CHAPTER 5

The Differential Forms

of the
Fundamental Laws
5.1

0=

dV
+
t
c. v .

c. s .

v
v
.
t + (V )d V
c. v .
c. v .
Since this is true for all arbitrary control volumes (i.e., for all limits of
integration), the integrand must be zero:
v
v
+ ( V ) = 0.
t
This can be written in rectangular coordinates as

=
(u) + ( v ) + ( w ).
t x
y
z
This is Eq. 5.2.2. The other forms of the continuity equation follow.
0=

5.2

dV
+
t
c. v .

$ . Using Gauss theorem:

V ndA

(V )d V

m element
.
t

v r ( rddz) v r + (v r )dr( r + dr )ddz

r

+v drdz v + ( v )ddrdz

& in m
& out =
m

dr

dr

dr

+v z r + ddr v z + (v z )dz r + ddr = r + ddrdz .

2
z
2
t
2

Subtract terms and divide by rddrdz :

v

r + dr
1
r + dr / 2 r + dr / 2
r (v r )

(v ) ( v z )
=
.
r
r
r

r z
r
t
r
Since dr is an infinitesimal, (r + dr ) / r = 1 and ( r + dr / 2) / r = 1. Hence,

1

1
+ ( v r ) +
(v ) + ( v z ) + v r = 0. This can be put in various forms.
t r
r
z
r

89

5.3

m element
.
t

v r ( rd) r sin d v r + (v r )dr ( r + dr)d( r + dr ) sin d

r

dr

dr

+v dr r + sin d v + ( v )d dr r + sin d

& in m
& out =
m

dr

dr

+v dr r + d v + (v )ddr r + d

dr

r
+
drd sin d

t
2

Because some areas are not rectangular, we used an average length (r + dr / 2).
Now, subtract some terms and divide by rd ddr:
dr
r+
2

( r + dr )

2 sin
v r sin v r sin (v r ) sin

(v )
r
r

r
2
dr
dr

r +
r+

2
2 =
(v )
sin

r
t
r
Since dr is infinitesimal (r + dr ) 2 / r = r and (r + dr / 2) / r = 1. Divide by r sin
and there results

1
1

2
+ ( v r ) +
(v ) +
(v ) + v r = 0
t r
r
r sin
r

= 0. Then, with v = w = 0 Eq. 5.2.2 yields

t

du
d
( u ) = 0
or

+u
= 0.
x
dx
dx
Partial derivatives are not used since there is only one independent variable.

5.4

For a steady flow

5.5

Since the flow is incompressible

D
= 0. This gives
Dt
v
p 1 p
200 1
200

p =
ir +
i = 3 2 cos2 ir 3 sin2 i
r
r
r r

u
+w
= 0.
x
z
v v
u w
Also, V = 0,
or
+
= 0.
x z

90

or

= 0,
0. Since water can be considered to be incompressible, we
t
z
D

demand that
= 0.
u
+w
= 0, assuming the x-direction to be in the
Dt
x
z
v v
u w
direction of flow. Also, we demand that V = 0,
or
+
= 0.
x z

5.6

Given:

5.7

We can use the ideal gas law, =

5.8

p
. Then, the continuity equation
RT
v v
p v v
D
1 Dp
= V becomes, assuming RT to be constant,
=
V
Dt
RT Dt
RT
v v
1 Dp
= V .
p Dt

or

a) Use cylindrical coordinates with v = v z = 0:

1
( rv r ) = 0
r r
Integrate:
C
rv r = C.
vr = .
r
b) Use spherical coordinates with v = v = 0:
1 2
( r vr ) = 0
r 2 r
Integrate:
C
r 2 v r = C.
vr = 2 .
r

5.9

v v
u v
kg
D
= V =
+ = 2.3( 200 1 + 400 1) = 1380
.
Dt
m3 s
x y

5.10

In a plane flow, u = u( x , y ) and v = v ( x , y ). Continuity demands that

If u = const, then

u
v
= 0 and hence
= 0. Thus, v = const also.
x
y

91

u v
+
= 0.
x y

5.11

5.12

If u = C1 and v = C2 , the continuity equation provides, for an incompressible

flow,
u v w
w
+
+
= 0.

= 0 and w = C 3 .
x y z
z
The z-component of velocity w is also constant.
We also have
D

=0=
+u
+v
+w
Dt
t
x
y
z
The density may vary with x, y, z and t. It is not, necessarily, constant.
u v
+
= 0.
x y

A+

But, v ( x , o) = 0 = f ( x ).
5.13

u v
+
= 0.
x y

v (x , y ) =

5.14

v
= 0.
y

v ( x , y ) = Ay + f ( x ).
v = Ay.

( x 2 + y 2 )5 5x( 2 x)
5x 2 5y 2
v
u
=
=
=

y
x
(x 2 + y 2 )2
(x 2 + y 2 )2

5y 2 5x 2
5y
dy + f ( x ) = 2
+ f ( x ).
2
2 2
(x + y )
x + y2

f ( x ) = 0.

1
1 v
1
.4
( rv r ) =
= 10 + 2 sin .
r r
r
r
r
.4
.4

rv r = 10 + 2 sin dr + f ( ) = 10r sin + f ( ).

r
r

From Table 5.1:

.4

.2v r (.2, ) = 10 .2 sin + f ( ) = 0.

.2

f ( ) = 0.

0.4

v r = 10 2 sin .

r
5.15

1
1 v 20
1
( rv r ) =
=
1 + 2 cos .
r r
r
r
r
1
1

rv r = 20 1 + 2 cos dr + f ( ) = 20 r cos + f ( ).

r
r
v r (1, ) = 20( 1 1)cos + f ( ) = 0. f ( ) = 0.

From Table 5.1:

v r = 20 1 2 cos .

92

v =

5y
.
x + y2
2

5.16

1 2
1

(r v r ) =
( v sin ).
2
r r
r sin

From Table 5.1, spherical coordinates:

1 2
1
40
(r v r ) =
10 + 3 2 sin cos .
2
r r
r sin
r
40
80

2
2
r v r = r 10 + 3 2 cos dr + f ( ) = 10r cos + f ( )

r
r
80

2
4v r ( 2, ) = 10 2 cos + f ( ) = 0.
f ( ) = 0.

80

v r = 10 3 cos .

du
d
( u ) = 0.

+u
= 0.
x
dx
dx
slug
p
18 144
du 526 453
=
=
= 0.00302
.
=
= 219 fps / ft.
3
RT 1716 500
ft
dx 2 2 / 12
d
du
.00302

=
=
219 = 0.00136 slug / ft 4 .
dx
u dx
486

5.17

Continuity:

5.18

u v
+
= 0.
x y

20( 1 e x ) = 20 e x
x

Hence, in the vicinity of the x-axis:

v
= 20e x and v = 20ye x + C.
y
But v = 0 if y = 0. C = 0.
v = 20 ye x = 20( 0.2)e 2 = 0.541 m / s

5.19

1
v

( rv r ) + z = 0.
20(1 e z ) = 20 e z
r r
z
z
Hence, in the vicinity of the z-axis:
1
r2
( rv r ) = 20 e z and rv r = 20 e z + C.
r r
2
But v r = 0 if r = 0.
C = 0.

v r = 10 re z = 10( 0.2) e 2 = 0.271 m / s

5.20

The velocity is zero at the stagnation point. Hence,

40
0 = 10 2 .
R = 2 m
R
u v
u
The continuity equation for this plane flow is
+
= 0. Using
= 80 x 3 ,
x y
x

93

we see that

v
= 80 x 3 near the x-axis. Consequently, for small y ,
y

v = 80x 3 y

5.21

so that v = 80( 3 ) 3 (0.1) = 0.296 m / s.

The velocity is zero at the stagnation point. Hence

40
0 = 2 10.
R = 2 m
R
1 2
1
20
r vr ) = 2
( 40 10r 2 ) = .
(
2
r r
r r
r
Near the negative x-axis continuity provides us with
1

20
v sin ) =
.
(
r sin
r
Integrate, letting = 0
from the y-axis:
v sin = 20 cos + C
Since v = 0 when = 90 o , C = 0. Then, with = tan 1
v = 20

0.1
= 1.909 o ,
3

cos
cos 88.091
0.0333
= 20
= 20
= 0.667 m / s
sin
sin 88.091
0.999

u v
v
u
13.5 11.3
m/s
+
= 0.

=
=
= 220
.
x y
y
x
2 .005
m
v = v 0 = 220y .
v = 220 .004 = 0.88 m / s.
u
b) a x = u
= 12.6 ( +220) = 2772 m /s 2 .
x

5.22

Continuity:

5.23

Fy = may . For the fluid particle occupying the volume of Fig. 5.3:

yy dy
zy dz
xy dx

yy +
dxdz + zy +
dxdy + xy +
dydz
y 2
z 2
x 2

yy dy
zy dz
xy dx

yy
dxdz zy
dxdy xy
dydz
y 2
z 2
x 2

+g y dx dy dz = dx dy dz

Dividing by dx dy dz , and adding and subtracting terms:

xy yy zy
Dv
+
+
+ g y =
.
x
y
z
Dt
5.24

Check continuity:
u v w ( x 2 + y 2 )10 10 x( 2 x) ( x 2 + y 2 )10 10y (2 y )
+
+
=
+
= 0.
x y z
(x 2 + y 2 )2
( x2 + y2 ) 2

94

Dv
Dt

Thus, it is a possible flow. For a frictionless flow, Eulers Eqs. 5.3.7 give, with
g x = g y = 0:
u
u
p
u
+ v
=
.
x
y
x

p
10 x 10 y2 10 x 2
10 y
20 xy
100( x 2 + y 2 ) y

= 2
2
=
x
x + y 2 ( x 2 + y 2 )2
x + y 2 ( x 2 + y 2 )2
( x2 + y2) 3
v
v
p
u
+ v
=
.
x
y
y
p
10 x
20 xy
10 y 10 x 2 10 y 2
100( x 2 + y 2 ) y
= 2

y
x + y 2 (x 2 + y 2 )2
x 2 + y 2 ( x 2 + y 2 )2
(x 2 + y 2 )3
v
p p
100 x
100 y
100
p =
i +
j=
i+
j=
( xi + yj ).
x
y
(x 2 + y 2 )2
( x2 + y 2 ) 2
( x 2 + y 2 )2

5.25

Check continuity (cylindrical coord from Table 5.1):

1
1 v 10
1
10
1
( rv r ) +
=
1 + 2 cos +
1 + 2 cos = 0. It is a possible
r r
r
r
r
r
r
flow. For Eulers Eqs. (let = 0 in the momentum eqns of Table 5.1) in
cylindrical coord:
2
v2
v vr 100
p
vr
1
1

=
vr

=
1 + 2 sin 2 10 1 2

r
r
r
r
r r
r
10
1
10
2

1 + 2 sin 10 2 .

r
r
r
vv
v
v v
1p
100
1
= r vr =
1 4 sin cos

r
r
r
r
r r

2 20
cos 3

1
20
100
1
10 1 2 cos sin 3
1 + 2 sin cos .

r
r
r
r
v
p 1 p
200 1
200

p =
ir +
i = 3 2 cos2 ir 3 sin2 i
r
r
r r

5.26

This is an involved problem. Follow the steps of Problem 5.25. Good luck!
v 2 + v 2
p
v v r
v
=
v r r
r
r
r
r
(v v )
v
v v
1 p
= r v r
r
r
r
r

95

5.27

2
v v
2
v v
p = p
+ V .
p p =
+ V .
3

s$ $s
n$
n$

=
= .
s s
R
R
s$ $s n$

=
= n$ .
t t
t
t
v
DV V
V V 2

=
+V
s + V

n.
Dt t
s t
R
V2
V
For steady flow, the normal acc. is
.
, the tangential acc. is V
s
R

5.28

5.29

v
For a rotating reference frame (see Eq. 3.2.15), we must add the terms due to .
Thus, Eulers equation becomes
v
v
v v v
v v d v
v
DV
v

+ 2 V + ( r ) +
r = p g.
dt
Dt

v v
u
+ V = 30 psi.
x
= p = 30 psi.

xx = p + 2
yy = zz

u v
.1
5
5
xy =
+
= 10 30 1440 = 18 10 psf.
12

y x
xy 18 10 5
xz = yz = 0.
=
= 4.17 10 8 .
xx
30 144
5.30

v
u
16 y
16 y 2
8 y2
16 y 3
=
=

.
v ( x, y ) = 9 / 5 2 13/5 + f ( x ).
y
x C x 9 / 5 C 2 x13/5
Cx
3C x
4/ 5
v ( x , o) = 0.
f ( x ) = 0. 8 = C 1000 .
C = 0.0318.
u( x , y ) = 629 yx 4/ 5 9890 y 2 x 8/ 5 .

xx

v ( x , y ) = 252 y 2 x 9/ 5 5270 y 3 x 13/ 5 .

u
= p + 2
= 100 + 0 = 100 kPa.
x
yy = zz = p = 100 kPa.

u v
5
4 / 5
xy =
+
= 5.01 10 5 Pa.
= 2 10 629 1000

xz = yz = 0.

96

5.31

v v
Du u

=
+ u
+v
+w
u
=
(
V
) u.

Dt
t x
y
z
v v
Dv v

=
+ u
+v
+w
v
=
(
V
) v.

Dt
t x
y
z
v v
Dw w

=
+u
+v
+w
w
=
(
V
)w

Dt
t x
y
z
v
v v v
DV Du Dv Dw v v

=
i+
j+
k = V (ui + vj + wk ) = (V )V .
Dt
Dt
Dt
Dt

5.32

Follow the steps that lead to Eq. 5.3.17 and add the term due to compressible
effects:
v
v
v v v v v v v
DV
v

= p + g + 2V +
Vi +
Vj +
Vk
Dt
3x
3y
3z
v
v
$ $ v v
v
= p + g + 2V + i$ +
j+
k V
3 x
y
z
v
v
v v v v
DV
v

= p + g + 2V + ( V ).
Dt
3

5.33

If u=u(y), then continuity demands that

v
= 0.
y

v = C.

But, at y=0 (the lower plate) v=0. C = 0 , and v ( x , y ) = 0.

2u 2u 2 u
Du
u
u
u
u
p
=
+u
+v
+w
=

g
+

2 + 2 + 2 .

x
Dt
x
y
z
x
y
z
t
x
0 =

5.34

p
x

ay 2

Dv
p
=0=
.
Dt
y

p
Dw
=0=
+ ( g ).
Dt
z

Continuity:

2u

0 =

p
z

g .

( rvr ) = 0. rvr = C. At r = 0, vr .
r
Dvr
1p
=0=
.
Dt
r

Dv
1 p
=0=
.
Dt
r

97

C = 0.

 2v
v
Dvz
v z v vz
vz
p
1 vz
1 2vz
2vz
z
z

=
+ vr
+
+ vz
+
+
+
+
t
r 2 r r r 2 2
Dt
r
r
z
z
z2

0 =

5.35

Continuity:

p
2 v
1 v z
+ 2z +
.
z
r r
r

1 2
( r v r ) = 0.
r 2 r

r 2 v r = C.

At r = r1 , v r = 0.

C = 0.

v2
p
2v

=
+ 2 cot .
r
r
r

5.36

0=

1 p
1 2 v
+
r
2
r
r
r r

0=

1 p
.
r sin

2 2
r sin

v v
For an incompressible flow V = 0. Substitute Eqs. 5.3.10 into Eq. 5.3.2 and
5.3.3:
Du

u u v u w

=
+ +
+
p + 2 +
+ g x .
Dt x
x y y x z z x
=

p
2u
2u
2u
u v w
+ 2 + 2 + 2 +
+
+
+ g x
x
x
y
z
x x y z

p
2u 2u 2u
Du
=
+ 2 + 2 + 2 + g x .
Dt
x
y
z
x

Dv u v
v v w
=

+
+
p + 2
+
+ gy.
Dt x y x y
y z z y
p
2v
2v
2v
u v w
=
+ 2 + 2 + 2 +
+
+
+ g y
y
x
y
z
y x y z

p
2v 2v 2 v
Dv

=
+ 2 + 2 + 2 + g y .
Dt
y
y
z
x

Dw u w v w
w
=

+
+
+
p + 2
+ gz
Dt x z x y z y z
z

98

p
2w
2w
2 w
u v w
+ 2 + 2 + 2 +
+
+
+ g z
z
x
y
z
z x y z

p
2w 2w 2w
Dw

= + 2 + 2 + 2 + g z .
Dt
z
y
z
x

5.37

If we substitute the constitutive equations (5.3.10) into Eqs. 5.3.2 and 5.3.3., with
= ( x , y , z ) we arrive at

2u 2u 2u
Du
p
u u v u w

=
+ gx + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2
+
+
+

Dt
x
x x y y x z z x
y
z
x

5.38

If plane flow is only parallel to the plate, v = w = 0. Continuity then demands

that u / x = 0. The first equation of (5.3.14) simplifies to

2u 2u 2u
u
u
u
u
p

+u
+v
+w
=

g
+

+
+

x
x2 y2 z2
x
y
z
x
t

u
2u
=
t
y2

We assumed g to be in the y-direction, and since no forcing occurs other than

due to the motion of the plate, we let p / x = 0.
5.39

5.40

xx + yy + zz

v v
2 u v w
+
+
V.
3
3 x y z
2
v v
2
v v
p = p
+ V .
p p =
+ V .
3

From Eqs. 5.3.10,

= p

v
v

(V )V = u + v + w (ui + vj + wk )
y
z
x
v
v w
w
w v
v
v
(V )V = u
+v
+w
u + v + w i

y
z z x
y
z
y x

u
u
u w
w
w
+ u
+v
+ w u
+ v + w j
y
z x x
y
z
z x
v
v
v u
u
u
+ u + v + w u
+ v + w k
y
z y x
y
z
x x
w v u w v u
v
Use the definition of vorticity: = (
)i + ( ) j + ( )k
y z
z x
x y

99

v w v
u w
v x
v
( )V = ( ) + ( ) + ( ) ( ui + vj + wk)
y z x z x y x y z
v

w v
u w v u
v
(V ) = u
+ v + w ( )i + (
) j + ( )k
y
z y z
z x
x y
x
Expand the above, collect like terms, and compare coefficients of i , j, and k.
5.41

Studying the vorticity components of Eq. 3.2.21, we see that z = u / y is the

only vorticity component of interest. The third equation of Eq. 5.3.24 then
simplifies to
D z
= 2 z
Dt
2 z
=
y2
since changes normal to the plate are much larger than changes along the plate,
z
z
i.e.,
>>
.
y
x

5.42

If viscous effects are negligible, as they are in a short section, Eq. 5.3.25 reduces
to
D z
=0
Dt
that is, there is no change in vorticity (along a streamline) between sections 1 and
2. Since (see Eq. 3.2.21), at section 1,
v u
z =

= 10
x y
we conclude that, for the lower half of the flow at section 2,
u
= 10.
y

This means the velocity profile at section 2 is a straight line with the same slope
of the profile at section 1. Since we are neglecting viscosity, the flow can slip at
the wall with a slip velocity u0 ; hence, the velocity distribution at section 2 is
u 2 ( y ) = u 0 + 10 y . Continuity then allows us to calculate the profile:
V1 A 1 = V 2 A 2
1
(10 0.04 )(0.04w ) = (u 0 + 10 0.02 / 2 )(0.02w ).
u 0 = 0.3 m / s.
2
Finally,
u 2 ( y ) = 0.3 + 10 y

100

5.43

No. The first of Eqs. 5.3.24 shows that, neglecting viscous effects,
D x
u
u
u
= x
+ y
+ z
Dt
x
y
z
so that y , which is nonzero near the snow surface, creates x through the term
y u / y, since there would be a nonzero u / y near the tree.

5.44

v
$
=
kT ndA

c .s .

p v
V 2

V2
~
$
+
gz
+
u
)

d
V

+
+ gz + ~
u + V ndA

c.v. t 2

c . s.

v
v
( k T )d V
=

c .v .

V 2

c.v. t 2 + gz + ~u d V +

v v V2
p

c.v. V 2 + gz + ~u + d V

v V 2

p
V2
v
2
~
k T +
+ gz + u + V
+ gz + ~
u + d V
= 0.
t 2

2

c. v .
v
v
v V2
v
v V v
v p
v
V2 v
p V 2 v

+ V
+ gz + =
+ V + V
+ V V +
+ g z = 0.

t 2
2 t

continuity
~
v
v

Du
k 2T + u~ + V ~
u = 0.

= k 2T .
t
Dt
5.45

Divide each side by dxdydz and observe that

T
x

x + dx

T
x

dx
Eq. 5.4.5 follows.
5.46

momentum

T
2

x 2

T
y

y + dy

T
y

dy

T
2

x2

T
z

z + dz

dz

T
z

2T
z 2

v
Du%
D( h p / )
Dh Dp p D
Dh Dp p
=
=

+
=

+ V
Dt
Dt
Dt Dt Dt
Dt Dt
v
where we used the continuity equation: D / Dt = V . Then Eq. 5.4. 9
becomes
v
v
Dh Dp p

+ V = K 2T p V
Dt Dt

which is simplified to
Dh
Dp

= K 2T +
Dt
Dt

101

 T
T
T
T
c
+u
+v
+ w = k 2T .
x
y
z
t
T
Neglect terms with velocity: c
= k 2 T.
t

5.47

See Eq. 5.4.9: ~

u = cT .

5.48

The dissipation function involves viscous effects. For flows with extremely
large velocity gradients, it becomes quite large. Then
DT
cp
=
Dt
DT
and
is large. This leads to very high temperatures on reentry vehicles.
Dt

5.49

5.50

u
= 2r 10 5 .
( r takes the place of y )
r
1 u 2
From Eq. 5.4.17, = 2 = 4 r 2 10 10 .
2 y
At the wall where r = 0.01 m ,
= 1.8 10 5 4.012 10 10 = 72 N / m 2 s .
u
At the centerline
= 0 so = 0.
r
At a point half-way: = 1.8 10 5 4.005 2 10 10 = 18 N / m 2 s .
u = 10( 1 10 000 r 2 ).

(a) Momentum:

u
2u
= 2
t
y
2

u
T
2T
Energy: c
= K 2 + .
t
y
y

(b) Momentum:

u
2u u
= 2 +
t
y
y y
2

u
T
2T
Energy: c
= K 2 + .
t
y
y

102