SATELLITE GEODESY

FINAL PAPER

I. Introduction

Geodesy comes from the Greek word geodaisia which means division of
Earth. It was first mentioned in ancient Greece by Aristotle, he described it as
the art of measurements for precise distribution of the Earth’s surface. This
includes the determination of the Earth’s geometric shape, its orientation in
space, and its gravity field.

Satellite Geodesy a branch of Geodesy which compromises the

observational and computational techniques which allow the solution of
geodetic problems by use of precise measurements to, from, or between
artificial, mostly near-Earth, satellites. The three main objectives of satellite
geodesy are to determine the precise global, regional, and local three-
dimensional positions, to the determine the Earth’s gravity field and linear
functions of this field, and to measure and model geodynamical phenomena.

Since the launch of the first artificial satellite, SPUTNIK-1, on October 4,

1957, satellite geodesy has developed into a self-contained field in geodetic
teaching and research, with close relations and interactions with adjacent fields
such as geodetic astronomy, physical geodesy, etc.

II. Significance

Satellite Geodesy has become an important aspect in geodesy by using

artificial satellites as a comprehensive knowledge of the satellite motion under
the influence of all acting forces as well as the description of the positions of
satellites and ground stations in suitable reference frames. It become significant
under the following observations.

First, Satellites as high-orbiting targets. It is visible over large distances and

may be considered as “fixed” control points which can be simultaneously
observed from different ground stations. It can also bridge large distances and
thus establish geodetic ties between continents and islands. All ground stations
belonging to the network can be determined within a uniform, three-
dimensional, global coordinate reference frame. Its high altitude leads to the
geometrical method of satellite geodesy.
 Second, Satellites can be a probe or a sensor. The orbital motion of the
satellites and its orbital parameters are observed to determine the forces acting
on it such as the Earth’s gravity field. The main advantage of satellite
observations when compared to classical techniques, is that the Earth is
observed as a whole, and the results have minor data gaps, accurate value, and
proof of the Earth’s non-symmetrical figure. This view leads to the dynamical
method of satellite geodesy.

The geometrical method of satellite geodesy is also called the direct method,
because the position of the satellite enters directly into the solution. The
dynamical method of satellite geodesy is also characterized as the indirect
method, because the required parameters are determined implicitly from the
orbital behavior of the satellites. The distinction of geometric-dynamic has, for
many years, characterized the development of satellite geodesy. Today, most of
the current techniques must be considered as combinations of both viewpoints.

III. General Methodology

In Satellite Geodesy there are three main classification of the observation

techniques that relates between the observation platform and the target
platform.

First, Earth to Space methods:

 GPS: consists of 31 satellites in high, 12-hour circular orbits,
distributed in six planes with 55° inclinations. The principle used for
location is trilateration. Each satellite transmits a precise ephemeris
with information of its own position and message of its exact time
of transmission. The presence of a GPS is also helpful in orbit
determination and satellite-to-satellite tracking.

 GNSS: an economical tool for surveying and time transfer. It is used

for monitoring the Earth's rotation, polar motion, and crustal
dynamics.

 Satellite Laser Ranging: This provides instantaneous range

measurements of millimeter level precision which can be
accumulated to provide accurate orbit parameters, gravity field
parameters, Earth rotation parameters, tidal Earth's deformations,
coordinates and velocities of SLR stations, and other substantial
geodetic data. It is the most accurate technique currently available
to determine the geocentric position of an Earth satellite.

 Doppler Techniques: This process involves recording the Doppler

shift of a radio signal of stable frequency emitted from a satellite as
the satellite approaches and recedes from the observer.
  Optical tracking: In optical tracking, the satellite can be used as a
very high target for triangulation and can be used to ascertain the
geometric relationship between multiple observing stations. It uses
a Baker Nunn camera consisted of photographic observations of a
satellite against a background of stars.

Second, Space to Earth methods:

 Altimetry: Satellites such as Seasat (1978) and TOPEX/Poseidon

(1992-2006) used advanced dual-band radar altimeters to measure
the height of the Earth's surface. That measurement, coupled with
orbital elements (possibly augmented by GPS), enables
determination of the terrain. The two different wavelengths of radio
waves used permit the altimeter to automatically correct for varying
delays in the ionosphere. Spaceborne radar altimeters have proven
to be superb tools for mapping ocean-surface topography, the hills
and valleys of the sea surface.

 Laser Altimetry: Same with SLR, A laser altimeter uses the round-
trip flight-time of a beam of light at optical or infrared wavelengths
to determine the spacecraft's altitude.

 Radar Altimetry: A radar altimeter uses the round-trip flight-time

of a microwave pulse between the satellite and the Earth's surface to
determine the distance between the spacecraft and the surface. With
a precise ephemeris available for the satellite, the geocentric
position and ellipsoidal height of the satellite are available for any
given observation time. It is then possible to compute the geoid
height by subtracting the measured altitude from the ellipsoidal
height.

 Interferometric synthetic aperture radar (InSAR): a radar

technique used in geodesy and remote sensing. This geodetic
method uses two or more synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images to
generate maps of surface deformation or digital elevation, using
differences in the phase of the waves returning to the satellite. It has
applications for geophysical monitoring of natural hazards, such as
earthquakes, volcanoes and landslides, and also in structural
engineering, in particular monitoring of subsidence and structural
stability.

 Gravity gradiometry: A gravity gradiometer can independently

determine the components of the gravity vector on a real-time basis.
 Lastly, Satellite to Satellite method:

 Satellite to Satellite Tracking: This technique uses satellites to

track other satellites.

IV. Application

 Stars as Navigation

One of the early applications of satellite geodesy is the use of the

stars and other heavenly bodies as a means of navigation. Polaris, often
called the "North Star", is treated specially due to its proximity to the
north celestial pole. It is used generally as a guide by seafarers in navigating.

 Stars to measure Earth’s radius

In 276BC - 194BC, Eratosthenes, was able to measure the Earth’s

circumference. He was able to do it by processing geodetic and
astronomical observations and utilizing basic geometry knowledge. He
observed that the shadows casted by a column of known height in
Alexandria and a well in Syene during the same time of the day had a slight
difference in angle. he found that the sun cast a shadow equivalent to about
1/50th of a circle or 7.12°. Eratosthenes combined this measurement with
the distance between Syene and Alexandria, about 4,400 stades. So, by
plugging in the numbers in his equation: (360°/7.12° x 4,400) = 220, 000
stades which is approximately 25, 000 miles which is actually close to the
accepted value of the Earth’s circumference 24, 855 miles.

 Satellite launches

The proper development of satellite geodesy started with the launch

of the first artificial satellite, SPUTNIK-1, on October 4, 1957.
Observations of Explorer 1 and Sputnik 2 in 1958 allowed for an accurate
determination of Earth's flattening.
Around 1970 to 1980 starts the phase of the scientific projects. New
observation techniques were developed and refined, laser ranging to
satellites and to the Moon, as well as satellite altimetry. The TRANSIT
system was used for geodetic Doppler positioning.
In 1980 to 1990 starts the phase of operational use of satellite
techniques in geodesy, geodynamics, and surveying. The NAVSTAR
Global Positioning System (GPS) brings new and innovative ways in
surveying applications of Satellite Geodesy and mapping.
In recent discoveries some group of Chinese researchers
were able to launch a satellite, named Micius. The satellite contains
 a highly sensitive photon receiver that can detect single photons
transmitted to Earth. Micius also has the capability to measure
quantum states of the photons so that entanglement can be
accomplished over record-breaking distances. The Chinese
researchers uses the satellite as an information transmission
technique that uses entangled photon to carry out information. This
process is called quantum teleportation
The development of satellite geodesy for geodetic space techniques
is continuing. We have significant improvements in accuracy as well as in
temporal and spatial resolution.

V. Summary and Conclusion

Satellite Geodesy is one of the foundations of modern and more

sophisticated methods of earth measurement. A complex system providing
efficiency by producing data over large distances, as well as not needing
multiple instruments to measure various factors.

VI. References
1. Sosnica, Krzysztof (2014). Determination of Precise Satellite Orbits
and Geodetic Parameters using Satellite Laser Ranging. Bern:
Astronomical Institute, University of Bern, Switzerland.
2. Massonnet, D.; Feigl, K. L. (1998), "Radar interferometry and its
application to changes in the earth's surface", Rev. Geophys., 36 (4),
pp. 441–500, Bibcode:1998RvGeo..36..441M
3. Hanssen, Ramon F. (2001), Radar Interferometry: Data Interpretation
and Error Analysis, Kluwer Academic
4. Geodesy for the Layman (PDF). Defense Mapping Agency. 1984. p.
51.
5. Seeber, Gunter (2003). Satellite geodesy. Berlin New York: Walter de
Gruyter. p. 2.
6. Earth-to-Satellite Quantum Teleportation Achieved. (2017, July 13).
Retrieved December 2, 2019, from https://resonance.is/earth-satellite-
quantum-teleportation-achieved/.