Acute Rheumatic Fever

Cause
ARF is believed to be an immunologic lesion that
occurs as a delayed sequela of group A streptococcal
infection of the pharynx but not of the skin. The
attack rate of ARF after streptococcal infection
varies with the severity of the infection, ranging
from 0.3% to 3%.
Important predisposing factors include family history
of rheumatic fever, low socioeconomic status
(poverty, poor hygiene, medical deprivation), and age
between 6 and 15 years (with a peak incidence at 8
years of age).

Pathology
The inflammatory lesion is found in many parts of the
body, most notably in the heart, brain, joints, and
skin. Valvular damage most frequently involves the
mitral, less commonly the aortic, and rarely the
tricuspid and pulmonary valves.
Aschoff bodies in the atrial myocardium are believed
to be characteristic of rheumatic fever. These
consist of inflammatory lesions associated with
swelling, fragmentation of collagen fibers, and
alterations in the staining characteristics of
connective tissue.

Clinical Manifestations
ARF is diagnosed by the use
of revised Jones criteria
The criteria are three groups of important
clinical and laboratory findings:
(1) five major manifestations
(2) four minor manifestations
(3) supporting evidence of an antecedent
group A streptococcal infection.

HISTORY
History of streptococcal pharyngitis, 1 to 5 weeks
(average, 3 weeks) before the onset of symptoms, is
common.
The latent period may be as long as 2 to 6 months
(average, 4 months) in cases of isolated chorea.
Pallor, malaise, easy fatigability, and other history, such
as epistaxis (5% to 10%) and abdominal pain, may be
present.
Family history of rheumatic fever frequently is positive.

MAJOR MANIFESTATIONS
Arthritis
Arthritis, the most common manifestation of ARF
(70% of cases)
involves large joints
(e.g., knees, ankles, elbows, wrists).
Often more than one joint, either simultaneously
or in succession, is involved

characteristic migratory nature of the arthritis.

Swelling, heat, redness, severe pain, tenderness, and limitation of
motion are common.
The arthritis responds dramatically to salicylate therapy;
therapy if patients
treated with salicylates (with documented therapeutic levels) do not
improve in 48 hours, the diagnosis of ARF probably is incorrect.
Such patients have been categorized as having poststreptococcal
reactive arthritis; the relationship of this disease to acute
rheumatic fever remains undetermined.

Carditis
Carditis occurs in 50% of patients:

Tachycardia (out of proportion to the degree of fever) is common; its absence

makes the diagnosis of myocarditis unlikely.

A heart murmur of valvulitis (caused by mitral regurgitation [MR] and/or aortic

regurgitation [AR]) is almost always present; without the murmurs of MR
and/or AR, carditis should not be diagnosed.

the presence of MR or AR by echo and Doppler studies, without accompanying

auscultatory findings, cannot be taken as the sole criterion for valvulitis.

Pericarditis (friction rub, pericardial effusion, chest pain, and ECG changes)
may be present.

Cardiomegaly on chest x-ray films is indicative of pericarditis, pancarditis, or

congestive heart failure (CHF).

Signs of CHF (gallop rhythm, distant heart sounds, cardiomegaly) are

indications of severe carditis.

Erythema Marginatum
Occurs in <10% of patients with ARF.
The characteristic nonpruritic serpiginous
or annular erythematous rashes are most
prominent on the trunk and the inner
proximal portions of the extremities; they
are never seen on the face.
The rashes are evanescent, disappearing
on exposure to cold and reappearing after
a hot shower or when the patient is
covered with a warm blanket. They seldom
are detected in air-conditioned hospital
rooms.

Subcutaneous Nodules
Found in 2% to 10% of patients,
particularly in those with
recurrences.
Hard, painless, nonpruritic, freely movable, swelling, and
0.2 to 2 cm in diameter.
Symmetris, singly or in clusters, on the extensor surfaces
of both large and small joints, over the scalp, or along the
spine.
Not transient, lasting for weeks, and have a significant
association with carditis.

Sydenham's Chorea
Sydenham's chorea (St. Vitus' dance)
is found in 15% of patients with ARF.
more often in prepubertal girls (8 to 12 years) than in boys.

neuropsychiatric disorder consisting of both neurologic signs

(choreic movement and hypotonia) and psychiatric signs (e.g.,
emotional lability, hyperactivity, separation anxiety, obsessions
and compulsions).

begins with emotional lability and personality changes.

spontaneous, purposeless movement of chorea (which lasts 4 to
18 months), followed by motor weakness.

Sydenham's Chorea

The distractability and inattentiveness outlast the choreic

movements.
The adventitious movements, weakness, and hypotonia continue for
an average of 7 months (up to 17 months) before slowly waning in
severity.
Recently, elevated titers of antineuronal antibodies recognizing
basal ganglion tissues have been found in over 90% of patients. The
levels of the antineuronal antibody titer are positively related to
the severity of choreic movements.
These findings suggest that chorea may be related to dysfunction
of basal ganglia and cortical neuronal components.

MINOR MANIFESTATIONS
Arthralgia refers to joint pain without the objective changes of
arthritis. It must not be considered a minor manifestation when
arthritis is present.
Fever (usually with a temperature of at least 102F [38.8C]) is
present early in the course of untreated rheumatic fever.
In laboratory findings, elevated acute-phase reactants (elevated Creactive protein levels and elevated erythrocyte sedimentation
rate) are objective evidence of an inflammatory process.
A prolonged PR interval on the ECG is neither specific for ARF nor
an indication of active carditis.

EVIDENCE OF ANTECEDENT GROUP A STREPTOCOCCAL

INFECTION
A history of sore throat or of scarlet fever unsubstantiated by
laboratory data is not adequate evidence of recent group A
streptococcal infection.
Positive throat cultures or rapid streptococcal antigen tests for
group A streptococci are less reliable than antibody tests
because they do not distinguish between recent infection and
chronic pharyngeal carriage. Antigen detection tests are very
specific but not very sensitive; a negative test result should be
confirmed by a conventional throat culture.
Streptococcal antibody tests are the most reliable laboratory
evidence of antecedent streptococcal infection capable of
producing ARF. The onset of the clinical manifestations of ARF
coincides with the peak of the streptococcal antibody response.

 Antistreptolysin O (ASO) titer is well standardized and therefore

is the most widely used test. It is elevated in 80% of patients with
ARF and in 20% of normal individuals.
Only 67% of patients with isolated chorea have an elevated ASO
titer. ASO titers of at least 333 Todd units in children and 250
Todd units in adults are considered elevated.
A single low ASO titer does not exclude ARF. If three other
antistreptococcal antibody tests (antideoxyribonuclease B,
antistreptokinase, and antihyaluronidase tests) are obtained, a
titer for at least one antibody test is elevated in about 95% of
patients.
The antideoxyribonuclease B test is favored over other tests.
Titers of 240 Todd units or greater in children and 120 Todd units
or greater in adults are considered elevated.
The Streptozyme test (Wampole Laboratories) is a relatively
simple slide agglutination test, but it is less standardized and less
reproducible than the other antibody tests.

OTHER CLINICAL FEATURES

Abdominal pain, rapid sleeping heart rate,
tachycardia out of proportion to fever,
malaise, anemia, epistaxis, and precordial pain
are relatively common but not specific.
A positive family history of rheumatic fever
also may heighten the suspicion but cannot be
used as a diagnostic manifestation.

Diagnosis
The revised Jones criteria are used for the diagnosis of ARF.
Only the major and minor criteria and evidence of an antecedent
group A streptococcal infection are included in the criteria,
although other findings play a supporting role.
A diagnosis of ARF is highly probable when either two major
manifestations or one major and two minor manifestations, plus
evidence of antecedent streptococcal infection, are present.
present
The absence of supporting evidence of a previous group A
streptococcal infection makes the diagnosis doubtful.
Exceptions to the Jones criteria include the following three
specific situations:
Chorea may occur as the only manifestation of rheumatic fever.
Indolent carditis may be the only manifestation in patients who come to
medical attention months after the onset of rheumatic fever.
Occasionally, patients with rheumatic fever recurrences may not fulfill
the Jones criteria.

Tips help in applying the Jones criteria:

Two major manifestations are always stronger than one major plus two
minor manifestations.
Arthralgia or a prolonged PR interval cannot be used as a minor
manifestation in the presence of arthritis or carditis, respectively.
The absence of evidence of an antecedent group A streptococcal
infection is a warning that ARF is unlikely (except when chorea is
present).
The vibratory innocent (Still's) murmur is often misinterpreted as a
murmur of MR and thereby is a frequent cause of misdiagnosis (or
overdiagnosis) of ARF. The murmur of MR is a regurgitant-type systolic
murmur (starting with the S1), but the innocent murmur is low pitched
and an ejection type. A cardiology consultation during the acute phase
minimizes the frequency of misdiagnosis.
The possibility of the early suppression of full clinical manifestations
should be sought during the history taking. Subtherapeutic doses of
aspirin or salicylate-containing analgesics (e.g., Bufferin, Anacin) may
suppress full manifestations.

Differential Diagnosis

Juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (JRA) is often misdiagnosed as acute

rheumatic fever. The following findings suggest JRA rather than ARF:
involvement of peripheral small joints, symmetrical involvement of large
joints without migratory arthritis, pallor of the involved joints, a more
indolent course, no evidence of preceding streptococcal infection, and
the absence of prompt response to salicylate therapy within 24 to 48
hours.

Other collagen vascular diseases (systemic lupus erythematosus, mixed

connective tissue disease); reactive arthritis, including
poststreptococcal arthritis; serum sickness; and infectious arthritis
(such as gonococcal) occasionally require differentiation.

Virus-associated acute arthritis (rubella, parvovirus, hepatitis B virus,

herpesvi ruses, enteroviruses) is much more common in adults.

Hematologic disorders, such as sicklemia and leukemia, should be

considered in the differential diagnosis.

Clinical Course
Only carditis can cause permanent cardiac damage. Signs of mild
carditis disappear rapidly in weeks, but those of severe carditis
may last for 2 to 6 months.
Arthritis subsides within a few days to several weeks, even
without treatment, and does not cause permanent damage.
Chorea gradually subsides in 6 to 7 months or longer and usually
does not cause permanent neurologic sequelae.

Management
When ARF is suggested by history and physical examination, one
should obtain the following laboratory studies: complete blood
count, acute-phase reactants (ESR and CRP), throat culture,
ASO titer, chest x-ray films, and ECG.
Cardiology consultation is indicated to clarify whether there is
cardiac involvement; two-dimensional echo and Doppler studies
are usually performed at that time.
Benzathine penicillin G, 0.6 to 1.2 million IU/IM,
is given to eradicate streptococci. This serves
as the first dose of penicillin prophylaxis as well.
In patients allergic to penicillin, erythromycin,
40 mg/kg per day in two to four doses for 10
days, may be substituted for penicillin.

 Anti-inflammatory or suppressive therapy with salicylates or

steroids must not be started until a definite diagnosis is
made.
made Early suppressive therapy may interfere with a
definite diagnosis of ARF by suppressing full development of
joint manifestations and suppressing acute-phase reactants.
When the diagnosis of ARF is confirmed, one must educate
the patient and parents about the need to prevent
subsequent streptococcal infection through continuous
antibiotic prophylaxis. In patients with cardiac involvement,
the need for prophylaxis against infective endocarditis also
should be emphasized.

 Bed rest of varying duration is recommended.

The duration depends on the type and severity of the
manifestations and may range from a week (for isolated
arthritis) to several weeks for severe carditis.
Bed rest is followed by a period of indoor ambulation of varying
duration before the child is allowed to return to school.

 The erythrocyte sedimentation rate is a helpful guide to the

rheumatic activity and therefore to the duration of restriction
of activities. Full activity is allowed when the erythrocyte
sedimentation rate has returned to normal, except in children
with significant cardiac involvement.

 Therapy with anti-inflammatory agents should be started as

soon as ARF has been diagnosed.
Prednisone (2 mg/kg per day in four divided doses for 2 to 6
weeks) is indicated only in cases of severe carditis.
For mild to moderate carditis, aspirin alone is recommended in a
dose of 90 to 100 mg/kg per day in four to six divided doses. An
adequate blood level of salicylates is 20 to 25 mg/100 mL. This
dose is continued for 4 to 8 weeks, depending on the clinical
response. After improvement, the therapy is with drawn
gradually over 4 to 6 weeks while monitoring acute-phase
reactants.
For arthritis, aspirin therapy is continued for 2 weeks and
gradually withdrawn over the following 2 to 3 weeks. Rapid
resolution of joint symptoms with aspirin within 24 to 36 hours
is supportive evidence of the arthritis of ARF.

Treatment of CHF includes some or all of the following:

Complete bed rest with orthopneic position and moist, cool
oxygen.
Morphine sulfate, 0.2 mg/kg, at 4-hour intervals for severe CHF
with respiratory distress.
Restriction of sodium and fluid intake.
Prednisone for severe carditis of recent onset.
Digoxin (used with caution, because certain patients with
rheumatic carditis are supersensitive to digitalis), beginning with
half the usual recommended dose.
Furosemide, 1 mg/kg every 6 to 12 hours, if indicated.

Management of Sydenham's chorea:

Reduce physical and emotional stress and use protective measures as

indicated.

Give benzathine penicillin G, 1.2 million units, initially for eradication of

streptococcus and also every 28 days for prevention of recurrence, just
as in patients with other rheumatic manifestations. Without the
prophylaxis, about 25% of patients with isolated chorea (without carditis)
develop rheumatic valvular heart disease in 20-year follow-up.

Anti-inflammatory agents are not needed in patients with isolated

chorea.

For severe cases, any of the following drugs may be used: phenobarbital
(15 to 30 mg every 6 to 8 hours), haloperidol (starting at 0.5 mg and
increasing every 8 hours to 2 g), valproic acid, chlorpromazine
(Thorazine), diazepam (Valium), or steroids.

Plasma exchange (to remove antineuronal antibodies) and IV immune

globulin therapy (to inactivate the effects of the antineuronal antibodies)
are in the experimental stages (by the National Institutes of Health),
but the preliminary results are promising in reducing the duration of
chorea.

Prognosis
The presence or absence of permanent cardiac damage determines
the prognosis. The development of residual heart disease is
influenced by the following three factors:
Cardiac status at the start of treatment: The more severe the
cardiac involvement at the time the patient is first seen, the
greater the incidence of residual heart disease.
Recurrence of rheumatic fever: The severity of valvular
involvement increases with each recurrence.
Regression of heart disease: Evidence of cardiac involvement at
the first attack may disappear in 10% to 25% of patients 10
years after the initial attack. Valvular disease resolves more
frequently when prophylaxis is followed.

Prevention
POPULATION
Patients with documented histories of rheumatic fever, including
those with isolated chorea and those without evidence of
rheumatic heart disease, must receive prophylaxis.
DURATION
Ideally, patients should receive prophylaxis indefinitely.
Many cardiologists recommend discontinuing the prophylaxis at
age 21 to 25 years, provided the patient does not have evidence
of valvular involvement and is not in a high-risk occupation (e.g.,
schoolteachers, physicians, nurses).
If the patient has rheumatic valvular disease, the prophylaxis
should be continued longer, possibly for life. The chance of
recurrence is highest in the first 5 years after the ARF.

METHODS
The method of choice for secondary prevention is benzathine penicillin G,
1.2 million units given intramuscularly every 28 days (not once a month).
Alternative methods, although not as effective, are the following:
Oral penicillin V, 250 mg, twice daily.
Oral sulfadiazine, 1 g once daily (note that the sulfonamides are not
effective for the prophylaxis of infective endocarditis).
Oral erythromycin ethyl succinate, 250 mg, twice daily.
PRIMARY PREVENTION
Primary prevention of rheumatic fever is possible with a 10-day course
of penicillin therapy for streptococcal pharyngitis.
Primary prevention is not possible in patients who develop subclinical
pharyngitis and therefore do not seek medical treatment (30%) and in
patients who develop ARF without symptoms of strepto coccal
pharyngitis (30%).

THANK YOU