LECTURE 1 − spaceborne laser, and

− satellite gradiometry.
Overview of Satellite Geodesy
3. Space to Space methods
− satellite-to-satellite tracking (SST).
Satellite
(Meriam Dictionary)
Historical Development
• a celestial body orbiting another of larger size The proper development of satellite geodesy started
• a manufactured object or vehicle intended to with the launch of the first artificial satellite,
orbit the earth, the moon, or another celestial SPUTNIK-1, on October 4, 1957.
body
(Combrige Dictionary) Some significant events
• device sent up into space to travel around the 1957 Launch of SPUTNIK-1
earth, used for collecting information or 1958 Earth’s Flattening from Satellite Data (f
communicating by radio, television, etc. = 1/298.3)
1958 Launch of EXPLORER-1
Geodesy (NOAA) 1959 Third Zonal Harmonic (Pear Shape of
Geodesy is the science of accurately measuring and Earth)
understanding the Earth’s geometric shape, 1959 Theory of the Motion of Artificial
orientation in space, and gravity field. Satellites (Brouwer)
1960 Launch of TRANSIT-1B
Geodesy is the science of the measurement and 1960 Launch of ECHO-1
mapping of the Earth’s surface. This definition 1960 Theory of Satellite Orbits (Kaula)
includes the determination of the terrestrial external 1962 Launch of ANNA-1B
gravity field, as well as the surface of the ocean floor 1962 Geodetic Connection between France
(Torge, 2001). and Algeria (IGN).

By the year 1964, many basic geodetic problems had

Satellite geodesy comprises the observational and
been successfully tackled, namely the
computational techniques which allow the solution
− determination of a precise numerical value of
of geodetic problems using precise measurements to,
Earth’s flattening
from, or between artificial, mostly near-Earth,
− determination of the general shape of the global
satellites.
geoid
− determination of connections between the most
The basic problems are:
important geodetic datums (to ±50 m).
1. determination of precise global, regional, and local
three-dimensional positions (e.g., the establishment
The development of satellite geodesy can be
of geodetic control)
divided into several phases of about one decade
2. determination of Earth’s gravity field and linear
each.
functions of this field (e.g., a
1. 1958 to around 1970. Development of basic
precise geoid)
methods for satellite observations, and for the
3. measurement and modeling of geodynamical
computation and analysis of satellite orbits. This
phenomena (e.g., polar motion, Earth rotation,
phase is characterized by the optical-photographic
crustal deformation).
determination of directions with cameras. The main
results were the determination of the leading
Basic Concepts
harmonic coefficients of the geopotential, and the
1. Satellites can be used as high orbiting targets,
publication of the first Earth models, for instance the
which are visible over large distances.
Standard Earth models of the Smithsonian
2. Satellites can be considered as a probe or a sensor
Astrophysical Observatory (SAO SE I to SAO SE
in the gravity field of Earth.
III), and the Goddard Earth Models (GEM) of the
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. The only purely
Observation Techniques
geometrical and worldwide satellite network was
1. Earth to Space methods
established by observations with BC4 cameras of the
− directions from camera observations,
satellite PAGEOS.
− satellite laser ranging (SLR),
− Doppler positioning (TRANSIT, DORIS), and
2. 1970 to around 1980. Phase of the scientific
− geodetic use of the Global Positioning System
projects. New observation techniques were
(GPS, GLONASS, future GNSS).
developed and refined, laser ranging to satellites and
2. Space to Earth methods
to the Moon, as well as satellite altimetry. The
− radar altimetry,
TRANSIT system was used for geodetic Doppler millennium development will focus on several
positioning. Refined global geoid and coordinate aspects:
determinations were carried out and led to improved − launch of dedicated gravity field probes
Earth models (e.g. GEM 10, GRIM). The increased like CHAMP, GRACE, and GOCE for the
accuracy of the observations made possible the determination of a high-resolution terrestrial
measurement of geodynamical phenomena (Earth gravity field,
rotation, polar motion, crustal deformation). Doppler − establishment of a next generation Global
surveying was used worldwide for the installation Navigation Satellite System GNSS with GPS
and maintenance of geodetic control networks (e.g. Block IIR and Block IIF satellites and new
EDOC, DÖDOC, ADOS). components like the European
Galileo
3. 1980 to around 1990. Phase of the operational use − refinement in Earth observation, e.g., with
of satellite techniques in geodesy, geodynamics, and high resolution radar sensors like
surveying. Two aspects are remarkable. Satellite interferometric SAR on various platforms,
methods were increasingly used by the surveying − further establishment of permanent arrays
community, replacing conventional methods. This for disaster prevention and environmental
process started with the first results obtained with the monitoring, and
NAVSTAR Global Positioning System (GPS) and − unification of different geodetic space
resulted in completely new perspectives in surveying techniques in mobile integrated geodetic
and mapping. geodynamic monitoring systems.
The second aspect concerned the increased
observation accuracy. One outcome was Applications of Satellite Geodesy
the nearly complete replacement of the classical 1. Global Geodesy
astrometric techniques for monitoring polar motion − general shape of Earth’s figure and gravity field,
and Earth rotation by satellite methods. Projects for − dimensions of a mean Earth ellipsoid,
the measurement of crustal deformation gave − establishment of a global terrestrial reference
remarkable results worldwide. frame,
− detailed geoid as a reference surface on land and at
4. 1990 to around 2000. Phase of the international sea,
and national permanent services. Two large − connection between different existing geodetic
international services have evolved. The datums, and
International Earth Rotation Service IERS, initiated − connection of national datums with a global
in 1987 and exclusively based on space techniques, geodetic datum.
provides highly accurate Earth orientation 2. Geodetic Control
parameters with high temporal resolution, and − establishment of geodetic control for national
maintains and networks,
constantly refines two basic reference frames. These − installation of three-dimensional homogeneous
are the International Celestial Reference Frame networks,
ICRF, based on interferometric radio observations, − analysis and improvement of existing terrestrial
and the International Terrestrial Reference Frame networks,
ITRF, based on different space techniques. − establishment of geodetic connections between
The International GPS Service IGS, started in 1994 islands or with the mainland,
and evolved to be the main source for precise GPS − densification of existing networks up to short
orbits as well as for coordinates and observations interstation distances.
from a global set of more than 300 permanently
observing reference stations. At the national level 3. Geodynamics
permanent services for GPS reference data have been − control points for crustal motion,
established and are still growing, − permanent arrays for 3D-control in active areas,
e.g. CORS in the USA, CACS in Canada and SAPOS − polar motion, Earth rotation, and
in Germany. − solid Earth tides.

5. 2000 onwards. After more than 40 years of

satellite geodesy the development of geodetic space 4. Applied and Plane Geodesy
techniques is continuing. We have significant − detailed plane surveying (land register, urban and
improvements in rural surveying, geographic
accuracy as well as in temporal and spatial information systems (GIS), town planning, boundary
resolution. New fields of application evolve in demarcation etc.),
science and practice. For the first decade of the new
− installation of special networks and control for 1980s: The establishment of the Global Navigation
engineering tasks, Satellite System (GNSS) expanded the application of
− terrestrial control points in photogrammetry and satellite geodesy, allowing for more precise
remote sensing, positioning and navigation.
− position and orientation of airborne sensors like
photogrammetric cameras, ADVANCEMENTS IN TECHNOLOGY AND
− control and position information at different METHODS
accuracy levels in forestry, agriculture,
archaeology, expedition cartography etc. Differential GPS (DGPS): Introduced in the late
5. Navigation and Marine Geodesy 1980s, DGPS improved positioning accuracy by
− precise navigation of land-, sea-, and air-vehicles, using reference stations.
− precise positioning for marine mapping, Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR): Developed in the
exploration, hydrography, oceanography, 1960s and 70s, this technique measures distances
marine geology, and geophysics, between ground stations and satellites, contributing
− connection and control of tide gauges (unification to accurate geodetic measurements.
of height systems). Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS): The
6. Related Fields 1990s saw the emergence of competing systems like
− position and velocity determination for Russia's GLONASS, Europe's Galileo, and China's
geophysical observations (gravimetric, magnetic, BeiDou.
seismic surveys), also at sea and in the air,
− determination of ice motion in glaciology, MODERN ERA AND APPLICATIONS 2000s:
Antarctic research, oceanography, The availability of commercial GPS devices led to
− determination of satellite orbits, and widespread use in various fields, including
− tomography of the atmosphere (ionosphere, surveying, transportation, and agriculture.
troposphere). Geodesy and Earth Observation: The integration
of satellite data with remote sensing technologies
enabled precise monitoring of Earth's surface
FROM DISCUSSION changes, climate change, and natural disasters.
EARLY CONCEPTS AND THEORETICAL
FOUNDATIONS CURRENT TRENDS AND FUTURE
DIRECTIONS
18th Century: The groundwork for geode was laid Increased Accuracy: Continuous advancements in
with early triangulation methods used for mapping satellite technology, such as multi-frequency and
and surveying, but the integration of satellite multi-constellation systems, enhance positional
technology was not yet conceived. accuracy.
19th Century: Advances in astronomy and the Real-Time GNSS: Improvements in real- time data
understanding of the Earth's shape and size helped processing allow for applications in autonomous
develop the principles needed for satellite-based systems, smart cities, and disaster response.
measurements. International Collaborations: Global initiatives
like the International GNSS Service (IGS) support
THE BIRTH OF SATELLITE GEODESY 1957: geodetic research and data sharing.
The launch of Sputnik 1 by the Soviet Union marked
the beginning of the space age. It was the first HOW ARE SATELLITE SYSTEMS USED IN
artificial satellite and initiated interest in using GEODESY?
satellites for Earth measurements. GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM
1960s: The development of satellite technology These include GPS (USA), GLONASS (Russia),
continued with systems like Transit, the first satellite Galileo (EU), and BeiDou (China). GNSS satellites
navigation system used by the U.S. Navy, which broadcast signals that enable receivers to determine
employed Doppler measurements to determine their position through trilateration.
positions. EARTH OBSERVATION SATELLITES
Satellites like NASA's Landsat and ESA's Sentinel
KEY DEVELOPMENTS IN SATELLITE provide remote sensing data that can be used for
GEODESY geodetic studies, such as land deformation and sea-
1970s: The introduction of the Global Positioning level rise.
System (GPS) began. The first GPS satellite was DEDICATED GEODETIC SATELLITES
launched in 1978, and the system became fully Systems like the Gravity Recovery and Climate
operational in the 1990s. Experiment (GRACE) and its successor, GRACE
Follow-On, are specifically designed to measure MAPPING AND SURVEYING
Earth's gravity field and changes over time Satellite geodesy provides high-precision geospatial
data for creating accurate maps and conducting land
CORE TECHNIQUES IN SATELLITE surveys.
GEODESY NATURAL DISASTER MONITORING Satellite
TRILATERATION AND POSITIONING data helps track and predict natural disasters, like
earthquakes and tsunamis, improving response
• Trilateration: GNSS uses the principle of efforts.
trilateration to determine a receiver's position, By CLIMATE CHANGE RESEARCH
measuring the time it takes for signals from at least By monitoring changes in sea levels, ice sheet
four satellites to reach the receiver, the system can dynamics, and land deformation, satellite geodesy
calculate its three-dimensional position (latitude, contributes significantly to understanding and
longitude, and altitude). mitigating climate change
• Differential GNSS (DGNSS): For enhanced
accuracy, DGNSS employs a network of ground
stations that receive satellite signals and correct for
atmospheric errors, multipath effects, and other
inaccuracies,

SATELLITE LASER RANGING

SLR measures the time it takes for a laser beam to
travel from a ground station to a satellite and back.
This technique provides precise measurements of
satellite positions and contributes to monitoring
tectonic plate movements.

INTERFEROMETRIC SATELLITE
APERTURE RADAR

InSAR uses radar signals from satellites to detect

ground movement with millimeter precision. By
comparing images taken at different times,
researchers can identify subsidence, landslides, and
other geological phenomena.

DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS

• Error Correction: Atmospheric effects (like
ionospheric and tropospheric delays) are
corrected, along with clock discrepancies
between satellites and receivers.
• Data Integration: Measurements from
multiple sources (e.g., GNSS, InSAR, and
gravity data) are integrated to create
comprehensive models of the Earth's surface
and subsurface
• Geophysical Modeling: Researchers use the
processed data to model geophysical
phenomena, such as tectonic movements.
ocean dynamics, and climate change impacts

WHAT ARE THE APPLICATIONS OF?

SATELLITE GEODESY?

NAVIGATION
GNSS technology is critical for civilian and military
navigation, enabling everything from personal GPS
devices to global transportation systems.