VCE Biology Unit 3

General feedback
- Comparative statement
- Account for the difference: dont just describe state further information
- Genetic crosses: gender and known affected/unaffected?
- Pedigree: legend
- Name geographical barrier: mountain ranges
- Control: make a valid comparison and to show that the variable is responsible
for the result
- Cite figures
2002 Exam 1
S.
Q
1c
Plant: cell wall outside the cell membrane that limits the expansion of the
cell membrane
Sodium ions are pumped out of the cell against a concentration gradient and
This transport is active transport and hence requires energy
2b

sucker to attach to the lining of the intestine

flagella to move to new sites within the gut of infected person

flattened body increases surface area to V ratio and maximises

absorption of nutrients.
4b
Vasodilation
Smooth muscle relaxes and the peripheral blood vessels dilate
This increases the surface area of blood close to the skin surface an
increase in heat loss
ADH (from pituitary gland)
antidiuretic hormone increases the permeability of kidney tubules/collecting
duct to water
greater reabsorption of water
6
Hormones will be transferred in the blood in both situations. All body cells
must have receptors that respond to the hormones involved in the control of
blood glucose levels and In situation 2, only cells in the thyroid gland have
receptors that are responsive to TSH.
7a
Mast cells: around blood vessels
2003 Exam 1
S.
Q
1c
Microvilli: absorption of material into cell (greatly increases SA available for
absorption)
still have a normal phenotype because it still has the same amount of DNA
or the cat has not lost or gained any DNA or chromosome, or no genes have
been lost.
2c
Bacterias survival in stomach an outer surface that is resistant to acid
attack.
5b

glucose levels after 60 minutes were much higher in X than in Y because

7c

insulin present was not sufficient to trigger a homeostatic feedback

insulin levels remained relatively constant in group X indicating inability

to produce insulin in response to presence of sugar.
Still making antibodies and have memory cells to Rhesus factor five years
later
if given Rhesus positive blood the antibodies react immediately with the
Rhesus on the donor red blood cell agglutinate possibly death

2004 Exam 1
S.
Q
1a
Neuron: Thin processes extending from cell body: transmission of nerve
impulses
Flexible cell membrane capable of movement: phagocytosis
Cilia on one surface: movement of material/fluid over cell surface
5cii The continued contraction of muscles during shivering generates heat for
the animal
7a
The dead or attenuated cells are still identified as foreign and retain
antigenic property to stimulate the production of antibodies against it when
injected.
8d
Viruses need to enter living cells for their reproductive cycle. On maturity of
the viruses within a cell, the cell bursts open, viruses are released and then
the cycle is repeated. Every time viruses burst from cells there is a sudden
increase in the number of viruses. When the virus is inside the cells the
graph is level, running parallel to the horizontal axis.
AND
In contrast, bacteria enter a host but are not dependent on any cycle within
cells for their reproduction. They show a single ongoing phase of
exponential growth indicated in graph X.
2005 Exam 1
MC
9
When leaves wilt the production of organic molecules is reduced because
stomata close preventing the entry of CO2
S.
Q
2bii The pathogenic agents inability to reproduce outside a living cell
3e

The presence of the apical meristem inhibits the growth of lateral buds
because when the apical meristem was removed the lateral buds grew,
as evident from comparing group 1 with group 2.

Auxin or its equivalent is produced in the apical meristem and inhibits

the growth of lateral buds because when auxin was applied to the cut
apical meristem no lateral buds grew, as evident from comparing group
2 with group 3.

Auxin diffuses from the tip of the apical meristem because when a
barrier stopped its flow lateral buds grew, as evident from comparing
group 1 with group 4.

6cii
6e
8d

Messages are carried in the form of electrical impulses from one nerve cell
to another and they move much more rapidly than blood in the bloodstream.
Decrease in responsiveness of cells to hormones: receptor sites on target
tissues may degenerate with age and may be less effective in binding the
particular hormone.
Physiological adaptions in hot, dry environments

extracting extra water from the faeces

an ability to reabsorb increased amounts of water from potential urine

2006 Exam 1
MC
22
Diversity of B cells: due to the rearrangement of gene segments
S.
Q
1a
Studying proteome: interaction between proteins, and the reliance that
some have on others
1b
Beta pleated sheets: strengthen the molecule that may be important for
function (fingernails)
3
Designed drugs: made to prevent the action of a particular infective agent
and hence prevents the development of the particular disease.
5a
because of high solubility in water, carbon dioxide is more readily removed
by fish
5b
An increase in blood pH -> to alkaline need to increase the acidity of the
blood by an increase of carbon dioxide in the blood
- heart as the effector would reduce the rate of beating to reduce carbon
dioxide loss
- intercostal muscles, diaphragm, rib cage or lungs as the effector would
reduce the rate of ventilation/breathing to reduce carbon dioxide loss.
5d
Hyperventilation: dangerous: A lower level of carbon dioxide reduces the
urge to breathe, resulting in a person running out of oxygen before carbon
dioxide builds up to a level to stimulate breathing.
6b
Some signals inhibit further action while some promote an action:
It provides a greater level of control, or balanced control. Alternatively,
students could make some reference to homeostasis.
Multiple levels of stimulation/inhibition, or fine level of control, or some
aspect of small change in level of stimulus.
7a
Plants first line defense: waxy layers on outside surface; intact or thick
cuticle; and chemicals that repel potential pathogens such as insects.
7b
Human: intact skin; chemicals (enzymes) in tears of eyes/mouth; mucus in
nose, respiratory system and intestine; and pH and digestive enzymes in
intestine.
7c
Inflammation
presence of phagocytes; increase in blood flow to area of infection;
chemicals released by damaged cells; clot or scab forms at infective area;
and increased permeability of capillaries allows free movement of white
blood cells.
7d
Immune system cells have receptors that are able to distinguish the
different kinds of (MHC) on all cells and hence have the ability to detect and
distinguish self from non-self.

8c
8e

Lymph node swelling: Swell because immune responses to infections are

generated in lymph nodes (the rapid build up of white blood cell within to
destroy the pathogen.)
Viruses continually mutate in random ways, and increasing the number of
drugs used increases the chance that one of the drugs may be able to
inhibit the action caused by a random change.

2007 Exam 1
MC
8
Most accessible for use in glycolysis: glucose, then lipid
S.
Q
2b
Complement proteins:
attach to invading micro-organisms
make it easier for phagocytes to ingest
lyse plasma membranes of pathogens, not cell walls
promote inflammation.
4d
Ribosomes in chloroplasts: produce enzymes for photosynthesis
Endosymbiotic theory for chlorophasts and mitochondria

both contain DNA and are capable of self-replication

both have ribosomes, which indicates they can make their own proteins
5c
Histamine: swelling itching excessive mucus production constriction of
airways
Released by exocytosis
8d
As a control to give a comparison to injecting the vaccine and to show that
the response was due to the vaccine, not the saline.
2008 Exam 1
MC
13
Lysozyme: first-line defence, catalyses the destruction of the cell walls of
bacteria (tears)
S.
Q
1a
Phospholipid bilayer chemical composition facilitates

the hydrophilic head and the hydrophobic tail allow the passage of lipid
soluble molecules

flexible forms vesicles

waterproof barrier
Protein channel

changeable shape to transport large molecules

2b

mRNA: to carry information from the nucleus to the ribosome for protein
synthesis (instructions for assembling amino acids into proteins)

tRNA: to carry specific amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthesis

rRNA: a structural component of the ribosome.

2c
Fibrous protein

collagen, to provide strength to skin

keratin, provide strength to hair

fibrin, required for blood clotting


myosin, to facilitate muscle contraction.
Flexibility: arrangement of the polypeptides which enabled them to be
stretched and return to the original shape
Strength parallel arrangement of protein fibres for support
3dii Electron transport chain
1. FADH2 and NADH release e- and H+ ions
2. E- are transferred along a series of cytochromes and at the end of the
transport chain these couple with O2 2O2- accept H+ H2O
3. Energy is released. ATP synthase converts ADP + Pi into ATP
4c
Rational drug design involves the analysis of a disease to determine a
structure/aspect of the disease. A drug is then designed to mimic/block the
action of the disease causing agent
5ai Immune cells recognizing non-self cells: T helper cells
How? Specific receptors capable of distinguishing different kinds of MHC
antigens
Class I MHC: all human cells except red blood cells
Class II MHC: antigen-presenting cells e.g. T and B cells: identify if a cell is
self, initiate immune response
5b
Tissue rejection: Cell mediated immunity
T-cell mediated rejection response occurs and T-helper cells activate
cytotoxic T-cells and/or NK (natural killer) cells
cytotoxic chemicals (perforin) are produced which destroy foreign cells or
macrophages engulf and destroy foreign material.
5d
yes, the tumour is contagious and brings about a diseased state
no, the tumour is not an organism but cells originating from rogue self cells.
6b
An autoimmune disease is one in which the body identifies some self cells
as non-self and attacks them.
6c
A hormone is a chemical compound produced in a cell. It either acts within
the cell or diffuses or is transported to other cells where it brings about a
specific response.
7a
Growing towards light: positive phototropism
Shoot growing upwards: negative geotropism
Roots growing downward: positive geotropism (responding to gravity)
7e
Damage on sensory neuron: The rate of transmission of the nerve impulse
would slow down, which could lead to a slower reaction and the person
being burnt.
Alpha: glucagon (glycogen glucose)
Beta: insulin (increase uptake of glucose from blood)
8
Stimulus: state high/low calcium concentration
2009 Exam 1
MC
18
Suitable structure to enclose a drug: Phospholipid
best represents a component of the cell membrane is the phospholipid (e.g.
liposome). Protein, while a component of the cell membrane, X form suitable
structure to enclose a drug.
S.
Q
1c
Cholesterol makes the cell membrane:
more flexible

3e

6d
7a
d
8a

more stable
more fluid in colder temperatures
decrease the permeability of the bilayer to create small water-soluble
molecules.
Account for the difference: provide further information
higher light intensity, the more light can be absorbedthe rate of
photosynthesis is greater
at higher temperatures, enzymes are denatured
Positive feedback where the initial impulse passes through a series of
neurons and refires the original neuron. important to rhythmic breathing
as continual reinforcement ensures continual breathing.
Not stem cell B lymphocyte
Autoimmune disease:
type 1 diabetes rheumatoid arthritis multiple sclerosis. NOT AIDS
Damaging bone marrow cells
bone marrow produces blood cells a lack of a particular type of cell, such
as less oxygen carried due to fewer red blood cells or fewer antibodies due
to fewer B cells.

2010 Exam 1
MC
17
The greatest amount of oxygen production occurs in red light, followed by
blue, yellow
S.
Q
4a
More plasma cells more antibodies can be produced against the virus
Mitochondria: site for aerobic respiration
2011 Exam 1
S.
Q
1b
Chloroplast DNA: controls production of proteins for photosynthesis
2b
histamines are released accumulation of fluid causes blisters to form
5b

antibodies bind to bacteria and cause agglutination, macrophages then

engulf and destroy them

macrophages display foreign antigens of the bacteria; the cells

stimulate the production of antibodies.
6c

cortisol stimulates the liver to release glucose into the blood a high
level of cortisol leads to negative feedback lower levels of cortisol
lead to decreased release of glucose.
7b

the electron transport chain would be unable to provide larger amounts

of ATP

there would be insufficient energy available to maintain life.

2012 Exam 1
S.
Q
7a
Virus: non-cellular

not made of cells

does not undergo cellular processes

only reproduced by a host cell.

VCE Biology Unit 4

2002 Exam 2
MC
13
Bacteria evolve rapidly: because have a short generation time
S.
Q
5c
There is only one band in lane 2 because individual 2 is homozygous, the
others on the gel are heterozygous or the two fragments of DNA are the
same size or the number of repeats in the two fragments is the same.
8a
Not 2 separate species despite being geographically separated
1. have not been isolated long enough for sufficient genetic differences to
accumulate
2. 2 populations occupy similar habitats so similar selection pressures
Extinction

Disease may have spread th/ the populations

Predators may have been introduced

Habitat destroyed when humans cleared the land

2003 Exam 2
MC
20
For a species living in an unchanging environment: the selection pressures
remain constant
S.
Q
3b
Outcome of recombination

increases variation in the gametes or offspring

the recombining of maternal and paternal alleles

exchange of alleles or genetic material between homologous

chromosomes resulting in new combinations of alleles

2004 Exam 2
Crosses ratio: GENDER!
S.
Q
1a
The diploid chromosome number is the number of chromosomes found as
homologous pairs in a cell (organism)

5a
5b
6a
8a
8c
9e
9f

The genetic code is universal which means that the codons in mRNA code
for the same amino acids irrespective of the species.
How is the gene expressed within the blablabla species?
The DNA is transcribed into mRNA in the nucleus and then translated in the
cytoplasm at the ribosome into a polypeptide/protein.
Identical twins are genetically identical, non-identical have variations in their
DNA or alleles
A genetic bottleneck results in a severe reduction in population size and as a
consequence allele frequencies may change by chance, which will decrease
genetic diversity.
Interbreeding 2 populations: to increase the genetic diversity of the
wallabies, giving the population a better chance of survival if the
environment changes.
The teeth or jaw would be used to determine that the animal was
carnivorous.
The scientists would compare the hard parts of the extinct animal to living
species. They would look for points of muscle attachment to animals living
today and for indications on the fossil bones where ligaments might have
been attached to gain insight into musculature, or compare the sizes and
types of bones of the fossil to animals living today to help establish the
weight of the fossil.

2005 Exam 2
S.
Q
1d
Zenkeys: unable to produce offspring: Chromosomes are not homologous
and therefore will not pair during meiosis.
2a
A gene locus is the position of a gene on a chromosome.
3b
DONT just say it skipped generations
3c
Inbreeding: breed from closely related people or animals
a reduction in the number of phenotypes/reduction in diversity/reduction
in variation, and populations with less variation are at risk if selective
pressures change.
4b
Testing whether all parents are the same:
the crosses in the experiment are performed at 20 C
testcross each parent; that is, cross each parent to the homozygous
recessive (virescent)
outcome: expect equal numbers of wild type (WT) (dark green) and
virescent (pale green) in the offspring
2006 Exam 2
MC
5
Haploid organisms produce gametes by mitosis
22
Chimpanzees: large canine teeth
S.
Q
5a
Cloning: Making genetically identical copies (of organisms).
5c
The reason for the two numbers is that this locus is found on a pair of
homologous chromosomes.
5d
The different values indicate that the individual being tested is heterozygous

6b

6c
6e
6g
7a
8a
8c

for this locus, indicating that the alleles are of different lengths.
The chromosomes in the hybrid are not found in homologous pairs and are
therefore unable to line up during meiosis.
Due to the doubling process, the chromosomes from each species are now
able to form homologous pairs during meiosis, which can now proceed
normally.
Polyploid: more than 2 sets of chromosomes
In selective breeding humans choose organisms with a desirable trait and
breed them. In random mating each bull and cow have an equal chance of
mating.
Artificial insemination will influence the frequency of alleles in the next
generation by one bull contributing more frequently to the population.
Genes are only expressed when required to conserve energy or time.
Fertile and viable
Allopatric speciation: Over time there is an accumulation of genetic
differences which changes a trait, such as mating behaviour.

2007 Exam 2
S.
Q
2g
Same banding pattern on electrophoresis: apply the same process to a
different gene locus
3a
Gene regulation

genes are only activated/transcribed when required

required genes are expressed, which can save energy.

3d
when tryptophan is available, its presence prevents further tryptophan
being produced
cell does not waste energy or resources producing tryptophan.
6c
Develop a variety of weeping rice grass with large seeds selective
breeding

the farmer would choose the largest seeds from a crop and plant them

these plants then reproduce and the process would be repeated for
many generations.
7a
Stratigraphy could be used, where the relative age of a fossil can be
determined by the position of that stratum.
8c
apes and monkeys are less dependent on smell or more dependent on vision
they would therefore have more pseudogenes or less smell genes.
9a
DNA @ybridization involves the dissociation of different samples of DNA
and their reassociation, providing a measure of similarity
the greater the similarity of the DNA (determined by melting
temperature), the more closely related the two organisms are from which
the samples were taken.
2008 Exam 2
MC
10
As Homo sapiens are thought to have originated and evolved in Africa, there
has been more time available for random mutations to occur in
mitochondrial DNA and hence greater genetic variation.
11
Darwins theory of evolution: before Mendels works and before DNA was

12
S.
Q
4a

4b

4c
7c
8c

discovered
He proposed particular characteristics suit an organism to its
environment
Rock paintings: 30000
Appropriate factors to consider in the design of the experiment
include:
select veterans from a range of socio-economic groups
select a control group of males for comparison with veterans
the age distribution of the control group selected to match that of the
veterans chosen
living and work conditions of control group to be matched with those of
the veterans
similar chromosome tests for veterans and controls
similar chromosome tests for children and grandchildren of veterans and
controls.
parts of non-homologous chromosomes have been translocated
the insertion may have disrupted the function of other genes.
If mutation happens in the gonads of the veterans these changes are
passed on to offspring via gametes.
large sections of chromosomes have been translocated, and many bases are
involved, not a single base
Gonad: an organ that produces gametes; a testis or ovary.
Permanent change due to climate change: ponds may have dried up
restricting location of

Larger brain case

a less prominent brow ridge

a more parabolic jaw.

No interbreeding between Sapiens and neanderthalensis?

different customs and lifestyle prevented interbreeding

different mating behaviour or rituals

mating occurred, however, viable offspring were not produced.

2009 Exam 2
S.
Q
4a
Stratigraphy is where layers of sediment build up over time
the oldest fossils are found in the lowest stratum
5c
Copying a gene: Gene cloning, Gene replication and DNA replication
6a
Footprint
big toe is arranged parallel to other toes
big toe is not opposable prints indicate two feet, not four, or the use of
hands/knuckles.
6d

the brain an increase in capacity leads to greater processing of

information

precision grip led to the ability to make tools for fine manipulation

structures involved with speech led to communication through speech.

2010 Exam 2

S.
Q
1c

2b

3e
6b
7a
9c

eukaryotic chromosomes are linear // prokaryotic chromosomes are

circular

eukaryotic chromosomes have histones // prokaryotic chromosomes do

not

prokaryotic chromosomes are replicated during binary fission and

eukaryotic chromosomes are replicated during mitosis/meiosis.

ribosomes read the mRNA code

tRNA anticodons attach to the mRNA codons

a protein/polypeptide is produced.
For each homologous pair of chromosomes there are two choices of lining
up.
A sample is compared to the database and used to: identify endangered
species identify people selling incorrectly labeled fish monitor fish
numbers.
Assumption made about stratigraphy: strata are laid down in chronological
order.
Genetically modified: must be changes in DNA/genome/genes

2011 Exam 2
MC
5
Stem cells: can be obtained from a 2/4 cell embryo
S.
Q
3b
Outcome of recombination

increases variation in the gametes or offspring

the recombining of maternal and paternal alleles

exchange of alleles or genetic material between homologous

chromosomes resulting in new combinations of alleles
5e
Why no restriction enzyme and gel electrophoresis?
There may not be a restriction enzyme available that cuts at the faulty
position
7b
Modern humans evolved relatively recently
African populations are the oldest Humans are related to small number of
ancestors
Humans evolved and migrated out of Africa
2012 Exam 2
S.
Q
7a

share a common ancestor or both retain genes relating to animal-like

characteristics

different mutations occurred as each animal evolved or different codons

can code for the same amino acid.
7b
Selective breeding involves humans choosing which organisms will breed.
Natural selection is where a selective agent removes the unsuited, and the

c
8a

suited then breed.

Organisms containing genes from other species
Genetically modified organism (GMO is a suitable abbreviation), transgenic
or transfected
Climbing trees: prehensile toe, longer upper limbs
precision grip: the making or using of tools

2013 Final
S.
Q
8b

meiosis provides variation in offspring due to independent assortment/

crossing over and recombination

fertilisation results in increased variation through joining of gametes

meiosis ensures gametes are haploid

increases the chance of a species surviving if there are different

selection pressures.
8d
Same genotype and phenotype in the offspring if linked gene?

Yes. The same genotypes and phenotypes are possible if crossing

over/recombination occurred

No. Only two types of genotypes and phenotypes are produced, or the
majority are of two types.

Unit 3
AOS 1 Molecules of Life
1. Crossing membrane
Small, uncharged: water, CO2, O2: directly pass through transcient pores
in bilayer diffusion
Small, uncharged polar: alcohol, steroids: dissolving in the bilayer
diffusion
Small, charged: ions facilitated diffusion (protein channel)
Larger, uncharged: sugars, amino acids facilitated diffusion (carrier
protein)
Limit the rate of sub uptake? Carrier proteins are saturated & working at
full capacity
2. Electron Transport Chain
i.
FADH2 and NADH release e- and H+ ions
ii.
E- are transferred along a series of cytochromes and at the end of the
transport chain these couple with O2 2O2- accept H+ H2O
iii.
Energy is released. ATP synthase converts ADP + Pi into ATP
3. Plant: cell wall limits the expansion of the cell membrane X burst

4. Chloroplast: in mesophyll cells

Grana: a stack of thylakoids
5. Photosynthesis: * red light, followed by blue, yellow
6. Microvilli: absorption of material into the cell (greatly increases SA available
for absorption)
Cilia: move particles out and away from internal spaces in lungs, nostrils
Flagella: locomotion
7. Enzyme denaturation
High temperature affects the hydrogen bonds and dispersion forces,
interrupting tertiary structure and secondary folding, thus the active site is
changed.
Extremes of pH alter the active site by disrupting the ionic bonds in the
tertiary structure
8. Competitive Inhibitors: bind to active site
Non-competitive inhibitors: binds to another site to change the shape of
enzyme
9. Rational drug design
- Determine the structure of the disease-causing factor
- A new drug is designed to have a structure complementary to the active
site of infective agent
- Locks into the active site inhibit (cant be released to infect other cells,
no more symptoms)

AOS 2 Detecting and Responding

1. Neurotransmitters
- Impulse arrives at axon ending, Ca2+ diffuse in
- synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft (Exocytosis)
- binds to postsynaptic membrane receptors
- Na2+ rushes in action potential
2. Action potential: the memb has to exceed the threshold lvl for the action
potential to occur
Resting potential: polarized and inactive K+//Na+ [negative]
Action potential (threshold all or none): influx of Na+
Repolarisation: K+ leave
Hyperpolarisation: more K+ outside than Na+ inside [too negative]
Refractory period: ions return to original sides
3. Reflex Arc
An automatic response that occurs without involvement of the brain.
Importance: it brings about immediate or fast response to protect the body
from tissue damage.
4. Myelinated nerves: myelin sheath
- increases the rate of conduction of a nerve impulse along the axon.
- electrical insulator, preventing impulse from unintentionally being passed
to nearby neurons

5. Apoptosis: only nucleus and mitochondria are degraded by caspases

(engulfed by phagocytes)
Other organelles are preserved in vesicles
Cytokines are secreted to inhibit inflammation protect surrounding cells
Intrinsic: If serious damage occurs inside a cell, proteins on the surface of
mitochondria are activated and Mt membrane breaks a cascade of events
including

Caspases are activated within the cell: enter nuclear pores and break
down DNA

A message goes out to phagocytes

Small fragments of DNA, nuclear protein and mitochondria bind to

receptors on phagocytic cells engulf (phagocytosis)

Phaogyctes secrete cytokines

Extrinsic: undeveloped, too many, outlived usefulness (cells between
digits, T B cells)
death receptor: bind to extrinsic ligands and transduce intracellular signals
that ultimately result in the destruction of the cell activates caspases
6. Signal Transduction
the cascade of processes by which an extracellular signal (typically a
hormone/neurotransmitter) interacts with a receptor at cell surface/ inside
the cytosol causing a change in level of a second messenger and ultimately
effects a change in the cells functioning

Reception (information is received by a cells receptor)

Steroid: able to pass through the membrane to bind onto receptors within
the cytosol to initiate transduction
Peptide: bind to receptors on the surface of the cell membrane, thereby
activating a second messenger within the cytosol to initiate transduction

Transduction (information from the receptor is passed on to an effector)

2nd messenger is formed in/ released into cytosol a cascade of
reactions that amplify the initial message, and can lead to a range of
cellular responses
Induction/response (various cellular responses are initiated)
7. Responses to protein hormones faster > steroid hormones
- Protein hormone binds to external receptor to activate pre-existing proteins
in cell
- Steroid hormone enters cell rapidly but activates specific genes in the
nucleus,
trigger synthesis of new proteins slower
8. Cellular responses to hormones can be different depending on the nature of
the signal transduction pathway in the cell.
9. Steroid hormones: travel in blood via carrier protein
Peptide hormones: travel in blood unaided
10.
Animal hormones

Plant hormones

Usually transported in the circulatory

system
Usually very specific in their action

no circulatory system
Same hormone many responses
A plant hormone may cause one
response at low conc and opposite at
high conc
Actions overlap a lot

11. Plant hormones

Auxins: cell elongation: phototropism, geotropism, cell elongation
Gibberellins: germination, cell elongation
Cytokinins: cell division & differentiation growth
Ethylene: ripening, abscission
Abscisic acid: responds to environmental stress (inhibit things)
12. Phototropism
auxin is produced in the tips
light coming from one direction auxin moving to side away from light
results in elongation of cells on the shaded side which results in bending
towards the light.
13. Geotropism
Auxin slows growth in the root lower cells X elongate, root curves
downwards
Stimulates growth in the shoot lower cells in the stem elongate curves
upward
Shoot growing upwards: negative geotropism
Roots growing downward: positive geotropism (responding to gravity)
14. Alpha: glucagon (glycogen glucose) Beta: insulin (increase uptake of
glucose from blood)

AOS 2 Immunity
1. Non-cellular pathogen: Virus and prion

not made of cells

does not undergo cellular processes

only reproduced by a host cell.

Cellular pathogen: Bacteria, fungi, protozoa
2. Bone marrow cells: damaged lack of some white blood cells e.g. B cells
reduce a.b.
3. B cells: mature in bone marrow
T cells: mature in thymus gland
4. LYMPHOCYTES
Cytotoxic T cells: kill infected cells with perforin
T helper cells:
- release chemicals to attract phagocytes
- stimulate B cell cell division
- activate cytotoxic T cells
B plasma cells: produce antibodies against specific pathogen
B memory cells: carries antibodies that recognise specific antigen, rapidly
and immediately produce antibodies against the specific pathogen in second

exposure prevent redevelopment of the disease

5. From breast milk: IgG and IgA
6. Vaccines of antigens: wont cause disease
The lack of nucleic acid host cell cannot be programmed to replicate
viruses.
7. Antibody response increases with each vaccination?
A delay in the production of antibodies as there must be recognition of the
antigen and cloning of B cell in the first exposure.
The subsequent response is greater and faster because of the presence of
memory cells.
8. Cocktail of drugs
Block

Binding of virus to T cells

Entry of the virus

Transcription of RNA to DNA

Integration of viral DNA into host DNA

Synthesis of viral proteins

Avoid the virus from mutating prevent them from being resistant to
drugs
Viruses continually mutate in random ways, and increasing the number of
drugs used increases the chance that one of the drugs may be able to inhibit
the action caused by a random change.
9. Autoimmunity: when body loses the ability to distinguish self from non-self
and lymphocytes begin to attack own bodys tissues
T Cells attack directly
B cells secrete antibodies to bind to self antigens, triggering immune
response
E.g. Arthritis, Diabetes type 1
Genetic screen positive but absence of autoantibodies potential to
develop the disease, but it hasnt yet been switched on
10.

Rejection of Transplanted Tissue: Cell mediated immunity

Foreign MHC antigens
T-helper cells activate cytotoxic T-cells and/or NK (natural killer) cells
Cytotoxic chemicals (perforin) are produced which destroy foreign cells or
macrophages engulf and destroy foreign material.
Minimise effect

Tissues are closely matched so donor and recipient share as many MHC
antigens as p

Organ recipients are given drugs which suppress T cells antivity

11. Allergic response hypersensitivity

Sensitisation
- first exposure to allergen allergen binds to B cells produce IgE IgE
binds mast cell
2nd exposure

- When allergen binds to IgE on mast cell, mast cell releases histamine
swelling and itchiness
12.

Immunotherapy
Repeated tiny injection of an allergen increase level of specific IgG
When later challenged by that allergen, IgG bind with it before it binds to
IgE on mast cells

13. Plant defences

- Plants: no blood circulatory system, each cell must fend for itself

Unit 4

AOS 1 Heredity
1. Chromatin condenses into chromosome (single arm: chromatid)
2. Why are chromatin uncondensed normally?
Easier for gene expression
3. Mitosis: chromosomes no. NEVER drop below diploid number (no. of
chromatids changes)
4. Mutation: a change to the DNA composition that results in a change in allele
5. Prokaryotes and eukaryotes: BOTH are made of double-stranded DNA
6. Plasmid: both circular, many, less gene loci, additional gene, smaller
Prokaryote chromosome: one, many loci, genes for normal functioning,
larger
7. Purines: adenine, guanine
Pyrimidines: cytosine, thymine
8. Centromeres: required for spindles to attach (necessary for mitosis)
(plasmids dont binary fission)
9. The inactivation of one centromere meiosis/cell replication to occur
gametes are able to be produced.
10. Sterile: Chromosomes are not homologous and therefore will not pair up
and line up during meiosis.
11. Homologous chromosomes: carry the same gene loci, same length,
shape and banding patterns
12. Cell replication: helicase, DNA polymerase & DNA ligase
Transcription: RNA polymerase: copies DNA template & joins nucleotides
PCR: DNA Taq polymerase
Joining segments of DNA: DNA ligase
Single stranded cDNA from mRNA: Reverse transcriptase
13. All cells contain all the DNA present in the body - they are differentiated to
have different functions because they have different activator molecules

14. Translocation but still phenotypically normal?

There is a complete set of gene but just in different position
If involves disruption of functioning alleles cell malfunction
15. Anaphase I/II?
16. Nucleotides: from a pool of nucleotides
17. RNA

mRNA: to carry information coped from the DNA from the nucleus to the
ribosome for protein synthesis (instructions for assembling amino acids
into proteins)

tRNA: to carry specific amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthesis

rRNA: a structural component of the ribosome.

18. Different amino acid sequence changes primary structure how
protein chain folds final shape of the enzyme
19. Gene regulation: only expressing genes when the product is needed
conserve energy/time
20. Infertile Hybrids: Chromosomes are not homologous and therefore will
not pair and line up at MI during meiosis cant produce gametes infertile
X new species
21. DNA: universal: codes for the same amino acid regardless of which
organism
redundant: One amino acid is coded for by more than one triplet/codon.
minimize the influence of coding error if such occurs
22.
23.
24.
25.

Ribosome: RNA + protein

Alleles on different chromatids: same (copy, except for mutation)
Polyploid: more than 2 sets of chromosomes (common in plants)
DNA triplet codon anticodon

26. PCR 2n semi-conservative

1. Denaturation: Separate DNA strands by heating them to 94C
2. Annealing: cool to 55C, add primers to DNA to promote replication
process (at specific seq)
3. Extension: DNA polymerase and free nucleotides are added (72C)
27. Hybridisation
2 complementary DNA/RNA strands from different sources joining together
e.g. RNA probes complementary to DNA fragments on gel locate them
DNA comparison (hybridization)
DNA from two different sources is made single-stranded and mixed together,
and the degree of bonding is determined by the melting temperature
28.

29.
30.

Mitosis v.s. Meiosis

meiosis produces gametes, mitosis produces somatic cells
homologous chromosomes pair in meiosis, not in mitosis
crossing over or non-disjunction occur in meiosis, not in mitosis.
Haploid organisms: make gametes through mitosis
Enucleating

the DNA of the donor is removed + only desired DNA/correct no. of

chromosomes in the clone
31. Gene therapy
Insert a normal/functioning allele into the cell of an organism who possesses
a faulty allele
enable the cell to express the normal form of the gene

AOS 2 Change Over Time

1. Water better environment for fossilization?
Remains can be rapidly buried by sediment deposited underwater reduce
chance of breakdown
2. Molecular clock
The concept that the more time that has passed since separation from a
common ancestor
the more time for mutations
the more differences in DNA (or amino acid)
the more time has passed since divergence from a common ancestor
3. Natural Selection
- natural variation
- selective pressure
- better suited ones survive and pass favourable trait to next generation
- favoured phenotypes increase in number
4. Selective breeding:
humans choose the phenotype they want and let those with this p interbreed
changes in allele frequencies
reduced biodiversity
Greater susceptibility (low genetic variation more vulnerable to
selecting agents less likely to survive environmental change (e.g. disease)
extinction)
5. Greater diversity greater phenotypic variation environmental
changes greater chance of survival
6. Increase genetic variation
- breed with members of populations from other places
- captive breeding program
- habitat protection
Lack of variation: change in selection pressure respond in the same way
extinction
7. Gene therapy: insert a functioning allele of the faulty gene concerned
8. Why mitochondrial DNA?
- Inherited from mother
- No crossing over/recombination in mDNA
- Mutation rate is known and used to determine evolutionary time
9. Primates hominoids homonins homo
10. Larger brain case
Snout lowered: decreased importance on smell

Smaller teeth (jaw: more parabolic instead of U)

Reduced brow ridge allows larger brain
Pelvis: broad and short greater support for internal organs
Foremen magnum: more forward
Feet: transverse arch improve walking (bipedalism)
Make tools (precision grip + opposable thumb)
Development of culture and technology
11. Primates: Climbing trees: prehensile toe, longer upper limbs
11. Summary:
Afarensis
Africanus
Habilis
Erectus
Neanderthalen
sis
Sapiens

4-3 Myr
BP
2-3 Myr
BP

Bipedal, Lucy
Bipedal
Larger brain, tools, fire
Outside Africa
Largest brain, burial rituals

175000-

Rock painting (30000), us