocialandculturalsegregationwasinherentinthe
demographyoftheHellenistickingdoms.AsGreeksettlementwaspredominantly
urban,thecountrysideinevitablywaslargelycutofffromGreekinfluence.Studiesof
EgyptianvillageshaverevealedanalmosttotalabsenceofeitherGreekresidentsor
Greekinfluenceondailylife.
Ethnicseparationwasnotlimited,however,tothecountryside.NonGreekswere
deniedcitizenshipandlivedinseparateresidentialquartersinthecitiesofthe
HellenisticEast.InEgyptdistinctlegalsystemswereevenmaintainedforGreeks,
Egyptians,andJews.Ethnicprejudicesandtensionsarealsowelldocumentedinthe
sources.TheocrituscharacterizespettystreetcrimeasanEgyptiangame,andan
agriculturalworkercomplainsthathissupervisorsholdhim
Figure12.12.TheRosettaStone.27March196B.C.Fragmentofablackgranitestele
foundattheRosettamouthoftheNilecontainingatrilingualdecree(Greek,
Hieroglyphic[MiddleEgyptian],andDemotic[vernacularlateEgyptian])passedby

asynodofthepriestsofEgyptcommemoratingthecoronationofPtolemyV(204180
BC)askingofEgypt:Inthereignoftheyounggodwhoreceivedthekingshipfrom
hisfather,Lordofcrowns,greatoffame,whoestablishedEgypt,andisreverent
towardthegods,victoriousoverhisenemies;whoimprovedthelifeofmen,lordof
thethirtyyearcyclejustasHephaistustheGreat,andkingjustasHelios;greatking
oftheupperandlowerlands,sonofthegodsPhilopatores,whomHephaistus
approved,towhomHeliosgavevictory,livingimageofZeus;sonofHelios,
Ptolemy,livingforever,belovedofPtah.Whenhe[sc.PtolemyV]arrivedat
LycopolisintheBousiritenome,whichhadbeenseizedandhadbeenreadiedfora
siegewithanabundantstoreofweaponsandallotherprovisionssincethe
conspiracyhadbeenpreparedoveralongperiodoftimebyimpiousmenwhohad
gatheredtogetherinitandwhohadcommittedmanyevilactsagainstthetemples
andtheinhabitantsofEgypt,heencampedoppositeitandsurroundedthecitywith
moundsandditchesandwondrouswalls.AstheNilefloodintheeighthyearwas
greatandnormallycoveredtheplains,herestraineditbyblockinginmanyplaces
themouthsofthecanals.Havingspentnotalittlemoneyonthesethingsand,having
stationedcavalryandinfantrytoguardthem,inashorttimehetookthecitybyforce
anddestroyedalltheimpiousmeninit,justasHermesandHorus,thesonofIsis
andOsiris,dealtwiththerebelsinthesesameplacesformerly.Thosewhohadled
therebelsinthetimeofhisownfather[sc.PtolemyIV]andcauseddisorderinthe
landanddesecratedthetemples,whenhearrivedatMemphistoavengehisfather
andhisrealm,hepunishedallofthemfittinglyatthetimehearrivedtoperformthe
ritesconnectedwithhiscoronation.OrientisGraeciInscriptionesSelectae(ed.W.
Dittenberger,2vols.,Leipzig:S.Hirzel,19031905,Nr.90);translatedbyStanleyM.
Burstein,TheHellenisticAgefromtheBattleofIpsostotheDeathofKleopatraVII.
Cambridge,CambridgeUniversityPress,1985,pp.131132(excerpted).
464
incontemptandrefusetopayhimbecauseIamabarbarian(cf.Figure12.2),while
thepersonalpapersofaGreekrecluseatMemphisarefilledwithreferencesto
incidentsofpersonalharassmentbyhisEgyptianneighbors.Finally,longingforthe
endofMacedonianruleisacommonthemeinbothHellenisticEgyptianandJewish
literature,andthehistoryofPtolemaicEgyptandSeleucidAsiaisrepletewith
examplesofrebellionsintendedtoachievethatgoal.The

465
RosettaStonealludestosucharebellioninthefirstyearsofthereignofPtolemyV.
SomeEgyptiansevendreamedofthemiraculousreturnofNectaneboII,thelast

pharaohofafreeEgyptwhohadfledtoNubiawhenthePersiansreconqueredEgypt
inthe340sBc.
ThePlaceofNonGreeks
Nevertheless,thepictureoftheHellenistickingdomsasdividedintotwoalmost
totallyisolatedsocietiesoneGreekandtheothernonGreekdistortsancientsocial
realityalmostasmuchastheearlieridealofaharmoniouslymixedHellenistic
civilization.TheexistenceofGreekversionsoftheNectanebostory,suchasThe
DreamofNectanebos,provesthatatleastsomeGreekswereinterestedin
contemporaryEgyptianculture.Moreimportant,serioussocialdivisionsand
conflictswithinthenativepopulationsoftheHellenistickingdomsthemselves
precludedanyunifiednativeresistancetoMacedonianrule.
InthetheocraticmonarchiesofEgyptandtheancientNearEast,thesecurityofthe
statereliedonthesupportofthegodsandtheirpriesthoods,andthatremainedtrue
duringtheHellenisticperiod.ThePtolemiessubjectedthetemplesofEgyptto
greatersupervisionthantheirpharaonicpredecessors,buttheyalsomaintainedand
evenexpandedthescaleofstatesubsidyofreligion,ascanbeseenfromthevast
extentoftemplebuildingthatoccurredduringtheHellenisticperiod.Studyofthe
extensiveEgyptianevidenceforHellenisticEgyptisonlyinitsinfancy.Butalreadyit
hasrevealedthatunderthePtolemaicregimethepriestlyfamiliesprospered,
accumulatinglargeestatesandactivelyengaginginbusinesstransactionsofall
kinds,whileexpendinglargesumsonthetraditionalEgyptianindicatorsofpersonal
success:dedicationstothegodsandlavishtombfurnishings.Theirprosperityalso
providedthebasisforavigorousrevivalofEgyptianculture,resultinginavarietyof
newandinterestingliteraryandartisticworksthatareonlynowbeingstudiedand
appreciated.Itisnotsurprising,therefore,thatintheRosettaStonePtolemyVis
congratulatedforhisbrutalsuppressionofanativerebellionatLycopolisinLower
EgyptthatthreatenedthewelfareoftheEgyptianpriesthoodjustasmuchasitdid
theirMacedonianoverlord.
Opportunitywasnotlimitedtothereligiouselite.Analysisofthepersonalarchives
ofvillageofficialsindividualsdismissedbyearlyHellenistichistoriansaslowlyand
insignificantfigureshasshownthatsuchpeoplecouldgrowrichbyexploitingtheir
roleasessentialintermediariesbetweentheGreekspeakingcentralgovernmentand
itsEgyptiansubjects.Notsurprisingly,priestsandlocalofficialswereloyal
supportersofthePtolemaicregime,andbothweresingledoutforreprisalduring
nativeuprisingsinthelatethirdandsecondcenturiesBC.Similarpatternsofroyal
patronageforthetemplesandpriestlyprosperitycharacterizeSeleucidAsia,where
theSeleucidmonarchsgenerouslysupportedbothBabyloniantemplesandthe
templeofYahwehatJerusalem,receivinginreturntheloyalsupportoftheir
respectivepriesthoods.

Therewere,moreover,socialandculturalfactorsthattendedtomoderatethestrong
impulsetowardsocialsegregationinPtolemaicEgyptandelsewherein
466
theHellenisticworld.Themostimportantofthesefactorswasdemography.Atthe
beginningoftheHellenisticperiodintermarriagebetweenGreeksandnonGreeks
mayhavebeenrelativelycommon,sincethemajorityofGreekimmigrantswere
soldiersandthereforepredominantlymale.Moreover,althoughthePtolemiesand
theirrivalsactivelyencouragedGreekimmigrationwithgenerousrewards,the
actualnumberofimmigrantswasrelativelysmall,andthemajorityofthosecamein
theearlyyearsofMacedonianrule.ThenumberofethnicGreeksinPtolemaicEgypt
andelsewhereintheHellenisticEastwas,therefore,probablysmall.Furthermore,
thoseGreekswholivedinthecountryside,wherethetendencytowardintermarriage
wasgreatest,assimilatedsomewhattothesocialandculturalmoresoftheirnon
Greekneighbors.Thiswasparticularlytrueintheareaofreligion,sinceGreeks,like
otherpolytheists,werealreadypredisposedtohonorthegodsofcountriesinwhich
theylived.
HellenisticReligion
ThroughouttheHellenisticworld,Greekreligionunderwentaprofoundchange,as
someoftheoldpolisgodscametoappearanachronisticorirrelevanttothe
multiethnicpopulationsofEgyptandAsia.Paganismandpolytheismwereflexible,
nondogmaticreligioussystems,amenabletotheintroductionofnewdivinitiesand
tothereshapingofoldones.Inmanyinstances,thepowersoftheoldOlympiangods
wereredefined,forplainlytheirmissioncouldnolongerbeconceivedasdefending
GreekinterestsagainstthoseofnonGreeks.
InEgypt,forexample,aHellenizedformofEgyptianreligiondeveloped.Themost
strikingproductofthisHellenizationofEgyptianreligionwastobefoundin
Alexandria,wherePtolemyIcalledontheEgyptianpriestManethoandthe
AthenianritualexpertTimotheustocreateanewgodtoserveasthecitysnew
patrondeity.Thenewgod,Sarapis,wasasynthesisofEgyptianandGreekelements,
combiningaspectsofHades,Osiris,Dionysus,andZeus.OutsideAlexandria,Greeks
worshipedtraditionalEgyptiangodssuchasIsisandOsiris.Acceptanceofthese
strangedeitieswasaidedbythecenturiesoldGreekpracticeofidentifyingtheirown
godswiththoseofotherpeoples(syncretism),buttheprocessofidentificationitself
entailedlossesaswellasgains.
NativeEgyptianpracticesthattooobviouslyconflictedwithGreekreligious
traditions,suchasanimalworshipormummification,werepurgedfromthenew
Hellenizedcults,whiletheEgyptiangodstookontheidentitiesoftheGreekgods
withwhomtheywereidentified.TheresultisevidentinthecaseofIsis.Originally

thedevotedwifeofOsirisandmotherofHorusinthechartermythoftheEgyptian
monarchy,Isis,throughheridentificationwithGreekgoddesseslikeAphrodite,
Demeter,andAthena,assumedacharacterthatwasunprecedentedinEgyptian
tradition:queenoftheuniverse,benefactressofallpeople,andcreatorofcivilization.
WhenaccommodationbetweenGreekandnonGreekcultureoccurred,therefore,it
occurredinsuchawaythattheresultdidnotchallengethedominanceofGreek
cultureandvalues.
467
Document12.4ThePraisesofIsis(firstcenturyBCorfirstcenturyAD)The
HellenizationofEgyptianreligionisevidentinthisinscriptionfromthecityofCyme
innorthwestAnatoliawithitsuniversalizationofIsispowerandidentificationsof
GreekandEgyptiangods(Hephaestus=Ptah,thecreatorgodofMemphis;Hennes=
Thoth,godofwisdomandinventorofwriting;andCronus=Geb,godoftheearth
andfatheroftheroyalgodsofEgypt).
Demetrius,thesonofArtemidorus,whoisalsocalledThraseas,aMagnesianfrom
MagnesiaontheMaeander,anofferinginfulfillmentofavowtoIsis.Hetranscribed
thefollowingfromthesteleinMemphiswhichstandsbythetempleofHephaestus.
IamIsis,thetyrantofeveryland;andIwaseducatedbyHermes,andtogetherwith
HermesIinventedletters,boththehieroglyphicandthedemotic,inorderthatthe
samescriptshouldnotbeusedtowriteeverything.Iimposedlawsonpeople,and
thelawswhichIlaiddownnoonemaychange.
IamtheeldestdaughterofCronus.IamthewifeandsisterofKingOsiris.Iamshe
whodiscoveredthecultivationofgrainforpeople.Iamshewhoiscalledgoddessby
women.BymethecityofBubastiswasbuilt.Iseparatedearthfromsky.Idesignated
thepathsofthestars.ThesunandthemoonscourseIlaidout.Iinvented
navigation.
Icausedthejusttobestrong.WomanandmanIbroughttogether.ForwomanI
determinedthatinthetenthmonthsheshalldeliverababyintothelight.Iordained
thatparentsbecherishedbytheirchildren.ForparentswhoarecruellytreatedI
imposedretribution.TogetherwithmybrotherOsirisIstoppedcannibalism.
Irevealedinitiationstopeople.Itaughtpeopletohonortheimagesofthegods.I
establishedprecinctsforthegods.ThegovernmentsoftyrantsIsuppressed.I
stoppedmurders.Icompelledwomentobelovedbymen.Icausedthejusttobe
strongerthangoldandsilver.Iordainedthatthetruebeconsideredbeautiful.I
inventedmarriagecontracts.LanguagesIassignedtoGreeksandbarbarians.I
causedthehonorableandtheshamefultobedistinguishedbyNature.Icaused
nothingtobemorefearfulthananoath.Anyonewhounjustlyplottedagainstothers

Igaveintothehandsofhisvictim.OnthosewhocommitunjustactsIimposed
retribution.Iordainedthatsuppliantsbepitied.Ihonorthosewhojustlydefend
themselves.Withmethejustprevails.
Iammistressofriversandwindsandthesea.Noonebecomesfamouswithoutmy
knowledge.Iamthemistressofwar.Iamthemistressofthethunderbolt.Icalmand
stirupthesea.Iamintheraysofthesun.Isitbesidethecourseofthesun.Whatever
Idecide,thisalsoisaccomplished.Formeeverythingisright.Ifreethosewhoarein
bonds.Iamthemistressofsailing.ThenavigableImakeunnavigablewheneverI
choose.Iestablishedtheboundariesofcities.
468
IamshewhoiscalledThesmophoros.TheislandfromthedepthsIbroughtupinto
thelight.IconquerFate.Fateheedsme.HailEgyptwhorearedme.
InscriptionesGraecae12.14;translatedbyStanleyM.Burstein,TheHellenisticAgefromthe
BattleofIpsostotheDeathofKleopatraVII.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1985,
p.147.
Theseconsiderationshaveimportantimplicationsforunderstandingthecourseof
relationsbetweenGreeksandnonGreeksthroughouttheHellenisticworld.Since
apartheidwasnevercharacteristicofGreeksociety,thecombinationofarelatively
smallnumberofethnicGreeksandtheHellenistickingsconstantneedforaGreek
elitetoprovideareliablebaseofsupportfortheirrulecouldhaveonlyoneresult.As
timepassed,manyindividualsreferredtoasGreeksinHellenisticsourceswerenot
somuchpersonsofGreekbirthasofGreekculture:people,thatis,whohadreceived
aGreekeducation,adoptedaGreeklifestyle(andfrequentlyaGreekname),and
worshipedtheiroldgodsunderGreeknames.
Likewise,manyGreekcitiesintheNearEastweremoreandmoreoftensimply
renamedlocalsettlementswhosecitizenbodieswerecomposedlargelyofsuch
acculturatednonGreeks.SomeJewssoughttotransformJerusalemintoaGreek
polisintheearlysecondcenturyBC,butotherJews,undertheleadershipofthe
familyoftheMaccabees,opposedtheseeffortstoHellenizethecommunity.The
conflictescalatedwhenAntiochusIVwasdrawnintoit,forbadetheJewstocarryon
theirtraditionalreligiouspractices,andin167BcrededicatedthetempleofYahweh
atJerusalemtoOlympianZeus.WhenJewscelebratethefestivalofChanukahtoday,
theycommemoratetheirtriumphoverAntiochusandhissupporters.Thehistoryof
thisconflictisrecordedinMaccabeesIandII,twobooksoftheApocryphathatprovide
auniquepictureoftheHellenisticworldfromtheviewpointofasubjectpeople.
TheyalsoclearlyrevealthechieflimitationoftheprocessofHellenization:its
inabilitytoaffectsignificantlythelivesofthemassofthepopulationofthe
Hellenistickingdoms.

AlthoughMacedonianruleinEgyptandwesternAsialastedforalmostthree
centuries,assessmentsofthesignificanceofthisperiodofforeignrulevarywidely.
SomescholarsemphasizethepositiveeffectsofthespreadofGreekcultureinthe
region,whileothersviewitasatransitoryperiodofcolonialruleinwhichGreek
culturewaslittlemorethanaveneer,beneathwhichtraditionalsocialandcultural
traditionssurvivedandevenflourished.Notsurprisingly,thetruthismorecomplex
thanissupposedbythesupportersofeitherextreme.Hellenizationdidoccur,butits
effectswerelittlefeltoutsidethemajorurbancentersoftheregion.Likewise,native
traditionsdidsurviveandwereeven,ashasbeennotedearlierinthischapter,
patronizedbythePtolemiesandSeleucids.Still,
469
theirvigorwasshortlived,havinglargelyspentitselfbythelatefirstcenturyBC.
Education,culture,andelitestatushadalwaysbeencloselyconnectedintheregion.
Persianrulehadnotthreatenedthatconnection,becausethePersiansthemselves
recognizedtheprimacyofMesopotamiancultureintheirempire.Theprivileged
positionenjoyedbyGreekculture,however,severedthelinkbetweencultureand
status,thusprovidingastrongincentiveforambitiousmembersofthelocalelites
graduallytoabandontheirtraditionalculturesandHellenize.Withoutanyone
intendingit,therefore,theestablishmentoftheMacedoniankingdomsmarkedthe
beginningoftheendoftheancientcivilizationsofEgyptandtheancientNearEast.
SUGGESTEDREADING
Green,Peter.1990.AlexandertoActium:TheHistoricalEvolutionoftheHellenisticAge.
BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Brilliantlywritten
comprehensivehistoryoftheHellenisticperiod.
Green,Peter,ed.1993.HellenisticHistoryandCulture.BerkeleyandLosAngeles:
UniversityofCaliforniaPress.Widerangingcollectionofessaysonvariousaspects
ofHellenisticculture.
Lewis,Naphtali.1986.GreeksinPtolemaicEgypt.Oxford:ClarendonPress.Lucid
accountoflifeinPtolemaicEgyptasreflectedinthecareersofeightGreeksand
Egyptians.
Momigliano,Arnaldo.1975.AlienWisdom:TheLimitsofHellenization.Cambridge,
Eng.:CambridgeUniversityPress.Pioneeringstudyofthenatureofcultural
interactionintheHellenisticperiod.
Onians,John.1979.ArtandThoughtintheHellenisticAge:TheGreekWorldView35050
BC.London:Thames&Hudson.Provocativestudyoftherelationshipbetweenart
andthoughtintheHellenisticAge.

Polfitt,J.J.1986.ArtintheHellenisticAge.Cambridge,Eng.:CambridgeUniversity
Press.StandardtreatmentofHellenisticArt.
Pomeroy,SarahB.1984,1989.WomeninHellenisticEgypt:FromAlexandertoCleopatra.
NewYork:SchockenBooks(1984);withanewforewordandaddenda,Detroit:
WayneStateUniversityPress(1989).Widerangingsurveyofthesocial,economic,
andlegalstatusofwomeninPtolemaicEgypt.
470
EPILOGUE
InmanywaystheearlythirdcenturyBCwastheclimaxofancientGreekhistory.For
abriefperiodMacedonianpowerandGreekculturereignedsupremeintheNear
andMiddleEast.NewGreekcitieswerefoundedatstrategicpointsthroughoutthis
enormousregion.ApersoncouldtravelfromEgypttothebordersofIndiaspeaking
onlyGreek.TheheydayoftheHellenistickingdoms,however,wasbrief.Internal
andexternalthreatscalledtheirsurvivalitselfintoquestionwithinagenerationof
theirfoundation.
TheSeleucidskingdomprovedthemostvulnerable.FromtheircapitalatAntioch
theSeleucidsstruggledwithlimitedsuccesstomaintaincontroloftheAsian
territoriesofAlexandersempire.AlreadybeforetheendofthefourthcenturyBC
SeleucusI(311281)hadcededhisdynastysclaimstoAlexandersconquestsinIndia
toChandraGupta(ca.324300),whohadconquerednorthernIndiaandfoundedthe
Mauryadynasty.FurtherterritoriallossesfollowedinthethirdcenturyBC.While
Seleucussuccessorsfoughtbitterlyamongthemselvesoverthesuccessiontothe
throne,enemiesattackedtheirwesternandeasternfrontiers.Inthewest,theAttalids
ofPergamumseizedcontrolofmuchofAnatolia;intheeast,theParthians(Iranian
speakingnomads)andrebelliousGreeksettlerscarvedoutkingdomsforthemselves
ineasternIranandBactria.
ThePtolemiesweremoresecureintheirEgyptianfortressthantheirSeleucidrivals.
ForoveracenturyandahalfnoenemysucceededinbreachingEgyptsdefenses.
Nevertheless,PtolemaicauthorityinEgyptalsoweakenedsignificantlyinthethird
centuryBC.NativerulewasreestablishedinsouthernEgyptinthelastdecadesof
thecentury,whilesuccessioncrisessappedthedynastysstrength.By200BC,the
PtolemiesruledonlyLowerandMiddleEgypt.WithtotalcollapseoftheHellenistic
statesystemvirtuallyinsight,AntiochusIII(223187BC)andPtolemyV(204180
BC)launchedvigorouscounteroffensivesthatseeminglyrestoredtheirdynasties
authorityovermostoftheirformerterritory.BeforetheSeleucidsandPtolemies
couldfullyconsolidatetheirholdontheirkingdoms,however,disasterstruckinthe
formoftheRomans.RomanexpansionintotheeasternMediterraneanwasso

dramaticandunexpectedthatthehistorianPolybiuscouldjustifiablybeginhisgreat
historywiththedeceptivelysimpleques
471
tion:HowcouldanyonenotbeinterestedinknowinghowtheRomansoverthrew
theworldcreatedbyAlexanderinlessthanhalfacentury?
AlthoughRomanrelationswiththeHellenistickingdomsdatedtothe270sBC,Rome
firstinterveneddecisivelyinthepoliticallifeoftheeasternMediterraneaninthefirst
decadeofthesecondcenturyBC,inflictingseveredefeatsonPhilipVofMacedon
andAntiochusIII.TheRomansdidnotannexanyterritoryafterdecisivelydefeating
thetwokings,preferringinsteadtoposeasthedefenderofGreekfreedom.The
RomanSenatesrefusaltobrookpotentialrivalstoRomanpreeminenceintheregion,
however,effectivelyunderminedallthemajorHellenistickingdoms.Bythemid
secondcentury,thekingdomofMacedonhaddisappeared,transformedintoa
Romanprovince.Meanwhile,theSeleucids,weakenedbydynasticrivalryand
internalsubversionoftenabettedbyRome,werelockedinalosingstrugglewiththe
Parthians.ThisstrugglegraduallyreducedtheoncemightySeleucidkingdomtoa
fewcitiesinSyriathatRomefinallyoccupiedin63BC.ThePtolemiessurvivedtheir
Seleucidrivalsbyageneration,butonlybecausetheRomanSenatecouldnotagree
onwhichsenatorwouldtakecreditfortheannexationofEgypt.Thatdebateended
in31BC,whenOctaviandefeatedAntonyandCleopatraVIIatActiuminnorthwest
Greece.Withtheirsuicidesin30BCthelongsuccessionofAlexanderssuccessors
finallyended.
Intheend,RomeandParthiaturnedouttobetheultimateheirsofAlexanders
legacy,havingextinguishedthekingdomsofhissuccessors.Thedemiseofthe
HellenisticstatesystemdidnotmarktheendofGreekcivilizationinthelands
conqueredbyAlexander,butitdidchangeitscharacterandrole.Intheeastern
portionsofAlexandersempire,Greekcivilizationgraduallydisappearedasa
coherentforce.MacedonianandGreekrulerswereresponsibleforthefloweringof
GreekcultureintheHellenisticEast,andtheirpatronageendedwiththe
disappearanceoftheirkingdomsinthelatesecondandfirstcenturiesBC.Deprived
ofpoliticalsupport,GreekculturewitheredasthenewParthianrulersoftheMid
FigureEpilogue1.CoinportraitofCleopatraVII,whoruledEgyptfrom51to30BC.

472

dleEastsoughttorallysupportfortheirregimefromthenonGreekelitesoftheir
territorybyfavoringlocaltraditions.InthewesternpartoftheHellenisticworld,
Greekculturedidnotmerelysurvive.ItflourishedthankstoRomansupport.
ThatRomewasthesaviorofGreekcultureintheNearEastisoneoftheparadoxesof
history.AbrutalitythatbeliedthepromiseoffreedomtheRomanshadmadetothe
Greeksin196BCafterthedefeatofPhilipVmarkedtheRomanconquestofthe
easternMediterranean.Incidentssuchastheenslavementof150,000peoplefrom
EpirusbyAemiliusPaulusin168BC,thedestructionofCorinthin146BC,and
SullasdevastationofAtticain86BCmadecleartotheGreeksthattheRomanshad
cometotheEastasmasters,notliberators.Nevertheless,whilethedisruptionof
GreeklifeduringthealmosttwocenturiesduringwhichRomeconsolidateditsrule
overtheeasternMediterraneanwasenormous,itwasnotthewholestory.
LiketheirMacedonianpredecessors,theRomanswerenostrangerstoGreekculture.
GreekinfluenceonRomedatedfromthebeginningofthecityshistoryandhad
becomeanintegralpartofRomanculturebythetimeRomeintervenedintheaffairs
oftheHellenisticEast.ThatinfluencecontinuedlongafterGreecehadceasedtobea
politicalandmilitarypowerandhadbecomeaminorprovinceoftheRomanempire.
Notsurprisingly,GreekliteratureandartwerefamiliartomanyupperclassRomans.
Somesenators,likeFabiusPictor(c.220BC),thefatherofRomanhistory,were
sufficientlyfluentinGreektowritebooksinthelanguage.BythefirstcenturyBC
RomanaristocratsroutinelyacquiredaGreekeducation.Romanculturewas
suffusedwithGreekinfluence.Romesgodsandmythshadbeenrecastintermsof
Greekmythology.LatinwritersconstantlyechoedtheirGreekpredecessors,sothata
worklikeVirgilAeneid,Romesnationalepic,hastobereadagainstthebackground
oftheIliadandOdysseyforitsartistrytobefullyappreciated.ThefirstcenturyBC
RomanpoetHoracewasonlyrecognizingrealitywhenhewrotethatGreece,
thoughacaptive,capturedherfierceconqueror,andbroughttheartstorustic
Latium(Epistles2.1).
OneimportantresultoftheHellenizationoftheRomanupperclasswastheSenates
adoptionoftheconceptofGreekfreedomastheframeworkfortheexerciseof
RomansupremacyintheeasternMediterranean.Inspiteofthesufferingthey
inflictedonthecitiesandkingdomsoftheGreekEast,therefore,theRomansmade
thesupportofGreeksandGreekculturethelinchpinoftheirruleoftheregion.
Greeksenjoyedprivilegedstatus,andGreekcitiesprovidedtheframeworkfor
Romanprovincialadministration.Theresultwasaremarkablerenaissanceinthe
culturallifeoftheGreekcitiesofoldGreeceandtheNearEastduringthefirsttwo
centuriesoftheChristianera.Evidenceofthisrenaissanceisvisibleintheruinsof
thesplendidpublicbuildingsthateverywhereintheeasternMediterranean
dominatetheremainsofGreekcitiesandintheinnumerablehonorarystatuesthat
crowdourmuseums.

Greekwriters,suchasthehistorianAppianandtheoratorAeliusAristides,had
goodreasontocelebratethebenefitsofthePaxRomana(RomanPeace),although
conscientiousRomangovernorslikePlinytheYoungercomplainedaboutthecostsof
theambitiousbuildingprojectsundertakenbytheGreekcitiesintheir
473
effortstooutdoeachotherinpublicsplendoranddistinction.Therenaissancewas
notlimitedtoarchitectureandthevisualarts.ThesecondandthirdcenturiesAD
alsosawaremarkableupsurgeofGreekliteraryactivitythathistoriansofGreek
literaturecalltheSecondSophistic.TheSecondSophisticisnamedafterthegreat
publicoratorssuchasAeliusAristideswhodominatedthepubliccultureofthe
period,butnewworksappearedinalmosteverygenreofGreekliterature.Manyof
theseworkssuchasthebiographiesandessaysofthebiographerandmoralist
PlutarchandthehistoriesofArrianwereofconsiderabledistinctionandexercised
significantinfluenceonthedevelopmentoflaterwesternthought.
Scienceandphilosophyalso,flourished.GalenandPtolemycompiledsynthesesof
Greekmedicine,astronomy,andgeographythatremainedauthoritativeformore
thanamillennium.Indeed,medicalstudentsstillstudiedtheworksofGaleninthe
earlynineteenthcenturyAD.TheEgyptianbornNeoPlatonistPlotinuscreatedthe
lastgreatphilosophicalsystemofantiquity,aphilosophicalmysticismbasedloosely
ontheworksofPlatothatwasChristianitysmostformidableintellectualrival.Only
inoneareaofGreeklifewastherenorenaissance:thecivicandpoliticalcultureof
theGreekcitiesthemselves.Instead,duringthesesametwocenturies,thelast
vestigesofthepolistraditionofselfgovernmentdisappeared.
Officially,theRomanstreatedtheGreekcitiesoftheeasternMediterraneanasself
governingentities.Epigraphicalrecordsoftheirgovernmentsactivitiesare
numerous,butthespiritwasgone.Cityassembliesnolongermet,andcitycouncils
werecontrolledbynarrowaristocraticoligarchies.Eventhefreedomofactionof
theseoligarchicregimeswasincreasinglylimitedbytheRomangovernments
practiceofemployingofficialssuchasPlinytheYoungertomonitortheirconductof
affairs.Plutarchcandidlyassessedthesituationinanessaywritteninresponsetoa
youngfriendsrequestforadviceaboutapossiblepoliticalcareer.Nowadays,he
wrote,whentheaffairsofthecitiesnolongerincludeleadershipinwars,northe
overthrowingoftyrannies,noractsofalliances,whatopeningforaconspicuousand
brilliantpubliccareercouldayoungmanfind?Plutarchansweredhisownquestion
bypointingoutthatthereremainthepubliclawsuits,andembassiestothe
Emperor(PreceptsofStatecraft805ab;Fowler).GreekpatriotssuchasPlutarch,who
consideredholdingthetraditionalmagistraciesinhishomecityofChaeroneaa
sacredobligation,foundthecontrastwiththefreedomoffifthandfourthcentury
BCGreecepainful.OtherGreeksweremorepragmatic.MensuchasArrian,who

wasgovernorofCappadociaundertheemperorHadrian(117138AD)andhistorian
ofAlexander,andDioCassius,ahistorianofRomewhoheldtheofficesofconsul
andpraetorianprefectduringtheearlythirdcenturyAD,abandonedtheirpoleis,
andfoundrewardingcareersintheserviceofRome.
WhileGreeksandGreekcultureprosperedunderRomanrule,thesamewasnottrue
ofthenonGreekculturesofEgyptandtheNearEast.TheRomanemperors
patronageoftheGreekcitiesoftheeasternMediterraneanheightenedthevalueof
GreekcultureandRomancitizenship.Theformerwasthekeytosocialandcultural
prestigeandthelattertoapoliticalcareeranditsrewards.NonGreekcultural
traditionsandinstitutionswerenotrepressed,buttheywerede
474
valued.InthesecondcenturyADtheSyrianwriterLucianexpressedthecultural
prioritiesofthenewregimeinhisautobiographicalessayTheDream,statingthat
withoutaGreekeducationamancouldonlybeanartisanandcommoner,always
envyingtheprominentandfawningonthemanwhowasabletospeak,whilethe
educatedmanwashonoredandpraised,ingoodreputeamongthebestpeople,well
regardedbythosewhoarepreeminentinwealthandbreeding...andconsidered
worthyofpublicofficeandprecedence(TheDream911).Lucianscalculationwas
correct.HisGreekeducationandliteraryskillbroughthimfameandalucrativepost
onthestaffofthePrefectofEgypt.
Somepeoples,suchastheJews,resistedtheassimilatorypressuresofRoman
imperialsociety,sometimesviolently.OthersfoundinthenewChristianchurch
opportunitiesforthesatisfactionoftheambitionsoftheirelites.Notsurprisingly,
however,overtimeincreasingnumbersofnonGreeksfollowedLuciansexample
andsoughttoacquiretheadvantagesofGreekstatus,especiallyafter212ADwhen
theemperorCaracallaerasedthelegalbarriersbetweenGreeksandnonGreeksby
conferringRomancitizenshiponvirtuallyallinhabitantsoftheempire.
Theprocessofassimilationwasnotalwaysfreeoffriction.ComplaintsofGreek
prejudiceandculturalchauvinismarefrequentinthewritingsofHellenizednon
Greekssuchas,forexample,theHellenizedSyrianrhetoricianTatian,whourged
GreeksnottodespisenonGreeksandtheirideassincemostGreekpracticestook
theiroriginfrombarbarianways(AddresstotheGreeks1.1).Nevertheless,bylate
antiquityasignificantportionofthesocialandintellectualeliteoftheeastern
provincesoftheRomanempireconsistedofHellenizednonGreeks.Thelocal
languagesoftheregiondidnotdisappear.Theysurvivedinthevernacularspeechof
theurbanlowerclassesandthecountrysideandevenfoundnewwrittenexpression
intheliteraturesofSyriacandCopticChristianity.Butthetraditionalculturesof
EgyptandtheNearEastdied,asthenativeelitesthathadpatronizedthemfor

millenniagraduallydesertedthem.HarassedbythegovernmentoftheChristian
Romanemperors,theysurvivedonlyintheesotericknowledgeofthepriestsofafew
remoteandimpoverishedtemplesbeforefinallydisappearingcompletelyinlate
antiquity.Meanwhile,thedominantstrandintheintellectuallifeoftheeastern
MediterraneanbasinbecamewhatscholarscallHellenism,essentiallya
cosmopolitanformofGreekculturelooselybasedonthecanonofClassicalGreek
literature.ThisliteratureformedthebasisofbothpaganandChristianeducationand
thought,althoughtheciviccultureoftheGreekcitystatesthathadgivenbirthtoit
almostamillenniumearlierhaddisappeared.InthisformGreekculturecontinuedto
flourishinthelandsconqueredbyAlexandertheGreatandinfluencedthemedieval
civilizationsofByzantiumandIslamandthroughthemthecultureofwestern
EuropeandtheAmericas.
TRANSLATIONS
Fowler,HaroldN.1936.PlutarchsMoralia.Vol.X.LoebClassicalLibrary.
Cambridge,Mass.andLondon:HarvardUniversityPress.
475
GLOSSARY
AcademyTheschoolfoundedbyPlatoatAthensduringthe380sBCinthegroves
sacredtotheheroAcademus.ItsmostfamouspupilwasAristotle.TheAcademy
continuedtofunctionuntiltheChristianemperorJustinianordereditclosed,along
withotherpaganschools,in529AD.
acropolisLiterally,theuppercity,thecitadelofacityortown.Manycitadelhills
hadbeenthesitesofMycenaeanpalacesandremainedasspecialplacesinpolislife.
ThemostfamousistheAcropolisofAthens,thereligiouscenterofthecity,which
wasmagnificentlyadornedwithtemplesinthefifthcentury.
agoraInHomer,thetermfortheplaceofgathering,theassemblyofthepeople.In
thecitystateperioditdenotedthepublicspaceofacityortown,beingboththe
marketplaceandciviccenter.Lingeringintheagorawasthebestwaytoinform
oneselfaboutpublicaffairs,makebusinesscontacts,andcollectgossip.
AmphictyonicCouncilThegoverningbodyofanancientleagueofDelphis
neighbors,theDelphicAmphictyony,thatadministeredtheoracle.The
AmphictyonyalsoconductedthePythiangamesanddealtwithtransgressions
againsttheoracleanditsterritory.Thememberswereethn,ofwhichthemost
importantweretheThessalians,Phocians,Boeotians,Dorians,andIonians.Votes
wereunequallydividedamongthemembers,sothatPhilipIIsacquisitionofthe

twelveThessalianandtwoPhocianvotesgavehimamajorityofthecouncils
twentytwovotesandcontroloftheAmphictyony.
archonAcommontitle(meaningleader)forthehighestrankingmagistrateinthe
earlycitystates.DuringtheClassicalperiod,evenwhenthestratgoihadbecome
themostimportantofficialsinAthens,ninearchonscontinuedtobechosen(bylot)
toservejudicialandadministrativefunctions.Thearchontatewasusedinlarger
contextsaswell;forexample,asthetitleofthecivilandmilitaryheadofthe
ThessalianLeague.ThisarchonwaselectedbytheLeagueassemblyandservedfor
life.
476

aristocracyThetermaristokratia(powerinthehandsofthebestmen)was
coined,probablyinthefifthcentury,asthewordtheeliteusedtodescribetheir
holdonpower,inpreferencetothelessnoblesoundingoligarchia.(Platodefines
aristocracyasthegoodformofoligarchy.)Aristocraticpowerandexclusiveness
werestrongestintheearlyArchaicperiodandgraduallyweakenedasstrong
democraticsentimentsemergedinthecitystates.
assemblyAlongwiththecouncil(boul,gerousia),oneofthetwoprimary
elementsofGreekgovernance.FromtheDarkAgeonitwasmadeupofthe
adultmalesofthecommunity.IntheDarkAge,theassembly(calledagorain
Homer)hadlimitedpowervisvisthechiefs,althoughitsconcurrencewas
crucial.DespiteattemptsbytheoligarchicalrulersoftheArchaicperiodto
curtailfurthertheauthorityoftheassembly,iteventuallybecamethedeciding
bodyofstatepolicy.InAthens,theassemblyorekklsia metintheopenaironthe
hillcalledthePnyxaboutfortytimesayear.
barbarosThetermusedbytheancientGreeksforallpeoplewhowerenot
Greekinlanguageandculture.Thecontrastdidnotnecessarilyimply
uncivilizedcrudityandsavagery(thehighlycivilizedandgenerallyadmired
EgyptiansandPersianswerebarbaroitotheGreeks),althoughincreasinglyfrom
thefifthcenturyonbarbaroicametobestigmatizedastheinferiorothers,
lackingthementalandmoralcapabilitiesthatbelongednaturallytoHellenes.
basileusThetermforthelegitimatesingleruler,theking.InMycenaean
society,thetitlepasireudenotedanofficialwhohadchargeofavillageordistrict;
withthebreakupoftheMycenaeankingdomsitbecame(intheformbasileus)the
titleofthewarriorchiefswhoruledthevillagesanddistrictsintheDarkAge.
ThehierarchyofbasileiswasreplacedintheArchaicAgebylandedaristocrats
whoruledasanoligarchy.
bouleThecommonesttermforthecouncil,which,alongwiththeassembly,
wasoneofthetwoprimarygoverninginstitutionsoftheGreeks.Composedof
thechiefsandotherinfluentialmenintheDarkAge,itbecamethemajororgan
ofaristocraticpowerintheArchaicAge.Inthedemocratizingcitystates,the

councilbecameincreasinglyanorganofpopularwill.InClassicalAthens,the
boulconsistedoffivehundredmenchosenbylot;itpreparedbusinessforthe
assembly.Itcouldalsotrycertaincourtcases.
CadmeaTheacropolisofThebes.ItsseizurebySpartain382BCprovokeda
majordiplomaticcrisisinGreece.
cellaTheinnershrineofatemple.ThegoldandivorystatueofAthena,over40
feethighandnowlost,stoodinthecellaoftheParthenon.
477

CommonPeaceThetermusedtodescribeanumberoffourthcenturyBC
treatiesbeginningwiththeKingsPeacein387andendingwiththatsponsored
byPhilipIIaftertheBattleofChaeroneain338.Thecharacteristicfeatureof
thesetreatieswasthattheyguaranteedtheautonomyofallsubscribingstates.
CorinthianLeagueThetermusedbymodernscholarstodesignatethealliance
organizedtoimplementtheCommonPeaceestablishedbyPhilip11in338BC.
TheLeagueincludedtheprincipalcitiesandethnofGreeceexceptSpartaand
guaranteeditsmembers:freedom,autonomy,collectiveactionagainststates who
brokethepeace,andprotectionagainstproposalstocanceldebtsandliberate
slaves.TheCorinthianLeagueprovidedtheframeworkforMacedonian
dominationofGreeceuntilitwasdissolvedbyAntipaterin322BC.
currency,AthenianUnitsofAtheniancurrencyincludedtheobol,the
drachma,themina,andthetalent.Sixobolsmadeadrachma;onehundred
drachmasmadeamina;andsixtyminas(i.e.,6000drachmas)addeduptoa
talent.Amanwhohadatalentwasrich.InfifthcenturyAthens,asilver
drachmacoinwasconsideredgoodpayforadayslaborbyanunskilledworker
andprobablyrepresentedalivingwageforasmallfamily.Adrachmawasthe
standardpayforarowerinthefleet.Maintainingatriremecostatalentamonth.
DelianLeagueThemodernnamefortheconfederacyorganizedunder
AthenianleadershipaftertheendofthePersianwars.Foundedin477BC,the
LeaguewasslowlyconvertedintoanAthenianempireasAthensbeganforcing
unwillingstatestoremainintheorganization,ortojoinitiftheywerenot
alreadymembers.
demagogosLiterally,aleaderofthepeople.Thiswasthetermsome
AtheniansusedtocategorizethepoliticianswhoaroseinAthensafterPericles
death.Usuallyithadnegativeconnotationsandsuggestedthatsuchamanwas
interestedonlyinhisownwellbeing,unlikeatruestatesman,whocaredforthe
welfareofthestate.Unliketheworddemagoguetoday,however,itwas
occasionallyusedinaneutralway.
democracyAformofgovernmentinClassicalGreecethatpermittedallfree
mensomedegreeofparticipationinpolitics,regardlessofwealthorfamily
background.Ideologiesofequalitywerepreached,thougheconomicinequalities
prevailedandgenerallybroughtpoliticalinequalitieswiththem.Athens

encourageddemocraticgovernmentsinitsallies.LikeotherformsofGreek
government,democraciesdeniedvotingrightstowomenandassumedthe
appropriatenessofslavery.
demosAterritoryandthepeoplewholiveinit;thus,thelandandthe
people.ItoccursintheLinearBtabletsintheformdamo,meaning,apparently,
avillagecommunityanditsfreeinhabitants.Originallyaneutralterm,itcameto
478

beusedbyaristocrats(probablyintheseventhcentury)asanexclusivetermfor
thecommoners,orthemasses,althoughtechnically(asinlegalinscriptions)
itretaineditsinclusivemeaningasthe(whole)people.
DemoticThepopularscript,anextremelysimplifiedcursiveformofthe
hieroglyphicscriptusedintheHellenisticperiodtowriteEgyptian.Demoticwas
theprincipalEgyptianscriptinPtolemaicEgyptandwasusedforwritingboth
literaryandnonliterarytexts.
dicasteries(dikastria)ThepeoplescourtsatAthens.AsAthenswas
notoriouslylitigious,thesecourtstriedanenormousnumberofcases.A
dicasterionwascomposedofhundredsofadultmalecitizenswhowerechosen
bylotteryatthelastminutefromthosewhohadpresentedthemselvesfor
membershipinthepoolofjurorsknownastheheliaia(q.v.)Boththelastminute
elementofthechoiceandthelargesizeofthejuriesdiscouragedbribery,
especiallysinceAtheniancourtcaseshadtobedecidedinasingleday.Sincethe
largejurywasconsideredtobeactinginthesteadofthepeople,therecouldby
definitionbenoappealfromitsdecisions.Beginningaroundthemiddleofthe
fifthcentury,jurorsreceivedasmallamountofpayfortheirservices.
dokimasiaThescrutinyAtheniancitizenshadtoundergobeforeassuminga
positioninthegovernment.Politicalenemiesoftenusedthisprocedureasa
meansofkeepingamanoutofpublicoffice.
drachmaSeecurrency,Athenian.
ekklesiaSeeassembly.TheAthenianassembly(ekklsia)metaboutthirtyto
fortytimesayearonthehillknownasthePnyx.Initsmeetingsitvotedon
businesspreparedbytheboul.
ephor(ephoros)Overseer,anofficefoundinSpartaandinotherDorian
states.InSpartaaboardoffiveephorswaselectedannuallybytheassembly;the
seniorephorgavehisnametotheyear.Theephorshadgreatpowerinthe
Spartanstate,includinggeneralcontroloverthekingsconduct.
epiklerosAbrotherlessAtheniangirlwhowascompelledtomarryhernearest
malerelativeabletoprocreatesothatherson,whowasslatedtoinherither
fathersproperty,wouldbedescendedfromhisgrandfatherthroughthemale
line.Thewordisoftentranslatedheiress,butinfacttheepikleroscouldherself
inheritnothing,whichwasthewholepointofherforcedmarriage.
ethnosThetermusedtodescribealargegroupofpeoplewhoshareda

commonidentityandterritory,butwerenotpoliticallyunited,preferringlocal
selfgovernment.ThestoryoftheGreekethnistheirgrowingabilityfromthe
sixthcenturyBContoactasunifiedstatesbyformingfederationsoflocaland
regional
479

segmentsoftheethnos.Bythefourthcentury,ethnicconfederaciesandleagues
wereplayingaprominent,andevenadominant,roleinthegeopoliticsof
Greece.
FreedomoftheGreeksPropagandasloganusedbyvariousHellenistickings
andtheRomanstoattractthesupportofGreekcities.Althoughproclamationsof
freedomincludedguaranteesthatcitieswouldbefree,autonomous,and
ungarrisoned,inpracticekingsdidnothesitatetointerfereincityaffairsto
achievetheirgoals.
genosClan.Asocialgroupcomposedoffamilieswhoclaimeddescentfroma
singlemaleancestor.Agenoswasledbyitsmostprominentfamilyandplayeda
prominentpartasapoliticalgroupintheArchaicAge.Thepowerandinfluence
ofthearistocraticgen(plural)wanedintheClassicalperiod,butcontinuedto
confersocialprestigeonthememberfamilies.
gerousiaThecouncilofelders(fromgern=oldman).Thiswastheterm
usedatSpartaandinotherpoleisforthearistocraticcouncil.TheSpartan
gerousiaconsistedofthetwokingsplustwentyeightmenoverage60who
servedforlife.
grapheparanomonTheproceduretheAtheniansbegantouseinthelatefifth
centuryBCtoindictamanformakinganillegalproposalintheassembly.Since
theAthenianshadnorealconstitution,itwasverydifficulttotellwhatlaws
mightbeillegal,andtheprocedurewasusuallyusedasaformofpoliticalattack.
Thoseconvictedweregenerallyfined;threeconvictionsbarredacitizenfrom
makingfurtherproposals.
guestfriendship(xenia)Aformofritualfriendship,wherebyastranger
(xenos)enteredintoarelationshipofmutualfriendshipwithamanfromanother
dmos,eachobligedtoofferhospitalityandaidwhentheyvisitedeachothers
community.Thebondwasperpetuateddownthroughgenerationsofthetwo
families.AprominentfeatureofHomericsociety,xeniacontinuedthroughout
antiquity,evolvinginthecitystatesintothemoreformaldiplomaticrelationship
ofproxeny(q.v.).
hegemonAstateorindividualwhoheadedanorganizationofstates.Athens,
forexample,wasthehegemonoftheDelianLeague,SpartaofthePeloponnesian
League.Ahegemonwassaidtoexercisehegemony,hencetheperiodofTheban
ascendancyinthe360sBCisknownastheThebanhegemony.Hegemonwas
alsothetitleoftheleaderoftheCorinthianLeague.Thishegemonwasofficially
electedbytheLeaguecouncilandwasitschiefexecutiveandcommanderin

chiefoftheLeaguesmilitaryforceswithfullauthoritytoconductitsmilitary
anddiplomaticactivities.
hektemoroiAtermusedinSolonianAthensmeaningsixthparters,referring,
presumably,topoorfarmerswhohadfallenintodebttowealthylandowners
andhadtohandovertothemasixthoftheirproduceunderpenaltyof
enslavementfortheirdebt.
480

heliaiaThebodyofprospectivejurorsfromwhichdikasteria(q.v.)were
selected.Anyadultmalecitizenmightpresenthimselfforparticipation.
HellenesThenametheGreekscalledthemselves(andstilldo).Theyhada
mythofaneponymousancestor,Hellen,whowasthesonofDeucalion,the
GreekNoah,andthefatheroftheeponymousancestorsoftheDorians,Ionians,
andAeolians.Thereissomereasontobelievethatthecommonname(andthe
supportingmyth)aroserelativelylate,perhapsintheeighthcenturyBC.
helotsThetermusedtodescribegroupsofconqueredpeopleinGreecewho
wereforcedbytheirconquerorstoworkasserfsontheirformerlands.Theword
ismostcommonlyassociatedwithSparta,wherehelotsprobablyoutnumbered
citizensbyaratioofseventoone.TheSpartanwayoflifebothdependedonand
wasformedbythestatesownershipofthelaborofthousandsofhelotsin
LaconiaandMessenia.FearofhelotuprisingsoftendiscouragedtheSpartans
frombecomingengagedincampaignsfarfromhome.
hetairaMeaningliterallyfemalecompanion,thiswasthetermnormallyused
forcourtesansinClassicalAthens.Hetairaiusuallycamefromthemeticclass.
Theyweregenerallymorecultivatedthancitizenwomen;theyweretrained
(usuallybyolderhetairai)tobeentertainingandinterestingratherthantobe
thriftymanagersofhouseholds.SincePericlescitizenshiplawsof451450made
itimpossibleforamantomarryameticwomanandstillhavehischildrenenjoy
citizenshiprights,manyAthenianmenchosetohavelongtermassociations
withhetairaisimultaneouslywiththeirlegalmarriagestoAthenianwomen.
Somehetairaifunctionedasentrenchedmistressesorevencommonlawwives,
butotherslessfortunatewereessentiallyprostitutes.
hetaireiaiThemilitarysystemsofsomecitiessuchasthoseinCretegrouped
meninhetaireiaiorbandsofcompanions,butthewordismostcommonly
associatedwithAthens.Thereyoungmenoftheupperclassfrequentlybelonged
tohetaireiaiorsocialclubswithpoliticalovertones,oftenofanantidemocratic
nature.Themutilationofthehermsin415wasrumoredtobetheworkofsucha
hetaireia,andthesubversiveactivityofhetaireiaiprobablyplayedapartinthe
oligarchicrevolutionsof411and404.
hetairosCompanionorcomrade.IntheDarkAge,followerbandsof
hetairoiformedthemilitaryandpoliticalsupportofthechiefswhorecruitedand
rewardedthem.Associationsofhetairoiforpoliticalpurposescontinuedto

functioninthecitystates(seehetaireiai).InMacedonia,thehetairoiwereanelite
bandofwarriorsandadvisorswhoformedtheretinueandpersonalbodyguard
ofthekings.
481

hopliteHoplits.Theheavilyarmoredinfantryman,namedfromhisdistinctive
shield(hoplon).Hopliteswerethedominantmilitaryarmfromtheseventh
centuryon,graduallyundergoingchangesinweaponryandtactics.Because
Greekgovernmentsdidnotissuearmstotheirsoldiers,hoplitestendedtocome
fromthemiddleclass,menabletoaffordarmorandswords,unliketherowers
inthefleets,whowerelikelytobethtes(seethes).
KingsPeaceTheagreementthatendedtheCorinthianWarin387BC.Akey
rolewasplayedbyArtaxerxesIIofPersia,andGreekswerechagrinedbythe
wordingofthepeace,whichbegan,I,KingArtaxerxes,regardthefollowing
arrangementsasjust.
klerosAnallotmentoffarmlandsufficienttosupportacitizenfamily;itwas
passedoninperpetuityinthemaleline.Inoligarchicstates,fullcitizenshipwas
frequentlytiedtothepossessionofacertainamountofland.
koreMaiden.AtermusedtodescribethelifesizeorlargermarbleArchaic
statuesofclothedfemales,madeascultofferingsorgravemarkers.Theterm
kouros(youth)isusedofthecorrespondingnudemalestatues.
liturgiesAnindirectsystemoftaxationwherebytherichwererequiredto
spendtheirownmoneyintheserviceofthestate.Liturgiesincludedfinancing
thetrainingofachorusfordramaticperformancesorfinancingadelegationtoa
religiousfestivalinanotherstate.Themostexpensiveliturgywasthetrierarchy,
whichrequiredamantomaintainatriremeforayearandtopayforthetraining
ofitscrew.
LyceumTheschoolfoundedbyAristotleinAthensin335BC.Itbecamea
majorcenterforscientificstudy,andAristotlespupilsalsocollectedthe
constitutionsof158states.
megatonAlargerectangularbuildingthatservedasthefocalpointof
Mycenaeanpalaces.Itsfunctionasthegreathalloftherulercontinuedinthe
reignoftheDarkAgechiefs.Inthecitystatestheancientmegaronachieved
immortalityasthebasicplanoftheGreektemple.
meticsResidentaliensinaGreekstate.Therewereprobablymeticsthroughout
Greece,butweknowonlyaboutmeticsinAthens.Althoughtheylacked
citizenship,meticsmingledcomfortablyinAtheniansocietyandwereoften
calledonforhelpinwartime.Thewomenknownashetairaiweregenerally
metics,thoughmostmeticwomenwereprobablyhousewives.
metropolisMothercity,describingapolisthatsentoutacolonyunderits
aegis.Therelationshipbetweenthemothercityandthenewpoliswasnormally
veryclose,combiningeconomic,political,andspiritualties.

482

minaSeecurrency,Athenian.
mothax(pl.mothakes)ThemothakeswereanewclassthataroseinSparta
duringthePeloponnesianWar.SomeweretheoffspringofSpartanfathersand
helotmothers,othersthesonsofimpoverishedSpartanswhowerenolonger
abletomaintaintheirstatusinthecorpsofequalsbycontributingtothe
commonmeals.
mythAllculturespossessmyths,traditionaltalesthattreataspectsoflifethat
areimportanttothecollectivegroup(e.g.,marriage,initiation,food,cultural
institutions,humandivinerelations.,etc.).TheGreekshadanimmenselyrich
storehouseofsuchorallytransmittedstoriesgoingbacktothesecond
millenniumBCandcontinuallyinfusedbyadditionsfromthemythologiesofthe
NearEast.TheGreekhistoriansdependedonancientmythstoreconstructthe
preliteratepast.Modernresearchersattempttogleanfromthemhistoricalor
psychologicalrealities.
nomosCustomorlaw.SometimesitcorrespondstotheEnglishwordmores,
connotingawayofdoingthingsthatisdeeplyembeddedinavaluesystem.It
canalsobeused,however,inalegalcontext;thusforexampletheruleslaid
downbySolonwerecalledhisnomoi.
nomothetaiAthenianofficialssetupaftertherestorationofthedemocracyin
403BC.ThenomothetaireviewedandratifiedthelawsofAthens.
obolSeecurrency,Athenian.
oikistTheoikistes(notetherootofoikos)wasthefounderandtheleaderofa
colonysentoutbyamothercity(mtropolis).Asthefounder,hehadgreat
authorityinthenewsettlement,andwasusuallyhighlyhonoredafterhisdeath.
oikosHousehold.ThefundamentalsocialandeconomicunitinGreek
society,comprehendingthefamilygroup,itshouse,land,animals,andproperty,
includingslaves.
oligarchyOligarchia(rulebyafewmen)wasthestandardformof
governmentintheearlycitystates,havingreplacedthesystemofranked
chieftains.Oppositionfrombelowthenarrowrulingcirclecausedmost
oligarchiestobroadeninclusioninstateaffairs,whileotherstatesadopted
democraticgovernments.Democraticpoleisweresubjecttooligarchic
revolutions,asinAthensin411andagainin404BC.Throughoutthefifthand
fourthcenturies,tensionbetweenoligarchsanddemocratswhichoftenadded
uptotensionbetweenrichandpoor,especiallyinthedifficulteconomictimesof
thedecadesafterthePeloponnesianWarwasaconstantfactorinGreekpolitical
lifeandsometimeseruptedinbloodshed.
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paramountAnanthropologicaltermreferringtothehighestrankingleaderofa

communityorgroup.ThemajorwarriorheroesoftheHomericepics,whorule
overotherleadersasafirstamongequals,representtheparamountchiefswho
ruledduringthetenthtoeighthcenturyBC.
pedimentTheelongatedtriangularspacesthatsatontopofthecolumnsonthe
frontandbackofGreektemples.Theywerefrequentlyadornedwithelaborate
reliefsculpture.
PeloponnesianLeagueThemodernnameforanorganizationledbySparta
anddatedtosometimeinthesixthcenturyBC.Scholarshavejokedthatitwas
neitherPeloponnesiannoraleague.ItconsistedofSpartaandlesspowerful
alliedstateswhosworetohavethesamefriendsandenemiesastheSpartans.
ThustheyweretiedtoSpartabutnotreallytoeachother,andsomeimportant
membersoftheLeague,suchasThebes,wereoutsidethePeloponnesus.The
mostimportantmemberafterSpartawasCorinth,whichprovidednavalpower.
AfteritsvictoryoverAthensinthePeloponnesianWar(431404BC),Sparta
increasinglyinterferedindomesticaffairsinalliedstates,causingsubstantial
friction.TheLeaguefinallydissolvedinthe360s.
peltastsLightlyarmedGreeksoldierswhocarriedlightthrowingspearsand
small,roundshields.Theyfunctionedasskirmishersandcouldbedeployed
eitheraloneorinconcertwithhoplites.Althoughtheywereutilizedduringthe
PeloponnesianWar,theyincreaseddramaticallyinimportanceinthefourth
century.TheAtheniancommanderIphicratesowedhissuccessestohiswell
trainedpeltasts.
pentakosiomedinmoiSeeSolonicsystem.
perioikoiThosewhodwellabout,thetermusedtodescribeneighboring
peopleswhowereinasubordinaterelationshiptoadominatingpolis.Themost
prominentexampleisSparta,whichtreatedthepeopleoftheperioecic
communitiesofLaconiaandMesseniaashalfcitizens,grantingthemlocal
autonomybutobligatingthemtomilitaryserviceandallowingthemnosayin
theconductofpolicy.
phalanxThetacticalformationofahoplitearmy,consistingintheArchaicand
Classicalperiodsofranksofheavyinfantry,usuallyeightdeep.Thephalanx
underwentchangeandexperimentinthefifthandfourthcenturies.Thehighly
successfulformofphalanxintroducedbyPhilipIIofMacedonconsistedofsix
brigadesoffifteenhundredmeneach,recruitedonaregionalbasis.Macedonian
phalangiteswerearmedwithashortsword,asmallroundshield,andalong
pike(sarissa)upto18feetlong,andtheyfoughtinrectangularformations
sixteenmendeep.
phratryAsubdivisionofthetribe(phyl)and,atleasttheoretically,akin
grouping.InClassicaltimesphratrieswerewelldefinedsocialgroupsconcerned
with
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definingdescentandthereforecitizenship.EverycitizenfamilyinAthens
belongedtoaphratry.
phylaiThetermforthelarge,ancientdescentgroupsintowhichadmoswas
divided.Ioniancommunitieshadfoursuchtribes,asmodernscallthem,
Doriancommunitiesthree.Thetribesfunctionedasorganizationalunitsinthe
citystates.InhisreformoftheAtheniangovernment,Cleisthenesbypassedthe
fourtraditionaltribesanddividedAtticapoliticallyandmilitarilyintotennew
phylai.
polemarchTheofficeofpolemarchos(warleader)wascommontomanyearly
citystates.Asarmycommanderforaspecifiedterm,usuallyayear,andsubject
tothepolicyofthearistocraticcouncil,thepolemarchwaslimitedinhispower.
In500BCatAthensthepolemarchwaseclipsedbytheboardoftenstratgoi,
militarycommanderselectedfromthetennewphylai.After487BC,whenthe
polemarchbecameappointedbylot,hisfunctionsbecamemainlylegaland
ceremonial.
polisCity,town.Beginningintheeighthcentury,poliscametodesignatea
politicalcommunity,composedofaprincipalcityortownanditssurrounding
countryside,whichtogetherformedaselfgoverningentity,thecitystate.The
smallpoliswastheprincipalformofGreekcommunitythroughoutantiquity,
numberinginthehighhundredsbythefifthcenturyBC.Withtheexceptionof
Sparta,poleisweregenerallygovernedbysomesortofrepublicangovernment,
whetheroligarchicordemocratic.Sincethepolissystemimpliedsomedegreeof
politicalselfawareness,itwasanopenquestionwhetheracityruledbyatyrant
couldbeapolis.
probouleuticThetermforthecouncils(bouls)functionofpreparingstate
businessforconsiderationintheassembly.
probouloiInAthens,acommitteeoftenoldermenthatwassetuptodirectthe
governmentin413BC.Theestablishmentoftheprobouloiresultedfromthe
shockengenderedbythedisasterinSicily.
proskynesisGreeknameforthePersianritualgreetingthatsocialinferiors
offeredtotheirsuperiorsandallPersiansofferedtothePersianking.Inits
simplestform,proskynsisinvolvedmerelyblowingakiss.Proskynesistothe
Persianking,however,requiredfullprostrationbeforetheruler.Although
Persiansdidnotbelievethattheirkingwasdivine,GreeksandMacedonians
consideredtheperformanceofproskynesistobeappropriateonlytodeitiesand
resentedattemptstomakethemperformit.
proxenyThetermusedforadiplomaticarrangementwherebycitizensinone
state,calledproxenoi,lookedaftertheinterestsofotherstatesintheir
communities.Theproxenoswashighlyhonoredbytheforeignstatehe
represented.The
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systemofproxeny(proxenia)developedfromanearliersystemofxeniaor
privateguestfriendship(q.v.).
prytanisOneofthetitlesforthepresidingmagistrate(oracollegeof
magistrates)inacitystate.InthereorganizationoftheAthenianboul(508BC),
tenboardsoffiftyprytaneiseach,chosenbylotfromthetennewtribes(phylai),
tookturnsastheofficialsinchargeofthedailybusinessoftheboulandekklsia
foratenthoftheyear.Eachgroupoffiftymencomprisedaprytany.
redistributivesystemThetermforthekindofeconomicandpolitical
arrangementsfoundintheBronzeAgekingdomsoftheNearEastandGreece,
wheremostoftheagriculturalandmanufacturedproductionofaregionwas
controlledfromthecenter(thekingandhispalace),whichredistributedthe
resourcesasitsawfit.IntheGreekcitystates,bycontrast,thegovernment
exercisedonlylimitedcontroloverproductionanddistribution.Seeliturgies.
rhetoresThemenwhochosetoinvolvethemselvesintensivelyinAthenian
politicsduringthefourthcentury,proposingdecreesandmakingspeechesinthe
assembly.Itisoftentranslatedpoliticians.
RoyalPagesTheRoyalPageswereabodyofyoungmenrecruited,probably
whilestillintheirteens,fromtheMacedonianaristocracy.Thepageslivedatthe
royalcourtandwerethekingspersonalattendants,guardinghimwhilehe
slept,accompanyinghimonhuntingexpeditions,andperformingwhatever
othertaskshemightrequireofthem.TheinstitutionwasestablishedbyPhilipII
andservedasthefirststepinthecareerofMacedonianaristocrats.
SacredBandEliteThebaninfantryformedabout378BC.TheSacredBand
consistedof150pairsoflovers.ItplayedamajorroleintheSpartandefeatat
Leuctrain371andlaterThebanmilitarycampaignsuntilitwastotallydestroyed
attheBattleofChaeroneain338BC.
SatrapTitleofthegovernorsoftheprincipalterritorialsubdivisionsofthe
Persianempire,thenofAlexanderIIIsempire,andlateroftheSeleucid
kingdom.DuringthePeloponnesianWar,thecoastalsatrapsTissaphernesand
Pharnabazusenjoyedconsiderableindependencefromthekingandentered
freelyintonegotiationswiththewarringstates.
satrapyOriginallyaprovinceofthePersianempire.AlexanderIIIretainedthe
satrapalsystemofthePersianempireastheadministrativeframeworkofhis
empire.AfterthedivisionofAntigonustheOneEyedsempirein301BC,the
termwasusedtodesignatethelargestterritorialsubdivisionsoftheSeleucid
kingdom.
SecondAthenianConfederacyAvoluntaryorganizationledbyAthenswhich
manyGreekstatesjoined,someattheinceptionin377andotherslater.Though
memberstatessentdelegatestoacommondeliberativebodyknown
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asthesynedrionandhencehadfargreatersayinpolicydecisionsthanthe

helplessalliesoftheDelianLeague,disaffectionnonethelessdevelopedandthe
alliancebegantodisintegrateinthelate370s.Itsufferedsubstantialdefectionsin
the350sandwasfinallydissolvedwhentheCorinthianLeaguewasestablished
in338BC.
SolonicsystemAccordingtothereformsmadeearlyinthesixthcenturyBCby
Solon,Atheniancitizenswereallottedpoliticalpowerinaccordwiththeamount
theirlandproduced(afigurethatcorrelatedroughlywiththeamountofland
theyowned).Makinguseofpropertyclassesthathadexistedforsometime,
Solondividedcitizensintofourgroups.Toqualifyformembershipinthe
highestclass,thepentakosiomedimnoior500measuremen,amanneededan
estatethatproducedatleast500medimnoi(bushels)ofproduceinany
combinationofoil,wine,orgrain.Belowthesewerethehippeis(horsemen,
sincetheywerethemenwhocouldaffordtokeepahorseforthecavalry),whose
incomewasmorethan299medimnoibutlessthan500.Afterthemcamethe
zeugitai,menwhocouldaffordtoownateamofoxen,with200to299measures.
Thelowestclass(abovetheslaves)consistedofthethtes,poorpeoplewhose
landproducedfewerthan200measures;somehadnolandatallandso
producednomeasures.
sophistsTheitinerantintellectualswhotaughtandgavespeechesduringthe
latterpartofthefifthcenturyBC.Somewereprimarilyteachersoforatory,while
othersengagedinthoughtfulspeculationaboutsocietythatchallenged
entrenchedconventions.SophistsweredrawntotheclimateofAthens,where
responsetothemwasmixed.Platomadethediscreditingofthesophistsan
importantpartofhisdialogues,accusingthemofsubstitutingshowyrhetorical
displaysforrealwisdomsuchasSocratespossessed.
stasisThetermfirstforagroupofmenwhotakethesamestandinapolitical
disputeafactionandthenbyextensiontheactitselfoftakingsides.Inthecity
statesstasis(civilstrife)occurredbetweenoligarchicalfactionsandbetweenthe
richandthepoor.Atitsworststasisentailedbloodshed;thuscontainingit
withinnonviolentboundswasaprincipalobjectiveofthecitystates.
steleAstoneslabinscribedwithatext,adecoration,orboth.Stelaecouldbe
usedtoindicategraves,militaryvictories,orpropertyboundaries.Important
textssuchaslegaldecreesandtreatiesmightalsobeinscribedonthem.
strategosThecommontermforamilitaryleader.Inthecitystates,thisoffice
wasusuallypoliticalaswellasmilitary.InAthens,after487,thetenstratgoi
weretheonlyelectedhighofficials(theothersbeingselectedbylot);thusmost
ofthepowerfulpoliticiansofthefifthcenturywerestrategoi.IntheHellenistic
era,duringthereignsofAlexanderIII,PhilipIII,andAlexanderIV,stratgos
(general)wasthetitleofthehighestrankingMacedonianmilitarycommanderin
EuropeandAsia.ThefourattestedstrategoiofthisperiodwereAntipater,
Polyperchon,andCassanderinEuropeandAntigonustheOneEyedinAsia.
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symposionInArchaicandlaterperiodstheafterdinnerdrinkingparty,
madeupofasmallnumber(betweenfourteentothirty)ofmen,wasafrequent
eventinadultmalesociallife,primarilyamongtheelite.Thesymposionwasan
importantbondingritualamongyoungaristocratsand(likethehetaireiai,q.v.)
wasoftentheoccasionoffactionalplotting.Meaningdrinkingtogether,itisthe
originoftheEnglishwordsymposium.
synedrionArepresentativecouncilsuchasthatoftheSecondAthenian
Confederacy(q.v.)ortheCorinthianLeague(q.v.).ThesynedrionoftheSecond
AthenianConfederacywascomposedofasinglerepresentativefromeach
memberstateandruledtheconfederacyjointlywiththeAthenianassembly;
policydecisionshadtoberatifiedbybothbodies.Thesynedrionofthe
CorinthianLeagueconsistedofrepresentativesofthemembercitiesandethnof
theleague.ThelattersynedrionwasresponsibleforupholdingtheCommon
Peace(q.v.)thatestablishedtheCorinthianLeagueandwasempoweredto
arbitratedisputesamongitsmembersandtotryindividualsaccusedof
betrayingitsgoals.
synoecism(synoikismos)Thetermusedfortheprocesswherebyseveral
separatecommunitieswereformedintoasinglepoliticalunion.Synoecismalso
referredtotheactualmovementofpeoplefromseveralcommunitiesintoa
brandnewcompositesettlement.
talentSeecurrency,Athenian.
temenosInMycenaeantimesandintheDarkAge,atemenoswasaparcelof
choicelandgivenasaduetothepreeminentfamilies.Temenoswasalsotheterm
forasacredprecinctoflandgiventoagodorhero,containinganaltar,andoften
otherbuildings,forcultandritual.Thisbecametheprevalentmeaninginthe
Archaicandlaterperiods,asthecustomofgivinglandtotheleaderswaned
(thoughitdidnotcompletelyvanish)withtheshortageofgoodland.
TheoricFundAspecialfundestablishedatAthensprobablyinthe350sBCby
Eubulus.Inpeacetimeitreceivedthefiscalsurplusremainingafterallannual
expendituresmandatedbylawhadbeenmade.Thepurposeofthefundwasto
enablepoorAthenianstoattendpublicfestivals,butitwasalsousedforvarious
otherpurposesincludingworkonthedockyardsandthepublicarsenal.In
wartimeuseofthesurplusformilitarypurposeswaspossiblebyvoteofthe
Athenianassembly,butsuchusewasunpopular.
thesThetermforafreemanwhowasforcedbyhispovertytohireoutasa
laborerforwages.InAthens,accordingtotheeconomicdivisionsattributedto
Solon(c.600BC),thethtes(plural)formedthelowestclassofcitizens.
ThirtyTyrantsTheproSpartanpuppetgovernmentinstalledinAthensby
Lysanderin404.Aftermurderingoverathousandcitizens,aswellasmetics
whosepropertytheycoveted,theThirtywereoverthrownthefollowingyear.
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tholos(pluraltholoi)Atypeofmonumentalabovegroundstonetomb
(shapedlikeabeehive)favoredbytheelitesoftheLateBronzeAge.Inthe
Classicalperiod,circularstructures,alsocalledtholoi,servedastemplesand
publicbuildings.
triremeThemoderntermforthestandardformofGreekwarship(trirs)inthe
Classicalperiod.Propelledbythreebanksofoars,andattainingspeedsofnine
knots,thetriremeuseditsbronzeramtodisableenemyships.Athenianoarsmen
werethebestatthismaneuver,andAthenianfleetsdominatednavalwarfare
duringthefifthcentury.
tyranny(tyrannis)Theillegalseizureandcontrolofgovernmentalpowerina
polisbyasinglestrongman,thetyrant(tyrannos).Tyrannyoccurredasaphase
inmanycitystatesduringtheseventhandsixthcenturies,andisoftenseenas
anintermediatestagebetweennarrowoligarchyandmoredemocraticformsof
polity.Inthelatefifthandthefourthcentury,anewkindoftyrant,themilitary
dictator,arose,especiallyinSicily.
wanaxLord,master.ThetitleofthemonarchicalrulerofaMycenaean
kingdom.Intheformanaxitappearsasthetitleofgodsandhighrankingchiefs
inHomer.
xeniaSeeguestfriendship.
zeugitaiSeeSolonicsystem.
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