Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Richard Birchwood
Jianchun Dai
Dianna Shelander
Houston, Texas, USA
Ray Boswell
US Department of Energy
National Energy Technology Laboratory
Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
Scott Dallimore
Geological Survey of Canada
Sidney, British Columbia, Canada
Kasumi Fujii
Yutaka Imasato
Sagamihara, Kanagawa, Japan
Doug Murray
Beijing, China
Tatsuo Saeki
Japan Oil, Gas and Metals
National Corporation
Chiba City, Chiba, Japan
Oilfield Review Spring 2010: 22, no. 1.
Copyright 2010 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Barbara
Anderson, Brookfield, Connecticut, USA; George Bunge,
Houston; Emrys Jones, Chevron, Houston; Tebis Llobet,
Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, Sakhalin, Russia; Yuri Makogon, Texas
A&M University, College Station, Texas; and Osamu Osawa,
Sagamihara, Japan.
CHFR, DMR, EcoScope, geoVISION, MDT, PeriScope, RAB,
sonicVISION and TeleScope are marks of Schlumberger.
18
Methane
gas + ice
10
Methane
gas + water
50
Methane
hydrate
+ gas + ice
100
ry
nda
bou
ase
s ph
Koji Kusaka
Tokyo, Japan
-ga
rate
Hyd
Masafumi Fukuhara
Moscow, Russia
Ann Cook
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory
Earth Institute of Columbia University
Palisades, New York, USA
and evaluate conventional oil and gas reserves are being used to characterize gas
Pressure, atm
Timothy Collett
US Geological Survey
Denver, Colorado, USA
energy resource if ways can be found to exploit them. Techniques designed to find
Methane hydrate
+ water + gas
500
1,000
10
10
20
30
40
Temperature, C
Oilfield Review
H
C
> Gas hydrate crystal structure. Methane [CH4] (green and white)
is the guest molecule in a cage formed by water [H2O] molecules
(red and white). This structure is one of five types of water cages
that contain guest gas molecules. Gas hydrates have been
produced from some sites in the Arctic, such as this one in
Alaska, USA. (Photograph courtesy of the Mount Elbert gas
hydrate stratigraphic test well project.)
Spring 2010
19
> Marine and onshore hydrate locations. About 98% of the gas hydrate resources are concentrated in
marine sediments, with the other 2% beneath permafrost. Most of the mapped occurrences of
recovered gas hydrates (blue) have been discovered by scientific drilling programs, and the inferred
gas hydrate accumulations (orange) have been identified by seismic imaging. [Data from Lorenson TD
and Kvenvolden KA: A Global Inventory of Natural Gas Hydrate Occurrence, USGS, http://walrus.wr.
usgs.gov/globalhydrate/index.html (accessed March 24, 2010).]
20
Oilfield Review
Alaminos Canyon
3,300
Seafloor
3,400
3,500
Gas hydrate
stability zone
3,600
Two-way time, ms
3,700
BSR
3,800
3,900
4,000
4,100
Amplitude
4,200
4,300
Spring 2010
km
150
mi
4,400
Green Canyon
150
AT-14
Atwater Valley
4,500
AC-21
Alaminos Canyon
KC-195
Keathley Canyon
GC-955
WR-313
Walker Ridge
fM
o
ulf
exi
co
> Seismic section with a bottom-simulating reflector (BSR) from the Gulf of Mexico. A BSR is caused
by the acoustic impedance contrast between hydrate-bearing and non-hydrate-bearing sediments.
This BSR cuts across layering and a fault and represents the base of the hydrate-stability zone. The
reflecting interface separates stiffer material above from less stiff material below, giving rise to a
seismic reflection with polarity opposite to that at the seafloor. The high-amplitude signals on the right
side of the section probably indicate free gas trapped below the hydrate. The 2005 Gulf of Mexico JIP
expedition investigated sites in the Atwater Valley and Keathley Canyon areas. In 2009 JIP scientists
drilled and logged boreholes in Alaminos Canyon, Walker Ridge and Green Canyon. Geophysical
indicators of the base of the hydrate-stability zone are shown in red on the inset map. (Map adapted
from Shedd et al, reference 12; seismic section courtesy of WesternGeco.)
SE
A
nB
on
3,400
Ho
Ho
rizo
3,350
3,450
3,500
Two-way time, ms
New Orleans
riz
3,550
3,600
3,650
Base of gas
hydrate stability
Oilfield Review
Spring 10
Hydrates Fig. 3/4
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 3/4
3,700
3,750
3,800
3,850
Amplitude
2010 WesternGeco Used by Permission
3,900
> Seismic data from Walker Ridge Block 313, Gulf of Mexico. The seismic section shows a series of
isolated high-amplitude spots (blue and red) that delineate the base of the hydrate-stability zone. The
high-amplitude reflections are discontinuous in this view because the layers have varying lithology
and are steeply dipping. Free gas and gas hydrates are concentrated in the sand-rich layers. Because
shale-rich layers contain little or no hydrate, they do not exhibit significant amplitudes. Horizons A and
B are discussed in a later figure. (Courtesy of WesternGeco.)
21
Cement at Contacts
M1
Grain Coating
5.5
M2
5.0
4.5
Pore-Fill
M4
4.0
M1
M3
3.5
M2
3.0
M4
2.5
2.0
Fracture-Fill
1.5
M6
M5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
3.0
M1
2.5
M3
2.0
M2
1.5
M4
1.0
M5
0.5
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Predicting gas hydrate saturation from seismic data in the Walker Ridge and Green Canyon
areas requires a rock physics model that establishes the relationship between those elastic
properties that control the speed of acoustic
energy through sediments and gas hydrate saturations; in other settings around the world high
hydrate concentrations have been associated
with increases in acoustic velocities.14 Several
models have been proposed to explain this effect,
and all of them indicate that these properties are
Oilfield
Review
highly dependent on the
location
of hydrate in
Spring
10
the sediment (above left).
Theoretically,
hydrate
Hydrates Fig. 6
may occur in sedimentary rocks as cement at
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 6
grain contacts or as coating on grains. It may also
act as a component of the grain matrix or may fill
pores. These microstructural models all consider
the hydrate to be evenly distributed in sediments,
and equations have been derived to link gas
hydrate concentration to elastic properties.
Because gas hydrates have also been encountered in cores as nodules and fracture-fill, these
less homogeneous forms of distribution must also
be considered, although no quantitative treatment of such distributions has been developed.
22
> Comparison of measured and modeled seismic velocities in hydratebearing sediments. Compressional-wave (P-wave) velocities (top)
measured in hydrate-rich layers in a Canadian well (blue triangles) are
plotted with velocities calculated using the models described in the
previous figure. The measured velocities best fit the velocities from the
model treating hydrate as a component of the grain matrix (M3).
Shear-wave (S-wave) velocities (bottom) show a similar match.
(Adapted from Dai et al, reference 14.)
Oilfield Review
8
Depth,
ft below
rig floor
Horizon B
Well H
BGHS
Density
Ultrasonic Caliper
Gamma Ray
in.
gAPI
12 0
1.4
ohm.m
40
g/cm3
Hydrate Saturation
n = 1.5
2.2
Density Used
Ring
100 1
Hydrate saturation, %
> Gas hydrate saturations in Walker Ridge estimated from seismic inversion. Saturations range from
0% to 40% (green to red). Horizon A (left) lies stratigraphically above Horizon B (right). Well H penetrates
both horizons within the gas hydratestability zone, but Well G penetrates only Horizon A in the gas
hydratestability zone, intersecting Horizon B at a deeper point. The white dot is an oil and gas industry
well not related to the gas hydrate study. The base of the gas hydratestability zone is marked by BGHS.
(Adapted from Shelander et al, reference 14.)
Poor Density
Resistivity
Well H
BGHS
Caliper
12
Well G
Well G
Best Caliper
in.
Horizon A
100 1.4
g/cm
100
n = 2.5
2.2
100
1,340
1,360
1,380
1,400
1,420
Oilfield Review
Spring 10
Hydrates Fig. 9
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 9
1,440
1,460
1,480
> Well logs (left) from a Green Canyon gas hydrate well. High resistivities (Track 3) are the clearest indications of gas hydrates (pink shading) in this 100-ft
sand. Deeper, thinner sands also contain hydrates. The caliper log (Track 1) shows washouts in the hydrate-free zones (blue shading). Washouts can lead to
poor density results (Track 4). Estimated gas hydrate saturations (Track 5) range from 50% to more than 85% and depend on the saturation exponent, n, used
in Archies law, which relates resistivity to porosity and saturation. Personnel prepare LWD tools on the Q4000 floating drilling unit (right). (Photograph
courtesy of the JIP Leg II Science Team.)
Spring 2010
23
Well H
3,360
Hor
NE
izo
nA
SW
8,600
3,380
3,400
Two-way time, ms
3,440
Ho
rizo
3,460
nB
9,000
3,480
Depth, ft
8,800
3,420
Gamma ray
Resistivity
Sonic slowness
3,500
3,520
Base
3,540
hydr
ate-s
3,560
9,200
tabil
Hydrate saturation, % 40
ity zo
ne
3,580
3,600
9,400
9,380
9,370
9,360
9,350
9,340
9,330
9,320
9,310
9,300
Inline number
> Estimated saturations and acquired well logs through a gas hydrate zone. Seismic inversion
predicted high saturations of gas hydrate (reds) in Horizon B at the location of Well H. High
concentrations of gas hydrate can be inferred from the high resistivity values (yellow log) and sonic
slownesses (green log). The decrease in gamma ray readings (blue log) indicates the layer is a sand.
(Adapted from Shelander et al, reference 14.)
0.56
3.13
0.60
2.72
0.65
2.36
0.69
2.06
0.74
1.80
0.79
420
410
3.40
2.92
2.53
2.19
1.92
1.68
1.48
400
3.16
2.71
2.35
2.04
1.78
1.56
1.38
390
2.93
2.51
2.18
1.89
1.65
1.44
1.28
380
2.71
2.32
2.01
1.74
1.53
1.34
1.18
370
2.50
2.14
1.86
1.61
1.41
1.23
1.09
360
2.30
1.97
1.71
1.48
1.30
1.14
1.00
350
2.12
1.81
1.57
1.36
1.19
1.04
0.92
340
1.94
1.66
1.44
1.25
1.09
0.96
0.84
330
1.77
1.52
1.32
1.14
1.00
0.88
0.77
320
1.62
0.80
0.70
310
1.47
0.73
0.64
300
1.33
0.66
0.58
290
1.20
0.91
1.04
1.20
1.39
Oilfield
Review
Spring
0.83
0.95
1.26 101.09
Hydrates
Fig. 11 0.86
0.75
0.99
1.14
ORSPRG10-Hydrate
Fig. 110.68
0.78
0.89
1.03
0.59
0.52
280
1.08
0.93
0.81
0.70
0.61
0.53
0.47
270
0.97
0.83
0.72
0.63
0.55
0.48
0.42
1.59
> Optimizing circulation rates and bit design for the Green Canyon area.
This table shows bit hydraulic horsepower per square inch (HSI) as a
function of the bit total flow area and the circulation, or pump, rate. The
light-yellow shading denotes the range of circulation rates and bit sizes that
maintains the bit HSI between 1 and 1.5 to minimize hole erosion and
optimize the mechanical action of the bit. An additional design criterion
governing the circulation rate was to ensure that gas hydrate did not
dissociate during drilling.
24
Oilfield Review
Shear Failure
Mud Weight
8
lbm/galUS
18
lbm/galUS
18
Modeled
Horizontal Stress
8
Gamma Ray
Depth,
ft
Dilation Angle
150 10
gAPI
ohm.m
deg
50 0
Friction Angle
Resistivity
20 10
deg
Unconfined Compressive
Strength
MPa
10 8
MPa
500 8
lbm/galUS
18
Out of Gauge
Modeled
Shear Failure Envelope
lbm/galUS
Bit Size
18 8
in.
12
Modeled Overburden
Density Caliper
lbm/galUS
in.
18 8
12
7,000
7,500
Gas
hydrates
in clayrich
layers
Predicted
hole
enlargement
8,000
Target
gas
hydrate
bearing
sands
Observed
hole
enlargement
8,500
Spring 2010
Oilfield Review
Spring 10
Hydrates Fig. 13
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 13
25
Gamagori
km
a
S e
50
mi
50
n
pa
J a
o f
Na
FI
gh
CI
ou
PA
Tr
ai
nk
East
China
Sea
OC
EA
J A P A N
0
0
km
200
mi
200
> The region of the Nankai Trough, offshore Japan. Drilling locations in the
eastern Nankai Trough area are shown as red dots (inset). Seismic BSRs
(purple) indicate the presence of hydrates over vast areas.
Oilfield Review
Spring 10
Hydrates Fig. 14
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 14
> Gas hydrates from the eastern Nankai Trough. At one site the gas hydrate (white) occupies a layer within a mud-silt zone (left). At a different site, the gas
hydrate is disseminated in the pore space of a sand layer (right). The scale is in centimeters.
26
Oilfield Review
Spring 2010
Porosity Difference
Density Porosity
Washout
80
10
in.
Caliper
10
in.
Gamma Ray
0
gAPI
NMR Porosity
Bit Size
Depth, m
20
80
Deep Resistivity
20 0.2
ohm.m
ohm.m
200 80
DMR Porosity
%
DMR Water
Saturation
Neutron Porosity
200 80
Shallow Resistivity
100 0.2
100
0
Resistivity Water
Saturation
0 100
X10
X20
X30
X40
> Formation evaluation in a hydrate zone. Track 1 plots gamma ray (green)
and caliper (solid black). Blue fill indicates washed-out intervals. Track 2
contains shallow and deep resistivity data. High resistivities correspond to
hydrate-rich zones. Low resistivities signify laminations without hydrate
layers that tend to wash out during drilling. Track 3 contains neutron
porosity (dotted blue), density porosity (red), NMR porosity (black) and the
DMR porosity obtained by combining density and NMR measurements
(green). Gold shading represents the volume of gas hydrate. Track 4 shows
the water saturations calculated using the resistivity (red) and densityNMR-difference technique (blue). Several spikes in Tracks 3 and 4 correlate
with borehole washouts.
27
BANGLADESH
BURMA
Mahanadi
Mumbai
Krishna-Godavari
Kerala
Konkan
Chennai
Andaman
Islands
0
0
500
km
mi
16A
500
7A-D
15A
5A-E14A
11A
6A
4A
2A-B
3A-C
10A-D 12A
13A
20A
KrishnaGodavari
> Exploration sites (red circles) of the 2006 expedition of the Indian National
Gas Hydrates Program (NGHP). A scientific team aboard the JOIDES
Resolution drilling vessel assessed data from 39 boreholes in four different
regions. Samples from the Krishna-Godavari region (inset) contained
significant hydrate accumulations. (Adapted from Collett et al, reference 29.)
The first NGHP expedition, in 2006, explored four lenses and wispy subvertical veins oriented in
areas of the Indian Ocean (above). The primary a primary direction, with some crossing in a
goal of NGHP Expedition 01 was to conduct scien- secondary direction.
In the intervals where hydrates reside in pore
tific ocean drilling, coring, logging and analytical
space,
the Archie relationship can be used to
activities to assess the geologic Oilfield
occurrence,
Review
determine
saturation. However, in other zones,
regional context and characteristics ofSpring
gas hydrate
10
for example, where hydrate occupies fractures in
deposits along the continental marginsHydrates
of India.29Fig. 17
Fig. 17
sediments, the method is not
The expedition team consisted ofORSPRG10-Hydrate
more than low-permeability
100 scientists and professionals representing more applicable, but resistivity logs and images can
than 30 universities, national institutes and com- still be used to identify hydrate-filled fractures.
Images from an RAB resistivity-at-the-bit LWD
panies. During the 113-day operation, the scientific ocean drilling vessel JOIDES Resolution tool clearly show resistive hydrate-filled fractures
drilled 39 boreholes in water depths ranging as well as conductive fractures in several holes in
from 907 to 2,674 m [2,975 to 8,774 ft]. Scientists the Krishna-Godavari region.30 Fractures in most of
recovered 2,850 m [9,350 ft] of core, logged the holes analyzed have steep dips70 to 80
12holes with LWD tools and an additional 13holes (next page). Stress orientations calculated from
with wireline tools, and performed six borehole dip data indicate a maximum horizontal stress
seismic surveys.
direction perpendicular to the edge of Indias
The cores indicate that hydrates occur in a Continental Slopea finding that is inconsistent
variety of settings. In the Indian Ocean, as in with those from other passive continental margins
other parts of the world, hydrates are present documented for boreholes deeper than the holes
in coarse-grained sediments. More surprising in the NGHP study. This contradiction suggests
was the amount of hydrates discovered in fine- that the fractures may be related to local slumps
grained sediments, where they occur as layers, and slides, signifying shallow stresses at work
rather than deep tectonic stresses.31
28
Oilfield Review
Deep Resistivity
Caliper
Medium Resistivity
8 in. 20
Depth, m
Gamma
Ray
Density
gAPI
g/cm3
60
120 1.3
2.0 0.2
ohm.m
200
Conductive Resistive
S
Conductive
S
Dip and
Dip Direction
Gas Hydrate
Filled Fracture
Dip, deg
50 60 70 80
65
70
75
> Borehole image and core from the Krishna-Godavari region. Among the logs acquired in Well
NGHP-01-10A, a borehole image log (Tracks 4 and 5) exhibits high-resistivity gas hydrate (light colors) in
steeply dipping fractures (Track 6). Dips are consistently 70 to 80. (Log courtesy of Ann Cook,
Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory.) The core (inset) shows gas hydrate (white) filling a fracture in
black fine-grained sediments. (Photograph courtesy of the NGHP Expedition 01.)
Spring 2010
29
o r t
B e a u f
a
S e
Mallik
e
zi
n
ke
ac Bay
M
Ice
Yukon Territory
Northwest Territories
d
roa
Inuvik
0
0
km 50
mi
50
> The Mallik field, Northwest Territories, Canada. The Mallik field has been the site of hydrate
discoveries and research since 1972. The site is accessible only in winter by way of an ice road.
(Photograph courtesy of Scott Dallimore, Geological Survey of Canada.)
Oilfield Review
Spring 10
Hydrates Fig. 19
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 19
> A Mallik gas hydrate core sample collected in 2002. Gas hydrate (white)
resides within the pore space of a pebbly conglomerate. (Photograph
courtesy of Scott Dallimore, Geological Survey of Canada.)
30
Oilfield Review
Spring 2010
Resistivity, ohm.m
900
10
100
Radius, m
1,000
910
Collar
Depth, m
920
Collar
930
CHFR log
CHFR model
Hole radius
Dissociation radius
> Determining hydrate dissociation volume. Logs were acquired before and
after a 2002 thermal stimulation production test in the Mallik field (left).
Openhole resistivity logs acquired before the test (orange) were compared
with CHFR cased hole formation resistivity logs run afterward (purple) to
determine the radius of hydrate dissociation over the test interval. The
differences correspond to a modeled radius of dissociation (right) that
varies with depth. (Adapted from Anderson et al, reference 38.)
separation was performed in the wellbore; the in the 5 days of thermal stimulation in the 2002
gas was produced to surface and the produced test.44 Sand production was much greater than
water was reinjected into water zones below the anticipated, a problem that would have to be
gas hydrate test interval.42
overcome in future operations. The team planned
The April 2007 production test was performed to return the next year, when freezing conditions
without sand control measures to monitor and would allow operations to continue.
After reviewing the experience from the first
measure the direct formation response to pressure drawdown.43 As expected, a significant winters operation, the team returned to Mallik in
amount of sand was producedso much that the the winter of 2008 with a simplified research proOilfield Review
gram. This time produced water was flowed to
test was curtailed after 60 hours. However,
Springduring
10
the surface and reinjected into a water-disposal
the most successful 12.5 hours ofHydrates
pumping,
Fig. 21
a custom-designed sand screen
830m3 [29.3 Mcf] of gas was produced,
more than well. In
ORSPRG10-Hydrate
Fig.addition,
21
31
Water
Gas
Permafrost zone
650
Depth, m
ESP
Gas separator
Heater
890
Pressure and
temperature sensors
1,070
Sand screen
1,100
Bridge plug
Aquifers
> Well completion for the Mallik 2008 depressurization production test. An
electric submersible pump (ESP) installed above the perforations
depressurized the formation by lowering the water level in the well. Sand
screens prevented sand influx from the unconsolidated formation into the
borehole. Hydrate dissociation produced gas and water. After gas-water
separation, gas flowed to the surface, and produced water was sampled
then reinjected in a separate water-disposal well. (Adapted from Yamamoto
and Dallimore, reference 42.)
4
3
10
End flow
period 2
End flow
period 3
4
2
0
End flow
period 1
0
Oilfield Review
Spring 10
Hydrates Fig. 22
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 22
10
11
12
Test time, h
> Gas hydrate production test. An MDT tool was used to reduce well pressure
by drawing water from a layer containing high saturations of gas hydrate.
Between fluid-withdrawal, or flow, periods, the pump was shut off, pressure
build-up was monitored and gas and water samples were collected. During
the first flow period the bottomhole pressure (blue) was kept above the
hydrate-stability pressure (green), so no methane was produced. During the
second and third flow periods the bottomhole pressure was decreased to
below the stability pressure, allowing the gas hydrate to dissociate and gas to
be produced. (Adapted from Anderson et al, reference 51.)
32
Oilfield Review
Spring 2010
Point Barrow
Prudhoe Bay
ARCTIC
OC E AN
km
100
mi
Kuparuk
River
oil field
Milne Point 3D
seismic survey
Prudhoe Bay
oil field
> Gas hydrates in Alaska. The northern Alaska gas hydrate total petroleum system is shaded in
blue-gray. The limit of the gas hydratestability zone is outlined in red. The area covered by the 3D
seismic survey is shown as a red-dashed rectangle. (Modified from USGS Fact Sheet 2008-3073,
reference 46).
the Mount Elbert case, when the well pressure Early Days for Hydrates
was greater than the hydrate-stability pressure, The current state of understanding of the producin situ effective permeability was 0.12 to 0.17 mD. ibility of gas from hydrates is analogous to that of
Decreasing the wellbore pressure to below the coalbed methane and heavy-oil sands about
level required for hydrate stability caused disso- 30years ago.54 Although recovery from both coalciation of hydrate within the pore space, and the bed methane formations and oil sands took seveffective permeability increased.
eral decades to become commercially viable, it is
To conduct extended production tests in the too early to determine the development horizon
Alaska North Slope, scientists will need year- of gas hydrate resources.
round access to a wellsite with existing
infraOilfield
Review As far as resource supply and access are con10 cerned, several countries are optimistic about the
structure. Seven potential surface Spring
locations
23
within the Prudhoe Bay, Kuparuk RiverHydrates
and MilneFig. potential
of gas hydrates to meet future energy
ORSPRG10-Hydrate Fig. 23
Point fields have been evaluated.52 A site in the needs. Japan, India, China and South Korea, all
Prudhoe Bay field has been identified as optimal countries that import oil and gas, have launched
because of its combination of low geologic risk, programs to explore the possibilities of unlocking
low operational risk, maximal operational flexi- methane from the hydrate cage. As with other
bility and promise of meaningful reservoir unconventional resources, development of hydrate
response. BP and the other companies with work- reserves will undoubtedly benefit from technoloing interest in the site are discussing plans for gies originally designed for conventional oil and
gas exploration and production.
LS
long-term production testing there.53
33