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Chem Revision3
Chem Revision3
Energy level Electrons in atoms can only have certain amounts of energy, groups of electrons can exist with roughly the same amount of
energy, these positions of roughly similar amounts of energy are called energy levels
Size of IE depends on Nuclear charge Atomic radius Electron shielding, energy level
Successive IEs increase because electrons are being removed from increasingly positive ions and so the attractive forces are greater
- Large jumps in IEs arise from a large increase in attraction, corresponding to an electron being removed from a new energy level
significantly closer to the nucleus(proving that electrons are arranged in shells)
IEs increase across periods(left to right)
Number of protons increasing, meaning stronger nuclear attraction
Extra electrons are at roughly the same energy level, even if the outer electrons are in different orbital types
Little extra shielding effect, little extra distance to lessen the attraction from the nucleus
IEs decrease down groups Each element down a group has an extra electron shell
Extra inner shells means extra distance of outer electrons from the nucleus, and greater shielding from the attraction of the nucleus,
overall reducing nuclear attraction
Atomic radius decreases across period 3(left to right) Nuclear charge increases, electrons pulled closer to the nucleus, electrons are all
added to the same outer shell
Subshell
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d 4s 4p 4d 4f
n Subshell Number of electrons
Max number of electrons
2
2
6
2
6
10 2
6
10 14
Principal quantum number(n) shell numbers Subshell 1st shell has no subshell Orbital s subshell has 1 orbital, p has 3, d has 5
Aufbau build up principle
Electrons are added to the lowest energy orbital available
One at a time With no more than 2 electrons occupying one orbital
If there are several orbitals of the same energy available then electrons enter
these orbitals singly so as to be as far apart as possible
Halogens have high IEs so they dont form positive ions but negative ions
because they have one electron less than a full shell
Anomalously low EA for F due to repulsion of the incoming electron from a
concentrated electric field of a small atom
Quantum mechanics The electron in an atom behaves as a wave which is a mathematical construction, not a particle
Atomic orbital IS the electron/pair of electrons, the volume in which the electron has a 95% probability of being found(no such thing as
an empty orbital)
Spin is a property of an electron. The 2 electrons in an orbital have opposite spins, helping to counteract the repulsion between their
negative charges(spin pairing)
Z
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Symbol
H
He
Li
Be
B
C
N
O
F
Ne
Na
Mg
Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar
K
Ca
Sc
Ti
V
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
E
Br
Kr
1s
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2s
2p
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
3s
3p
3d
4s
4p
Group II
Group III
Group V
Group VI
N 2s
2p
Be
B
N
O
1s22s2
1s22s22px1
1s22s22px12py12pz1
1s22s22px22py12pz1
O
2s
1
2
2
1
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
5
2
6
2
6
1
(q) An atom contains 5 protons and 5 neutrons, give the symbol for
2
6
2
this atom including the mass number (a) B
2
6
1
2
(q) Formula of the compound formed between this element and
2
6
2
2
chlorine (a) BCl3
2
6
3
2
2
6
5
1
2
6
5
2
2
6
6
2
2
6
7
2
2
6
8
2
2
6
10
1
2
6
10
2
2
6
10
2
1
2
6
10
2
2
2
6
10
2
3
2
6
10
2
4
2
6
10
2
5
2
6
10
2
6
(1)(i)Mass spectrum of HCl, peak at mass 36 is molecular ion (H 35Cl)+ Chlorine has only 2
isotopes 35Cl, 37Cl What particle is responsible for peak mass 38? (1)(i) (H 37Cl)+
(ii)How do you explain the fact that the height of the peaks at mass 36 is 3 times as high than the
peak at mass 38
(ii)There is 3 times as much 35Cl to 37Cl and therefore 3 times as much H35Cl to H37Cl
(2)(a)Mass spectrum of methane, peak at mass 16 is molecular ion(CH)+
Explain peaks of relative mass 1, 2, 12, 13, 14, 15, 17
Relative mass
1
2
12
13
14
15
17
(1H)+ (2H)+ (12C)+ (12C1H)+ (12C1H2)+ (12C1H3)+ (12C1H32H)+
(2)(a)Bromine consists of 2 isotopes, mass numbers 79 and 81. A sample of Br2(g) was examined in a mass spectrometer. Identify
the species responsible for the peak at m/e = 160
(2)( 79Br81Br)+
(2)(b)For a particular sample of copper two peaks were obtained in the mass spectrum
Peak at m/e
Relative abundance
(i)Give the formula of the species responsible for the peak at m/e = 65 (i)65Cu+
63
69.1
(ii)State why two peaks, at m/e values of 63 and 65, were obtained in the mass spectrum
65
30.9
(ii)2 different isotopes
(3)How would accelerating field and magnetic field differ in its affect on X+ and X2+ ?
(3)The accelerating force and deflecting field on X+ will be twice that on X+
(4)2 reasons why particles must be ionised before being analysed in a mass spectrometer? (4)Have to be accelerated, then deflected
(5)Boron, relative atomic mass 10.8 gives 2 peak mass spectrum, m/z=10 and m/z=11 Calculate the ratio of the heights of the 2 peaks
(5)10x + 11(1 x) = 10.8, x = 0.2, y =1 x = 0.8
ratio of heights = 1:4
(7)Explain why K has lower 1st IE than Na
(7) Electron being removed is further from the nucleus More shielding Reduces attraction of the nucleus
L o g io n is a tio n e n e r g y /k J m o l 1
6
(8)What force causes the scattering of particles by nuclei?
(8) particles and nuclei both positively charged thus electrostatic forces of repulsion
5
(9)Explain why all isotopes of Mg have the same chemical properties
(9) Same number of electrons in all Mg isotopes Outer electron structure
4
determines chemical properties
(10)Using subshell notation, give electronic configuration of K atom and K+ ion
3
(10)K 1s22s22p63s23p64s1 K+ 1s22s22p63s23p6
2
(11)State why 2 peaks at m/e values of 63 and 65 were obtained in a mass spectrum
of an element (11)2 different isotopes
1
(12)Write equation for 5th ionisation of Na (12)Na4+(g) Na5+ (g) + e
(14)The logarithm of successive IEs for Mg across the page
0
Explain what this graph tells you about the electron arrangement in the Mg atom
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
(14)Two/big jumps show 3 different shells present, shows 2.8.2
N u m b e r o f e le c tro n re m o v e d
Find the empirical formula of the compound containing C 22.02% H 4.59% Br 73.39% by mass
Atomic ratio
Simplified atomic ratio
C
22.02/12= 1.835
1.835/0.917 = 2
H
4.59/1= 4.59
1.835:4.59:0.917
4.59/0.917 = 5
Br
73.39/80= 0.917
0.917/0.917 = 1
Empirical formula is thus C2H5Br
(1)Compound X contains only B and H, % by mass of B in X is 81.2% In mass spectrum of X the largest value peak of m/z is at 54
Calculate empirical and molecular formula
(1)B:H = 81.2/10.8 : 18.8/1, 7.51:18.8, 1:2.5, 2:5 Empirical formula is B2H5
Mr(B2H5) = 26.6 Molecular formula = B4H10
(2)Hydrazine(empirical formula NH2)mass spectrum of this compound shows a molecular ion peak at m/e 32,
show the molecular formula of hydrazine is N2H4
(2)Relative Molar Mass = 32 n(N + 2H)= 32 n(14 + 2)= 32 n= 2 Molecular formula = 2 NH2 = N2H4
Equations are: Internationally understood Quantitative Shorter than the same information given in words
Equations balance for mass and total charge LHS & RHS have the same number of each type of atom, if there are 2 positives on LHS
there must be 2 on RHS
Ionic equations: 1 Write soluble ionic compounds with the ions separated 2 Write insoluble ionic and covalent compounds as usual
3 Cross out spectator ions(ions which appear on both sides of the equation)
NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)
Silver nitrate
silver chloride(white ppt)
Ions: Na+(aq) + Cl(aq) + Ag+(aq) + NO3(aq) Na+(aq) + NO3(aq) + AgCl(s)
Deleting spectator ions: Ag+(aq) + Cl(aq) AgCl(s)
2KMnO4(aq) + 8H2SO4(aq) + 10FeSO4(aq) 2MnSO4(aq) + 5Fe2(SO4)3(aq) + K2SO4(aq) + 8H2O(l)
potassium manganate(VII)
iron(II)sulphate
Ions: 2K+(aq) + 2MnO4(aq) + 16H+(aq) + 18SO42(aq) + 10Fe2+(aq) 2Mn2+(aq) + 10Fe3+(aq) + 18SO42(aq) + 2K+(aq) + 8H2O(l)
Deleting spectator ions: MnO4(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq) Mn2+(aq) + 5Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
(1)Marble reacted with HCl acid, mass loss was 2.33g, what volume of CO2 was evolved?
(1)CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) CaCO3 = 2.33g/100gmol1 = 0.0233mol, 0.0233mol CO2 produced
Volume of CO2 = 0.0233mol x 24dm3mol1 = 0.56dm3
(2)10cm3 of a hydrocarbon C4Hx reacts with an excess of oxygen at 150C, 1 atm. The products occupy a volume 10cm3 greater than
the reactants at this temperature and pressure. Find x
(2)C4Hx(g) + (4 + x/4)O2(g) 4CO2(g) + x/2H2O(g) Change in volume = (volume of products volume of reactants)
Avogadros rule: 1 volume + (4 + x/4)volumes 4 volumes + x/2 volumes 10cm3 + (4 + x/4)10cm3 40cm3 + 5xcm3
(40cm3 + 5xcm3) (50cm3 + 2.5x cm3) = 10cm3
2.5x = 20 hence x = 8
Na2CO3(s) was dissolved in distilled water and this solution was put into a conical flask and three drops of methyl orange indicator
added, titrated against HCl acid until the end point was reached Na2CO3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
(3)Describe the colour change that tells when the end point has been reached
(3)Solution will go from yellow orange
Iron metal reacts with copper(II)sulphate solution to form copper metal and iron ions
An experiment was performed to find which of the two equations is correct
Cu2+(aq) + Fe(s) Cu(s) + Fe2+(aq)
3Cu2+(aq) + 2Fe(s) 3Cu(s) + 2Fe3+(aq)
Powdered iron of mass 1.4g was placed in a beaker and excess copper(II)sulphate solution was added
Mixture stirred for 5 minutes
The contents of the beaker were then poured into a funnel containing a weighed piece of filter paper
The beaker and the residue were washed with cold water, and the copper and the filter paper were left overnight to dry
Next day they were weighed, and the copper was found to have a mass of 1.65g
(a)Calculate the mass of copper that should be produced from 1.4g of iron if:
(i)Equation I is correct
(ii)Equation II is correct
(a)(i)Amount of iron = 1.4/56= 0.025mol, 0.02563.5= 1.59g (ii)Amount of copper = 0.0253/2=0.0375mol, 0.037563.5= 2.38g
(b)Which iron ion was produced in the reaction?
(b)Fe2+
(c)(i)Suggest why the experimental value of the mass of copper was slightly different from the value you calculated in (a)
(c)(i)copper/filter paper was still wet
(ii)Suggest one way in which the accuracy of this experiment could have been improved
(ii)Improved drying, wash with suitable solvent(propanone or ethanol), suction filtration
(d)Why is it essential to use excess copper(II) sulphate solution? (d)So that all the iron reacts NOT the reaction is complete
(a)0.25g of sulphamic acid NH2SO3H(s) was dissolved in distilled water in a conical flask
23.45cm3 NaOH(aq) required to react with sulphamic acid solution NH2SO3H(aq) + NaOH(aq) NH2SO3Na(aq) + H2O(l)
(i)Calculate the amount of sulphamic acid in 0.25g
Mr(NH2SO3H) = 97
(i)0.25/97 = 0.00258mols
(ii)Calculate concentration of NaOH
(ii)0.00258mols 1000/23.45 = 0.110moldm3
(b)Balance used to weigh the sulphamic acid is accurate to 0.01g Calculate % error in mass of sulphamic acid weighed
100
(b) 2 0.01
= 8%
0.25
allow
0.01
0.25
100 = 4%
- Properties depend on the nature of bonds and how these bonds are distributed throughout the material
- Bonds are formed to attain greater stability, atoms/molecules rearrange their electrons to give lower energy arrangements
(by electron loss, gain or sharing)
- If a solid has a regular structure, its a crystal, the structure is a crystal lattice
Chemical bond A force of attraction between atoms, ions or molecules
Ionic bond The electrostatic attraction between + and ions, formed by complete transfer of electron
Positive ions(cations)are attracted to the (-)cathode during electrolysis(metal atoms which have lost one or more electrons(K+, Ca+)
Negative ions(anions)are attracted to the positive anode during electrolysis
Covalent bond Sharing a pair of electrons, one pair to a bond (rather than complete transfer)
- Covalent bonds are non-dative bonds, 2 one-electron orbitals overlapping giving a 2 electron bonding orbital(electron density
increases between the bonded atoms)
Double covalent bond Sharing of 2 pairs of electrons in a bond
Dative covalent bond Both electrons in a covalent bond are donated from the same atom to an accepting atom(a 2 electron orbital
donating electron density into an empty orbital on the accepting atom)
- No difference in length, strength, between a normal covalent bond and a dative covalent bond
Molecular orbitals Overlapping orbitals where electron density extends over at least 2 atoms
Octet rule Hydrogen obtains 2 electrons in its outer shell and other atoms obtain 8
Intramolecular bonds Covalent
Intermolecular bonds Van der Waals forces
charge
Ionic
Dipole dipole attraction
charge density = volume
Metallic
Hydrogen bonds strongest
Hydration of metal ions In solution metal ions attract water molecules forming complex ions([M(H2O)6]x+)
The metal ion is joined to 6 water ligands by dative covalent bonds.
The water molecules donate a lone pair of electrons to empty orbitals on the metal ion and an octahedral complex forms
( [Cu(H2O)6]2+(pale blue) Ions formed by transition metals are usually coloured)
Simple anions Non metals (Cl, O2)
Complex anions Where groups around the central metal ion are negative([Fe(CN) 6]4)
Polyatomic cations Several atoms bonded covalently, the whole structure having a positive charge (NH4+)
Polyatomic anions Several atoms bonded covalently, the whole structure having a negative charge(SO42, NO3, CHCOO, MnO4)
derived from acids by the loss of one or more hydrogen ions
Cation increases in size
Group (II) Cation
Hlatt kJmol 1
Charge density decreases
Chlorides
Radius
Experimental
Calculated
Difference
Less polarising
MgCl2
72
2526
2326
200
Covalence decreases
CaCl2
100
2258
2223
35
SrCl2
113
2156
2127
29
BaCl2
136
2056
2033
23
Anion increases in size
Magnesium Anion Hlatt kJmol 1
More polarisable
Halides
Radius Experimental Calculated Difference
(outer electrons further from the nucleus, less tightly held,
MgF2
133
2957
2913
44
more prone to distortion)
MgCl2
180
2526
2326
200
Covalence increases
MgBr2
195
2440
2097
343
MgI2
215
2329
1944
385
Bonds in solids vibrate about a mean position in the crystal lattice which arise because the crystal isnt at absolute zero, amplitude of
vibrations increase with temperature
Forces between molecules in liquids are no different in type from those in solids, difference is that the particles in liquids are more
energetic than those in solids so bonds arent particularly directional and liquids have no particular shape
At Tm vibrations in solid become sufficient to overcome forces holding the crystal together
At Tb vapour pressure of the liquid is the same as the external pressure and bubbles of vapour produced throughout the liquid, heat
being put into the liquid is being used by particles to overcome the interparticle forces to separate from each other and escape the
liquid(evaporation) so temp remains constant
Bt of liquids depends on Magnitude of interparticle forces Masses of particles
5bp Trigonal
bipyramid shape
P
H
- As water cools, (long)H bonds form in greater quantity, the open & ordered structure of ice gives it a lower density than liquid water
- Compounds which can H bond with water are very soluble (glucose, has OH groups that H bond with water)
- Extensive H bonds with F/N/O
cause higher Bts
Dipole-Dipole forces(permanently polar molecules) + and parts of the molecules attract electrostatically giving Bts higher than
those of non polar molecules of similar size. For large molecules dispersion forces can exceed dipole-dipole attraction
Dispersion/Van der waals forces(non polar molecules)Temporary dipoles form between molecules because of mobile electron density
within the molecule. + on one molecule will induce a on a nearby one and so on, tho theres a net attraction between molecules
Higher forces: More electrons Larger area of contact(larger molecules/atoms) Linear instead of branched chains
- Descending noble gases or hydrides, bigger van der waals forces as Atomic/molecular size increases More shells of electrons
Giant molecular substances Diamond,
High Mt, hard, stiff as have to break strong covalent bonding throughout
whole structure
Good thermal conductor as it readily transmits vibration
Poor electrical conductor as no ions or free electrons as they are held
tightly between atoms
Insoluble in water, organic solvents as attractions between solvent
molecules and carbon atoms will never be strong enough to overcome the
strong covalent bonds
Silica Lower Mt as has longer(therefore weaker)bonds across whole structure
Graphite Lower density than diamond because of space between the sheets
High Mt as have to break strong covalent bonding throughout whole
layered structures
Electrical conductivity along layers, but not at right angles
Graphite
Electrons arent localised between carbon atoms and are free to move along
but not between layers, van der waals forces attract the layers together
Insoluble in water, organic solvents as attractions between solvent
molecules and carbon atoms will never be strong enough to overcome the
strong covalent bonds
Diamond Mt4000C
SiO2 Mt1700C
Soft, slippery as layers of giant molecules can slide over one another
- Used in pencils
Ionic substances High Mt as have to break strong electrostatic bonds
throughout lattice of oppositely charged ions
Hard, brittle as layers of crystal may slide so ions of same charge come
next to one another and repel
Solid doesnt conduct electricity as no charge carriers available to move
Molten does conduct electricity as mobile ions can move
Soluble in water
Ice
Molecular covalent substances Bonded strongly within the molecule but weakly between molecules
Properties depend on intermolecular forces
Non-conductors of electricity (no free electrons, all used in bonding)
Metallic bonding Malleability from non-directional nature of bonds
Electrical conductivity(outer electrons in metals arent localised in bonds but free to move around whole lattice formed from + ions)
Polymers All long chains which maybe cross-linked by covalent bonds or held by H bonds or dispersion forces(or in silicates forces of
ionic attraction between the negatively charged chains of silicate and positive metal ions)
- Mechanical properties of the polymer depend on extent of cross-linking whether crystallites can form
- Pure substances have sharp Mts but polymers dont(usually impure substances), melting over a range of temperatures instead as
varying chain lengths of molecules means that they will have a melting range
Synthetic organic polymers Made from alkenes by addition reactions or from reactions between organic molecules which have 2
functional groups which can undergo condensation reactions They are mixtures since chain lengths vary(no sharp Mt)
Polymers formed by radical polymerisation LDPE is branched, cross-linked Few crystallites, flexible, translucent
Polymers formed by highly controlled type of polymerisation HDPE, ziegler natta catalyst More crystallites, stiffer, opaque
Natural polymers(organic)polysaccharides(cellulose, glycogen), nucleic acids, proteins, all produced by condensation reactions
Inorganic polymers Silicates, phosphoric acid on heating
(1)Why & which elements lose electrons?
(1)Metals because Usually they have 1, 2, 3 electrons By losing these electrons they achieve full outer shells and become more stable
In energy terms, its easier to lose these electrons than gain more electrons
(2)Why & which elements gain electrons?
(2)Non metals because Usually they have 5, 6, 7 electrons By gaining electrons they achieve full outer shells and become more stable
In energy terms, its easier to gain these electrons than lose the outer electrons
(3)Suggest reasons why NaCl vapour is regarded as a collection of ion pairs rather than as NaCl molecules
(3)If ion pairs collide theres nothing to stop them changing partners whereas if covalent molecules collide, its improbable
(4)What happens to an electrostatically charged rod next to a polar liquid like water?
(4)Itll move towards the rod, because polar liquids contain molecules with permanent dipoles. Doesnt matter if the rod is positively or
negatively charged. Polar molecules in the liquid can turn around so the oppositely charged end is attracted towards the rod
(5)Why does water have a partial charge? (5)Oxygen has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen
(6)(a)State the difference in density between solid ice and liquid water and describe how the presence of H bonds accounts for this
(a) Water is more dense than solid ice The H bonds in solid ice which holds the molecules together are in fixed positions and lead to
an open structure In water the H bonds are constantly being broken and made
(b)Explain the structure of ice, include a diagram
(b) Covalent in water molecules H bonds between molecules each water with four waters around tetrahedral
(7)Describe in terms of the position and motion of particles, what happens when some MgCl2(s) is heated from RT to just above Mt
(7) At RT the ions are in a fixed positions in a lattice As heat is applied the ions vibrate more Eventually ions have enough energy
to overcome electrostatic attraction Ions break free and are able to move as solid melts
(9)Sketch a graph of temp vs time as a
(1)(a)What part of the NH3 molecule enables it to form a dative covalent bond?
substance is heated from
(a)Lone pair on the nitrogen
just below Mt to just above Bt
(b)List intermolecular forces between molecules of ammonia
(b)H bonds and dispersion forces
(2)Name 2 elements in [Mg(H2O)6]2+ which are joined by a covalent bond (2)H and O
(3)Name 2 elements in [Mg(H2O)6]2+ which are joined by a dative covalent bond
(3)O and Mg
(1)Why is MgI2 more covalent than MgCl2?
(1)Because I ion is larger than Cl ion so more easily polarised leading to covalency
(2)Metal/Non-metal compounds usually ionic yet solid aluminium chloride has many
covalent characteristics because?
(2)Small radius, large + charge of Al3+, means high polarising ability giving covalent
character pulling electron density away from Cl creating a mostly covalent bond
10
Bt increases
Relative atomic
mass and size
increases
Noble
Relative atomic
Tb/K
Group 4
Relative
Tb/K
gases
mass
Hydrides atomic mass
He
4.0
4
CH4
16.0
81.6
Ne
20.2
27
SiH4
32.1
161
Ar
39.9
87
GeH4
76.6
185
Kr
83.8
121
SnH4
122.7
221
Xe
131.3
166
PbH4 probably doesnt exist
Periodicity Regular periodic variations of properties of elements with atomic number
Periodic Law Elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number in the periodic table
- All elements within a period(row) have the same number of electron shells
- All elements within a group(column)have the same number of electrons in their outer shell indicated by the group number
Period 3
Na
Mg
Al
Si
P
S
Cl
Ar
Tm/K
371
922
933
1683
317
392
172 84
Tb/K
1156
1380
2740
2328
553
718
231 87
Conductivity
0.35
0.36
0.61
1018
1017
1023
relative to Ag =1
107
148
326
Ha kJmol 1
Structure
Metallic
Giant covalent
P4
S8
Cl2
Monatomic
(gives monatomic vapours)
(gives monatomic Molecular covalent
vapour)
Atoms get smaller & higher Mt across period
Number of protons increasing meaning stronger nuclear attraction
Extra electrons are at roughly the same energy level even if the outer electrons are in different orbital types
Little extra shielding effect, little extra distance to lessen the attraction from the nucleus
Smaller atoms can pack more closely which means better orbital overlap
More electrons in the valence shell to delocalise around the metal lattice
Sharp rise in Mt between Mg & Na and only small rise between Mg & Al
Alkali metals are body centred cubic packing that doesnt bring atoms as close as possible Mg & Al hexagonal close packing
Mts depend on dispersion forces
Phosphorus Weak van der waals forces so Mt is low
Sulphur Highest Mt, largest van der waals forces, largest molecule
Chlorine Lowest Mt, weakest van der waals forces, smallest molecule, simple diatomic molecules with no permanent dipoles
Argon Argon, monatomic, stable electron arrangement, small intermolecular dispersion van der waals forces so Mt is low
Grp 1(alkali metals) Grp 2(alkaline earth metals)S block metal compounds ionic, Ox Nos(+1 & +2 respectively)only because going
above these entails an IE input which couldnt be recovered from LE of resulting solid
- Very reactive, low density, low Mt, low EN, soft because of weak metallic bonding, compounds usually colourless unless transition
metal is present in the anion
- Ionic radius smaller than atomic radius for s block elements because loss of outer electrons results in loss of outer shell
Grp 1 Atomic radius Ionic Density
Mt C Bt C Abundance 1st IE
2nd IE
Flame
3
1
pm
radius gcm
ppm
kJmol kJmol 1
colours
pm
Li
133
60
0.53
181 1330 65
520
7298
Carmine red
Na
157
95
0.97
98
890 28300
496
4563
Yellow
K
203
133 0.86
63
774
25900
419
3051
Lilac
Increase
Decrease Colourless
Rb
216
148 1.53
39
688 310
403
2632
Cs
235
169 1.88
29
690 7
376
2420
Colourless
Grp 2
3rd IE
kJmol 1
Be
89
31
1.85
1278 2477 6
900
1757
14800
Colourless
Mg
136
65
1.74
649 1110 20900
738
1451
7740
White
Ca
174
97
1.54
839 1487 36300
590
1145
4940
Brick red
Decrease Crimson red
Sr
191
113 2.6
550
1064
4120
Increase 769 1380 150
Ba
198
135 3.5
725 1640 430
503
965
3390
Apple green
Group 1
Group 2 Densitiy, hardness, Mts higher than Group 1 because
Atoms the largest of the period
Atomic radius smaller in Group 2
Body centred cubic packing
Hexagonal close packing(except Ba)
2nd IEs a lot larger than 1st because removing 2nd electron
2 electrons per atom for metallic bonding
requires breaking into inert gas structure, which has less
Extra proton
shielding, shell is closer to the nucleus, so nuclear attraction is
much larger
Grp 1 more reactive than Grp 2 because, 1 less proton & only
needs to lose 1 electon to lose to achieve a full outer shell
11
12
13
14
Group 2
Cation
Hydroxide solubility
Sulphate solubility
radius/pm
mol per 100g water
mol per 100g water
Mg2+
65
2.00 x105
1.83 x101
2+
3
Ca
99
1.53 x10
4.66 x103
2+
3
Sr
113
3.37 x10
7.11 x105
2+
2
7
Decrease
Ba
135
1.50 x10
Increase 9.43 x10
Thermal stability
Ability of a material to decompose under heat stress. More ionic, more thermally stable, more heat before decomposition
- Thermal stability of a carbonate will depend on the stability of the carbonate lattice compared with the oxide lattice at the same
temperature, as cation size changes LEs(strength of bonding in an ionic substance)of carbonates & oxides change by different factor
- Thermal stability increases down the group as cations have a larger ionic radius so charge density decreases, so lower polarising
power distorting carbonate/nitrate anion less
Group 1
- Group 1 cations larger, less charge, compounds more thermally stable than Group 2 so differences in LE between the carbonate &
oxide arent sufficient to allow decomposition of the carbonates at Bunsen temperatures(except Li which has the smallest cation)
Li2CO3(s)
Li2O(s) + CO2(g)
- Nitrates all decompose 2NaNO3(s) 2NaNO2(s) + O2(g) (except Li) 4LiNO3(s) 2Li2O(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(white)
Nitrite (pale yellow)
Larger cations give nitrites(smaller anions than nitrates, with higher LE, but not too small like the oxide)
Group 2
Limestone Heat
- Carbonates all decompose
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Reaction used in cement manufacture and extraction of iron
- Nitrates all decompose 2Ca(NO3)2(s) 2CaO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(white)
(brown)
Small cations form stronger lattices with oxide than with the larger nitrate
2AgNO3 2Ag + 2NO2 + O2
Test of ease of decomposition of nitrates How long it takes until O2 or NO2 (toxic brown gas(fume cupboard))is produced
Test of ease of decomposition of carbonates How long it takes until CO2 is produced
S block metals are far too reactive to occur native(as the uncombined metal) all are extracted by electrolysis of their molten chlorides
so conversion to the chlorides necessary for extraction(except Na, K)
- NaCl obtained by solution mining(water pumped into underlying salt strata and brine obtained, can lead to land subsidence) NaCl in
seawater is at a low concentration
K obtained from soluble mineral carnallite
Li, Rb, Cs in insoluble aluminosilicate minerals
- Be in beryl(pale green insoluble aluminosilicate)used as a semi-precious stone
Mg in seawater & in carnallite & dolomite
Ca in limestone, marble, chalk,
Sr, Ba in their insoluble sulphates
Flame test
1 Clean end of platinum/nichrome wire by dipping it into (conc)HCl and burning off impurities in a roaring bunsen flame until
theres no persistent flame colouration
2 Moisten the end of the clean wire with (conc)HCl and then dip into the sample to be tested
3 Hold the sample at the edge of a roaring bunsen flame
Lithium
Carmine red
Calcium
Brick red
Sodium
Yellow
Strontium
Crimson
Potassium
Lilac
Barium
Apple green
- Heat energy absorbed from the flame causes electrons to be excited within the metal(move to higher energy levels)
When these return to lower energy levels they emit light of characteristic frequencies and colour can be observed,
or analysed in a spectrometer(shows a spectrum)which gives a line emission spectrum, light appears as a series of coloured lines,
each line of light is a particular level and wavelength, which is evidence that electrons can only be found at particular energy
levels(shells and subshells) within an atom, Na light is virtually monochromatic
- In astronomy spectra can be used to analyse the atmosphere of other planets
Sodium vapour used in yellow street lamps
NaCl used as food flavouring and preservative
Sodium carbonate used in manufacture of glass
NaOH used in manufacture of soaps, detergents, bleaches
Potassium nitrate used in fertilisers
Magnesium hydroxide used in antacid indigestion powders to neutralize excess stomach acid
Calcium carbonate and calcium oxide used in agriculture to reduce acidity of soil and improve fertility
Barium sulphate used in X-ray scans
15
(1)(a)2 bottles are clearly labeled sulphate. The solid in bottle A dissolves easily in
water but none of the solid in bottle B appears to dissolve when added to water
Which of these two bottles contains barium sulphate? (a)B
(b)Bottle C, labeled magnesium carbonate When a sample is heated a colourless gas
is produced that turns limewater cloudy. State whether this label is correct and explain
(b)Limewatermilky CO2 MgCO3 decomposes on heating to CO2 label correct
m e ltin g t e m p e r a tu r e / K
(1)Ar insulator because? (1) Monatomic Full outer shells of electrons tightly held in place so completely uninterested in bonding
(2)Why does calcium stop reacting with (dil)H2SO4 after a few seconds even though it didnt react initially
(2) Calcium sulphate Forms an insoluble/protective layer
(1)State relative thermal stability of potassium nitrate and calcium nitrate and explain how its related to the sizes and charges of the ions
involved
(1) Calcium nitrate less thermally stable/decomposes more easily than potassium nitrate Ca cation smaller with double charge
polarises nitrate more bonds in nitrate more easily broken/oxygen atom more attracted
(1)Describe a test to distinguish between LiCl(s) and NaCl(s) (1)Flame test
(2)State how a flame test would distinguish between Ca(NO3)2 and Ba(NO3)2 (2)Ca brick red, Ba (apple)green
(1)(a)(i)Identify one of the elements that is composed of simple molecules at RT
(i)P or S or Cl
1800
(2)Name the type of bonding in (i)CaCl2 (ii)HCl(g) (2)(i)Ionic (ii)Covalent
1600
(3)(i)2 factors which affect the polarising power of cations? (i)ionic radius, charge
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
Na
Mg
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
e le m e n t
2+
Balancing equations:
(x2)
2MnO4 + 16H + 10e 2Mn + 8H2O
(x5)
5NO2 + 5H2O 5NO3 + 10e + 10H+
+
2+
Overall:
2MnO4 + 5NO2 + 6H 2Mn + 5NO3 + 3H2O
(1)(i) Write ionic half equation for reduction of bromine to bromide ions
(i)Br2 + 2e 2Br
(ii) Write ionic half equation for oxidation of Fe2+ ions to Fe3+ ions
(ii)Fe2+ Fe3+ + e
2+
(iii) Hence write overall ionic equation for reaction of Fe ions with bromine (iii)Br2 + 2Fe2+ 2Br + 2Fe3+
16
17
Halogen Means salt former, because of large number of ionic, salt compounds Group 7 forms
Enthalpy of dissociation Enthalpy change when 1 mole of a gaseous substance is broken up into free gaseous atoms(measure of
strength of covalent bonds, bond enthalpy(+ve))
State at RT
Mt C Bt C Atomic Ionic
1st IE
EA
Bond
Colour in Colour in
radius radius kJmol 1 kJmol 1
dissociation
water
hexane
ppm
ppm
enthalpy
F Pale yellow gas -220 -188 72
136
1680
-340
58
Cl Green gas
-101 -34.7 99
181
1260
-364
242
Colourless Colourless
Br Brown liquid
-7.2 58.8 114
195
1140
-342
Brown
Decrease Orange
Increase 193
I
Dark grey solid 114 184 133
216
1010
-314
151
Brown
Purple
Highly reactive non-metals, strong oxidising agents, natural state is covalent diatomic molecules(Cl2), Vdw forces between molecules
- Covalency means low solubility in water, but dissolves easily in organic compounds(hexane)
- Halogens in (+)Ox states dont form (+)ions but are bonded covalently to more electronegative atoms as oxyanions OCl & ClO3
- EA & bond dissociation enthalpies peak at Cl, normally the shorter a bond the stronger it is, but with F the non bonding electrons
are brought so close that they repel, weakening the bond(partly why F is very reactive)
EN & oxidising power descending group
K/NaCl(aq) K/NaBr(aq)
K/NaI(aq)(colourless)
Oxidising strengths seen by displacement reactions Cl2(aq)Colourless
X
Orange Br2(aq)formed Brown I2(aq) formed
with halide ions
Br2(aq)Orange
X
X
Brown I2(aq) formed
I2(aq)Brown
Cl2(g) + 2NaI(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + I2(aq)
X
X
X
Halogens undergo disproportionation with alkalis
COLD
HOT
X2 + 2NaOH(aq) NaXO + NaX + H2O
3X2 + 6NaOH NaXO3 + 5NaX + 3H2O
X2 + 2OH
XO + X + H2O
3X2 + 6OH XO3 + 5NX + 3H2O
Ox State of X
0
+1
1
0
+5
1
Chlorine test Swimming pool smell, moist litmus paper blue red bleached
Moist starch iodide paper, iodide ions oxidised to iodine, so turns blue-black
Cl2 will oxidise Br to Br2 and I to I2, solutions turn orange/brown, excess Cl2 used then I2(s)ppts
Cl2(aq) + 2Br(aq) Br2(aq) + 2Cl(aq) obtains bromine from sea water, used for leaded petrol, antifreeze
Cl2 + 2e 2Cl
2Br Br2 + 2e
Bromine test Slower than chlorine, moist litmus paper blue red bleached
Moist starch iodide paper, iodide ions oxidised to iodine, so turns blue-black
Br2 will oxidise I to I2, solution darkens, immiscible organic solvent(hexane) can show presence of iodine, turning solution purple
Bromine will react with paper moistened with fluorescein dye turning it scarlet, product is eosin(ingredient of red ink)
Iodine test No effect on litmus
Moist starch iodide paper and starch solution turns blue-black which neither chlorine or bromine will do
Iodine is purple in immiscible organic solvents(hexane, methylbenzene) which have no oxygen. Presence and test of oxygen in a
solvent gives a browner cast
- Halides are compounds with a halogen ion(KI, HCl, NaBr)
- Hydrogen halides(covalent hydrides HX)acidic colourless gases, white misty fumes in moist air, giving white fumes with NH3(g)
Polar molecules, high solubility, strong acids due to high Hhyd of the H+ ions and relatively small halide ions which compensate for
the bond dissociation energy of the molecule, extent to which dissociation occurs dependent on HX
HX(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + X(aq)
HCl(g) + H2O(l) H+(aq) + Cl(aq)
HCl, HBr, HI all strong acids, stronger down the group Reducing power of halide increases descending Larger atomic radius,
electrons further away from the nucleus Extra shielding
Bond enthalpy Strength of the bond, energy needed to make the bond(Average of bond dissociation enthalpies of a bond)
Bond enthalpy for CH bond is average value from breaking all 4 CH bonds CH4(416kJmol 1) Value taken from Ha(CH4)
HF
HCl HBr HI
Bond enthalpy (kJmol 1)
562
431
366
299
HF acid oddly behaves as a weak acid, HF bond is the strongest, but not enough to explain the difference in acid strength
This reaction prevents HF molecules from dissociating, F ions form H bonds with undissociated HF molecules
HF(aq) + F(aq) [F----- HF] (aq)
HF not normally corrosive but dissolves glass and gives burns, from formation of SiF62 ion which is water soluble, other halide ions
are too large to fit around the Si atom, HF solutions kept in poly(ethane)bottles
Halide ion test(Not F) (Since AgF is water soluble)
Acidify with (dil)HNO3(aq) to ensure removal of ions which would give a spurious ppt
Add AgNO3(aq), silver halide ppt formed X(aq) + Ag+(aq)
AgX(s)
Add (dil)/(conc)NH3 to ppt
Reaction reduces concentration of Ag+ ions Ag+(aq) + 2NH3(aq)
[Ag(NH3)2]+(aq)
Cl AgNO3(aq)
(dil)NH3 to ppt
OR Oxidise to respective halogen
White ppt AgCl forms
Ppt dissolves leaving colourless solution Acidify with (dil)HNO3(aq) to ensure removal of ions
which would give a spurious ppt
Br AgNO3(aq)
(conc)NH3 to ppt
Cream ppt AgBr forms
Ppt dissolves leaving colourless solution Add immiscible organic solvent(hexane)
Add sodium chlorate(I) solution and shake
I AgNO3(aq)
(conc)NH3 to ppt
Br = brown organic layer, I = purple organic layer
Yellow ppt AgBr forms Ppt insoluble
18
19
rd
Na and OH ions remain so 3 product is NaOH(aq) contaminated by NaCl which must be separated
Overall 2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) + Cl2(g)
Uses of chlorine Water/sewage treatment/sterilisation, PVC/HCl manufacture
Organochlorine manufacture, chlorine reacts with many organic compounds, can give pesticides, though organochlorine causes
problems such as toxicity and ozone layer depletion from CFCs
(1)Explain why HCl(g) is soluble in H2O(l) (1)HCl reacts with H2O(l) and H+ ions formed
(2)Which of the elements Cl or Br is the stronger oxidising agent? Explain the importance of this in the extraction of bromine from
seawater (2) Chlorine Can except electrons from Br
(3)Br2(aq) will oxidise Fe2+ ions to Fe3+ ions
(i)Write the ionic half-equation for the reduction of bromine to bromide ions
(i)Br2 + 2e 2Br
(ii)Write the ionic half-equation for the oxidation of Fe2+ ions to Fe3+ ions
(ii)Fe2+ Fe3+ + e
(iii)Hence write the overall ionic equation
(iii)Br2 + 2Fe2+ 2Br + 2Fe3+
(d)Chlorine and bromine react with NaOH(aq) in a similar way at RT (i)Write equation for bromine reaction with NaOH(aq)
(i)Br2 + 2NaOH NaBr + NaBrO + H2O (ii)What type of reaction is this? (ii)Disproportionation
H2S is produced when (conc)H2SO4 is added to NaI(s), but SO2 is produced when (conc)H2SO4 is added to NaBr(s)
(1)(i)Write an ionic half-equation for oxidation of Cl to Cl2 (i)2Cl Cl2 + 2e
20