ROEVER ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF ECE
EC1402 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

PREPARED BY
K.BALAJI,AP/ECE
UNIT I
MICROWAVE NETWORK THEORY
Introduction Symmetrical Z and Y matrices for reciprocal network Scattering matrix
representation of multi port network properties of S-parameters S matrix of a two port network
with mismatched load Comparison between [S] - [Z] and [Y] matrices Relationship between
Y-Z and ABCD parameters with S parameters Numerical problems.
PART A
1. Define s-matrix
In a microwave junction there is intersection of three or more components.There will be an
output port ,in addition there may be reflection from the junction of other ports.Totally there may
be many combinations,these are represented easily using a matrix called S matrix.
2. What are the Properties of s-matrix?
1.It possess symmetric property sij =sji
2.It possess unitary property [s][s]*=[i]
3. Why is s-matrix used in MW analysis?
S matrix is used in MW analysis to overcome the problems which occurs when H,Y,&Z
parameters are used in high frequencies under different cases viz.,
1.Equipment is not readily available to measure total voltage &total current at the ports of
the network.
2.Short and open circuits are difficult to achieve over a broad band of frequencies.
3.Active devices,such as power transistor &tunnel diodes,frequently wont have stability
for a short or open circuit.
4. What is ABCD matrix?
ABCD matrix is a transmission matrix.these parameters express voltage and current at
output in terms of those at input port.
V1=AV2-BI2
I1 = CV2-DI2
5. What are the advantages of ABCD matrix?
1.They are used in power transmission lines.
2.They are very helpful in the case of cascade networks.
6. What is the Scattering matrix for N port device?

[S]=

S11 S12 S13 S1n

S21 S22 S2n
S31 S32 .S3n
..
..
Sm1 Sm2 ...Smm
7.Give the S matrix of uniform transmission line
S= 0
e-jbl
e-jbl 0
8.Give the properties of impedence [x]&admittance[y] matrix?
1.For a lossless junctionary y and z are symmetric .
2.[y]=[z] -1
3.Elements of matix [Z] &matrix [Y] are Frequency dependent.
9.What are the properties of scattering matrix for a lossless junctoion?
1.The product of any column of the S-matrix with conjugate of this column equals unity.
2.The product of any column of the scattering matrix with the complex conjugate of any
other column is zero.
10.What is transmission matrix?
When a number of microwave devices are connected in cascade. Each junction is
represented by a transmission matrix which gives the output quantities interms of input
quantities.
11.Define one port circuit.Give any example.
A one port circuit is a circuit for which power can enter or leave through asingle wave
Guide or transmission line.
Example:
Short-circuited co-axial line
12.Write the voltage matrix for an N-port microwave circuits.
V1 Z11 Z12 .. Z1N I1
V2 Z12 Z22 Z2N I2
. = . . . .
.
VN ZN1 ZN2 . ZNN IN
Where Zij=Elements of impedence matrix.
[Z]=Impedence martrix
13.Give two examples for two port junctions.
1.The junction of two rectangular guides of unequal height
2.A symmetrical junction consisting of two similar rectangular guides joined by an
Intermediate guide of greater width.
14.State the unique property of Scattering matrix?

Unitary Property: the row of a scattering matrix multiplied by the complex conjugate of
the same row of the scattering matrix is one.
15.Write the scattering matrix for a ideal waveguide section?
[S]= [ 0
1
1
0]
16.Compare S,Y and Z Parameters.
1. No. of elements are equal.
2. For reciprocal devices, both Z and S satisfy reciprocity.
3. If Z is symmetrical then S also symmetrical.
17.Define Reflection Coefficient.
The reflection coefficient can be given by the equations below, where ZS is the
impedance toward the source, ZL is the impedance toward the load.

A negative reflection coefficient means that the reflected wave receives a 180, or ,
phase shift.

PART B

1. Explain about various properties of S Parameters

The scattering matrix is a mathematical construct that quantifies how RF energy
propagates through a multi-port network. The S-matrix is what allows us to accurately describe
the properties of incredibly complicated networks as simple "black boxes". For an RF signal
incident on one port, some fraction of the signal bounces back out of that port, some of it scatters
and exits other ports (and is perhaps even amplified), and some of it disappears as heat or even
electromagnetic radiation. The S-matrix for an N-port contains a N2 coefficients (S-parameters),
each one representing a possible input-output path.
S-parameters are complex (magnitude and angle) because both the magnitude and phase
of the input signal are changed by the network. Quite often we refer to the magnitude only, as it
is of the most interest. Who cares how the signal phase is changed by an amplifier or attenuator?
You mostly care about how much gain (or loss) you get. S-parameters are defined for a given
frequency and system impedance, and vary as a function of frequency for any non-ideal network.
S-parameters refer to RF "voltage out versus voltage in" in the most basic sense. Sparameters come in a matrix, with the number of rows and columns equal to the number of ports.
For the S-parameter subscripts "ij", j is the port that is excited (the input port), and "i" is the
output port. Thus S11 refers to the ratio of signal that reflects from port one for a signal incident
on port one. Parameters along the diagonal of the S-matrix are referred to as reflection
coefficients because they only refer to what happens at a single port, while off-diagonal Sparameters are referred to as transmission coefficients, because they refer to what happens from
one port to another.

Note that each S-parameter is a vector, so if actual data were presented in matrix format,
a magnitude and phase angle would be presented for each Sij. The input and output reflection
coefficients of networks (such as S11 and S22) can be plotted on the Smith chart. Transmission
coefficients (S21 and S12) are usually not plotted on the Smith chart.
S-parameters of Two port networks
S-parameters describe the response of an N-port network to voltage signals at each port.
The first number in the subscript refers to the responding port, while the second number refers to
the incident port. Thus S21 means the response at port 2 due to a signal at port 1. The most
common "N-port" in microwaves are one-ports and two-ports, three-port network S-parameters
are easy to model with software such as Agilent ADS, but the three-port S-parameter
measurements are extremely difficult to perform with accuracy. Measure S-parameters are
available from vendors for amplifiers, but we've never seen a vendor offer true three-port Sparameters for a even a simple SPDT switch (a three-port network).
Let's examine a two-port network. The incident voltage at each port is denoted by "a",
while the voltage leaving a port is denoted by "b". Don't get all hung up on how two voltages can
occur at the same node, think of them as traveling in opposite directions!

If we assume that each port is terminated in impedance Z0, we can define the four Sparameters of the 2-port as:

There's a missing step to this derivation, which was pointed out by Alex (thanks!) You'll
find the complete derivation on Wikipedia, we'll update this page soon.

See how the subscript neatly follows the parameters in the ratio (S11=b1/a1, etc...)?
Here's the matrix algebraic representation of 2-port S-parameters:

If we want to measure S11, we inject a signal at port one and measure its reflected signal.
In this case, no signal is injected into port 2, so a2=0; during all laboratory S-parameter
measurements, we only inject one signal at a time. If we want to measure S21, we inject a signal
at port 1, and measure the resulting signal exiting port 2. For S12 we inject a signal into port 2,
and measure the signal leaving port 1, and for S22 we inject a signal at port 2 and measure its
reflected signal.
Did we mention that all of the a and b measurements are vectors? It isn't always
necessary to keep track of the angle of the S-parameters, but vector S-parameters are a much
more powerful tool than magnitude-only S-parameters, and the math is simple enough either
way.
S-parameter magnitudes are presented in one of two ways, linear magnitude or decibels
(dB). Because S-parameters are a voltage ratio, the formula for decibels in this case is
Sij(dB)=20*log[Sij(magnitude)]
Remember that power ratios are expressed as 10xlog(whatever). Voltage ratios are
20xlog(whatever), because power is proportional to voltage squared.
The angle of a vector S-parameter is almost always presented in degrees (but of course,
radians are possible).
Types of S-parameters
Small signal S-parameters are what we are talking about 99% of the time. By small
signal, we mean that the signals have only linear effects on the network, small enough so that
gain compression does not take place. For passive networks, small-signal is all you have to
worry about, because they act linearly at any power level.
Large signal S-parameters are more complicated. In this case, the S-matrix will vary
with input signal strength. Measuring and modeling large signal S-parameters will not be
described on this page (perhaps we will get into that someday)
Mixed-mode S-parameters refer to a special case of analyzing balanced circuits. We're
not going to get into that either!

Pulsed S-parameters are measured on power devices so that an accurate representation

is captured before the device heats up. This is a tricky measurement, and not something we're
gonna tackle yet.
A reciprocal network always has a symmetric S-parameter matrix. That means that
S21=S12, S13=S31, etc. All values along the lower-left to upper right diagonal must be equal. A
two-port S-parameter matrix (at a single frequency) is represented by:

If you are measuring a network that is known to be reciprocal, checking for symmetry
across the diagonal of the S-parameter matrix is one simple check to see if the data is valid.
______________________________________________________________________________
2. Explain about various network parameters.
A two-port network (a kind of four-terminal network or quadripole) is an electrical
circuit or device with two pairs of terminals connected together internally by an electrical
network. Two terminals constitute a port if they satisfy the essential requirement known as the
port condition: the same current must enter and leave a port.[1][2]
Examples include small-signal models for transistors (such as the hybrid-pi model),
filters and matching networks. The analysis of passive two-port networks is an outgrowth of
reciprocity theorems first derived by Lorentz.[3]
A two-port network makes possible the isolation of either a complete circuit or part of it
and replacing it by its characteristic parameters. Once this is done, the isolated part of the circuit
becomes a "black box" with a set of distinctive properties, enabling us to abstract away its
specific physical buildup, thus simplifying analysis. Any linear circuit with four terminals can be
transformed into a two-port network provided that it does not contain an independent source and
satisfies the port conditions.
There are a number of alternative sets of parameters that can be used to describe a linear
two-port network, the usual sets are respectively called z, y, h, g, and ABCD parameters, each
described individually below. These are all limited to linear networks since an underlying
assumption of their derivation is that any given circuit condition is a linear superposition of
various short-circuit and open circuit conditions. They are usually expressed in matrix notation,
and they establish relations between the variables
Input voltage
Output voltage
Input current

Output current
which are shown in Figure 1. These current and voltage variables are most useful at lowto-moderate frequencies. At high frequencies (e.g., microwave frequencies), the use of power
and energy variables is more appropriate, and the two-port currentvoltage approach is replaced
by an approach based upon scattering parameters.
The terms four-terminal network and quadripole (not to be confused with quadrupole) are
also used, the latter particularly in more mathematical treatments although the term is becoming
archaic. However, a pair of terminals can be called a port only if the current entering one
terminal is equal to the current leaving the other; this definition is called the port condition. A
four-terminal network can only be properly called a two-port when the terminals are connected
to the external circuitry in two pairs both meeting the port condition
Impedance parameters (z-parameters)

Figure 2: z-equivalent two port showing independent variables I1 and I2. Although resistors are
shown, general impedances can be used instead.
where

Notice that all the z-parameters have dimensions of ohms.

For reciprocal networks
. For symmetrical networks
networks all the
are purely imaginary.[7]

. For lossless

Figure 3 shows a bipolar current mirror with emitter resistors to increase its output
resistance.[nb 1] Transistor Q1 is diode connected, which is to say its collector-base voltage is zero.
Figure 4 shows the small-signal circuit equivalent to Figure 3. Transistor Q1 is represented by its
emitter resistance rE VT / IE (VT = thermal voltage, IE = Q-point emitter current), a
simplification made possible because the dependent current source in the hybrid-pi model for Q1
draws the same current as a resistor 1 / gm connected across r. The second transistor Q2 is

represented by its hybrid-pi model. Table 1 below shows the z-parameter expressions that make
the z-equivalent circuit of Figure 2 electrically equivalent to the small-signal circuit of Figure 4.

Table 1

Expression

Approximation

RE

RE

The negative feedback introduced by resistors RE can be seen in these parameters. For
example, when used as an active load in a differential amplifier, I1 -I2, making the output
impedance of the mirror approximately R22 -R21 2 rORE /( r+2RE ) compared to only rO
without feedback (that is with RE = 0 ) . At the same time, the impedance on the reference side
of the mirror is approximately R11 R12
(rE + RE), only a moderate value, but still
larger than rE with no feedback. In the differential amplifier application, a large output resistance
increases the difference-mode gain, a good thing, and a small mirror input resistance is desirable
to avoid Miller effect.
Admittance parameters (y-parameters)

Figure 5: Y-equivalent two port showing independent variables V1 and V2. Although resistors are
shown, general admittances can be used instead.

where

Notice that all the Y-parameters have dimensions of siemens.

For reciprocal networks
. For symmetrical networks
networks all the
are purely imaginary.[7]

. For lossless

Hybrid parameters (h-parameters)

Figure 6: H-equivalent two-port showing independent variables I1 and V2; h22 is

reciprocated to make a resistor

where

This circuit is often selected when a current amplifier is wanted at the output. The
resistors shown in the diagram can be general impedances instead.

Notice that off-diagonal h-parameters are dimensionless, while diagonal members have
dimensions the reciprocal of one another.

Table 2

Expression

Approximation

rE

Inverse hybrid parameters (g-parameters)

Figure 8: G-equivalent two-port showing independent variables V1 and I2; g11 is reciprocated to
make a resistor

where

Often this circuit is selected when a voltage amplifier is wanted at the output. Notice that
off-diagonal g-parameters are dimensionless, while diagonal members have dimensions the
reciprocal of one another. The resistors shown in the diagram can be general impedances instead.
ABCD-parameters
The ABCD-parameters are known variously as chain, cascade, or transmission line
parameters. There are a number of definitions given for ABCD parameters, the most common
is,[8][9]

For reciprocal networks

. For symmetrical networks
. For networks
which are reciprocal and lossless, A and D are purely real while B and C are purely imaginary.[6]
This representation is preferred because when the parameters are used to represent a
cascade of two-ports, the matrices are written in the same order that a network diagram would be
drawn, that is, left to right. However, the examples given below are based on a variant definition;

where

The negative signs in the definitions of parameters and arise because is defined
with the opposite sense to , that is,
. The reason for adopting this convention is so that
the output current of one cascaded stage is equal to the input current of the next. Consequently,
the input voltage/current matrix vector can be directly replaced with the matrix equation of the
preceding cascaded stage to form a combined
matrix.
The terminology of representing the
parameters as a matrix of elements designated
[10]
a11 etc as adopted by some authors
and the inverse
parameters as a matrix of
elements designated b11 etc is used here for both brevity and to avoid confusion with circuit
elements.

There is a simple relationship between these two forms: one is the matrix inverse of the
other, that is;

Scattering transfer parameters

The Scattering transfer parameters or T-parameters of a 2-port network are expressed by
the T-parameter matrix and are closely related to the corresponding S-parameter matrix. The Tparameter matrix is related to the incident and reflected normalised waves at each of the ports as
follows:

However, they could be defined differently, as follows :

The RF Toolbox add-on to MATLAB[16] and several books (for example "Network
scattering parameters"[17]) use this last definition, so caution is necessary. The "From S to T" and
"From T to S" paragraphs in this article are based on the first definition. Adaptation to the second
definition is trivial (interchanging T11 for T22, and T12 for T21). The advantage of Tparameters compared to S-parameters is that they may be used to readily determine the effect of
cascading 2 or more 2-port networks by simply multiplying the associated individual Tparameter matrices. If the T-parameters of say three different 2-port networks 1, 2 and 3 are
,
networks (

and

respectively then the T-parameter matrix for the cascade of all three
) in serial order is given by:

As with S-parameters, T-parameters are complex values and there is a direct conversion
between the two types. Although the cascaded T-parameters is a simple matrix multiplication of
the individual T-parameters, the conversion for each network's S-parameters to the
corresponding T-parameters and the conversion of the cascaded T-parameters back to the

equivalent cascaded S-parameters, which are usually required, is not trivial. However once the
operation is completed, the complex full wave interactions between all ports in both directions
will be taken into account. The following equations will provide conversion between S and T
parameters for 2-port networks.[18]
From S to T:

From T to S

Where

indicates the determinant of the matrix

______________________________________________________________________________

3. Explain about S matrix of two port and four network networks.

For a generic multi-port network, each of the ports is allocated an integer 'n' ranging from
1 to N, where N is the total number of ports. For port n, the associated S-parameter definition is
in terms of incident and reflected 'power waves', and respectively.
Kurokawa[7] defines the incident power wave for each port as

and the reflected wave for each port is defined as

Where is the diagonal matrix of the complex reference impedance for each port,
is
the elementwise complex conjugate of
, and are respectively the column vectors of the
voltages and currents at each port and

Sometimes it is useful to assume that the reference impedance is the same for all ports in
which case the definitions of the incident and reflected waves may be simplified to

and

For all ports the reflected power waves may be defined in terms of the S-parameter
matrix and the incident power waves by the following matrix equation:

where S is an N x N matrix the elements of which can be indexed using conventional matrix
(mathematics) notation.

Reciprocity
A network will be reciprocal if it is passive and it contains only reciprocal materials that
influence the transmitted signal. For example, attenuators, cables, splitters and combiners are all
reciprocal networks and
in each case, or the S-parameter matrix will be equal to its
transpose. Networks which include non-reciprocal materials in the transmission medium such as
those containing magnetically biased ferrite components will be non-reciprocal. An amplifier is
another example of a non-reciprocal network.
An interesting property of 3-port networks, however, is that they cannot be
simultaneously reciprocal, loss-free, and perfectly matched.[8]
Lossless networks
A lossless network is one which does not dissipate any power, or :
.
The sum of the incident powers at all ports is equal to the sum of the reflected powers at all
ports. This implies that the S-parameter matrix is unitary, that is
is the conjugate transpose of

and

, where

is the identity matrix.

Lossy networks
A lossy passive network is one in which the sum of the incident powers at all ports is
greater than the sum of the reflected powers at all ports. It therefore dissipates power,
or :
definite.

. In this case

, and

is positive

2-Port S-Parameters

The S-parameter matrix for the 2-port network is probably the most commonly used and
serves as the basic building block for generating the higher order matrices for larger networks.[9]
In this case the relationship between the reflected, incident power waves and the S-parameter
matrix is given by:

Expanding the matrices into equations gives:

and

Each equation gives the relationship between the reflected and incident power waves at
each of the network ports, 1 and 2, in terms of the network's individual S-parameters,
,
,
and
. If one considers an incident power wave at port 1 ( ) there may result from it
waves exiting from either port 1 itself ( ) or port 2 ( ). However if, according to the definition
of S-parameters, port 2 is terminated in a load identical to the system impedance ( ) then, by
the maximum power transfer theorem, will be totally absorbed making
equal to zero.
Therefore

and
Similarly, if port 1 is terminated in the system impedance then

becomes zero, giving

and
Each 2-port S-parameter has the following generic descriptions:
is the input port voltage reflection coefficient
is the reverse voltage gain
is the forward voltage gain
is the output port voltage reflection coefficient
S-Parameter properties of 2-port networks
An amplifier operating under linear (small signal) conditions is a good example of a nonreciprocal network and a matched attenuator is an example of a reciprocal network. In the
following cases we will assume that the input and output connections are to ports 1 and 2
respectively which is the most common convention. The nominal system impedance, frequency
and any other factors which may influence the device, such as temperature, must also be
specified.

Complex linear gain

The complex linear gain G is given by
.
That is simply the voltage gain as a linear ratio of the output voltage divided by the input
voltage, all values expressed as complex quantities.
Scalar linear gain
The scalar linear gain (or linear gain magnitude) is given by
.
That is simply the scalar voltage gain as a linear ratio of the output voltage and the input
voltage. As this is a scalar quantity, the phase is not relevant in this case.
Scalar logarithmic gain
The scalar logarithmic (decibel or dB) expression for gain (g) is
dB.
This is more commonly used than scalar linear gain and a positive quantity is normally
understood as simply a 'gain'... A negative quantity can be expressed as a 'negative gain' or more
usually as a 'loss' equivalent to its magnitude in dB. For example, a 10 m length of cable may
have a gain of - 1 dB at 100 MHz or a loss of 1 dB at 100 MHz.
Insertion loss
In case the two measurement ports use the same reference impedance, the insertion loss
(IL) is the dB expression of the transmission coefficient

. It is thus given by[10]:

dB.
It is the extra loss produced by the introduction of the DUT between the 2 reference
planes of the measurement. Notice that the extra loss can be introduced by intrinsic loss in the
DUT and/or mismatch. In case of extra loss the insertion loss is defined to be positive.
Input return loss: Input return loss (
) is a scalar measure of how close the actual
input impedance of the network is to the nominal system impedance value and, expressed in
logarithmic magnitude, is given by

dB.
By definition, return loss is a positive scalar quantity implying the 2 pairs of magnitude (|)
symbols. The linear part,
is equivalent to the reflected voltage magnitude divided by the
incident voltage magnitude.
Output return loss
The output return loss (
) has a similar definition to the input return loss but applies to the
output port (port 2) instead of the input port. It is given by
dB.
Reverse gain and reverse isolation
The scalar logarithmic (decibel or dB) expression for reverse gain (

) is:

dB.
Often this will be expressed as reverse isolation (
) in which case it becomes a positive
quantity equal to the magnitude of
and the expression becomes:
dB.
Voltage reflection coefficient
The voltage reflection coefficient at the input port (
equivalent to
and
respectively, so
and
As

and

) or at the output port (

) are

are complex quantities, so are

and

Voltage reflection coefficients are complex quantities and may be graphically represented
on polar diagrams or Smith Charts
Voltage standing wave ratio
The voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) at a port, represented by the lower case 's', is a
similar measure of port match to return loss but is a scalar linear quantity, the ratio of the
standing wave maximum voltage to the standing wave minimum voltage. It therefore relates to
the magnitude of the voltage reflection coefficient and hence to the magnitude of either
for
the input port or
for the output port.

At the input port, the VSWR (

) is given by

At the output port, the VSWR (

) is given by

4-Port S-Parameters
4 Port S Parameters are used to characterize 4 port networks. They include information
regarding the reflected and incident power waves between the 4 ports of the network.

They are commonly used to analyze a pair of coupled transmission lines to determine the
amount of cross-talk between them, if they are driven by two separate single ended signals, or
the reflected and incident power of a differential signal driven across them. Many specifications
of high speed differential signals define a communication channel in terms of the 4-Port SParameters, for example the 10-Gigabit Attachment Unit Interface (XAUI), SATA, PCI-X, and
InfiniBand systems.
4-Port Mixed-Mode S-Parameters
4-Port mixed-Mode S-Parameters characterize a 4 port network in terms of the response
of the network to common mode and differential stimulus signals. The following table displays
the 4-Port Mixed-Mode S-Parameters.
4-Port Mixed-Mode S-Parameters
Stimulus
Differential

Common Mode

Port 1

Port 1

Port 2

Port 2

Port 1

SDD11

SDD12

SDC11

SDC12

Port 2

SDD21

SDD22

SDC21

SDC22

Port 1

SCD11

SCD12

SCC11

SCC12

Port 2

SCD21

SCD22

SCC21

SCC22

Differential
Response
Common Mode

Note the format of the parameter notation SXYab, where S stands for scatttering
parameter or S-parameter, X is the response mode (differential or common), Y is the
stimulus mode (differential or common), a is the output port and b is the input port. This is the
typical nomenclature for scattering parameters.
The first quadrant is defined as the upper left 4 parameters describing the differential
stimulus and differential response characteristics of the device under test. This is the actual mode
of operation for most high-speed differential interconnects and is the quadrant that receives the
most attention. It includes input differential return loss (SDD11), input differential insertion loss
(SDD21), output differential return loss (SDD22) and output differential insertion loss (SDD12).
Some benefits of differential signal processing are;

reduced electromagnetic interference susceptibility

reduction in electromagnetic radiation from balanced differential circuit
even order differential distortion products transformed to common mode signals
factor of two increase in voltage level relative to single-ended
rejection to common mode supply and ground noise encoding onto differential signal

The second and third quadrants are the upper right and lower left 4 parameters,
respectively. These are also referred to as the cross-mode quadrants. This is because they fully
characterize any mode conversion occurring in the device under test, whether it is common-todifferential SDCab conversion (EMI susceptibility for an intended differential signal SDD
transmission application) or differential-to-common SCDab conversion (EMI radiation for a
differential application). Understanding mode conversion is very helpful when trying to optimize
the design of interconnects for gigabit data throughput.
The fourth quadrant is the lower right 4 parameters and describes the performance
characteristics of the common-mode signal SCCab propagating through the device under test.
For a properly designed SDDab differential device there should be minimal common-mode
output SCDab. However, the fourth quadrant common-mode response data is a measure of
common-mode transmission response and used in a ratio with the differential transmission
response to determine the network common-mode rejection. This common mode rejection is an
important benefit of differential signal processing and can be reduced to one in some differential
circuit implementations.[11][12]
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Compare Z, Y, h and S Parameters.

The 2-port network shown to the left is representative of that implied in the application of
these equations. Basic relationships of voltage and current are given in the table to the right.
Many other sources exist on the particulars of 2-port network analysis, so it will not be covered
here.

and

All of the parameter equations make use of complex values for all numbers of impedance
the
resulting
matrix
parameters,
i.e.,
Z
=
R

jX.

Z01 and Z02 are the complex impedances of ports 1 and 2, respectively; similarly, Z*01 and Z*02
are the complex conjugates of the respective impedances.
S-Parameters

Y-Parameters

Z-Parameters

h-Parameters

ABCD-Parameters

S-Parameters from Z-Parameters

S-Parameters from Y-Parameters

S-Parameters from h-Parameters

S-Parameters from ABCD-Parameters

T-Parameters from Z-Parameters

T-Parameters from Y-Parameters

T-Parameters from h-Parameters

T-Parameters from ABCD-Parameters

Y-Parameters from Z-Parameters

Y-Parameters from S-Parameters

Z-Parameters from T-Parameters

h-Parameters from S-Parameters

h-Parameters from T-Parameters

ABCD-Parameters from S-Parameters

ABCD-Parameters from T-Parameters

________________________________________________________________________

5. Evaluate S Parameters in reference to any property with example.

6. (i) Explain the S Parameters with an application

(ii) Write short notes on reciprocal and lossless networks.

EC1402- MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

UNIT II
MICROWAVE PASSIVE DEVICES
Coaxial connectors and adapters Wave guide choke flanges Matched terminations
Short circuit plunger Rectangular to circular wave guide transition Tuning screws Wave
guide corners Bends and twists Windows Coaxial line to wave guide adapters Coupling
loops and coupling aperture Attenuators Phase shifters Wave guide tees E plane tee H
plane tee Magic tee and their applications Isolators Circulators Directional couplers
cattering matrix derivation for all components Numerical problems.
PART A
1. What are the various reasons pertaining to the wide use of microwaves ?
(i) Large Bandwidth
(ii)Improved directivity with an Aerial array
(iii)Reliability
(iv)Low Power requirement.
2. What are the two types of terminations.
Matched load
Variable short circuit
3. What are ferrites and give its properties?
Ferrites are ceramic like materials. These are may by sintering a mixture of metallic
oxides Properties Specific resistivities may be used as much as 1014 greater than that of metals
Dielectric constants around 10to 15 or greater Relative permeability is 1000.
4. Give some examples of ferrite devices?
(i). Isolator
(ii) Circulator
(iii) Phase shifters
(iv) Modulators
(v) Power limiters
5. What are power dividers?
Power dividers are used to divide the input power into a number of smaller amounts of
power for exciting the radiating elements in an array antenna.
6. What is the S-matrix of 3 port circulators?
Anticlockwise [S]= 0 1 0
001
100
Clockwise

[S]= 0 0 1

100
0 10
7. Give the differences between Isolator and Circulator
(i) Isolator is a 2 port device but Circulator is a 3 port device.
(ii) Isolator cannot be used as Circulator but Circulator used as isolator by terminating
one port.
8. Give examples for a two port MW device
(i) Isolator.
(ii) Attenuator
(iii)Phase Shifter
9. Give the applications of directional coupler
1. Unidirectional power measurement
2. SWR measurement
3. Unidirectional wave launching
4. Reflectometer
5. Balanced duplexer
10. What is Faradays rotation law?
If a circularly polarized wave is made to pass through a ferrite rod which has been
influenced by an axial magnetic field B, then the axis of polarization gets tilted in clockwise
direction and amount of tilt depends upon the strength of magnetic field and geometry of the
ferrite.
11. Define VSWR
Voltage standing wave ratio is defined as the ratio of maximum voltage to the minimum
voltage. It measures the amount of reflected wave with respect to Incident wave.
VSWR=Vmax/Vmin
12.What is the principle of Microwave phase shifter?
When a wave propagates on a line, a phase difference prevails between any two arbitary
points along its paths. The phase difference between two points measured based on the
difference in wavelength.
13. What are junctions? Give some examples
A microwave circuit consists of several microwave devices connected in some way to
achieve the desired transmission of MW signal. The interconnection of two or more microwave
may be regarded as MW junction.
E.g.: Magic Tee, Hybrid Ring
14. What is Tee junction? Give two examples
In MW circuits a wave guide or coaxial junction with three independent ports is referred
to as tee junction.
Eg: E- Plane Tee, H-plane Tee

15. What is hybrid ring?

Hybrid ring consists of an annular line of proper electrical length to sustain standing
waves, to which four arms are connected at proper intervals by means of series or parallel
junctions.
16. Name some wave guide components used to change the direction of the guide through
an arbitrary angle
(i)Wave guide corner
(ii) Bend
(iii)Twist
17. What are the different types of Directional coupler?
1. Two hole directional coupler
2. Be the hole directional coupler
3. Four hole directional coupler
18. What are hybrid couplers?
Hybrid couplers are inter digitated microstrip couplers consisting of four parallel
striplines with alternate lines tied together, It has four ports. This type of coupler is called Lange
hybrid coupler.
19. What are nonreciprocal devices? Give two examples
The devices which are having the property that the forward characteristics are not equal
to the reverse characteristics are called non reciprocal devices.
20. Why isolators are called uni line?
An ideal isolator completely absorbs the power for propagation in one direction and
provides lossless transmission in the opposite direction. Thus isolators are called uniline.
21. Give some coupling parameters of directional coupler?
(i) Coupling coefficient
(ii) Directivity
(iii) Insertion loss
(iv) Isolation

PART B
1. Derive S Matrix of H Plane Tee and E Plane Tee.

===============================================================

2.

Write Short notes on

(i)
Waveguide bends, twists, corners, (ii)Magic Tee

3. EXPLAIN ABOUT DIRECTIONAL COUPLER IN DETAIL.

4. Write Short notes on

(i) Coaxial connectors
(ii) Hybrid rings

Hybrid Ring

===============================================================

5. Write Short notes on

(i) Circulator
(ii) Isolator

(ii)ISOLATOR

===============================================================

6. Write short notes about,

(i) Hybrid Coupler
(ii) Phase shifter

PHASE SHIFTER

===============================================================

7. NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

EC1402 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

UNIT III

MICROWAVE VACCUM TUBE DEVICES

Introduction Two cavity klystron amplifier Mechanism and mode of operation
Power output and efficiency Mode curve Equivalent circuit and voltage gain Beam loading
Applications Reflex klystron oscillator Mechanism and mode of operation Power output
Efficiency Mode curve Equivalent circuit Electronic admittance Modulation of reflex
klystron Applications TWT amplifier Principle of operation gain and applications
Magnetron oscillator Hull cut-off voltage mechanism of operation Mode separation Phase
focusing Power output and efficiency Applications Numerical problems.
PART A

1.What is the condition for oscillation in Reflex klystron ?

The necessary condition for oscillation is that the magnitude of the negative real part of
the electronic admittance should not be less than the total conductance of the cavity circuit1
G=Gc + Gb +G1
Rsh _ effective shunt resistance
Gc _ copper losses of cavity
Gb _ beam loading conductance
G1 _ load conductance
2.Give the drawbacks of klystron amplifiers.
1. As the oscillator frequency changes then resonator frequency also changes and the
feedback path phase shift must be readjusted for a positive feedback.
2. The multicavity klystron amplifiers suffer from the noise caused because bunching is
never complete and electrons arrive at random at catcher cavity. Hence it is not used in
receivers.
3.What is the effect of transit time?
There are two effects.
1) At low frequencies, the grid and anode signals are no longer 180O out of phase, thus
causing design problems with feedback in oscillators.
2) The grid begins to take power from the driving source and the power is absorbed even
when the grid is negatively biased.
4.What are the applications of reflex klystron ?
1) Signal source in MW generator
2) Local oscillators in receivers
3) It is used in FM oscillator in low power MW links.
4) In parametric amplifier as pump source.

5.What is the purpose of slow wave structures used in TWT amplifiers?

Slow wave structures are special circuits that are used in microwave tubes to reduce wave
velocity in a certain direction so that the electron beam and the signal wave can interact. In
TWT, since the beam can be accelerated only to velocities that are about a fraction of the
velocity of light, slow wave structures are used.
6.How are spurious oscillations generated in TWT amplifier? State the method to
suppress it.
In a TWT, adjacent turns of the helix are so close to each other and hence oscillations are
likely to occur. To prevent these spurious signals some form of attenuator is placed near the
input end of the tube which absorb the oscillations.
7.State the applications of TWT.
1) Low power, low noise TWTs used in radar and microwave receivers
2) Laboratory instruments
3) Drivers for more powerful tubes
4) Medium and high power CWTWTS are used for communication and radar.
8.How the klystron amplifier can act as klystron oscillator? What are the
applications of klystron amplifier?
When the klystron amplifier is given a positive feedback such that the overall phase shift
becomes zero 360 and __Av _= I then klystron amplifier acts as an oscillator.
Applications:
(1) UHF TV Transmitters
(2) Long ranger radar
(3) Linear particle accelerator
(4) Troposcatter links
(5) Earth station transmitter.
9.Define phase focusing effect.
The bunching of electrons in known as Phase focusing effect This effect is important
because without it, favoured electrons will fall behind the phase change of electric field across
the gaps. Such electrons are retarded at each interaction with the R.F field in magnetron.
10.What do you mean by O-type tubes? Name some O-type tubes.
In O type tube a magnetic field whose axis coincides with that electron beam is used to
hold the beam together as it travels the length of the tube. It is also called as linear beam tube.
i) Helix Traveling wave tube
ii) Coupled cavity TWT
iii) Forward wave amplifier
iv) Backward wave amplifier
v) Backward wave oscillator
11.Define Transit time in Reflex klystron.
The time taken by the electron to travel into the repeller space and back to the gap.
T =n +

12.Write the parameters on which bunching depend on?

i) Drift space should be properly adjusted.
ii) D.C anode voltage
iii) Signal amplitude should be such that proper bunching takes place.
13.Compare TWTA Klystron amplifier
i) Klystron amplifier is Linear beam or O type device but TWTA is Linear beam or O
type device
ii). Klystron Uses cavities for input but TWTA use non resonant wave circuit.Output
circuits.
iii). Narrow band device due to Wide band device because use of use of resonant
cavities. Non-resonant wave circuit.
14.Give the performance Specification of Reflex klystron?
Frequency range: 2- 200 GHz
Band width: + 30 MHz for _ VR = + 10 V
Power output: 10 mw 2.5W
Efficiency: 20 to 30%
15.What is CFA? State the applications of CFA.
CFA is a microwave power amplifier. It is a cross between TWT and magnetron in its
operation. i.e., it has a magnetron structure to provide an interaction between crossed dc electric
and magnetic fields on one hand and an RF field on the other hand. It also uses a slow wave
structure as in TWT to provide a continuous interaction between the electron beam and a moving
RF field.
Applications:
(1) Radar system
(2) Electronic counter measure.
16.State the characteristics of magnetron and of 2-cavity klystron amplifier.
Magnetron:
Operating frequencies _ 70 GH z
Output power _ 40 MW
Efficiency _ 40 to 70%
2-cavity klystron:
Efficiency _ 40%
Power output _ average power _> 500 KW
Pulsed power _> 30 MW
Power gain _ about 30 db
.
17.What are the advantages of TWT?
1. Bandwidth is large.
2. High reliability
3. High gain
4. Constant Performance in space
5. Higher duty cycle.

18.State the applications of magnetrons. why magnetron is called as cross filed

device?
1) Pulse work in radar
2) Linear particle accelerators.
In cavity magnetron, there exists a radial electric field and an axial magnetic field perpendicular
to each other and hence magnetron is called as a cross filed device.
19.What is BWO? State the applications of BWO.
A backward wave oscillator (BWO) is microwave cw oscillator with an enormous tuning
and ever all frequency coverage range.
Applications:
(i) It can be used as signal source in instruments and transmitters.
(ii) It can be used as broad band noise sources which used to confuse enemy radar.
20.What is hull cutoff condition?
In a magnetron, the electron will just graze the anode and return towards the cathode
depends on Vo and Bo . The hull cut of magnetic equation is
Boc = (8Vo m / e)
------------b(1- a 2 / b2 )
The hull cutoff voltage equation is
Voc = e BO2 b2 (1- a2/ b2 )
.
8m
If B0>BOe for given Vo.the electrons will not reach anode.
If Vo < Voc for a given Bo the electrons will not reach the anode.
21.What are the applications of High Q-oscillators and amplifier circuits?
They are used in
a)Low power transmitters
b)Parametric amplifier pumps
c)Police radars and intrusion alarms.

PART B
1.Explain about Two cavity Klystron mode of operation with neat diagram.

2.Explain about output power, efficiency of Klystron

3. Explain about Reflex Klystron with neat diagram.

4.Explain about TWT in Detail.

5. Explain about the Magnetron with neat diagram.

6.Explain about Multi cavity Klystron with neat diagram.

7.

Problem

8. Problem

EC 1402 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

UNIT IV
MICROWAVE SOLID STATE DEVICES AND CIRCUITS
Microwave diodes Crystal diode Schottky diode Harmonic mixer PIN diode
Operation switches Phase switches and attenuators Gunn diode Mode of operation
Oscillator circuit IMPATT diodes Mechanism of operation Application as oscillator and
amplifier Tunnel diodes oscillator / amplifiers Varactor diode VCO Parametric amplifier
Microwave transistors Unipolar and bipolar Applications Numerical problems.
PART A

1.What are the Key phenomenon taking place in TRAPATT diode?

The Key phenomena are
a)Carrier generation by impact ionization producing a current pulse of phase delay of 90
degree.
b)An additional phase shift introduced by the drift of carriers.
2.What is the operating frequency of TRAPATT devices?
TRAPATT devices operate at frequencies from 400 MHz to about 12GHz.
3.What are the applications of TRAPATT devices?
The applications are
a)Phased-array Radar systems
b)Intermediate frequency transmitters.
c)Proxity fuse sources
d)Radio altimeters
e)Microwave landing systems.
4.What are the applications of Tunnel Diode?
a)used in self excited mixers
b)High speed switching and logic operations
c)Low power oscillators.
5.What are the elements that exhibit Gunn effect?
The elements are
a)Gallium arsenide
b)Indium phosphide
c)Cadmium telluride
d)Indium arsenide.
6.What are the applications of Gunn Diode?
The applications are
a) Low and medium power oscillators
b) Used in high pump frequencies

c) Burglar alarms and aircraft rate-of-climb indicators.

7.What is negative resistance?
Negative resistance is defined as that property of a device which causes the current
through it to be 180 degree out of phase with the voltage across it.
8.What are the applications of Backward diode?
a) Video detection
b) Doppler radar
9.Why are FETs preferred to bipolar transistor at high frequencies?
FETs are preferred over Bipolar transistors at high frequencies as they easily lend
themselves more readily to intrgration.
10.Define gunn effect.
Guneffect was first observed by GUNN in n_type GaAs bulk diode.according to
GUNN,above some critical voltage corresponding to an electric field of 2000-4000v/cm,the
current in every specimen became a fluctuating fuction of time.The frequency of oscillation was
determined mainly by the specimen and not by the external circuit.
11.What is MESFET?
If the field effect transistor is constructed with metal semiconductor schottky barrier
diode,the device is called metal-semiconductor field effect transistor.
12.Explain stable amplification mode.
When n0lproduct of the device is less than about 10 ^(12)/cm^2 the device exhibits
amplification at transit time frequency rather than spontaneous oscillation. This is called stable
amplification mode.Here n0 is the amount of doping and L is the length.
13.What are the factors reducing efficiency of IMPATT diode?
1)Space charge effect
2)Reverse saturation current effect
3)High frequency skin effect
4)Ionization saturation effect.
14.Explain plasma formation in TRAPATT diode.
During the operation of the diode a high field avalanche zone propagates through the
epletion region and fills the layer with a dense plasma of electrons and holes which get trapped
in the low field region behind the zone.
15.What is negative resistance in gunn diode?
The carrier drift velocity increases linearly from 0 to maximum when the electric field is
increased from 0 to threshold value in gunndiodes.When the electric field is beyond the threshold
value of 3000v/cm the drift velocity is decreased and the diode exhibit negative resistance.

16.What are the applications of GaAsMESFET.?

a,Used in microwave integrated circuits for high power, low noise applications.
b.Used in broadband amplifier application.
17.What are the applications of TRAPATT?
a)Used in airborne
b)Marine radars.
18.What is Transferred electron effect?
Some materials like GaAs exhibit negative differential mobility,when biased above a
threshold value of the electric field.This behaviour is called transferred electron effect.
19.What are time parameter for TEDS
a)Domain growth time constant
b)Dielectric relaxation time
c)transit time.
20.What are the various modes of transferred electron oscillators?
a)Transit time mode
b)Quenched and delayed domain modes
c)limited space charge accumulation mode.
21.List the type of circuit used for IMPATT diode circuits.
a)Broadly tunable circuits
b)Low Qcircuits
c)high Qcircuits
22.What are the applications of low Q-oscillators and amplifier circuits?
a)Final output stage of FM telecommunication transmitter
b)Up converter pump
c)CW Doppler radar transmitter.

PART B

UNIT IV
1.Explain Gunn effect and Gunn diode.

Schematic diagram for n- type GaAs diode

Fig: Modes of operation for Gunn diode

2. Explain about IMPATT Diode with diagram.

3. Explain about Parametric Amplifier in Detail.

5.Explain about Tunnel Diode operation with neat diagram.

6. Explain about Microwave Bipolar Transistors in Detail.

7.Explain about BARITT Diodes in Detail.

8. Explain about Microwave Amplification and Oscillation.

EC1402 MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

UNIT V
MICROWAVE MEASUREMENTS
Introduction Tunable detector Slotted line carriage VSWR meter Spectrum
analyzer Network analyzer Power measurements Schottky barrier diode sensor
Bolometer sensor Power sensor High power measurement Insertion loss and attenuation
measurement VSWR measurement Low and high VSWR Impedance measurement
Frequency measurement Measurement of cavity Q Dielectric measurement of a solid by
wave-guide method Antenna measurement Radiation pattern Phase and gain.
PART A
1.List some of power detecting elements?
1.Schottky diode
2.baretter
3.thermistor
4.thermocouple
2.What are microwave detector?
Microwave detectors are the instruments used to detect the presence of microwave power
is a microwave circuit.
3.Differentiate baretter and thermistor?
Baretter
1.baretter has positive temperature coefficient.
2.it has thin wire.
3.less sensitive.
4.required less bias current
Thermistor
1.negative temp coefficient.
2.small bead of semi conductor material.
3.more sensitive.
4.require more sensitive.
4.What are tunable detector?
The tunable detectors are used to demodulate the signal and couple the required output to
high frequency scope analyzer. The low frequency demodulated output is detected using non
reciprocal detector diode mounted in the microwave transmission line.
5.What is slotted section with line carriage?
It is a microwave sectioned coaxial line connecting a coaxial E-field probe which penetrates
inside a rectangular waveguide slotted section.The longitudinal slot is cut along the center of the

waveguide broad walls.The probe is made to move along the slotted wall which samples the
electric field propotional to probe voltage.
6.What is the main purpose of slotted section with line carriage?
1.For determination of location of voltage standing wave maxima and minima
along the line.
2.Measure the VSWR and standing wave pattern.
3.Wavelength.
4.Impedence.
5.Reflection coeffient.
6.Return loss measurement.
7.What is a VSWR meter?
VSWR meter is a highly sensitive,high gain,high theta,low noise voltage amplifier tuned
normally at fixed frequency of 1KHZ of which microwave signals modulated.This meter
indicates calibrated VSWR reading fir any loads.
8.What is Bolometer?
It is a power sensor whose resistance change with changed temperature as it absorb the
microwave power.It is ashort thin metallic wire sensor with positive temperature coefficient of
resistance.
9.What is calorimeter?
It is convenient device setup for measuring the high power at microwave which involves
conversion of microwave energy in to heat,absorbing the heat in a f luid and determine the temp.
10.Mention the disadvantages of single bridge circuit ?
1.change in resistance due to mismatch at the microwave input port results in incorrect
reading
2.the thermistor is sensitive to change in the ambient temp resulting in false readings
11.Define insertion loss?
It is defined as difference in power arriving at the terminating load .with or witout
The network in circuit Insertion loss(db)=10 log(po/pi)
12.How will you determine the vswr and return loss in reflecto meter method?
The voltage ratio between port3 or port4 is known reflectin coefficient (T) determined
we determine VSWR and return loss as,
VSWR=(1+T)/(1-T)
Return loss=-20 log(T)
13.List the different types of Impedence measurement methods?
1.Slotted line method
2.Reflectometer method
3.Reactor discontructer method

14.How do you measure microwave frequency?

1.Wavemeter method
2.Slotted line method
3.Downconversion method
15.What is a wavemeter?
It is a device used for frequency measurement in microwave.It has cylindrical cavity with a
variable short circuit termination .It changes the resonant frequency of cavity by changing
cavitylength.
16.How the S-parameter of a microwave circuit measured?
S-parameters are conveniently measured using the deschamps method which utilizes the
measured value of complex input reflection coefficient under a number of a reactive
terminations.
17.List the methods for measuring dielectric constants?
1.Waveguide method
2.cavity pertubaration method
18.What is radiation efficiency?
Radiation efficiency is defined as the ratio of total power radiated to total power accepted
at its input .
19.How do you measure the polarization?
The polarization of an antenna is measured using transmitting mode and probing the
polarization by a dipole antenna in the which the dipole is rotated in the plane of polarization and
the received voltage pattern is recorded.
20.What is spectrum analyzer?
Spectrum analyzer is a broad band super heterodyne receiver which is used to display a wave
in frequency domain additionally, power measurements, side bands can also be observed.
21.List the types of spectrum analyzer
Real time spectrum analyzer
Swept tuned frequency spectrum analyzer
22.List some application of spectrum analyzer.
Identifying frequency terms and their power levels
Measuring harmonic distortion in a wave
Determine type of wave modulation
Signal to noise ratio
For identifying wave distortion
23.What is network analyzer
A Network analyzer measures both amplitude and phase of a signal over a wide
frequency range. It requires accurate reference signal and a test signal

PART B

1.Explain about Slotted line carriage in detail.

The Slotted Line
The Type 874-LBA Slotted Line is designed to measure the voltage standing wave
pattern produced by any load connected to it. Its characteristic impedance is 50 ohms. The outer
conductor is slotted for a length of approximately 50 centimeters, and a small shielded probe
extends into the region between the two conductors. The probe is mounted on a carriage, which
slides along the outside of the outer conductor. The penetration of the probe into the line and,
hence, the capacitive coupling between the probe and the line, can be adjusted over a wide range
by means of a screw adjustment. Cross-sectional views of the probe arrangment are shown in
Figure 3. Since the probe is capacitively coupled to the line, the voltage induced in the probe
circuit is proportional to the voltage existing between the inner and outer conductors of the line
at the probe position. The RF voltage induced in the probe circuit is detected by a crystal in the
probe carriage.

Tuning the Crystal Detector

The crystal rectifier built into the carriage is tuned by means of the adjustable stub, which
is effectively connected in parallel with it in order to increase the sensitivity and to provide
selectivity. The stub is adjusted until maximum output is indicated by the detector.
The General Radio Type 874-LBA slotted line and cross-section views of the carriage
showing the crystal mount and the probe are shown in Figure 3.

Be sure the stub is not tuned to a harmonic of the desired signal rather than to the
fundamental. Confusion may result in some cases if the tuning is done with a high VSWR on the
line, as the minima of the harmonics may not be coincident with the minima of the fundamental
and, consequently, the harmonic content of the signal picked up by the probe may be greater than
that present in the local oscillator output. To minimize the possibility of mistuning, the probe
should be tuned with a low VSWR on the line, for instance, with the line terminated in a Type
874-WM 50 Ohm Termination. As a check, the distance between two adjacent voltage mimina
when the line is terminated in a short circuit can be measured. If the stub is tuned correctly, the
spacing should be a half wavelength.
Probe Penetration Adjustment
The probe penetration should be adjusted for adequate senstivity as well as insignificant
effect on the measured VSWR. The presence of the probe affects the VSWR because it is a small
admittance in shunt with the line. It has the greatest effect at a voltage maximum, where the line
impedance is high.
To adjust the probe penetration, remove the tuning stub connected to the left-hand
connector and turn the small screw found inside the inner connector (See Figure 3). Clockwise
rotation of the screw increases the coupling. In most cases in which moderate VSWR's are
measured, a penetration of about 30% of the distance between the two conductors gives
satisfactory results. For this experiment, your probe penetration has been initially adjusted to
give approximately 30% coupling as indicated below.
To adjust the coupling to 30%, increase the coupling until the probe strikes the center
conductor of the slotted line; then back it off six full turns of the screw. The point of contact
between the probe and the center conductor is most easily measured by connecting an ohmmeter
between the inner and outer conductors of the line with the standing wave indicator connected as
shown in Figure 1. Using the 2000 ohm range on the ohmmeter, note the point at which the
resistance suddenly drops from a very high value to a reasonably low value. The crystal is in
series with this circuit, so the resistance will not drop to zero. No indication will be obtained if
the crystal has been removed. Do not screw the probe downtight against the center conductor, as
it will damage the probe.
The amount of the probe penetration can be visually checked by looking at the probe
though the slot from one end of the line. The effect of the probe coupling on the VSWR can be
determined by measurement of the VSWR at two different degrees of coupling. If the measured
VSWR is the same in both cases, the probe coupling used has no significant effect on the
measurement. If the measured VSWR's are different, additional measurements should be made
with decreasing amounts of probe penetration until no difference occurs. However, as pointed
out in the previous paragraph, a 30% coupling usually gives satisfactory results except when the
VSWR is high, which usually requires a large coupling.
The SWR Meter
The standing wave indicator, or SWR meter, is a low-noise tuned amplifier-voltmeter
calibrated in dB and SWR. The amplifier has a 3 dB bandwidth of approximately 25 Hz centered
at approximately 1000 Hz. The RF source must be modulated with a square wave having a
frequency which corresponds to the center of the bandpass of the SWR meter. The SWR meter is
a linear amplifier and linear voltmeter with the meter scales calibrated for use with a square-law
detector. Hence a two to one change in voltage to the SWR meter is shown as a 3 dB change; this
would be a 6dB change on a conventional voltmeter.

2.Explain about VSWR with neat diagram.

The SWR meter or VSWR (voltage standing wave ratio) meter measures the standing wave
ratio in a transmission line. The meter can be used to indicate the degree of mismatch between a
transmission line and its load (usually a radio antenna), or evaluate the effectiveness of impedance
matching efforts.

A directional SWR meter measures the magnitude of the forward & reflected waves by
sensing each one individually, with directional couplers. A calculation can then be performed to
arrive at the SWR.

A simple directional SWR meter (NOTE: in the above diagram, the REV and FWD label
is reversed, FWD should be the diode near the TX input, and REV should be the diode near the
ANT output
Referring to the above diagram, the transmitter (TX) and antenna (ANT) terminals are
connected via an internal transmission line. This main line is electromagnetically coupled to two
smaller sense lines (directional couplers) which are terminated with resistors at one end, and
diode rectifiers at the other. The resistors are chosen to match the characteristic impedance of the
sense lines. The diodes convert the magnitudes of the forward & reverse waves to FWD and
REV DC voltages, respectively, which are then smoothed by the capacitors[1].
To calculate the VSWR, first calculate the reflection coefficient:

Then calculate the VSWR:

In a passive meter, this is usually indicated on a non-linear scale.

SWR Bridge
SWR can also be measured using an impedance bridge circuit. The bridge is balanced (0
volts across the detector) only when the test impedance exactly matches the reference
impedance. When a transmission line is mismatched (SWR > 1:1), its input impedance deviates
from its characteristic impedance; thus, a bridge can be used to determine the presence or
absence of a low SWR.
To test for a match, the reference impedance of the bridge is set to the expected load
impedance (for example, 50 ohms), and the transmission line connected as the unknown
impedance. RF power is applied to the circuit. The voltage at the line input represents the vector
sum of the forward wave, and the wave reflected from the load. If the characteristic impedance
of the line is known to be 50 ohms, we know the magnitude and phase of the forward wave; it is
the same wave present on the other side of the detector. Subtracting this known wave from the
wave present at the line input yields the reflected wave. Properly designed, a bridge circuit can
be used not only to indicate a match, but the degree of mismatch - thus making it possible to
calculate the SWR. This usually involves alternately connecting the reference wave and the
reflected wave to a power meter, and comparing the magnitudes of the resulting deflections[2].

Limitations
Note that an SWR meter does not measure the actual impedance of a load (i.e., the
resistance and reactance), but only the mismatch ratio. To measure the actual impedance, an
antenna analyzer or other similar RF measuring device is required. Note also that for accurate
readings, the SWR meter must be matched to the line impedance, usually 50 or 75 ohms. To
accommodate multiple impedances, some SWR meters have switches on the rear, to select the
resistance appropriate for the sense lines.
An SWR meter should be connected to the line as close as possible to the antenna: All
practical transmission lines have a certain amount of loss, which causes the reflected wave to be
attenuated as it travels back along the line. Thus, the SWR is highest closest to the load, and only
improves as the distance from the load increases[3].
When not actually measuring SWR, it is best to remove the more usual types of passive
SWR meter from the line. This is because the internal diodes of such meters can generate
harmonics when transmitting, and inter modulation products when receiving. Because active
SWR meters do not usually suffer from this effect, they can normally be left in without causing
such problems.
Equipment Setup and Characteristics:
A typical setup of equipment used in VSWR measurements is shown in Figure1. The signal
generator (Klystron, Gun diode, HP 8620) should be amplitude modulated at the tuned frequency of
the VSWR meter amplifier. If the klystron of a signal generator is modulated at the grid or repeller,

undesirable harmonics and frequency modulation effects will be present. Square wave modulation
reduces these effects.
Detector Probe Penetration
A general rule in slotted line measurements is to use minimum penetration of the detector
sampling probe. The power picked up by the sampling probe causes a distortion in the standing wave
pattern. The effect on the pattern is greater as the probe penetra-tion is increased and this may be
explained by considering the probe as an admittance shunting the line. The impedance in a standing
wave pattern is greatest at a voltage maximum. A shunt admittance such as the probe lowers these
impedances, causing the measured SWR to be lower than the true SWR. The maxima and minima
are shifted from their natural position and this effect is more pronounced at a voltage maximum than
at a voltage minimum.

SPURIOUS SIGNALS
In tuning a klystron, ordinarily the repeller voltage is adjusted for maximum power at a desired
frequency. Then if square wave modulation of the klystron is added without regard to the operating
voltages, the repeller voltage excursions will be incorrect. On square wave peaks the repeller voltage
will not stabilize at maximum power output but will swing between two points which may not
lie in the desired, or even the same mode. The result is closely-spaced frequencies and the typical,
result on a standing wave pattern is illustrated in Figure 3. When square wave modulation is used, it
is necessary to adjust the repeller voltage and the modulating voltage
so the modulating peaks will lie at the maximum of the desired repeller mode and the modulating
troughs do not lie in a mode. It is also desirable that the rising and falling portions of the modulating
voltage do not pass through undesired modes.

3.Describe Spectrum Analyzer in Detail with diagram

A spectrum analyzer or spectral analyzer or signal analyzer is a device used to
examine the spectral composition of some electrical, acoustic, or optical waveforms. It also
measures the power spectrum.
A spectrum analyzer displays signal amplitude (strength) as it varies by signal frequency.
The frequency appears on the horizontal axis, and the amplitude is displayed on the vertical axis.
To the casual observer, a spectrum analyzer looks like an oscilloscope and, in fact, some lab
instruments can function either as an oscilloscope or a spectrum analyzer.
A spectrum analyzer is used to determine whether a wireless transmitter is working
according to federally-defined standards for purity of emissions. Output signals at frequencies
other than the intended communications frequency appear as vertical lines (pips) on the display.
A spectrum analyzer is also used to determine, by direct observation, the bandwidth of a digital
or analog signal.
A spectrum analyzer interface is a device that connects to a wireless receiver or a
personal computer to allow visual detection and analysis of electromagnetic signals over a
defined band of frequencies. This is called panoramic reception and it is used to determine the
frequencies of sources of interference to wireless networking equipment, such as Wi-Fi and
wireless routers.

Types
There are analog and digital spectrum analyzers:

An analog spectrum analyzer uses either a variable band-pass filter or a superheterodyne receiver.
With a band-pass filter, the mid-frequency is automatically tuned (shifted, swept) through the
range of frequencies of which the spectrum is to be measured. With a superheterodyne receiver,
the local oscillator is swept through a range of frequencies.
A digital spectrum analyzer computes the discrete Fourier transform (DFT), a mathematical
process that transforms a waveform into the components of its frequency spectrum.

Some spectrum analyzers (such as "real-time spectrum analyzers") use a hybrid technique where
the incoming signal is first down-converted to a lower frequency using superheterodyne
techniques and then analyzed using fast fourier transformation (FFT) techniques.

Form Factor
Spectrum analyzers tend to fall into two form factors: bench top and handheld.

Bench top
This form factor is useful for applications where the spectrum analyzer can be plugged into AC
power, which generally means in a lab environment or production/manufacturing area. Bench top

spectrum analyzers have historically offered better performance and specifications than the
handheld form factor. Bench top spectrum analyzers normally have multiple fans (with
associated vents) to dissipate heat produced by the processor. Due to their architecture, bench top
spectrum analyzers typically weigh more than 30 pounds (14 kg). Some bench top spectrum
analyzers offer optional battery packs, allowing them to be used away from AC power. This type
of analyzer is often referred to as a "portable" spectrum analyzer.

Handheld
This form factor is useful for any applications where the spectrum analyzer needs to be taken
outside to make measurements or simply carried while in use. Attributes that contribute to a
useful handheld spectrum analyzer include:

Battery-powered operation (and the ability to swap the battery while in the field) to allow the user
to move freely outside.
No fans and no vents, to prevent the ingress of environment contaminants.
Clearly-viewable display to allow the screen to be read in bright sunlight, darkness or dusty
conditions.
Light weight (usually less than 15 pounds (6.8 kg) and preferably less than 10 pounds (4.5 kg)) to
enable easy carrying, whether on level surfaces, or while climbing up antennas or down into
maintenance areas.

Frequency range
Two key spectrum analyzer parameters are frequency and span. Frequency specifies the
center of the display. Span specifies the range between the start and stop frequencies, also
referred to as the bandwidth of the analysis. Sometimes it is possible to specify the start and stop
frequency rather than center and range.

Marker/peak search
Controls the position and function of markers and indicates the value of power. Several
spectrum analyzers have a "marker delta" function that is used to measure the signal-to-noise
ratio or bandwidth.

Bandwidth/average
It is a filter of resolution. The spectrum analyzer captures the measure on having
displaced a filter of small bandwidth along the window of frequencies.

Amplitude
The maximum value of a signal at a point is called amplitude. A spectrum analyzer that
implements amplitude analysis is called a Pulse height analyzer.

View/trace

It Manages parameters of measurement. It stores the maximum values in each frequency

and a solved measurement to compare it.

Operation

Fig.A real time analysis of a song. This spectrum analyzer output features frequency on X (horizontal),
magnitude on Y (vertical), and moves through time in sequence with the song

Fig.Frequency spectrum of the heating up period of a switching power supply (spread spectrum) incl.
waterfall diagram over a few minutes.

Usually, a spectrum analyzer displays a power spectrum over a given frequency range,
changing the display as the properties of the signal change. There is a trade-off between how
quickly the display can be updated and the frequency resolution, which is for example relevant
for distinguishing frequency components that are close together. With a digital spectrum
analyzer, the frequency resolution is = 1 / T, the inverse of the time T over which the
waveform is measured and Fourier transformed (according to uncertainty principle). With an
analog spectrum analyzer, it is dependent on the bandwidth setting of the bandpass filter.
However, an analog spectrum analyzer will not produce meaningful results if the filter
bandwidth (in Hz) is smaller than the square root of the sweep speed (in Hz/s)[citation needed], which

means that a digital analyzer will always outperform an analog device in terms of frequency
resolution for a given acquisition time. Choosing a wider bandpass filter will improve the signalto-noise ratio at the expense of a decreased frequency resolution.
With Fourier transform analysis in a digital spectrum analyzer, it is necessary to sample
the input signal with a sampling frequency s that is at least twice the bandwidth of the signal,
due to the Nyquist limit[1]. A Fourier transform will then produce a spectrum containing all
frequencies from zero to s / 2. This can place considerable demands on the required analog-todigital converter and processing power for the Fourier transform. Often one is only interested in
a narrow frequency range, for example between 88 and 108 MHz, which would require at least a
sampling
g frequency of 216 MHz, not counting the low-pass anti-aliasing filter. In such
cases, it can be more economical to first use a superheterodyne receiver to transform the signal to
a lower range, such as 8 to 28 MHz, and then sample the signal at 56 MHz. This is how an
analog-digital-hybrid spectrum analyzer works.
For very weak signals, a pre-amplifier is used, although harmonic and intermodulation
distortion may lead to the creation of new frequency components that were not present in the
original signal. A new method, which doesn't use a high local oscillator (LO) (that usually
produces a high-frequency signal close to the signal) is used on the latest analyzer generation
like Aaronias Spectran series. The advantage of this new method is a very low noise floor near
the physical thermal noise limit of -174 dBm (1Hz).

4.Explain about the VSWR measurement in Detail.

Voltage Standing Wave Ratio is the ratio of the voltage maximum (antinode) to the
adjacent voltage minimum (node) on a transmission line.
The standing wave is produced by the superposition of a forward travelling wave and a
reflected travelling wave when the transmission line is terminated in other than its characteristic
impedance. The reflected wave is created to reconcile the conditions at the end of the
transmission line, including the load impedance and the natural ratio of V/I in the forward and
reflected travelling waves. is the ratio of Vr/Vf, and VSWR on a sufficiently long lossless line
can be predicted as (1+||)/(1-||) from the conditions at the termination or some other point. ,
Vr and Vf are phasor quantities, ie can be expressed as complex numbers.
Direct measurement of VSWR requires observation of the voltage at a number of points
along the line, but VSWR is more often estimated from observed conditions at a point, but such
estimates typically assume a sufficiently long lossless line.

Indirect measurement of VSWR

Indirect measurement of VSWR means observation of some other parameters than the
voltage standing wave itself (eg using a voltage probe).

Indirect measurement has become the most common way of measuring VSWR, the term
VSWR is often used to mean the "notional" result of an indirect measurement wrt a nominal Zo
rather than that which would be measured on a practical transmission line. That gives rise to the
use of the term VSWR as a means of qualifying a tolerance range for a load impedance, eg a
transmitter might be specified for a nominally 50 load with VSWR<1.5.
There are many methods of indirect measurement of VSWR, but one of the most
common, and quite an ingenious device in its simplicity and usefulness is the Breune VSWR
bridge. This article will use the Bruene circuit as a vehicle for explaining principles that are
common to similar instruments.

Bruene style VSWR meter

The circuit contains two directional samplers, one for the forward travelling wave, and one for
the reflected travelling wave. A sample of the line voltage is obtained by the voltage divider
formed by the 10pF and 330pF capacitors.
A sample of the line current is taken by the current transformer, and the secondary current is
passed through the 82 resistor to develop a voltage at each end of the secondary wrt the centre,
that is proportional to the current in the main line, and opposite in phase at each end of the
winding.

Fig 1 shows a typical VSWR meter based on Bruene circuit. The circuit samples voltage and
current in a very small region of the transmission line, sufficiently small to consider it a point
sample at the frequencies of interest.
Since the voltage sample is connected to the centre of the secondary, the ends of the
secondary will be a voltage that is proportional to the the line voltage plus line current times Z n
(the impedance for which the meter is calibrated), and the line voltage minus line current times

Zn for forward and reflected detectors respectively. The 10pF capacitor is adjusted so that in the
reflected position with applied RF power, the meter shows zero deflection with a Zn load
(typically 50+j0).
The following describes the circuit in detail in the general sense. V1 is the RF voltage at
the lower end of the secondary (wrt ground) in the circuit above, V2 is the voltage at the upper
end of the secondary (wrt ground), Zx corresponds to half of the 82 resistor. The description
assumes the components (capacitors, transformer, diodes) are ideal, and that the VSWR meter
loading of the through line is insignificant.
V1=|k1*V+k2*I*Zx| ...(1)
V2=|k1*V-k2*I*Zx| ...(2)
The instrument is calibrated by adjustment of the value of k1 so that V2 is zero when
Zl=Zn. It can be seen that for V2 to be zero, k1*V=k2*I*Zx, therefore Zx=k1*V/k2/I, and since
V/I=Zn then Zx=k1/k2*Zn. So, the two expressions can be rewritten as:
V1=|k1*(V+I*Zn)| ...(3)
V2=|k1*(V-I*Zn)| ...(4)
Since V=Vf +Vr , and Vr=*Vf and I=If -Ir , and Ir=*If eqn (3) can be rewritten as
V1=|k1*(Vf*(1+)+If*(1-)*Zn)| ...(5)
Substituting Vf/Zn for If
V1=|k1*(Vf*(1+)+Vf*(1-))| ...(6)
V1=|k1*Vf*((1+)+(1-))| ...(7)
V1=|k1*2*Vf| ...(8)
Similarly, eqn (4) can be transformed to
V2=|k1*2**Vf| ...(8)
So
V2 /V1 =|| ...(9)
Substituting for ||
=V2 /V1 ...(10)

VSWR can be calculated from , VSWR=(1+ )/(1- ), so the indication of V2 relative

to V1 can be scaled in VSWR. The instrument can be used to directly measure at a point (being
that of the instrument's sampler) and that knowledge can be used to predict the VSWR that
would be observed on a sufficiently long length of adjacent lossless transmission line of the same
Zo as the instrument's calibration impedance Zn
To analyse the circuit of Fig 1 at 100W connected to a 50+j0 load, for a current
transformer of 1:25+25 turns bifilar, the peak current in the 82 resistor is
2^0.5*(100/50)^0.5/50 or 0.04A, yielding a peak half winding voltage of 0.1*82/2 or 1.65V.
The 10pf capacitor would be adjusted for 0V on the REF switch terminal which will correspond
to about 5.5pF for a voltage sample of 1.65Vpk on the 330pF capacitor. This would give a DC
voltage about 2.7V (allowing for diode voltage drop) at the FOR switch terminal and 0V at the
REF switch terminal.
It is key to note that the accuracy of the instrument in measuring is dependent of the
calibration impedance Zn and less dependent on the Zo of the sampler line section where is is
relatively short (as it is usually).

Other circuits
There are other circuits of VSWR meters, the most common other type uses a pair of
short loosely coupled transmission lines with detectors in the sampler line section. Differently to
the Bruene circuit, the coupling is frequency dependent although some designs achieve
compensation over a range of frequencies (eg Bird 43 elements). Frequency dependent samplers
cannot be simply calibrated as directional wattmeters. Despite this difference, the same
principles apply as explained for the Bruene circuit, in that the circuit samples voltage and
current in a very small region of the transmission line, sufficiently small to consider it a point
sample at the frequencies of interest. From there on, the explanation is the same (though k1 and
k2 may be frequency dependent).
There are other methods for indirect measurement of VSWR that would not be classed as a
VSWR meter, eg a true directional transmission line or waveguide coupler with power meters on
the coupled ports. This configuration comes into its own on microwave frequencies where it is
difficult to construct other types of samplers that are small enough to not disturb the system
being measured.

Directional Wattmeter
Since the forward and reflected detectors in the instrument described above responds to
Vf and Vr respectively, the question arises as to whether the instrument can be calibrated in
power.
The power passing any point in a transmission line is given by P=real(V*conjugate(I)). When Z n
is real (lossless lines and distortionless lines), this can be simplified to Vf*If-Vr*Ir, often
expressed loosely as forward power less reflected power.

Instruments are usually calibrated to a nominal Zn that is real (eg 50+j0), and in that case, with
better quality instruments, the calibration of the scale(s) in Watts (where P f=Vf2/Zn and
Pr=Vr2/Zn), and calculation of power as P=Pf-Pr is sound. The term directional wattmeter is a bit
of a misnomer in that the values of Pf and Pr are not of themselves meaningful, but the difference
of the two is the power at that point.
Beware, these comments apply to the type of directional detector described above, and not to a
simple line RF voltmeter that is incorporated in some instruments and calibrated only for power
when VSWR=1.

Fig 3 shows the conditions a a length of RG6/U terminated in a load of 60-j26. The model is
based on a detailed lossy model of the line.

The magnitude of line voltage and line current show the classic standing wave patterns.
The green line is the calculated VSWR on the line (which has a characteristic impedance of 75j0.8).
The VSWR(50) line shows the VSWR that would be indicated on a short VSWR meter calibrated
for 50+j0, but that should not be interpreted as the VSWR on the actual RG6/U transmission
line.
Note also how the real VSWR falls smoothly from 1.54 at the load to 1.48 at a distance of 20m
from the load, a result of line loss.

Power increase smoothly from the load to the source end, but the slope of the line changes
minutely in this example with line current, the slope (meaning the attenuation per unit length) is
highest approximately where current is highest, meaning the main loss is I2R loss in the centre
conductor.

The VSWR meter captures which is the magnitude of , the phase of is lost and so the
VSWR meter is unable to be used to predict the value of Z at a point, except in the special case
where VSWR=1 and therefore Z is Zn . Fig 4 above shows the impedance along the line for the
example. It can be seen that impedance continually changes along the line, and that is true in the
general case except where VSWR=1.

Errors
There are many sources of errors in VSWR meters, the most common ones are:

accuracy of the impedance at which the detectors null;

scale shape (ie the relationship between scale markings and meter current);
diode voltage drop (related to previous item);
balance of both detectors;
length of the sampler;
power calibration;
frequency sensitivity / compensation accuracy;

insertion VSWR (the VSWR caused by insertion of the sampler element in a line, related to the
coupling and the accuracy of Zo of the sampler section;
loss (loss in the sampler section);
detector / meter response to modulated waveforms;
application - what to measure, and how to extrapolate that measurement to another place (eg
adjacent transmission line or a far end load, and the errors inherent in that extrapolation).

The greatest error is probably the last. VSWR meters are widely used, and ingenious as they are,
the results are often incorrectly interpreted.
It is possible to achieve a good null (ie low VSWR) on a nominal dummy load, even though an
instrument might itself cause higher VSWR because of an inaccurate line section or excessive
coupling.
Mismatch loss or loss due to standing waves can be determined accurately knowing the
propagation constant () of the line and the complex reflection coefficient () at a known point
on the line. An approximation of the mismatch loss can be made using the propagation constant
() (in fact just the attenuation component) and VSWR (which depends only on the magnitude of
the complex reflection coefficient () that is reasonably accurate only on medium length lines
with low VSWR and low loss. This has affects the accuracy of a directional wattmeter of this
type for assessing the matched line loss of a s/c or o/c length of line, but for most purposes the
effect is small and the test gives good results (providing the VSWR meter gives accurate
readings at high VSWR).

5.Explain about the method of finding Antenna Radiation pattern.

Radiation Patterns
The radiation or antenna pattern describes the relative strength of the radiated field in
various directions from the antenna, at a fixed or constant distance. The radiation pattern is a
"reception pattern" as well, since it also describes the receiving properties of the antenna. The
radiation pattern is three-dimensional, but it is difficult to display the threedimensional radiation
pattern in a meaningful manner, it is also time consuming to measure a three-dimensional
radiation pattern. Often radiation patterns are measured that are a slice of the three-dimensional
pattern, which is of course a two-dimensional radiation pattern which can be displayed easily on
a screen or piece of paper. These pattern measurements are presented in either a rectangular or a
polar format.
Absolute and Relative Patterns
Absolute radiation patterns are presented in absolute units of field strength or power.
Relative radiation patterns are referenced in relative units of field strength or power. Most
radiation pattern measurements are relative pattern measurements, and then the gain transfer
method is then used to establish the absolute gain of the antenna.
Near-Field and Far-Field Patterns
The radiation pattern in the region close to the antenna is not exactly the same as the
pattern at large distances. The term near-field refers to the field pattern that exists close to the
antenna; the term far-field refers to the field pattern at large distances. The far-field is also called
the radiation field, and is what is most commonly of interest. The near-field is called the
induction field (although it also has a radiation component). Ordinarily, it is the radiated power
that is of interest, and so antenna patterns are usuallymeasured in the far-field region. For pattern
measurement it is important to choose a distance sufficiently large to be in the far-field, well out
of the near-field. The minimum permissible distance depends on the dimensions of the antenna
in relation to the wavelength.
Radio Receiver (IC-R8500):
Connect the radio receiver to the 12 Volt battery.
Connect the antenna to the VHF/UHF female (center) jack on the back of the receiver.
Turn on the receiver.
Select the FM mode by pressing the FM button once.
Directly enter the frequency (450.3000) by using the numeric pad on the upper right
corner ofthe receiver. Once the number is pressed, press ENT to enter the frequency.
Once the frequency is entered, lock the control panel holding in the speech/lock button
until it beeps once.
Turn the AF Gain knob counter-clockwise to minimum.
Turn the Squelch knob to the center position.
Radio Transmitter (DTX-450):

Connect the transmitter to the coaxial cable hanging from the transmitting antenna
apparatus.
Connect the transmitter to the 12 Volt battery.
Caution: DO NOT reverse the polarity. The metal casing of the transmitter is ground therefore
DO NOT place the transmitter on the positive polarity of the battery.
After the transmitter is connected to the battery, there should be a faint light on the LED power
indicator. If not, double check the battery connection and polarity.
When you are ready to transmit, flip the transmit switch located on the black box attached to the
transmitter (the LED indicator should turn from dim to bright after this point). NOTE: The
transmitter will turn itself off after 4 minutes of operation. Someone in the group will need to
turn it back on periodically. You may keep the transmitter, the cable and the battery coupled
together under the transmitting antenna apparatus. Simply have a group member run over to the
area and reset the transmitter when needed.
Antenna Rotator:
Connect the DC to AC power inverter to the battery.
Caution: DO NOT touch the back of the rotator control box, the three terminals are at 115 Volts
potential.
Plug the rotator control box into the inverters AC outlet. Turn the control dial so that the
line points to the North direction. If the dipole or Yagi antenna is being tested, make sure that the
attached antenna is facing forward in the same direction as the transmitting antenna. Simply
move the mast and tripod around until this is correct. Once this is in place, it is now in position
for your zero degree measurement.
Radiation Measurement:
Connect the external attenuator in series between the receiver and the antenna. There are
five switches on the external attenuator. Each of the numbers below the switches represent the
attenuation factor in dB. For example, if switch 1 and 8 are on, the total attenuation is 1dB + 8dB
= 9dB. If all of the switches are on, the attenuation factor will be 31dB. After the antenna and the
attenuator are connected to the receiver, the s-meter on the radio receiver should show the
relative signal strength of the incoming signal. The attenuators switches should be off at this
point (pointed towards the numbers). If the signal strength on the receivers meter is higher than
20dB, you will need to enable the 10 and/or 20dB internal attenuators on the receiver as well.
The objective is to find the correct value of attenuation so that the signal meter on the receiver
read a 7. Turn on the appropriate combination of the attenuators switches so that the signal
meter read a 7. Add up the dB levels from both the receivers attenuators and the inline
attenuator. Record this value for your 0 degree measurement.
Rotate the control knob on the control module in 11.25 degree increments (follow the
markers on the rotator module). For each increment, adjust the necessary combination of
attenuation factor, by turning on or off the appropriate switches, so that the receiver signal meter
once again measures a 7. Record the value. Repeat the above process for each degree
increment until you get back to 0/360 degrees. When you are finished and need to measure
another antenna, return the knob back to the original 0 degree position. Once the data is
collected, use Matlab to plot the data. You may use the polar function. Remember to convert
from degrees back to radians for this purpose. Matlab will automatically convert back to degrees
when it plots the pattern.

Sample Readings
Degrees
0
11.25
22.5
33.75
45
56.25
67.5
78.75
90
101.25
112.5

dB
57
57
57
56
54
51
50
49
36
35
30

6.Explain about the method of microwave power measurement.

Figure 1 below shows a highly useful Pin/Pout measurement setup, based on many years
of experience slaving away out in the lab. This test bench could be automated using LabView if
you are so inclined, but it works quite well for taking data manually. The setup exploits the A/B
relative power measurement capability of the dual power meter to quickly find compression
points of your device under test (DUT) without even plotting any data. The setup can be used to
measure P1dB of two-port networks (amplifier, limiter, multiplier) and as well as three-port
networks (frequency translators such as mixers).

Figure 1. Power test bench in operation

Referring to the figure, you'll need one RF signal source for amplifier measurements, and
two for mixer measurements. Beyond the need for a second source, there are other key
differences between measuring an amplifier and measuring a mixer. For example, you will have
to keep track of the losses of the input and output networks as well as the power head cal factors
at the different input and output frequencies (RF and LO) for mixer measurements.
Be sure that the sources you use are able to handle the RF and LO frequencies that your
DUT requires. You should pick synthesized sweep oscillators over old-fashioned sweepers, so
that frequency errors are minimized. Although many sources provide a built-in variable
attenuator function that allows you to control the RF power level, you should consider using an
external, infinitely-variable attenuator to control the signal level as shown, since this way you
can quickly adjust the signal to within a few hundredths of a dB. We like to use waveguide
rotary-vane attenuators for this purpose.
Signal source 1 must provide the power level needed to put the DUT well into
compression, and source 2 needs to provide the proper local oscillator power level for mixer
tests. For high power levels you can add power amplifiers to either source, but you may have to
consider the effects of power amplifier broadband noise on the measurement, particularly if you
use a traveling-wave tube (TWT). Perhaps more importantly, you will have to consider the effect

of high-power signals on each and every component in the setup so that you don't roast anything.
Remember, if you do barbeque a component, consider sending us a photo of the remains for the
Microwave Mortuary!
Within the input network,the coupler following source 1 samples the input signal to the
DUT. Attenuator A1 may be used to adjust the input power to power head A to put it into its
"best" range (10 dB to 30 dB less than the maximum power). It also serves to reduce SWR errors
on the input side of the DUT. The isolator that follows the input coupler helps reduce SWR
errors if your DUT has a poor input match. It also prevents directivity errors, by keeping
reflected power from the DUT from corrupting the power meter reading at power head A. If you
use a high-directivity coupler in the input network this should take care of the problem without
the need of an isolator. Be sure the coupler and isolator operate over the required bandwidth. To
determine the measurement uncertainty of the input network due to directivity, you can perform
the following check before you measure your DUT. Insert a matched 50 ohm load where the
DUT would go and apply CW signal from source 1. Observe the power level of power head A.
Now remove the matched load and attach a short circuit (if a short is not available an open circuit
will be nearly as good). The maximum directivity error of the input network will be the
difference in the two power meter readings. You should strive for less than 0.1 dB error here.
Cables A and B may not be necessary, they are used for convenience as well as
mechanical strain relief. If you didn't use any cables at all, you could hang the coupler, DUT and
both power heads of the sweeper's RF output RF connector, which might amount to 50 inchpounds of lateral torque on the coax connection to the source. We don't have to tell you why that
would be bad, do we?
In the output network, attenuator A2 can be used to adjust the power into power head B
to keep it within the "sweet spot" during DUT measurements. For example, if your DUT is
known to provide 30 dBm saturated output power, you might want a 20 dB attenuator on the
output. Filter FL1 is extremely important for mixer measurements, it is there to reject RF and LO
leakage that would corrupt the power head B reading. You need to find a filter that will pass the
IF frequency and reject the RF and LO frequencies (by 30, 40, or 50 dB or more!) Don't have
such a filter laying around the lab? Build one!
Configuring the power test bench for your DUT
Before you measure the power transfer characteristics (input versus output power) of a
nonlinear microwave device, you should have an idea what to expect. Check out our page on
nonlinear devices.
How do you know what power heads, couplers, and attenuators to use? The first step is to
get to know what you are measuring, and what power heads you have available for the
measurement. Go to the manufacturer's web sites, read the data sheets, heck, print them out. The
two most important parameters for your DUT are gain (or loss), and maximum output power.
Also, decide what frequency band you're interested in. Check out your cables, adapters, power
heads, couplers, attenuators, and make sure that everything works well within your frequency
band. Not sure about where your connectors crap out? Visit our page on microwave connectors!

Let's start with the output network. What is the maximum output power of your DUT?
You need to arrange the output network so that this power is about 10 dB below the specified
range of your power head B. Suppose you are testing a two watt amplifier, and you have a
8481A power head (20 dBm is its highest specified power). You should choose a 2 watt, 20 dB
attenuator for the output network. Then the highest power your power head will see is 13 dBm.
The amplifier you want to measure has 30 dB gain. At the saturated output power, you
might expect it to have 27 dB gain. Therefore, you will need to drive it with at least 6 dBm
power. Suppose that your sweeper that you will use for source 1 puts out 10 dBm. That means
your input network, including cables, must have less than 4 dB loss. That should be no problem.
Also, suppose that all you have for an input coupler is a 10 dB coupler. This means that when
you drive the DUT with 6 dBm power, the coupled port on the coupler will see approximately -4
dBm. A good choice for the input power head would be a 8484A low-power unit (-20 dBm
highest specified power). You should add a 20 dB pad to the coupled port (attenuator A1) to drop
the power to the power head to -24 dBm maximum.
Before you continue, consider what the worst case power your power heads will see to
make sure they are safe from being blown up. At the output, if you measure an extremely out of
spec power amp that saturated at 4 watts instead of 2 watts, your power head will still only see
16 dBm. The 8481 is OK up to 25 dBm, so you are safe there. On the input, if the sweeper was
cranked to its highest output power of 10 dBm, and your input network had zero loss, the 8484A
power head would still only see -20 dBm through the 20 dB coupler. It takes +20 dBm to
damage it. One final check... be sure that your DUT does not put any DC voltage on the input or
output connections. If it does you should add a DC block at the offending port. Now you are
good to go!
Calibrating the power test bench
The setup must first be calibrated, meaning that you must determine the input coupling
coefficient (we'll call it C1 here) as well as the output network loss coefficient (we'll call that
C2). C1 is the difference between the input power at the DUT and the power displayed on power
meter A. C1 is found by hooking up the setup as shown below in Figure 2, with power head B
connected directly to the output of the input network (where your DUT will go). You will find
C1 by displaying A/B for this reading. Take this data somewhere in the middle of the power
range that you want to explore.

Figure 2. Power test bench, input network calibration

Guess what? Only power head B needs to "speak the truth" in this measurement setup, both
during the calibration and during the measurements. By this we mean that you can leave the
calibration factor on power head A at 100% at all frequencies, as long as you always observe the
proper cal factor on power head B during the calibration and measurement procedures at each
frequency point. This is because everything that power head A measures will be relative to a
measurement of power head B.
C1 should be entered as an offset to power head C1 so that the power meter will
automatically display the input power to your DUT. (If you want to make this correction later in
your notebook or spreadsheet, that's OK, but why not take advantage of this feature?) For
example, if the coupled power is -21.3 dB less than the DUT input power, C1 is -21.3 dB, and
the offset you enter for power head A is +21.3 dB. You will need to measure a coupling factor
C1 at each frequency that you want to measure (and change the offset during measurements at
each frequency), although over a narrow bandwidth you may not notice a big difference in C1
over frequency.
Next you need to determine the output network loss coefficient C2. For non-mixer
measurements, C2 can be measured by hooking up the setup completely, but without the DUT,
as shown in the figure below. The difference between the measured power at power head B and

the input power measured at power head A (with its coupling factor C1 entered as an offset) will
be the output loss C2.

Figure 3. Power test bench, output network calibration

For mixer measurements, you are better off measuring the output loss (coefficient C2) using a
network analyzer. This is mainly because the input coupler will have a completely different
response at the IF frequency than it did when you measured the coupling coefficient C1.
Detailed measurement procedure example
The following measurement procedure is used for measuring a two-port device such as an
amplifier. Ryan, thanks for helping us check this! Although it is not explicitly stated, it is good
practice to turn off the RF power when making changes to the setup, then turn it on when you
need to make a measurement.
1. Make sure that the power meter has warmed up for one hour with the power heads
connected. Have another donut while you wait.
2. Hit the preset button, this eliminates all of the offsets and cal factors stored by the last
guy who used the power meter.

3. Select dBm for your data, not watts (dBm is preferred by 9 out of 10 microwave
engineers!)
4. Turn off all RF source power and high power amplifiers on your bench and zero the
power heads. The power meter should eventually read "LOG ERROR" for both power
heads.
5. Calibrate both power heads using the power meter's built-in 50 MHz reference
oscillator. Attach power head A to the reference oscillator output (the type N jack on the
face of the power meter), select power head A to display (hit the "A" button). Now hit
"CAL ADJ", and input the cal reference setting for power head A (typically 100%). Note:
for low power heads, you will need to use the Agilent 11708A precision 30 dB/50 MHz
attenuator.
6. Check the cal adjustment of power head A by turning the 50 MHz oscillator on, with the
cal factor set to the cal reference setting (typically 100%). You should read 0.00 dBm for
all power heads except the ones that require the 30 dB reference attenuator. These power
heads should read -30.00 dBm.
7. Repeat Steps 5 and 6 for power head B. Turn off the reference oscillator.
8. Enter the cal factor for power head B (output power) for the first frequency you will be
measuring. Note: leave the cal factor for power head A at 100% from start to finish of
this procedure.
9. Now it's time to determine input coupling coefficient C1. Attach the power heads to
their proper locations in the test setup for calibrating the input network (see Figure 2).
Turn on the RF power and set it at the midrange of where you plan to sweep. Display
A/B on the meter. This is the input coupling coefficient at your first frequency. Write it
down.
10. Determine if you have enough power range from your setup While observing power
meter B (at this step it reads the input power to your DUT), vary the RF power using the
sweeper's built-in attenuator and/or the external variable attenuator (if you have one).
Observe that you can reach the minimum and maximum input power that your
measurement requires.
11. You can now measure your worst-case directivity error. Display power meter A, then
hit "REL" to reference the meter to the current power level (meter should read 0.00 dB).
Then briefly remove power head B and replace it with a short circuit. If you have
excellent directivity, the power meter reading should only change by perhaps 0.1 dB.
Write it down. Put power head B back and continue.
12. Repeat steps 8, 9 and 10 for each frequency you will be measuring, and create a table for
the input coupling coefficient C1 over the frequency range. You can skip the directivity
error measurement (step 11) on the additional frequencies if you are confident that your
setup has good directivity at each frequency. Don't forget to change the power head B cal
factor when you change frequencies.
13. Now it's time to measure the output loss coefficient C2. Note: in the case that your
output network has no appreciable loss, you can skip this step. Connect up the test bench
without the DUT, as shown in Figure 3. For the first frequency, enter the input network
coefficient C1 as an offset to power head A, and be sure to set the proper calibration
factor for power head B. Turn on the RF and set it near your midrange power level. Due
to the C1 offset, power head A is now reading your DUT input power directly. Display

A/B on the power meter; this is equal to your output network loss coefficient C2. Write it
down.
14. Repeat step 13 for each frequency that you will be measuring, and create a table for C2
over the frequency range.
15. Now it's time to measure the power transfer characteristics of your DUT. For each
frequency, enter the proper cal factor for power head B, enter the input coupling
coefficient C1 as an offset to power head A, and enter the output loss coefficient C2 as an
offset to power head B. Install the DUT and bias it to the target quiescent point. Turn on
the RF, and set it to the lowest power setting you want to take data at. You are now good
to go!
16. You now have your choice of displaying input power (power meter A), output power
(power meter B) or gain (A/B). You only need to write down two of these, we like to
record input power and gain. Using steps of approximately 1 or 2 dB, measure the input
power, gain and drain current IDS for the amplifier. Start at 20 dB below the P1dB point
on the data sheet and continue until the amplifier output is saturated (one dB change in
Pin results in less than 0.1 dB change in Pout).

7.Explain about the method of measuring the Insertion loss.

In wireless communication systems, the transmit and receive antennas are connected to
the radio through coaxial cable and/or waveguide transmission lines (Figure 1). Insertion loss
measures the energy absorbed by the transmission line in the direction of the signal path in
dB/meter or dB/feet.
Transmission line losses are dependent on cable type, operating frequency and the length
of the cable run. Insertion loss of a cable varies with frequency; the higher the frequency, the
greater the loss.
Insertion loss measurements help troubleshoot the network by verifying the cable
installation and cable performance. High insertion loss in the feedline or jumpers can contribute
to poor system performance and loss of coverage. Measuring insertion loss using Site Master
assures accurate and repeatable

During network deployment, maintenance, and trouble shooting phases, insertion loss can
be measured by disconnecting the antenna and connecting an enclosed short at the end of the
transmission line. If a Tower Mounted Amplifier (TMA) is used in the transmission feed line
system, it is best to remove the TMA and antenna from the system configuration to perform an
insertion loss measurement. It is best to always disconnect the cable at the same location so the
measured data can be compared to the historical data for accuracy and repeatability. Using Site
Master, cable insertion loss can be measured in CABLE LOSS or RETURN LOSS mode.
In Cable Loss mode, Site Master automatically considers the signal traveling in both
directions thus making the measurement easier for the user in the field. The following section
explains the procedure to measure insertion loss in cable loss mode and return loss mode. The
measurement setup and equipment required is the same for both modes Insertion Loss
Measurement Setup The insertion loss measurement set up for a typical transmission feed line
system is shown in Figure 2. Remove the antenna and connect an enclosed precision short at
the end of the transmission line. If a Tower Mounted Amplifier (TMA) is in the transmission
feed line system, remove the TMA and antenna and connect an enclosed short at the end of the
transmission line. Insertion loss measurement for a transmission feed line system with a tower
mounted amplifier is shown in Figure 3.

Procedure
Step 1. Power On the Site Master and press the MODE key.
Step 2. Select FREQ-CABLE LOSS using the Up/Down arrow key and press ENTER.
Step 3. Set the start and stop frequencies F1 and F2. As an example, F1=750 MHz and F2=850
MHz for a typical cellular frequency band.
Step 4. Connect the phase stable test port extension cable to the RF port.
Step 5. Calibrate the Site Master at the end of the phase stable test port extension cable. (See the
section entitled Calibrating Site Master with the Phase Stable Test Port Extension
Cable for details.)
Step 6. Disconnect the antenna and connect an enclosed precision "short" at the end of the
transmission line.
Step 7. Connect the other end of the transmission line to the phase stable cable of the Site
Master. A trace will be displayed on the screen when the Site Master is in continuous
sweep mode.
Step 8. Press the AMPLITUDE key and set the TOP and BOTTOM values of the display. In
Figure 4, the TOP is set to 2 dB, and the BOTTOM is set to 5 dB.
Step 9. Press the MARKER key.
Step 10.Set M1 to MARKER TO PEAK.

Step 11.Set M2 to MARKER TO VALLEY.

Step 12.Calculate the insertion loss by averaging M1 (MARKER TO PEAK) and M2 (MARKER
TO VALLEY) values as follows:
Step 13. Press SAVE DISPLAY and name the trace using the soft keys and Press ENTER.