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Load Flow Analysis
System Concepts
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 2
LN
= 3 S
3 V
LL
= P + jQ
Inductive loads have lagging Power Factors.
Capacitive loads have leading Power Factors.
Lagging Power Factor
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 3
Q
j
Q
j
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Q
j
Lagging
Power
Factor
Leading
Power
Factor
Slide 4
S = 3VI
V = 3ZI
SB
=
I
B
3VB
2
V
Z = B
B SB
I actual
I pu =
IB
Vactual
Vpu =
VB
Zactual
Z pu =
ZB
Sactual
Spu =
SB
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 5
Example 1: The diagram shows a simple radial system. PowerStation converts the
branch impedance values to the correct base for Load Flow calculations. The LF
reports show the branch impedance values in percent. The transformer turn ratio
(N1/N2) is 3.31 and the X/R = 12.14
Transformer Turn Ratio: The transformer turn ratio is
used by PowerStation to determine the base voltage for
different parts of the system. Different turn ratios are
applied starting from the utility kV rating.
kVB1
N1
kV =
kVB2
N2
1
B
kVB2
X pu
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
X
Z pu
R
=
2
X
1+
R
R pu
x pu
=
X
R
Slide 6
X pu =
0.065(12.14)
1 + (12.14) 2
= 0.06478
R pu =
0.06478
= 0.005336
12.14
The transformer impedance must be converted to 100 MVA base and therefore the
following relation must be used, where n stands for new and o stands for old.
o
n
o VB
Zpu = Zpu n
VB
SnB
13.8 100
o = (5.33103 + j0.06478)
= (0.1115+ j1.3538)
13.5 5
SB
kVutility 13.5
=
= 4.0695
VB =
N1 3.31
N2
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
VB2
(4.0695) 2
=
= 0.165608
ZB =
MVA
100
Slide 7
The per-unit value of the impedance may be determined as soon as the base
impedance is known. The per-unit value is multiplied by one hundred to obtain
the percent impedance. This value will be the value displayed on the LF report.
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 8
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 9
Basic Requirement
Power Flow in each line and transformer
Voltage Magnitude and Phase Angle at each bus
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 10
Slide 11
Slide 12
Optimize Operating
Conditions
Bus Voltages are Within Acceptable Limits
Voltages are Within Rated Insulation Limits
of Equipment
Power & Current Flows Do Not Exceed the
Maximum Ratings
System MW & Mvar Losses are Determined
Circulating Mvar Flows are Eliminated
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 13
Calculation Process
Non-Linear System
Calculated Iteratively
Assume the Load
Voltage (Initial Conditions)
Calculate the Current I
Based on the Current,
Calculate Voltage Drop Vd
Assume VR
Calc: I = Sload / VR
Calc: Vd = I * Z
Re-Calc VR = Vs - Vd
Slide 14
2.
3.
Fast-Decoupled Method
Newton-Raphson Method
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 15
kWRated
HP 0.7457
kVARated =
=
PF Eff
PF Eff
kVARated
FLA3 =
3 kV
kVARated
FLA1 =
kV
Where PF and Efficiency are taken at 100 %
loading conditions
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
kW
kVA
kVA
( 3 kV)
kVA
I1 = 1000
kV
I3 = 1000
Slide 16
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 17
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 19
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 20
Generic Loads
Exponential Load
Polynomial Load
Comprehensive
Load
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 21
Feedback Voltage
AVR: Automatic Voltage
Regulation
Fixed: Fixed Excitation
(no AVR action)
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 22
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 23
Isochronous Mode
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 24
Droop Mode
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 25
Droop Mode
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 26
Droop Mode
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 27
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 28
Adjusting Excitation
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 29
Slide 30
In the Swing Mode, the voltage is kept fixed. P & Q can vary
based on the Power Demand
In the Voltage Control Mode, P & V are kept fixed while Q &
are varied
In the Mvar Control Mode, P and Q are kept fixed while V &
are varied
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 31
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 32
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 33
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 34
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 35
Machine Rating
(Power Factor
Point)
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 36
Generation Categories
Generator/Power Grid Rating Page
Load Flow Loading Page
10 Different Generation
Categories for Every
Generator or Power Grid
in the System
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 37
Power Flow
V1 = V1 1
V 2 = V2 2
S = V* I = P + jQ
V *V
= 1 2 *SIN ( 1 2 ) +
X
2
V1*V 2
V2
j
*COS ( 1 2 )
X
X
V1*V 2
P=
*SIN ( 1 2 )
X
2
V1*V 2
V2
Q=
*COS( 1 2 )
X
X
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 38
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 39
The following graph shows the power flow from Machine M2. This
machine behaves as a generator supplying real power and
absorbing reactive power from machine M1.
1
( V E)
X
( V E)
X
( )
( )
sin
cos
Power Flow
X
1
2
2
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 40
Bus Voltage
PowerStation displays bus voltage values in two ways
kV value
Percent of Nominal Bus kV
For Bus4:
kVCalculated = 4.03
V% =
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
kVCalculated
100 = 96.85%
kVNo min al
Slide 41
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 42
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 43
Reactor Impedance
Adjust reactor impedance based on specified tolerance
Overload Heater
Adjust Overload Heater resistance based on specified tolerance
Cable Length
Adjust Cable Impedance based on possible length variation tolerance
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 44
Temperature Correction
Cable Resistance
Transmission Line
Resistance
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 45
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 46
Transformers
T1 = 30 MVA
T2 = 15 MVA
T3 = 5 MVA
T4 = 3 MVA
Select typical %Z &
X/R
Cable1
ICEA 15kV 3/C CU,
100%
Size= 250
Length= 400 ft
Cable2
KERITE 5kV 3/C
CU, 100%
Size= 500
Length= 300 ft
Power Grid
1000 MVAsc
X/R = 22
Gen1
10 MW
Voltage Control
Design:
%Pf = 85
MW = 5
Max Q = 4
Min Q = -1
Impedance
Z1
13.8 kV
100MVA
% Z = 0.01+j1
Transformer
T5 = 5 MVA
Select typical %Z
& X/R
Cable3
ICEA 5kV 3/C
CU, 133%
Size= 500
Length= 100 ft
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 48
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 49
Cable
Reactor
Line
Transformer
DC Link
Panel
Generator
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 50
Monitored parameters %
Condition reported
OverLoad
OverLoad
Fuses
Rated Current
OverLoad
Contactors
OverLoad
OverLoad
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 51
Advanced LF Topics
Load Flow Convergence
Voltage Control
Mvar Control
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 53
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 54
Voltage Control
Under/Over Voltage Conditions must be
fixed for proper equipment operation and
insulation ratings be met.
Methods of Improving Voltage Conditions:
Transformer Replacement
Capacitor Addition
Transformer Tap Adjustment
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 55
Under-Voltage Example
Create Under Voltage
Condition
Method 2 - Shunt
Capacitor
Run LF
Voltage is improved
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Run LF
Slide 56
Mvar Control
Vars from Utility
Close Switch
Open Switch
Run LF
Method 1 Generator
Change Generator from
Voltage Control to Mvar
Control
Set Mvar Design Setting to 5
Mvars
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 57
Panel Systems
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 58
Panel Boards
They are a collection of branch circuits
feeding system loads
Panel System is used for representing power
and lighting panels in electrical systems
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 59
Representation
A panel branch circuit load can be modeled as
an internal or external load
Advantages:
1. Easier Data Entry
2. Concise System
Representation
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 60
Pin Assignment
Pin 0 is the top pin of the panel
ETAP allows up to 24 external load connections
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 61
Assumptions
Vrated (internal load) = Vrated (Panel Voltage)
Note that if a 1-Phase load is connected to a 3Phase panel circuit, the rated voltage of the panel
circuit is (1/3) times the rated panel voltage
The voltage of L1 or L2 phase in a 1-Phase 3-Wire
panel is (1/2) times the rated voltage of the panel
There are no losses in the feeders connecting a
load to the panel
Static loads are calculated based on their rated
voltage
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 62
Line-Line Connections
Load Connected Between Two Phases of a
3-Phase System
A
B
C
B
C
IB = IBC
IBC
Load
IC = -IBC
LoadB
SBC = VBC.IBC
PBC = VBC.IBC.cos
QBC = VBC.IBC.sin
SB = VB.IB
PB = VB.IB.cos ( - 30)
QB = VB.IB.sin ( - 30)
And, for load connected to phase C
SC = VC.IC
PC = VC.IC.cos ( + 30)
QC = VC.IC.sin ( + 30)
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 63
Info Page
NEC Selection
A, B, C from top to bottom or
left to right from the front of
the panel
Phase B shall be the highest
voltage (LG) on a 3-phase, 4wire delta connected system
(midpoint grounded)
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 64
Rating Page
Intelligent kV Calculation
If a 1-Phase panel is connected to a 3-Phase bus
having a nominal voltage equal to 0.48 kV, the
default rated kV of the panel is set to (0.48/1.732
=) 0.277 kV
For IEC, Enclosure Type
is Ingress Protection
(IPxy), where IP00 means
no protection or shielding
on the panel
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 65
Schedule Page
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 66
Description Tab
First 14 load items in the list are based on NEC 1999
Last 10 load types in the Panel Code Factor Table are user-defined
Load Type is used to determine the Code Factors used in calculating the
total panel load
External loads are classified as motor load or static load according to the
element type
For External links the load status is determined from the connected loads
demand factor status
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 67
Rating Tab
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 68
Loading Tab
For internal loads, enter the % loading for the selected loading category
For both internal and external loads, Amp values are
calculated based on terminal bus nominal kV
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 69
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 70
Feeder Tab
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 71
Action Buttons
Copy the content of the selected
row to clipboard. Circuit number,
Phase, Pole, Load Name, Link
and State are not copied.
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 72
Summary Page
Continuous Load Per Phase and Total
Non-Continuous Load Per Phase and Total
Connected Load Per Phase and Total (Continuous + Non-Continuous Load)
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 73
Output Report
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 74
Copyright 2004 Operation Technology, Inc. Workshop Notes: Load Flow Analysis
Slide 75