Geodetic Instruments

Sigheartau Diana-Calina
Faculty of Geography
Terrestrial measurements and cadastre
2nd year

Summary
1. Introduction
1.1. Geodesy
1.2. Topography
1.3. Geodetic observational concepts
1.4. Points marked on terrain
1.5. Terrestrial measuring techniques
1.6. Most used instruments
2. Instruments and devices
2.1. Instruments for measuring lengths in line
2.2. Instruments for measuring lengths and angles
2.3. Theodolite
2.4. Total station
3. Conclusions
3.1. Questions
4. Bibliography

1. Introduction
The concept of measuring the land appears once with the passage of people from
the nomadic lifestyle to the stable one, a time when the concept of ownership occurred
and along with it the idea of measuring the land surface of the property.
The earliest data we have about the existence of land measurement dates from
1700 B.C., a document kept on papyrus which shows that science of terrestrial
measurements has been known and practiced by the Egyptian priests who had large
properties, which were measured and kept in evidence.
Nowadays, terrestrial measurements are involved in the design of roads and
bridges, in civil engineering, but also in real estate transactions.
1.1. Geodesy
Geodesy also named geodetics, a branch of earth sciences, is the scientific
discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the Earth, including
its gravitational field, in a three-dimensional time-varying space. Geodesists also
study geodynamical phenomena such as crustal motion, tides, and polar motion. For this
they design global and national control networks, using space and terrestrial techniques
while relying on datums and coordinate systems. Geodesy (from Greek geodaisia, lit.
"division of the Earth") is primarily concerned with positioning within
the temporally varying gravity field.
1.2. Topography
Topography (from Greek topos, "place", and graph, "write") is the study
of Earth's surface shape and features or those of planets, moons, and asteroids. It is also
the description of such surface shapes and features (especially their depiction in maps).
The topography of an area can also mean the surface shape and features themselves.
1.3. Geodetic observational concepts
Here we define some basic observational concepts, like angles and coordinates,
defined in geodesy (and astronomy as well), mostly from the viewpoint of the local
observer.
The plumb line or vertical is the direction of local gravity, or the line that results
by following it. It is slightly curved.
The zenith is the point on the celestial sphere where the direction of the gravity
vector in a point, extended upwards, intersects it. More correct is to call it a direction
rather than a point.
The nadir is the opposite point (or rather, direction), where the direction of
gravity extended downward intersects the (invisible) celestial sphere.
The celestial horizon is a plane perpendicular to a point's gravity vector.
Azimuth is the direction angle within the plane of the horizon, typically counted
clockwise from the North (in geodesy and astronomy) or South (in France).
Elevation is the angular height of an object above the horizon, alternatively zenith
distance, being equal to 90 degrees minus elevation.
Local topocentric coordinates are azimuth (direction angle within the plane of the
horizon) and elevation angle (or zenith angle) and distance.
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The North celestial pole is the extension of the Earth's (precessing and nutating)
instantaneous spin axis extended Northward to intersect the celestial sphere. (Similarly
for the South celestial pole.)
The celestial equator is the intersection of the (instantaneous) Earth equatorial
plane with the celestial sphere.
A meridian plane is any plane perpendicular to the celestial equator and
containing the celestial poles.
The local meridian is the plane containing the direction to the zenith and the
direction to the celestial pole.
Precession is a change in the orientation of the rotation axis of a rotating body.
Nutation is a rocking, swaying or nodding motion in the axis of rotation of a
largely axially symmetric object.
A geodetic datum is a reference from which measurements are made. In
surveying and geodesy, a datum is a set of reference points on the Earth's surface against
which position measurements are made and (often) an associated model of the shape of
the Earth (reference ellipsoid) to define ageographic coordinate system.
1.4. Points marked on terrain
The locations of points in three-dimensional space are most conveniently
described by three cartesian or rectangular coordinates, X,Y and Z. Since the advent of
satellite positioning, such coordinate systems are typically geocentric: the Z axis is
aligned with the Earth's (conventional or instantaneous) rotation axis.
Point positioning is the determination of the coordinates of a point on land, at sea,
or in space with respect to a coordinate system. Point position is solved by computation
from measurements linking the known positions of terrestrial or extraterrestrial points
with the unknown terrestrial position. This may involve transformations between or
among astronomical and terrestrial coordinate systems.
Points on the Earth's surface change their location due to a variety of mechanisms:
- Continental plate motion, plate tectonics;
- Episodic motion of tectonic origin, especially close to fault lines;
- Periodic effects due to Earth tides;
- Postglacial land uplift due to isostatic adjustment;
- Various anthropogenic movements due to, for instance, petroleum or water extraction or
reservoir construction.
1.5. Terrestrial measuring techniques
Land surfaces can be measured using one of the following techniques, considering
the purpose of the measurement:
Leveling
Measurement of height differences
Triangulation
Angular measurements for horizontal surveying
Electronic distance measurement ( EDM)
- Laser distance measurements
Due to different measurement techniques we use different instruments with
certain features.

1.6. Most used instruments

The level is used for determining height differences and height reference systems,
commonly referred to mean sea level. The traditional spirit level produces these
practically most useful heights above sea level directly.
The theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angles to target points.
These angles are referred to the local vertical. The tacheometer additionally determines,
electronically or electro-optically, the distance to target, and is highly automated to even
robotic in its operations.

2. Instruments and devices

2.1. Instruments for measuring lengths in line
There are a variety of tools for measuring distances directly, which in metric
system may have lengths ranging from 1 meter to 100 meters. After precision and
purpose, these instruments can have low precision, average precision and high precision.
Usually, in topographic measurements are used the first two groups of
instruments, the high precision tools being used mostly in geodetic measurements.
a.) Low precision instruments
The human step is used for the land recognition as well as it is used to
approximate the distance between two points in absence of other instruments.
A surveyor's wheel, also called a clickwheel, hodometer, waywiser, trundle
wheel, measuring wheel, or perambulator is a device for measuring distance. Each
revolution of the wheel measures a specific distance, such as a yard, meter or half-rod.
Thus counting revolutions with a mechanical device attached to the wheel measures the
distance directly.
b.) Average precision instruments
Ordinary measurements of the lengths of lines are performed with steel
measuring tapes 20 or 50 m long, which are placed on the ground, while marking their
ends with pins.
More accurate measurements are performed with invar tapes, which are stretched
by dynamometers.
c.) High precision instruments
Even more accurate measurements, usually those of the bases in triangulation,
require the use of base instruments with suspended invar measuring wires 24 m long. The
relative error of such measurements is of the order of 1:1,000,000, which corresponds to
1 mm per kilometer of measured distance.
2.2. Instruments for measuring lengths and angles
More accurate determinations of directions and angles in geodesy require the use
of various other instruments. A prototype of these instruments was the astrolabe, which
was invented even before the Common Era and consisted of a circle with divisions, from
which angles were measured with the aid of a rotating rule with diopters for sighting at an
object. Other angle-measuring instruments, such as the pantometer (an astrolabe with a
vertical circle, permitting the measurement of horizontal as well as vertical angles),
appeared during the second half of the 16th century. In the 17th century telescopes
(1608), microscopes (1609), verniers (1631), levels (1660), and crosshairs (1670) began
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to be used in goniometric instruments. The basic angle-measuring instrument, which was

called the theodolite, was formed in this way.
2.3. Theodolite
A theodolite is a precision instrument for measuring angles in the horizontal and
vertical planes. Theodolites are mainly used for surveying applications, and have been
adapted for specialized purposes in fields like metrology and rocket launch technology. A
modern theodolite consists of a movable telescope mounted within two perpendicular
axesthe horizontal or trunnion axis, and the vertical axis. When the telescope is pointed
at a target object, the angle of each of these axes can be measured with great precision,
typically to seconds of arc.
Both axes of a theodolite are equipped with graduated circles that can be read
through magnifying lenses. The vertical circle which 'transits' about the horizontal axis
should read 90 (100 grad) when the sight axis is horizontal, or 270 (300 grad) when the
instrument is in its second position, that is, "turned over" or "plunged". Half of the
difference between the two positions is called the "index error".
The optical axis of the telescope, called the "sight axis", defined by the optical
center of the objective lens and the center of the crosshairs in its focal plane, must also be
perpendicular to the horizontal axis. If not, then a "collimation error" exists.
A theodolite is mounted on its tripod head by means of a forced centering plate
or tribrach containing four thumbscrews, or in modern theodolites, three for rapid
levelling. Before use, a theodolite must be precisely placed vertical above the point to be
measured using a plumb bob, optical plummet or laser plummet. The instrument is then
set level using levelling footscrews and circular and more precise tubular spirit bubbles.
2.4. Total station
A total station is an electronic/optical instrument used in modern surveying. The
total station is an electronic theodolite (transit) integrated with an electronic distance
meter (EDM) to read slope distances from the instrument to a particular point.
a.) Coordinate Measurement
Coordinates of an unknown point relative to a known coordinate can be
determined using the total station as long as a direct line of sight can be established
between the two points. Angles and distances are measured from the total station to
points under survey, and the coordinates (X, Y, and Z or northing, easting and elevation)
of surveyed points relative to the total station position are calculated using trigonometry
and triangulation.
b.) Angle measurement
Most modern total station instruments measure angles by means of electro-optical
scanning of extremely precise digital bar-codes etched on rotating glass cylinders or discs
within the instrument. The best quality total stations are capable of measuring angles to
0.5 arc-second.
c.) Distance Measurement
Measurement of distance is accomplished with a modulated microwave or
infrared carrier signal, generated by a small solid-state emitter within the instrument's
optical path, and reflected by a prism reflector or the object under survey. The modulation
pattern in the returning signal is read and interpreted by the computer in the total station.

The distance is determined by emitting and receiving multiple frequencies, and

determining the integer number of wavelengths to the target for each frequency.
d.) Data processing
Some models include internal electronic data storage to record distance,
horizontal angle, and vertical angle measured, while other models are equipped to write
these measurements to an external data collector, such as a hand-held computer.
When data is downloaded from a total station onto a computer, application
software can be used to compute results and generate a map of the surveyed area
e.) Applications
Total stations are mainly used by land surveyors and civil engineers. Either to
record features as in topographic surveying or to set out features (such as roads, houses or
boundaries). They are also used by archaeologists to record excavations and by police,
crime scene investigators, private accident reconstructionists and insurance companies to
take measurements of scenes.

3. Conclusions
The history of surveying an measurement is not just something done in the past,
but an open book constantly written when new terrestrial measuring techniques or
instruments are elaborated. This permanent preoccupation is due not just to the fact that
earth is constantly changing, but also to the role of surveying, mapping and exploring the
globe since beginning of mankind.
Surveying is a focal point of evolution in technology joining mathematical
applications to innovations in mechanical engineering and instrument constructions
technology, and thanks to the Universes unpredictability and to the global expansion it
will remain so.
3.1. Questions
1. Which are the basic terrestrial measuring techniques? (3)
- Leveling
- Triangulation
- Electronic distance measurement (EDM)
2. What instruments for measuring lengths in line were presented? (5)
- Human step
- Surveyors wheel
- Steel measuring tapes
- Invar tapes
- Invar measuring wires
3. How are distances measured with total stations?
A signal is emitted within the instruments optical path and reflected by a prism
reflector are the object under survey. Once back in the total station, the signal is analyzed
and the distance is calculated and shown on screen.

4. Bibliography
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodesy
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topography
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precession
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datum_(geodesy)
Lecture 14: Terrestrial Measurements, GEOS655 Tectonic Geodesy, Jeff Freymueller
(http://gps.alaska.edu/jeff/Classes/GEOS655/Lecture14_terrestrial+svd.pdf)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveyor's_wheel
http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/geodetic+instruments
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodolite
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_station