Abstract Machines

Programming Languages:
Abstract Machines
Dario Della Monica
School of Computer Science, Reykjavik University, Iceland
Most of the slides are by Hrafn Loftsson

based on the book
Programming Languages: Principles and Paradigms
by M. Gabbrielli and S. Martini (Springer 2010)
Dario Della Monica
Abstraction
mechanism to manage system complexity by isolating
important aspects
it is everywhere
in
in
in
in
our lives
science
computer science
programming language
theory (formalisation of concepts)

practice (abstract data structure)
Dario Della Monica
Abstraction
important aspects
it is everywhere
in
in
in
in
our lives
science
computer science

Dario Della Monica
Abstraction
important aspects
it is everywhere
in
in
in
in
our lives
science
computer science

Dario Della Monica
Abstraction
important aspects
it is everywhere
in
in
in
in
our lives
science
computer science

Dario Della Monica
Abstraction
important aspects
it is everywhere
in
in
in
in
our lives
science
computer science

Dario Della Monica
Abstraction
important aspects
it is everywhere
in
in
in
in
our lives
science
computer science

interpreters/compilers
Dario Della Monica
Abstraction
important aspects
it is everywhere
in
in
in
in
our lives
science
computer science

Abstract machine
(adding a level)
Dario Della Monica
Abstraction
important aspects
it is everywhere
in
in
in
in
our lives
science
computer science

Abstract machine
(adding a level)
Hierarchy
Dario Della Monica
Outline
1 The Concepts of Abstract Machine and Interpreter
2 Implementation of a Language
Dario Della Monica
Outline
Dario Della Monica
Abstract Machine
The Concept
An electronic, digital computer is a physical machine that
executes algorithms which are suitably formalised.
An abstract machine is nothing more than an abstraction of
the concept of a physical computer.
An abstract machine permits step-by-step execution of a
program.
It is abstract because it omits the many details of real physical
machines.
The algorithms we want to execute must be represented using

the instructions of a programming language, L.
The syntax of L allows us to use a given finite set of
constructs, called instructions, to construct programs.
Dario Della Monica
Abstract Machine
Definition (Abstract Machine)

Assume that we are given a programming language, L.
An abstract machine for L, denoted by ML , is any set of data
structures and algorithms which can perform the storage and
execution of programs written in L.
When we choose not to specify the language, L, we will simply
talk of the abstract machine, M, omitting the subscript.
Dario Della Monica
Abstract Machine: Structure
Interpreter
Data
Sequence
control
Memory
Operations
Data
control
Program
Memory
management
Figure: The structure of an abstract machine
Dario Della Monica
The Interpreter
The interpreter must perform the operations that are specific to

the language it is interpreting, L.
Type of operations
1
Operations for processing primitive data;
Operations and data structures for controlling the sequence of

execution of operations;
Operations and data structures for controlling data transfers;
Operations and data structures for memory management.
Dario Della Monica
Interpreter: Execution cycle

Start
Fetch
next instruction
Decode
Fetch
operands
Choose
Execute OP1
Execute OP2
Store the
risult
Execute OPn
Execute HALT
Stop
Figure: The execution cycle of a generic interpreter

Dario Della Monica
Machine Language
Definition (Machine language)

Given an abstract machine, ML , the language L understood by
ML s interpreter is called the machine language of ML .
Dario Della Monica
An Example of an Abstract Machine
Dario Della Monica
The Hardware Machine

Physically implemented using logic circuits and electronic
components.
Let us call such a machine MHLH and let LH be its machine
language.
Parts:
Memory
Language LH
Interpreter
Dario Della Monica
Parts: Memory
Primary, secondary, cache, registers for storing data and
programs.
Data divided into primitive types: integers, reals, chars.
All data represented as bits.
Dario Della Monica
Parts: Language LH
Simple instructions:
OpCode Operand1 Operand2
ADD
R5,
R0
ADD
(R5),
(R0)
Internal representation: Instructions are data stored in a
particular format.
The set of possible instructions depends on the particular
physical machine.
Dario Della Monica
Parts: Interpreter
1
Operations: arithmetic and logical operations.
Sequence control: Program Counter (PC) register. Contains

the address of the next instruction to execute.
Data transfer/control: Specific registers interfacing with main

memory.
Memory management depends on the specific architecture.
Simplest case: The program is loaded and immediately starts

executing; it remains in memory until it terminates.
Some form of multi-programming is almost always
implemented. The execution of a program can be suspended
to give the CPU to other programs.
Dario Della Monica
Parts: Interpreter
The interpreter is implemented as a set of physical devices
which comprise the Control Unit (CU)
Supports the execution of the fetch-decode-execute cycle.
Dario Della Monica
fetch-decode-execute cycle
fetch phase: the next instruction (whose address is kept in the
PC register) to be executed is retrieved from memory. The
instruction an operation code and perhaps some operands
is stored in the instruction register.
decode phase: the instruction stored in the instruction register
is decoded using special logic circuits. The operands are
retrieved by data transfer operations using the address modes
specified in the instruction.
execute phase: the primitive hardware operation is executed.
Storage is performed by means of data-transfer operations.
Dario Della Monica
Dario Della Monica
Outline
Dario Della Monica
Implementation of a Language
ML is, by definition, a device which allows the execution of

programs written in L.
An abstract machine therefore corresponds uniquely to a
language, its machine language.
Conversely, given a programming language, L, there are many
abstract machines that have L as their machine language.
they differ from each other in the way in which the interpreter
is implemented and in the data structures that they use;
they all agree, though, on the language they interpretL.
To implement a programming language L means

implementing an abstract machine which has L as its machine
language.
Dario Della Monica
Implementation of an abstract machine
Three options:
implementation in hardware;
simulation using software;
simulation (emulation) using firmware.
Dario Della Monica

Implementation of ML in hardware
Sufficient to implement in the hardware the data structures
and algorithms constituting ML .
Advantage: the execution of programs in L will be fast.
Disadvantages:
The constructs of a high-level language, L, are relatively
complicated and very far from the elementary functions
provided at the hardware level.
Such a machine, once implemented, would be almost
impossible to modify. Modifications to L would be very costly.
When implementing ML in hardware, only low-level

languages are used because their constructs are close to the
operations of physical devices.
Dario Della Monica

Simulation of ML using software
Implementing the data structures and algorithms required by
ML using programs written in another language, L0 .
Using L0 s machine, M0L0 , the machine ML can be
implemented using appropriate programs written in L0
These programs interpret the constructs of L by simulating the
functionality of ML .
Flexibility: The programs implementing the constructs of ML

can easily be changed.
Performance: Lower than the hardware implementation,
because the implementation of ML uses another abstract
machine M0L0 , which must be implemented!
Dario Della Monica

Emulation of ML using firmware
Simulation/emulation of the data structures and algorithms
for ML in microcode
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcode).
Similar to simulation in software ML is simulated using
programs. In the case of firmware emulation, these programs
are microprograms instead of programs in a high-level
language.
Microprograms use a special, very low-level language which
are stored in a special read-only memory instead of in main
memory.
Performance: Can be executed at high speed.
Flexibility: Modification of microcode is complicated and
requires special hardware to re-write the memory.
Dario Della Monica
Implementation: The Ideal case

Assumptions
We want to implement L i.e. an abstract machine, ML .
We exclude direct implementation in hardware.
For the implementation of ML , we have available MoLo (the
host machine)
The implementation of L on the host machine MoLo takes
place using a translation from L to Lo.
Modes of implementations
1
purely interpreted implementation
purely compiled implementation

Dario Della Monica
Purely interpreted implementation
Program in L
Interpreter for L
written in LO
Output dati
Execution on M O
Input data
MO
Figure: Purely interpreted implementation
A program is implemented in Lo which interprets all of Ls

instructions. This program is an interpreter, ILLo .
Dario Della Monica
Definition (Interpreter)
An interpreter for language L, written in language Lo, is a
program which implements a partial function:
ILLo : (Prog L D) D
such that ILLo (P L , Input) = P L (Input)

(1)
Prog L is the set of all possible programs that can be written in L

P L is a program written in L
D denotes the set of input and output data
D D is input data
Dario Della Monica
Characteristics
Programs in L are not explicitly translated there is only a
decoding procedure.
In order to execute an instruction of L, the interpreter ILLo
uses a set of instructions in Lo which corresponds to an
instruction in language L.
Not a real translation, because the code corresponding to an
instruction of L is executed, not output, by the interpreter.
Dario Della Monica
Purely compiled implementation
Input data
Program
written in L
Program
written in LO
Compiler
from L to LO
Execution on M A
Abstract macchine M A
Output data
Execution M O
Host macchine M O
Figure: Purely compiled implementation
A program written in L is explicitly translated to a program

written in Lo.
The translation is performed by a program called compiler, CL,Lo
Dario Della Monica
Definition (Compiler)
A compiler from L to Lo is a program which implements a
function:
CL,Lo : Prog L Prog Lo
such that, given a program P L , if
CL,Lo (P L ) = Pc Lo ,
(2)
then, for every Input D:

P L (Input) = Pc Lo (Input)
Dario Della Monica
(3)
Characteristics
L is called the source language, while Lo is called the object
language.
To execute a program P L (written in L) on input data D,
CL,Lo is executed with P L as input.
This produces a compiled program Pc Lo as its output
(written in Lo).
Then Pc Lo can be executed on the machine MoLo supplying
it with input data D to obtain the desired result.
The translation phase (called compilation) is separate from
the execution phase.
Dario Della Monica
Comparing the two modes of implementations
Interpreted implementation
Disadvantage: low efficiency.
The interpreter ILLo must perform a decoding of Ls constructs
while it executes.
As part of the time required for the execution of P L , it is also
necessary to add in the time required to perform decoding.
Advantage: flexibility. Debugging tools can be developed

easily.
Advantage: An interpreter is simpler to develop than a
compiler.
Dario Della Monica

Example
P1 : f o r ( i = 1 , i <=n , i=i +1) C ;
P2 :
R1 = 1
R2 = n
L1 : i f R1 > R2 t h e n g o t o L2
t r a n s l a t i o n of C
...
R1 = R1 + 1
g o t o L1
L2 : . . .
The interpreter does not generate the code starting at P2.

The code describes the operations that the interpreter must
execute at runtime once it has decoded the for command.
Dario Della Monica
Compiled implementation
Advantage: high efficiency.
The execution of Pc Lo is more efficient than an interpretive
implementation because the former does not have the
overhead of the instruction decoding phase.
Decoding an instruction of language L is performed once by
the compiler, independent of the number of times this
instruction occurs at runtime.
Disadvantage: The compilation approach loses all information

about the structure of the source program.
When a runtime-error occurs, it can be difficult to determine
which source-program command caused it.
More difficult to implement debugging tools.
Dario Della Monica
The Real Case
What happens in practice?

Interpretation
An interpreter often operates on an internal representation of a
program which is different from the external one.
The translation from the external notation of L to its internal
representation is performed using compilation from L to an
intermediate language.
The intermediate language is the one that is interpreted.
Compilation
Some instructions for input/output are often translated into
operating system calls, which simulate at runtime (and
therefore interprets) the high-level instructions.
Dario Della Monica
The Real Case
Input data
Program
written in L
Compiler
from L to Li
Program
written in Li
Interpreter for Li
written
in Lo or SRT
Program
written in L
Compiler
from L to Li
Program
written in Li
Output data
Execution on M O
Compilation on M A
MA
MO
Figure: The real case with an intermediate machine
The compiler CL,Li translates L to the intermediate language Li

Lo runs on the machine Mo
The interpreter ILi
Lo (which simulates
the machine MiLi )
Dario Della Monica
The Real Case
Different cases:
1
2
ML = MiLi : purely interpreted implementation.

ML 6= MiLi 6= MoLo .
(a) If the interpreter of the intermediate machine is substantially
different from the interpreter for MoLo , we have an
implementation of an interpretative type.
(b) If the interpreter of the intermediate machine is similar as the
interpreter for MoLo (of which it extends some of its
functionality), we have a implementation of a compiled type.
MiLi = MoLo : purely compiled implementation.
Dario Della Monica
The Real Case
In practice:
We tend to interpret those language constructs which are
furthest from the host machine language and to compile the
rest.
Compiled solutions are preferred when execution efficiency is
desired.
The interpreted approach is preferred when greater flexibility
is required.
Dario Della Monica
The Real Case Interpretive Compilers

Implementing a language on many platforms
1
Compile the programs to an intermediate language.
Implement (interpret) the intermediate language on the

various platforms.
Portability
First time adopted by the Pascal language, using P-code as
intermediate machine
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-code_machine.
Used by Java, whose abstract (intermediate) machine is called
the Java Virtual Machine and its corresponding machine
language is Java Byte Code.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_bytecode
Dario Della Monica
The Real Case
Important note
One should not talk about an interpreted language or a
compiled language
Why not?
One should, instead, talk of interpretative or compiled
implementations of a language.
Dario Della Monica
Abstract machines hierarchy in a micro-programmed

computer
Software
Firmware
Hardware
Dario Della Monica
A more complex hierarchy
Dario Della Monica

Abstract Machines

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Abstract Machines

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Programming Languages:

Most of the slides are by Hrafn Loftsson

Dario Della Monica

Most of the slides are by Hrafn Loftsson

theory (formalisation of concepts)

Dario Della Monica

Most of the slides are by Hrafn Loftsson

theory (formalisation of concepts)

Dario Della Monica

Most of the slides are by Hrafn Loftsson

theory (formalisation of concepts)

Dario Della Monica

Most of the slides are by Hrafn Loftsson

theory (formalisation of concepts)

Dario Della Monica

Most of the slides are by Hrafn Loftsson

theory (formalisation of concepts)

Dario Della Monica

Most of the slides are by Hrafn Loftsson

theory (formalisation of concepts)

Dario Della Monica

Most of the slides are by Hrafn Loftsson

theory (formalisation of concepts)

Dario Della Monica

Most of the slides are by Hrafn Loftsson

theory (formalisation of concepts)

Most of the slides are by Hrafn Loftsson

1 The Concepts of Abstract Machine and Interpreter

Dario Della Monica

Most of the slides are by Hrafn Loftsson

1 The Concepts of Abstract Machine and Interpreter

Dario Della Monica

Most of the slides are by Hrafn Loftsson

The algorithms we want to execute must be represented using

Most of the slides are by Hrafn Loftsson

Definition (Abstract Machine)

Dario Della Monica

Most of the slides are by Hrafn Loftsson