Teaching Languages to

Young Learners
Lynne Cameron

P U B L I S H E D B Y T H E P R E S S S Y N D I C AT E O F T H E U N I V E R S I T Y O F C A M B R I D G E

The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 1RP, United Kingdom
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK

40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 100114211, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
Ruiz de Alarcon 13, 28014 Madrid, Spain
Dock House, The Waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa
http://www.cambridge.org
# Cambridge University Press 2001
This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2001
Fourth printing 2002
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
Typeset in Sabon 10/12 pt ce
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 0 521 77325 3 Hardback
ISBN 0 521 77434 9 Paperback

Contents

Preface
Acknowledgements

page xi
xvi

1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8

Children learning a foreign language

Taking a learning-centred perspective
Piaget
Vygotsky
Bruner
From learning to language learning
Advantages to starting young with foreign languages
The foreign language: describing the indivisible
Summary of key learning principles

1
1
2
5
8
11
16
17
19

2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8

21
21
22
25
26
28
29
31

2.9

Learning language through tasks and activities

The task as an environment for learning
Task demands
Task support
Balancing demands and support
The importance of language learning goals
Dening `task' for young learner classrooms
Stages in a classroom task
Hani's Weekend: Possible preparation and follow-up
activities
Task-as-plan and task-in-action

3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5

Learning the spoken language

Learning the spoken language: guiding principles
Discourse and discourse events
Meaning rst
Analysis of a task-in-action
Discourse skills development in childhood

36
36
37
38
42
51

32
35

vii

Contents
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10

Effective support for children's foreign language

discourse skills
Short activities for learning the spoken language
Supporting the spoken language with written language
Using dialogues
Summary

58
60
66
68
70

4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6

Learning words
Introduction
Vocabulary development in children's language learning
Organisation of words in a language
Learning and teaching vocabulary
Children's vocabulary learning strategies
Summary

72
72
73
81
83
92
94

5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4

Learning grammar
A place for grammar?
Different meanings of `grammar'
Development of the internal grammar
A learning-centred approach to teaching grammar:
background
Principles for learning-centred grammar teaching
Teaching techniques for supporting grammar learning
Summary

96
96
98
101

Learning literacy skills

Introduction
Literacy skills in English
Factors affecting learning to read in English as a
foreign language
Starting to read and write in English as a foreign
language
Continuing to learn to read
Developing reading and writing as discourse skills
Summary and conclusion

123
123
124

5.5
5.6
5.7
6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
7
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5

viii

Learning through stories

Stories and themes as holistic approaches to language
teaching and learning
The discourse organisation of stories
Language use in stories
Quality in stories
Choosing stories to promote language learning

105
110
111
121

134
139
150
154
157
159
159
160
163
166
167

Contents
7.6
7.7
7.8

Ways of using a story

Developing tasks around a story
Summary

169
175
179

8
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6

Theme-based teaching and learning

Issues around theme-based teaching
Theme-based teaching of a foreign language
Planning theme-based teaching
Learning language through theme-based teaching
Increasing target language use in theme-based teaching
Summary

180
180
181
184
191
195
197

9
9.1
9.2

Language choice and language learning

Introduction
Patterns of rst language use in foreign language
classrooms
Dynamics of language choice and use
Taking responsibility, making choices
Summary

199
199
200
205
209
213

10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7

Assessment and language learning

Issues in assessing children's language learning
Principles for assessing children's language learning
Key concepts in assessment
Teacher assessment of language learning
Self-assessment and learner autonomy
Use of assessment information
Messages from assessment

214
214
218
222
228
233
238
240

11
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4

Issues around teaching children a foreign language

Review of ideas
The need for research
The need to develop pedagogy
Teaching foreign languages to children

241
241
242
243
246

References
Index

247
256

9.3
9.4
9.5

ix

1 Children learning a foreign language

1.1 Taking a learning-centred perspective

  
      
   
 
 
    
      
  
 
    
 
  
    
 

         


  



                  


   
      
 
!  
 
  !          !   " " #

   "        !    $  


            
 

   
   
    %   


 
 
#
       

     !    

    
!              

 !   &   
 
       

 
    !        
 
 !   
   "     
  


  
    


 " 

 
   
 
      
          

    
    
'    !          

     (         
 !
)

  )  
            



 
      

  
  



     

     

  

   
*   
 
 
  !     ! !  
  
  
      
     
        
   
     

   

        %  % ! 

  
    
 *   

 


  
 )
  
   + 

 
  
       
  
!  



    
 
      ' 

 

    
 *           *
 
    
!         

 
       
            
,



 
 

 
*            
 

 
          
$      


    
           
%
     
     
     
 
       
      "
 


"  -    


 
        %
    
 %
 *   
  
   

   
         "
 
   
  *      
 
 

 
' 
          !     
 
               

     
       
  
  %  
   
         
     !      
        


          
    
  (  
 
 
      *      
    
  
*  
*   
   
 
 

  

   
  "        




    .  %  
     ,/
 
    '    
 
 
  



  
! 
     
       
  
 
  "
             
            % *  

     

 
!  
        
  
    
 
 
!     
   
    ! *     
!     '


          0   1 ! 
 !    
  

!   
    !  
     



1.2 Piaget


 
   
0   
       
     
 


       2    
       
       
   
 
 
-
  
   

     
  *  

!      
    
 
 3
%   

     
 
          
 

   
  *    
     

4

 


  

 
"
    
    
  
 "   
   
   !   
 
      
 

   
 


   

   
    
 '        
   
  
 
  
    !  
   
!   
 *  
 
 

 
  

$    
 


     
       !     0     
  

             
1 ! *   

         "
 
 
0            
0     
          
 !   
   

 


(        !        
$          '   
  

      5 
   %     
            
     
 
     
!      "
   
!  ' 
        $           
% !  !   
   
    
 
 
! 
   
  6 !  

 '
)   6     
$      !  
              
    
 
       
     

(       
  
   
  
       
    ! (    
 
       !        


   )


   

 

  
 

      78+ ,994:

 
      
       


3
  0       !      


  !       !  
  "  

   !  
 
 
    

           
 

     (             
!     
 * 

  0  
        6 !    
 

 
  
     6        

 
 
 ,,  
  


 %
       
 0  
    

  
    "  
   


  
 
  *  
      %

  8

 ;    
      
<



 
 

 
     

   '   ! 
  

  
 
       !  0 
     
   
    
7;   ,9=>:  
 
    0  

  

      
       

    
          )
  
  ( %     
    

 

 
 

   ?@    ,9=/  
 ,9>/ & 


 
    
 
           
   )

     
!   
! *
      
 
     
    

    
  %
       


  
    
    
( 
     
    0      
$      

   
   
 


          


(     1 !      



   

 

          

The child as sense-maker

 ! 
 0   
 
       
  

 !
  
 

 !   


!  ' 
  ;   
!   
7 : 


  
 
      !
        !     ( 
  
 
  
     
 




  
  7; 
  ,9=> >A  :
#
   !      
        

    
  
!    %
    
 
 !    
        5  

 
 )
     
  !   
  
%
     !   
    
   !
      
     
  
 !

The world as offering opportunities for learning

*  ! 0     
  
 %
   
'    

   
  
      
B

 


  

 

  
     
     
  

   
   
  


     

  
 
   
      !  

  
    
  
 

    

 
 
        )   
!          
  



  
  
           
7C  ,9=9: 
%        
)
  


 

"
    
   
)
    

  

1.3 Vygotsky


 
 
1 !         

 0    

       
     
 ( 
1 ! 
  

      
  
    
    
      
     )  


         
  
              "
   
    
       
       
     + 
            
  
  
    

 
 

    
    D  
      

!      
        

  !

      
   ( 
   
   !
        
        


 )
         

 

   
   
7

 ,9>E: (    


   !         
! ! ! " 
   
  
        ! 

 



 


 

  
*  
  
            
  1 ! 7,9A4:    
 !   
            

    
              
-     

   
   
 ( 
                

!     
  %
      


  
    !
?
 1 ! 
    
 
  
E



 
 

 
       
 !        %     

  
    
    
 
 



 
0        

    
 
'  
1 !       

  
  

        

     
 
 
 
 '       
   !  
   
 
  !    *   

   
  
 

  !    
      
 
 
       


      
      
  
 
  
      
  

    

   %     
    
 
    (       
         
                    
   
            "
      (         
" 
     
      "
   *        
    
     
    
       

 
                   & 

     
            
  
   
            
 
   '          F
 !   "   
         
 
    
      

    
     
 $ "              
 
  

7
G0;:
    
   
%  
 
  
 )    
 
 
!  %         %   !  
 
        



 G0;
1 !        G0;        
)    5
  
         
   1 !          
 
 
      !    ;
 
   
         ! 
        
 
 !   %   
  
  
  

   
   
  
  
 "
  
3
      
     
   
!
        
      
   
  H
               
 
  
 * 
   
  
 
      
          
 
!     
   ! 
   H
A

 


  

 
      

     
 
   
    

 
 ! 
  
   

     

!     
   


   
  *     G0;
    
        
$  1 !     

   
   

+ 
      
  ! 
     

    1 !     "
   
      %  
       
 
  
   

  
    
     !   
 !    !

         !       







 7,9>E:    
  

1 !    '  


   

 $   
 !         
 
    
  *  
 
   

  
 '  ! 
'   
    

 
      


          

Words and meanings
 
                
      1 ! 
  7  +  4///:  
 *
    
      " 

  
 
     
  
    

 
 
"
         
      
H      
 
        
  '              

    "
   3
  

     
 

 
   !           
   
 
           !  
 
   
    

 
 
 

 
 
    
!   
   
 
    
!    
"
   
   
  
     
   

    
 
    



The zone of proximal development

8  1 !        
  
 
 

! 
  
    
 *    
=



 
 

 
 
   
  
         

     




  

$    
            
 !    
  *   % 
*      
 
! 


 !  

        G0;
  !
    ! 
              
! 
  

    

 

Learning as internalisation
     
       

  

  
 
     
       
"
       
   
  

 
 
      
      !

!  

1.4 Bruner



 
 
3
&

      
   
  

               



         
  7&

,9>< ,99/: !
 
    

      !  


    "            %   
      
7
 &

 5  ,9=A: * %

   (
  
  
 
    
!    

     
.     
 
    !$
.   "   !    
!     
 $
.   !     
!  
     ! 

        $

.         
  
     

    
   !$
.    
    

  
  !$
.     
      
    !
8

               
'       
        



   
   
6 !
 7,99>:
    
    
  
  
  
>

 


  

 
 ,,

Teachers can help children to

By

    
 

 

  "

    
 

 

  %  
 


  

 
6   

    
  

 
   !   

"  # $%%&'

.      
          
     
 




 
 






          .   
  )  7   ,99/: * 
     

 
    !          

 
 
    
 
       
   

         
   !
       

       !     

!
 
        
    &  
   
      !     
 
    
   
     %
   
 
        '       !
&

 
   

    
    
     
 
 

   
 
      
   !        
   

 %       &

     %  
 
 

 
    

 
   
 7
 C
   0
 ,99>: *             
   
"   
   
      
     
   
  
   


*   


   
    


7&


 
    (
  : 
  
               !   
   
    
 

  !  
 
 
      
 (     
     !
   
           



       

   



 
 
 
   
      
!  
  

  '    
 
9



 
 

 
     
       !  
       

 
( )* 
 
+ 
*

!     

      !      ! 

 # *
 
! 
  *  
! (  
 
  !    
     
   

'    
    H
 
 
     
     
      
      " 
           
  !   
  !
              

      
    
   
     
        '   


 

(  
     "
%  
     

  
        
  

  (     
 
  
   
   !       
    "    

    
  
  
  
 
  
+
   
  
   

I         


    

 
  
        
  

 
       

    
(    
  
   
 
)       ! 
    
     
       J  

%      &

    
    

'  
  
  
      
 

       




    
      


     

   
 
  

      H   %     


       
 
 
!  
( 
      !    
 

%    
!     
 
 

  
   
$  
   !     %
 
   
         !  
   $  
   

   
 , +   


  ( -  
+   

      %  

     
  
 
  

       
  
    

          
  %   .+
,/

 


  

 
    
 


     
,

    
   (       

  %  
        
 
  
     
     
  
 
  %   
    
 
$  
       G0; 
  !    
 
  
   
 
5      
 
  
  
    $          !     
 
 
%
   
   


 5           
    
 !

1.5 From learning to language learning

 
! " 

 
 "
      

   
 
  
 
       

     
      

      
   
   
 
  
   


   
    *
       
 *
  
 
 
  

     
  
    

    
  
   
   

    "
     
 I
 (


 
            
  
 
  
          %  
 

  
   
   
  
   !
  
  

 
 
   
  
       
 %
   

   
   

 
 
   !     


  
 

   

  

  




        
  
 
%
       
   
 
    
  
  
         !
*        ! .   
   
  

   
       1  
 
"
       %     )
       
  

  
    
    
        
    %    
 3


.  #
      %  

  0! 
  . * 
   
,,



 
 

 

      
 
 % 
   
 
 
  
 
 
 
  
 
 )
    
       
     (
 ?(
?@ 
.$ 3


# 
3
   
    
    

    
 

        
 
         
       !


  #  $ 
*     
       E "
 
   
     
    
  
      3
 
 ! 
   
   
      "  %  
           

   
  !  %
         

    

   !   

    
 
      
    * .
  

 %   0

 7,9>B:

  
  ,,  

     
      

   K

 
   
         


 
  
   %   
  
%
       

  
 #
   
 
 
  %
  
       !  
       

  
 
    
     
   ,,  
    
  

 

   
    
,E  
 
     ! 
 
      




              
 
     %
  *   "
  
 "
    . "   
  
  

      
  

  .   

        
 

   

 
; 
 !   "
         
 
 
    
 ( =  
    
 
 
 
!    
%    
  *   

  
% 

 
  
    
   



   
      
     
  
 

 7@
  ,9>A$   ,99A: C   

         

  
   

   7 

 ,99=:  
   
 


    "  "   
  

   

"
    


  

 
     
,4

 


  

 
             
  !  

  
*
 
! 
  ?(     "
  
"
                      

          
 7  ,99A: * 

'             
   ,B6<4
     
 
     
    
    % %  
    
  
       
      .%    
  
     
 
  
  3


     
        
 
 %
     
  
    
       
    *
  


  
  
  
    
       
  
!
    

    

   
 ! 
$ 
     
   
     
   %  
H   
 
  
      
 
 
     
   
   
 
  
    
      !   

    
"
   &    "   
 
           
%   

  "  
  
  
  



 
      
  !  

     
 
  
 3
        
!   
 
   
 
     

    " 
  
 * 1 ! 
    ! 
    

  G0;        

       
 G0;

  #  

Age and second language learning
*           
  
     
 
          
  
 

   
     #
 0
      
          
   
     


     

    

 
 
        "
    
#
 0
        
 

   
 

 
   

 
    
 
      
" 
   
   


 
 #
 0
 
   
  

,<



 
 

 
   
       
  

+    7,999: 
        

  #
 0
     
      

         %  
 
   


     
 ! 
"        
      
   " 
  
 
       
     
      "   


 
    

3


 
!  !       
 
 
  
  
  
  7@ 
 ,99=:
   
   
  
  
 
  
        
  


    

     
   
  =
>  

  $ 
 
   
 
  

 
  3
   
   
  
 
  
     
    
 
  
  
 +,  

The inuence of the rst language on the second

 )#    8     

   
 
%   "
   
         


       7&   8
  ,9>9: * 
   
    
   

  
  

           
)   

        3
%  



 .   

         

  '   H'          * 
   !
 


 
     !    
       ) 
 7  
'    
:
      7  
H' : *   
    
   
 


 
  $     
 

 '              
 
 

 
     
 
     H'  H

    *    


   



      

  
     
 

        .$ 


  


 .   * 7+ 
 ,994: (      

     % 
   7
 

"% :
     7        :       

 
 

   
         2


         
     


   
 
        
  
,B

 


  

 
   
       
      
"

 
 
  7&  
 ,9>B: (      
 
     

       
  

  +
     
  
      
   

  "
  
    !    +4
    
  " 
   
 


  !   
 
       



   
 +,  +4     
 
 + 

    
                     
  *    . 


       


       7   / :  

7 / : 7  ,9>E:

Age and rst language

                *   

    
  

 7=6>  
:    

       
  7 )   
 :

 

 7,46,B  
: 

      



7 
  
 ,99E: #
 
 
     
    
        
   
 ! 
  

 
   
   


     !         
  
  

   

       
"
   
 

       +4  
    


 7 
  ,99B$  ,99/:   "    


%
   

  
     


 
 
     
     

     
   
   
   
             
&

     7   ,B   :
    
%     
   "
     

 
         
  
   


 
* 
   






  !  
  
       



         
       

 "  
     "
  %
 
2        
     
  

    
 
  
  

 
 * 
   )
 
    


     


 
  )   

 

,E



 
 

 

Inuence of teaching on second language learning


     
 
   
   % 
 2            
 
 
 %
    
     

    
 !   2     
    $ 
%  
   
 
   
      

!                
  
 

%      ! 8   8
 7,99=:    

           
  3
  ,,  


 7. +,:         
  


 
    

 


 7,99B:
    ,,6,<  
  

  C
 7. +,:


  
!         
 

3


 
       %        
  
         "  
  7 
#
E: #

 !  

         

   

       
 
   % 

    
% 
       

    
    
  
   
   ( 


     
 %    
    !    

 
    *        
  "
 

 


      
  !         
%    
 !          

 
              ! 



  
   

 
!   
   
 
    
 

         
%
           
   -

    
 
     
   
  7   ,B:   

   
 "

1.6 Advantages to starting young with foreign languages

8   
  

   
  
  
 

  
$ 
       '   
 


 .%
    ?@    
     
 
  

          %     


     !               


   !      
     
     
      3+  
 
   % 
    
  
   

    

     
       
   

,A

 


  

 

  %  2      
  
   
# 
    
       %   
       2     

0         
   
   

 I
 (
 %
   
    

 !
  . 
   3
 ! 

  
    
 7 
    ,99B$ +   
,99B$ 
  
 ,99E: *     % 
    


                 
 
 ! +   
     "    

 
   
 


$ 
     "  
 

   

    
   

  %       
       

D 

  
  

  +4 
   

 

       
 

   
  
!  


  
  
  



!        
 7 
  
 ,99E: + 
    
 
 
  
 
  
  
  
 '      
     !$ 
     
'  
         
% 


%
       
   !   

      
 %
     
    "$  
   
  
  ! 

!  
    
 !  
 !   
  !    '           
      !       
  
 



1.7 The foreign language: describing the indivisible

*     * 
   "
          ) 
  
   
        *  
 
              
 ) 3 
! +   ! 5  

 
    C

 1 
  0         
                  7
  
,99>:           3   I  
 
   
           


        

    !
&  
  
  
  
  
  
  
     !   
 
  
 
 
      
!      

 
  
          
,=



 
 

 
 "
         
  
  

! 
 
      
 
  
  

  
    
 ! 

  *
 
   
      
 
 !
     
    " !    
 

       
   

   
%
  
        
    !  
    
  
   
 !      
    
  
     
   
  !
 +   
      

    3

   

  !       
    
   
 
  
    
 5


 !         
     ! 

      


    
  
   
  
 I    
  
 
 

 
  
 
     
 8   
  
       
   
    

!     
  !    
    
           

 

 3
1 !

       
 
    !   
!
   *    
        

 
    !         
 


 1 

*
        ; 
 !   #
< 
 

  
2         
 
%    

   !    
!  "

        "  *   !   

 )  +    !   !        

 
   
   #
       
     
   


C

     
 
      
 
 
  
   
     
 
 
  

   
        
        
  
     !  
  
      !      " 
 
 % 

     $     
 !        
  
 7#
A:

    
  
   3
,,
 
     
      
2 

    
 %
      

   


          
  ! 
  
 
,>

 


  

 
learning the foreign language
 

 !
 


 
  
  
 


 
 

%   !




0   $($


 1
 *    

  


         

   
" 
! 
  
 
  )
 
       

           
     


          


 
 
    


1.8 Summary of key learning principles

 
     
   
   

     
  !     
  
 

   .        
  
  
 !    
 
 %      
!  
    

%
        
#
   
  )!       "   
 
   
  
       !     
    !    
   

 !     
   
  
     % 
  

        

    
 

   
    !       

,9



 
 

 

%
 
   & 
*             G0;
 
         
 
 
   

5      
      
   
         !  

 


#          '  

#
   !              

   

          " 

 
 

 
         

(   '          

+  
    !  
 
    
  

  

%
)   

  & 
*



 !        
 

     

  G0;  




 %
    
  

  
  

!    
 3
       
 
   
 %
       $    
     

  !     
   %
   
        !
       
 
  !  ) 

  
 
    

 !  
 

  
 0
    !      



    !
           
 
 %
   
 
 *   % 
    
     
 
  
  

!       



4/