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A Text Book of Classical Algebra and Calculus: Contents Lesson Unit I
A Text Book of Classical Algebra and Calculus: Contents Lesson Unit I
com
UNIT 2
UNIT 3
UNIT 4
UNIT-5
1.
Binomial theorems
2.
Exponential series
3.
Logarithmic series
4.
5.
6.
Raabes test
7.
Theory of Equations
8.
Transformation of Equations
9.
Reciprocal Equations
10.
Multiple Roots
11.
Rolles Theorem
12.
13.
Horners Method
14.
Radius of Curvature
15.
16.
Total differentiation
17.
Integration
18.
Integration by parts
19.
Reduction formulas
20.
21.
22.
Improper Integrals
23.
24.
Approximate Integration
25.
26.
Jacobians
UNIT 1
Lesson 1
BINOMIAL THEOREMS
Contents
1.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
1.1 BINOMIAL THEOREM
1.1.1. VANDERMONDES THEOREM
1.1.2. BINOMIAL THEOREM FOR A RATIONAL INDEX
1.1.3. APPLICATIONS OF BINOMIAL SERIES
1.2 EXAMPLES
1.3 LET US SUM UP
1.4. CHECK YOU PROGRESS
1.5 LESSON END ACTIVITIES
1.6. POINTS FOR DISCUSSION
1.7 REFERENCES
p
!
q
1
q
!
p
n!
q
n!
qr = q(q-1)(q-2). ( q - r -1)
The coefficient of xn in the product of two series
=
pn
n!
pq
+ -2 n 1 +
(1 - ! )n 1 (!
1
n !
p
pn +
n ! 1 ( ! -n )1
pq
pq
nq
+ . . .1n. -+.1 . . .
+
2-n) ! 2 n! - 1 ( ! n1)
and
is
-2n2
+q
n -1
n!
n !
q 2
1 p n+
- 2
2 -n( ! )2 ! n- 3
+p
(! n- 3 3)
q +n . . . q. . . . .
1 ( 1 n ) -! n ( 1 n- ) ( n 2- ) n ! (-n 1 ) n (- 2n ) -( n 3 ) !
p
p -n+2
q 2
+
pn +
-1 n + q
1
n - p3
3q +
n
n ! 1 ( -! ) n 1
!
2(- n ! ) 2
! -n 3
!( 3 ) !
1 ( n 1 n)
(npn
+ p-1 n q1+
n!
1
!
2
1 n -) n ( -n2
)
p
- 2p n + 2 q
- 3n +
!
3 !
. q. . . . . . .
q n+. . . . q. . . . .
( p + q) n
n!
\ (p+q)n=pn+nc1pn-1q1+nc2pn-2q2+..+qn
Book Work 2
1.1.2 Binomial Theorem for a rational Index
Statement
If n is a rational number and -1 < x < 1 (i.e) x < 1, the sum of the series
1+nx+
n
! r!
Where nr=n(n-1)(n-2). (n - 1r - )
We denote this series by u1+u2+u3+..
. is the
nr r
x
ur +1
r!
=
nr -1 r -1
ur
x
(r -1 ) !
nr (r -1 ) n ! r
\ n!=n(n-1)!
r ! n -1r xr -1
nr 1
. x.
nr -1 r
n - r +1
.x
r
u
ur
nr
= n - r +1
nr -1
ur +1 n - r +1
=
.x
ur
r
ur +1
n=
ur
r
r1 + n +
1
r
= x
- x
r
r
n +1
-1 n
n r
n +1
1
= l i -m 1x
\ lx i r +m
x
1
r
= -1 x
Qr 0
= x
\r
u +r 1
a
x=
u r
p n
p
p 2 p33
=) p 1+1 x.+2 . +
x . + . x +. +
x.
1 ! 2 ! 3 ! n!
f(
q
q
q
q
=) q +11 x.+2 . 2+x . 33+ .x +. x+.n
1 ! 2 ! 3 ! n!
.+
.+
.
.
f( +
( p + )q
+
p(
q) n
( p + )q
+
p(
q)
) p = 1 +q1 . + 2 .x + 2. x +. 3 3 +.x
.+ x . +
1
!
2
!
3
!
!n
are also absolutely convergent if |x|<1 \ f(p) +f(q) can be multiplied term
by term and the resulting series is also absolutely convergent
\ The coefficient of xn in the product of f(p) and f(q) is
pn
p
p2- qn2 3p- n 3 q
q
-1 n q1
+
+
+
+
+n . . . .
n ! ( 1- ) n! 1 !- ( n2 ) ! 2n ! ( 3 )n ! 3 ! !
1
= [ pn +n 1 c -n1+p 1 q 2- nn+2 c2 p+
.n . q. . .q]
n!
( p + q) n
and this is the
n!
coefficient of f(p+q)
\ The coefficient of any power of x in f(p+q)
= The coefficient of the same power of x in the product f(b)xf(q)
\f(p)+(q)=f(p+q) for all values of p and q, provides |x|<1.
\ f(p)f(q)f(r)=f(p+q+r)
\f(p)f(q)f(r).. s factors = f(p+q+r+
case (1): n is a positive fraction
u
where u and v are positive integers.
v
Let n =
f(1)=1+x
u
u
u
u
f f v+ f a c. = t. o. r. + s. f. v. +f . a. c. t . o r s
v
v
v
v
u
u
f v f= v x v
= f(u)
s factors)
u
f v =x(1 +
u
f
v
u v
= (x +1 )
\f(x)=(1+x)u
This is the proof for when is a positive fraction.
Case(ii) let n be a negative rational number
Let n=-u where u is a +ve rational number \n+u=0
f ( n ) f (u= )f +n( u)
= f( \
0f ) n(= )
1
f ( u)
1
( +1x u )
=1
= (1+x)n
f(x) = (1+x)n
)= n1
. .
. .
2. ( - x1 n )= n1 -. x . +2 . x. - . 3 x. + .
n( +1n ) n(+ 1n ) +n( 2 )
1 . 2 1 . 2 . 3
3. ( + x1 - n )= n1 -. x . +2. x. - . 3 x. + .
. .
4. ( - x1 - n )= n1 +. x . +2 . x. + . 3 x. + .
. .
p
p( +q) p( + p) q( + p2 q )
/ q +) ( x/ + ) (2q / + ) x . 3 .+ .q .
!
2
!
3
!
p
1
5. ( - x1 - p )q 1=x (
p
p( +q) p( + p) q( + p2 q)
/ q -) ( x/ + ) 2(q / + ) x . 3 .+ .q .
!
2
!
3
!
p
1
6. ((1+x)
- x1 - p )q 1=x (
Model 1
1.2. Examples
1 1 . 4 1 . 4 . 7
. + . . + . .+ . .+ .
61.6.2.61.6.2.3.6
. .
=1
1 1 . 4 1 1 . 4 . 7 1
. + . . + . .+ . .+ .
6 1 . 2 1f 2 . 2 . f3 3
. .
1 1 . 4 1 1 . 4 . 7 1
= 1 .+ . +. . + . .+
. +.
6 2 ! 6 3 ! 6
2
..
1 1 1 . 4 1 1 . 4 . 7 1
= 1 .+ . +. . + . .+ . +.
1 ! 6 2 ! 6 3 ! 6
..
p x p ( p+ ) q (x + p) p ( +q 2 p q) x
=
1
.
=1+
.- . + .
+.
. +
.
1 q ! 2
3
! q
q!
\ p=1
x 1
=
q 6
p+q=4
x 1
=
3 6
1+q=4
q=3
-p/q
\ s= (1-x)
x=
-1/3
=(1-1/2 )
3 1
=
6 2
-1 / 3
1
=
2
. .
. .
.
.
1
2
= 21
/ 3
-1 / 3
=3
2 2 . 5 2 . 5 . 8
+
+
+. . . . . . .
........
66.126.12.18
2 2 . 5 2 . 5 . 8
+
+
+ . . . . . .
.........
61.6.2.61.6.2.6.3.6
2
2 2 . 5 1 2 . 5 . 8 1
=
+
+
+ . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .
6 1 . 2 6 1 . 2 . 3 6
=
2 2 . 5 1 2 . 5 . 8 1
+
+
+ . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .
6 2 ! 6 3 ! 6
2
2 1 2 . 5 1 2 . 5 . 8 1
=
+
+
+ . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .
1 ! 6 2 ! 6 3 ! 6
\p=2
2 . 5 1 2 . 5 . 8 1
. . +. . . +. . .+ . . . . .
6 2 ! 6 3 ! 6
p+q=5
x 1
=
q 6
1+q=5
x 1
=
3 6
q=3
x=
3 1
=
6 2
\ 1+s = (1-x)-p/q
= (1- )-2/3=(1/2)-2/3=22/3
\ 1+s = 2 2/3 \s=22/3-1
3. Sum the series
3.513.5.71
3 + . . .+ . . +.2 . . . a .
1.231.2.33
3.513.5.71
s = 3 . + . . +. . .+
. . . a.
1 . 2 3 1 . 2 . 32 3
2
=3
3 . 5 1 3 . 5 . 7 1
. +. . +
. . . + .
2 ! 3 1 . 2 . 3 3
. a.
. 5
+.
3
\ p=3
. 7 1
. .+ .
! 3
. a.
x 1
=
q 3
p+q=5
x 1
=
2 3
q=2
x=
2
3
1
3
\ 1+ s = (1-x)-p/q
= (1- 2/3)
-3 / 2
1
=
3
-3/2
=3
1
3
\ 1+ s = 3 3-1
\ s = 3[ 3 -1]
4. Sum the series to infinity
3 3 . 4 3 . 5 . 7
+
+
+ . . . .. . . . . .
2.42.4.62.4.6.8
let S =
=
3 3 . 4 3 . 4 . 5
+
+
. . .. . . . . . .
2.42.4.62.4.6.8
3 3 . 4 3 . 4 . 5
+
+
. . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2.21.2.2.2.3.21.2.2.2.3.2.4.2
2
3 1 3 . 4 1 3 . 4 . 5 1
s=
+
+
. . . . . . . . . .
1 . 2 2 1 . 2 .3 2 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 2
[3,4,5 . are in Ap
the proceeding term is 2]
2 . 3 1 2 . 3 . 4 1 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 1
2 s = . . +.
. + . . +. . .
2 ! 2 3 ! 2 4 ! 2
Add
2 1
to both sides
1 ! 2
21 1 2 1
+2 s
1 ! 2 1
2 . 3 1 2
=. .+
! 2 2 !
. 3 . 4 1
. + . + .
2 3 ! 2
2 . 3 12
+. . +. . +. .
. .
2 2 ! 2
- p/ q
\ p=2
x 1
=
q 2
p+q=3
x 1
=
2 2
1
x=
2
q=1
1
2
= (1- )-2
-2
1
= = 22
2
2+2s = 4
2s = 2
s =1
Model -2
Examples based on the formula (6)
- p/ q
(1 + x )1
= p/
1-x
! +q) .
p ( p+ )q
x.
.( q .)
2 !
.a
s =1
1 1 . 3 1 . 3 . 5
-. . + . .- . +. . a.
66.126.12.18
=1
1 1 . 3 1 . 3 . 5
.- . +. . - . +. .
61.6.2.61.6.2.6.3.6
=1
1 1 . 3 1 1 . 3 . 5 1
. - . +. . - .
.+
.
6 1 . 6 . 2 .6 6 1 . 6 . 2 . 6 . 3 . 6 6
=1
1 1 1 . 3 1 1 . 3 . 5 1
. - . +. . - . .+ .
1 ! 6 2 ! 6 3 ! 6
=1
p
p
p( + q
-.( x .)+ q . x.
1
!
2
!
\ p=1
( .q ) .
.a
.a
x 1
=
q 6
p+q=3
.a
x 1
=
2 6
2
x=
6
1
x=
3
q=2
\ s =(1 x+
a
.
- p/ q
-1 / 2
1
/ 32 1 / 2
= 1 ( +4 / 3= ) -(1 =
3 / 4 =)
4
3
= 3 /2
(2) Prove that
1 1 . 3 1 . 3 . 5
+
. . . . .a. . .
2424.3224.32.40
1
= 1 -7 9 8 0 5
3
Solution
1 1 . 3 1 . 3 . 5
l e t=s
+
. . . . .a
....
2424.3224.32.40
=
1 1 . 3 1 . 3 . 5
+
. . . . .a
....
3.83.8.4.83.8.4.8.5.8
2
1 1 1 . 3 1 1 . 3 . 5 1
s = -
...
+
..a
3 8 3 . 4 8 3 . 4 . 5 8
1
2
1 1 1 1 . 3 1 1 . 3 . 5 1
s=
...
-
+
..a
2 2 . 3 8 2 . 3 . 4 8 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 8
2
1 1 1 1 . 3 1 1 . 3 . 5
s = -
+
2 3 ! 8 4 ! 8 5 !
1
...
..a
8
1
Multiply both sides by
8
1 1 1 1 1 . 3 1 1 . 3 . 5 1
s
= -
...
+
..a
2 6 4 3 ! 8 4 ! 8 5 ! 8
1 1 1 1 1 1
\
= - + - +
....
. . . . .a
1 2 8 3 ! 8 4 ! 8 5 ! 8
Nr. 1,3,5,.is an AP
common different = 2 the proceeding factor of 1=1-2=-1
proceeding factor of -1=-1-2= -3
\ Multiply both sides by (-1)
\
s
=
(-1 ) 1 1-( 1 ) 1 . 3 1
=
-
+
....
. . . . .a
2 8 3 ! 8 4 ! 8
-3 ( 3 -) ( 1 -) 1 1 -(
s=
+
1
2
8
3 !
3 ) (- 1 ) 1 . 3 1
....
. . . . .a
8 4 !
8
Add
(-3 ) -( 1 ) 1
on both sides
2 ! 8
2
1
2
8
3 ! 8
2 ! 8
3 ! 8
4 ! 8
3 3 1 ( 3 ) 1 ( -3 ) ( -1 ) 1- 1 ( -3 ) ( -1 ) 1 1
s+
+ 1 + 1 =.
-. . + . + .
.
. .
1 2 8 1 2 8 8 1 ! 8 2 ! 8 3 ! 8
.a
-3
3
+4
8
p+1
p2
s+
x = 1q ( -. )x
1
2
8
1
2
8
1
-3 1 3+ 1 4 8
s+
= x (+ 1 -)p
1 2 8 1 2 8
p8+ q (
. + q .(
!
2
p )2+ p ( q )3
. q (+ .
) .-x
!
2
!
( 4)
. a
-3 1 7 9
s + = ( 1+ 1 / 4+3 )/ 2
1 2 8 1 2 8
= 5
p=-3; p+q=-1
x/q = 1/8
-3+q=-1
x/2 = 1/8
5 5 5 5
=
( 32 2 ) 8
q=2
x = 2/8 =
1/4
-3 5 5 1 7 9
s=
1 2 8 8 1 2 8
-3 8 0 -5 1 7 9
s=
1 2 8 1 2 8
3S 1= 7 9- 8 0 5
s=
1
1 -7 9 8 0 5
3
, (1+x)-p/q and the sum to infinity of a given Binominal series in any one of
2) 1 + . + .
a
.
( A 2n s )
1 9
A n s
8
-3 2
3 3 . 5 3 . 5 . 7
3) 1 - . +. . - . +. . a.
44.84.8.12
3
Ans
2
4) 1 +
11.41.4.71.4.7.10
. + . + .
+.
+.
.a
44.84.8.124.8.12.16
5) 1 +
5 5 . 8 5 . 8 . 1 1
.+ . + . + . a
88.128.12.16
( 4)
3
(4x21/3-2)
3 3 . 6 3 .6 . 9
4 4 . 8 4 . 8 . 1 2
.a
7) Prove that
2n ( n 1 + n) 2n
1+ n .
+.
. + .
1 + n1 . +2 n 1
2n ( n 1 - n) 2n
= 1+ n .
+.
. + .
1 - n1 . -2 n 1
. a
2
.a
1 + (x 1 )n ( 1n +2 )x ( - 1n ) (-n 2 ) n+( 1 x 3 )
. +
. .
.
.
a0
x
1- n 2
! n ( + 1 x2 )
3 n+! 3 ( x 1
)
x
x 1 1 x. 3 1 x . 3 . x 5
=
+
+
+
+
1 + x 1 + x2 1 2 + .x 4 1 +2x . 4 .+x6 1
. a. .
1.7. References
A Text Book of Algebra by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai
Lesson - 2
EXPONENTIAL SERIES
Contents
2.0. Aims and Objectives
2.1. The Exponential Theorem or Exponential series for all real values of x
2.2. Example
2.3. Let us sum up
2.4. Check your progress
2.5. Lesson End Activities
2.6. Points for discussion
2.7. References
Exponential Series
2.1. The Exponential Theorem or Exponential series for all real values
of x
x2 3 x
x n
e = 1 x.+ . . +. . +. . .+. . +. . .+ . .a . . ( 1 )
2 ! 3 ! n!
x
n (n -1 x) (-n 1 n) -( n 2 )x
x
1 = n . + . + .
+.
. +
n 2
! n 3 ! n
to (n+1) terms.
3
x2
x
x n
. + p1 +. 2 p + . +p 1n 2
!
3
! n!
= 1 x+
n -1
n-1/n are +ve numbers less that unity,
n
r ) r+
2
\ sn +1
3
x2
x
x
-1 +( p11 1 ) -( 1+1pn -2) - .
2
!
n3
n
x
.+1 . p+
1 .
!
!
x12 1 . 2 2 . 3 32 . 4 n( -2 1 n )
< n +
+n1
+ x1 .+. . . 1x
2
2
3
4
!n
<
x12 x12
2x
+
1
x
.
+
.
+
. .+ . a.
1
2n 2 ! 3 !
<
x12
E ( 1x )
2x
but
l i
na
x m+
( 1n / =n )e
l i m
n a n + 1
x 2 x3
+ + . .a. .
2 ! 3 !
= E(x)
ex = E(x)
This result is called Exponential Theorem
More Formulas
x x2 3x
1 ! 2 ! 3 !
1) e x = 1 + . + . +. +. a.
2) e
-x
x x2 3x
= 1 - . + . -. +.
1 ! 2 ! 3 !
a.
3)
e x + x-e
x 2 x4
=1 +
. . +
. . +
. . . a
. .
2 2 ! 4 !
4)
e x + x-e
x 3 x5
= x + + +. . . . . a
....
2 3 ! 5 !
1 1 1
1 ! 2 ! 3 !
5) e = 1 + . +. .+ . + . a.
1 1 1
1 ! 2 ! 3 !
6) e-1 = 1 - . +. .- . + . a.
7)
e + e-1
1 1
= 1 +. .+ . +. . a .
2 2 ! 4 !
(- 1
n-
8)
e - e-1 1 1 1
= + + +. . . a. . .
2 1 ! 3 ! 5 !
2.2 Example
Model 1:
1) Show
1 1
1 + . .+ . +
. . .a .
e +1
2 4
=
e 2 - 1 1 + 1 + 1 +. . . .a. . .
1 3 5
2
1 1
1 + . .+ . +
. . .a .
2 4
R H =S
1 1 1
+ + +. . . .a. . .
1 3 5
e + e-1
= 2 -1
e- e
2
1
e+
e
+2 e
e
=
=
=2
e - -1 e e - 1e
e
-1
e+
1
=
1
L H S
Put log2=x
x 2 x3
s = x - + . . . .a. . .
2 ! 3 !
x 2 x3
= - x- + - +. . . a. . .
2 ! 3 !
x
x2 x3
= 1- .- . + . -. .+ a. - 1
2 ! 2 ! 3 !
= (e-- x 1- )
= 1 -e
g 2 1
1
l o g
2
= 1 1- / 2= 1 / 2
\s=
3) Show that
1
m m2 1 1
1 + 1. !.+ 2. +.! .1 +.!m 12+
1
. .2+ .
m!
(m +
1 2) m
1 + ( 4 1 ) 1
= e -2 1 + .
.+
. +. 2
1
m!
2 m
.a
Solution :
1 1 1 1 2
m m2
L H =S 1 +.
. + . a +. 1 + . +.a . +
.
!
1 ! 2 ! 1 ! m 2 m
1
R H =S e1 +
1
-2
( m +1 2)
. + .
!m 2
( m +1 2)
m
-2
=e .e
=e
=e
=e
=e
=e
-2
( m +1 2)
m
-2 m +( m1+ 2)
m
-2m + m2 + 2m +1 2 )
m
m2 +1
m
m+
1
m
.....(2)
m
1 +(2 1 )
+.
. +
!m
. a
Numerator
Consider the first factors 3,4,5,6,.
This is an Arithmetic Progression
a=3, d=1,
nth term = a+(n-1)d
= 3+(n-1)
= n+2
Consider the second factors 4,5,6,7,..
This is an AP with a=4, d=1
nth term = 4+(n-1)=n+3
Denominator
Consider 2,3,4,5,..
This is an AP with a=2, d=1
nth term = 0+n-1=n+1
Let tn denote the nth term of the given series
\ tn =
(n +
2 )n +( 3 )
(n +
1 ) !
n 2 + 5n + 6
(n +
1 ) !
Let n2+5n+6=A+B(n+1)+c(n+1),n
To find A,B,C
Put n = 0 in (1)
6 = A+B
6 = 2+B
\ B=4
Compare the coefficient of n2
1=c \ C = 1
\ tn =
tn =
A + B( + 1n )+C ( +n1 n)
(n +
1 ) !
2 + 4 n(+ 1 +n) ( + 1n )
(n +
1 ) !
=2
1 ( 1 n +) (n + 1 n )
. +4 . +
(n +
1 ) ! n(+ 1 ) n! + ( 1 ) !
=2
(n +1 )
(n +1 n)
1
.+ 4 .
+
(n +
1 ) ! (n +1 ()n ! ) (n +1 n) (n 1 ) !
tn = 2
1
1
1
.+ 4 +
.
(n +1 ) n! ! + n( 1 ) !
1
1
1
t1 = 2 .+ 4 +
.
2 ! 1 ! 0 !
1
1
1
t2 = 2 .+ 4 .+
3 ! 2 ! 1 !
1
1
1
t3 = 2 .+ 4 .+
4 ! 3 ! 2 !
Adding vertically
t1+t2+t3+a = 2 + . +.
2 ! 3 !
1
.
.+ a
4 !
1 1
+4 +. +.
1 ! 2 !
1
.
.+ a
3 !
1 1
+ + +
0 ! 1
1
s = 2 +1 +.
1
1
.+ .
2
1
+ . -1
3
= 2 (e-1-1)+4(e-1)+e
= 2(e-2)+4e-4+e
1
+. .a. .
2
1
1
1
4 1+ . + . +.
1
2
1
.+ . - 1
= 2e-4+4e-4+e
S = 7e-8
2) Sum the series
1+
1 + 3 +1 3+ 23 + 1 2 +3 33+ 3
. +.
.+
.
+.
2 ! 3 ! 4 !
s=
1
1
.a
1 + 3 +1 3+ 23 + 1 2 +3 33+ 3
+
+
+
+ . . . .a. . .
! 2 ! 3 ! 4 !
tn =
1 n3 1
2 n ! n !
t1 =
1 3
2 1 !
1
1 !
t2 =
1 23
2 2 !
1
2 !
t3 =
1 33
2 3 !
1
3 !
Adding
S=
1 3 23 33
1 1 1
+
+ + . .a. .- + + . .a. .
2 1 ! 2 ! 3 !
1 ! 2 ! 3 !
n n2 3n
= +
+ +. a. - . ( e.- )1
1 ! 2 ! 3 !
=
1
1
e n -1) e+ 1n = e -1
(
2
2
1 3
1
e - e =e2 ( e- 1
2
2
-e 1 +
3) Show that
5 7 9 1 1 5e 3
+ + + +. .a. =.
1
3
5
7
2
2e
Solution : Numerator
Consider the numbers 5,7,9,11,
This is an AP with a=5, d=2
nth term = a+(n-1)d
= 5+(n-1)2
= 5+2n-2
= 2n+3
Denominator
Consider the numbers 1,3,5,..
This is an AP with a=1, d=2
nth tern = a+(n-1)d
= 1+(n-1)2
= 1+2n-2
= 2n-1
Let tn denote the nth term of the given series
\ tn =
( n2+ 3 )
( n2 -1 ) !
Let 2n+3=A+B(2n-1)
put n=1; 5=A+B
Put n=1/2, 4=A
\ B=1
A=4, B=1
\ tn =
=
A + B( 2-n 1 )
( n2 -1 ) !
4 + ( n2- 1 )
( n2 -1 ) !
1
1
=4 . +
( 2n -1 ) ! (- 2 1 ) !
( n2- 1 )
1
=4 . +
( n2 -1 ) ! ( n2- 1 ( ) n2 -2 ) !
1
1
tn = 4 . +
( 2n -1 ) !n ( 2 2 ) !
1 1
t1 = 4 .+
1 ! 0 !
1 1
t2 = 4 .+
3 ! 2 !
1 1
t3 = 4 .+
5 ! 4 !
Adding vertically
S = t1+t2+t3+.
1 1
1 1
1
1
= 4 +. . + . +. .+ . +. .+ .
1 ! 3 ! 5 ! 0 ! 2 ! 4 !
e - -e1
= 4
+
2
+e -1 e
2
1
4-e 4e+-1 e +-1 e
2
1
5e- 3e-1
2
1
5 - 3 3
e
2
5e 3
2e
2
n2 + 3 x
x
n)
(n +2
n =1
tn =
n 2 + 3x n
x
(n +2 n) !
(n 23+ ) n (+ 1 ) n
=
x
(n +
2 )n +
( 2n ) !
tn =
(n +1 )n 2+( 3 )n
x
(n +2 ) !
A + B( +
2 n) (+C 2 )n+ ( n1 + ) D( +2n ) +n( 1 n)
(n +2 ) !
A
B ( +
n2 ) C( +2 n ) (+n 1 )D +( 2n ) +n( 1 n )
+
+
+
(n +2 ) ! n(+ 2 ) !n +( 2 ) n!+ ( 2 ) !
= 7
1 ( 2 )n +( 2 n )+ ( 1n +) ( n 2+ ) n( +1 )n ( )
- 7
+ 2
+
(n 2+ ) !n ( +2 )n ( 1+ )n ! ( 2+
n ) ( n1 +) ( n! )+ ( n2 ) +
( n1 ) ( n) ( 1 ) !
1
1
1
1
tn = 7 7+
-2
+
(n +2 ) n! ( +1 n) ! !-n ( 1 ) !
1
1
1
1
t1 = 7 - 7+ -2 +
3 ! 2 ! 1 ! 0 !
1
1
1
1
t2 = 7 - 7+ 2- +
4 ! 3 ! 2 ! 1 !
1
1
1
1
t3 = 7 - 7+ 2 +
5 ! 4 ! 3 ! 2 !
Add
S=t1+t2+t3+a
1 1
1 1
1
1
= 7 - . +. .+ . +a. +7 +. . +a . + .
3 ! 4 ! 5 ! 2 ! 3 ! 4 !
1 1
1 1
1
1
-2 +. .+ . + . a+. .+ . + a. + .
1 ! 2 ! 3 ! 0 ! 1 ! 2 !
= 7- e 1
1
7- 1e + (1 - ) e-2) -(
2
1-e )+
1 1 1
\ e =1 +. .+ . + . +. . a.
1 ! 2 ! 3 !
=-e-3/2
3 33 53
+ + . . . a. . .
1 ! 3 ! 3 !
Exponential Series
2.5. Lesson End Activities
1) Prove that
1+
1 + 2 + 1 + 2 +3 +1 +2
. + . + .
+.
2
!
3
!
4
2) Prove that
2
4
6
8
1
+ + + +. .a. =.
3 ! 5 ! 7 ! 9 !
e
3) Prove that
x 2 x4
1
1 + . .+ . +. a. = ( e x+ ex2 ! 4 ! 2
4) Prove that
2 4 6
+ + +. .a. =. e -1
3 ! 5 ! 7 !
5) Prove that
3 4 3e
. =a
!
2
12 22 23
+
+
+. . a. =. . e 2
1 ! 2 ! 3 !
6) Prove that
1+
( +1 2 + ) ( + 1 2+ 3 +) ( +1 2 3 4 ) e3
. + .
+ .
+.
.= a
2
!
3
!
4
!
2
8) Prove that
( 2+
1 22 +)2 ( 2+
1 22 +3 2 ) +2( 12 +2 2 3 4 ) 4 e7
1 +
+.
+ .
+
.
= a
1
!
2
!
3
!
6
3
9) Prove that
1 ( 1 + 2 )2+ ( 1 +23 22 ) 2
x+
x+
x+
=e . .a. . -e x
1 ! 2 ! 3 !
+2
!
3+ 3 1 +3 2 3 + 33
+
+
3
!
4
4 2 7
.= . a
...
e
!
4
( n 5+ 1e ) 2
= +
n2 +1 ) !e 2
2.7. References
A Text Book of Algebra by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai
Lesson-3
LOGARITHMIC SERIES
Contents
3.0 Aims and Objectives
3.1. Logarithmic Theorem or logarithmic series
3.2. Examples
3.3. Let us sum up
3.4. Check your progress
3.5. Lesson End Activities
3.6. Points for Discussion
3.7. References
3.0 Aims and Objectives
Our Aim is to study the series of log(1+x), log(1-x) etc
Logarithmic Series
3.1. Logarithmic Theorem or logarithmic series
If -1<x<1, then
x 2 x3 4x
log (1+x) x - + + + . . . .a. . .
2 3 4
put a =1+x
y2
2
\ ( 1 x+)y 1 l= oy g+e ( 1 +x) le o+[ g x(+ 1 )] +. . a. .
2 !
= )y
x 2 1 . 23 1 . 24 . 3
= 1 y+ . x . +x . - x. + .
2 ! 3 ! 4 !
y2
\1 l yo( +g ( x1 )+) l oe[ g +( 1x ) 2
+] . . . a. .
2 !
. a
x4
x2
= 1 y+. x. - . x+. . . +.
3
4
2
.+ .
.a
x.+3
x . +.
.3
4
x2
2
x.-3
x . -.
.3
4
loge ( + x1 = x) -.
a.
2) When -1<-x<1
loge ( - x1 = x) -.
3) l
a.
1+ x
x 3 x5
g = x. +. .+ . + . a.
eo
1- x 3
5
1
2
1
3
1
4
4) log 2 = 1 -. +. . + . +. . a .
3.2. Examples
Model-1
3
n + 1 2n 1 n2
1 n 2
+
= g2 +. 2 . + 2 .
.
n5 + 1
n1 + 3 n + 1
1) Prove that l o
n -1
Proof
put
2n
=y
n +1
2
\ R =A
1
1
S+ y 3 +y 5 y+ . . a
...
3
5
1
1+ y
= l o g
2
1- y
2n
1 + n 2 + 1
1
= l o g
2n
2
1 - 2
n + 1
. a
2
2
1 ( n1 + 2n +
) n| +1
= l o g
2
n 1e- 2n
2
n 2 + 1
( n +1 2 ) n +1
o
=g l o g
e
( n -1 2 ) n -2
1
= l
2
1
1
\ n l omg
= l o mgn
(n +1 )
= l o g
n - 1
= LHS
2) If -1<x<1/3 prove that
2
x3 x5
2 x .+ . + . + . a.
3 5
1+ x
= l oe g
1- x
RHS put
(by formula(3)(1)
2
-y
1- n
1
1
S- y 2+ y
2
3
y. .a. .
= log (1+y)
2n
= l o g+ 1
1 -n
1 - n +2 n
= l o g
1 - n
1 + n
= l o g . . . ( 2 )
1 - n
1
1
3
1
32
2
l
o
g
+
1
0
+
.
.
+
.
0 e 2 27 1 2 4 3 2 e 21. + . .a =l o g
solution
n 2
. .a. .
-n1
x3 x5
= 2 x + + + . . . . .a. . .
3 5
Pf : LHS
\ R =H
2n 1 n2 1
-
+
1 - n 2 -1 n 3
1
32
.4 +.2 . 1 +. . a .
3 2
LHS =
3
1
1
1
3
l0 oe 2 g+ 271 +102
1
1
3
1
1
3
32
3
+
l
o
g
+
1
0
+
.
.
.1 . . a .
0 e 2 27 12 4 3 2 2+
3
2
3
1 3
1
3 1
= l +o g 17+ 0 7 0+ 0 7 . + . . a.
1 0
2
2 2 3 2
1
1
1
1 2
3
. . .a.
l + o0 g +1x2 0 +0x30 x+
1
[ l o -g 1 0 0 0-l o gx( ]1 )
1 0
where x =
x 2 x3
\ l -o gx= ( -x1 -) .- . . a .
2 3
=
1
1
l o -g 1 0 0 0-l o g 13
27
0
1
1
2 5
1
1 0 0 0 l o g7
l o g0
2
1 1 0 0 x0 72
l oe g
1 0 1 2 5
1
l o eg( 23 . 7 )2
1 0
1
1
l o e =g1 2 . 10 e 0 l 2 o g
1 0 1 0
=loge2 =RHS
4) Prove that
1 1 1 1 1
l o = g 3+ 21 +. 4 . +. 6 . +. . a.
3 . 2 5 2 7 2
1
3
1 1 1 1 1
2 5 2 7 2
RHS = 1 + . .2 + . 4. + . 6 . + . . a.
1 1 1 3 1 51 1 7 1
= 2 +. . +
. +. .
2 3 2 5 2 7 2
1
1
= 2 x + . x3+. x5.+
3
5
.a
.a
where x=1/2
3
27
1 + n
= l o g
1 - n
1+ 1
2
= l o g
1- 1
3
= l o g 2
1
2
3
= l o g
2
2
.
1
= log 3
= LHS
5) Prove that
l
=g
1
+1
2
1 1 1 1
1+
.+
+2
3 4 4 5
1 1 1 1
R H =S1 + . + . +
2 3 4 4
=1
1
+
.
5
1 1 1 1
. + . + . +.
4 6 37 4
.a
1 1 1 1
+.
+ . + . a
4 6 37 4
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+.
. + . + . +.
. + . + . +.
2 4 3 4 4 2 4 5 2 4 63 4 73 4
.a
1 1 1 11 1
1 1 1 1
= 1 +. . + . 2 +. 3 . + . a. + . + . . 2+ .
3 4 5 4 7 4
2 4 4 4
1 12 1 41 1 6 1
= 1 + . . + . +
. +.
3 2 5 2 7 2
1 1
. + . a.
6 3 4
1 1 1
.a + +
2 4 2
2
3
1 1 1
+ + + . . a
...
4 3 4
1 1 13 1 51 1 7 1
= 2 + . + . +
. + .
2 3 2 5 2 7 2
1 1
1
a + y+ y 2+
2 2
3
1
1
1
= 2 x + .x3 + x5 .+ 7x +.
3
5
1+ n 1
= l o g- . l o -g ( y1 )
1- n 2
1+ 1
1
= l o g - 2. l o - g 1 1
4
1- 1
2
1
= l o3-g l o3 g
4 2 4
y3 + . a. .
1
1
( -l o g- (y 1) ) ; where x =
2
2
where y=1/4
= l o 3g l o3 g
4
4
3
4
= l o g= l o g3
3
3
4
= l o g =1 2L H S
Model 2
Problems using the formula
1 1 1
l o =g 2- 1 + . -. . +. .a .
2 3 4
1)Prove that
4
o
e
R H =S
1
1
1
=g .- . + . . a.
1.22.33.4
1
1
1
+
. .a. .
1.22.33.4
(- 1 n +)1
n( n+1 )
1
into partial fractions
n( n+1 )
1
A( B 1 A n+) B+ n
=
+
=
n( +n1 n) + n1
n( + 1n )
\1 =A
( +
1n
)B
+
1
1
1
=
n( +n 1 n )+ n 1
\ tn
1
=
1
- (- 1 n +)1
n+ 1
(- 1 n +1) -( n +11 )
n
n +1
t1 =
( - 12 ) 1
1
2
1 1
t2 = - 2 3
1 1
t2 = - 2 3
1 1
t3 = - 3 4
1 1
t4 = - 4 5
S = t1+t2+t3+.
1 1
1
1
1
= 1 - . + . - . + a
. + . - . +.
4 2
3
2
3
= l o+ g 2- 11 .+1 . . - . 1
2
3
= log 2+log2-1
= log2+log2-1
= 2log2-logee
S = log(4/e)
2) Prove that
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ . . .=. . . l o-g 2
1 . 2 . 3 3 . 4 . 5 5 . 6 . 7 2
1
( 2n -1 ) n( 2 +)n ( 2 1 )
1
1
1
1
1
\t n = .
.2 n2 - 1 n2 2+ n 2 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= . - . - . + .
2 2n - 1 2n 2 2n + 2 2n 2 1
tn =
1 1
1 1
1
1
-
2 n2 - 1 n 2 2n+ 2 n 2 1
t1 =
1 1 1 1
12 2 2 2
t2 =
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 3 4 2 4 5
1
3
S = t1+t2+t3+.
=
1 1 1
-1 .+ . 2 2 3
1
4. + .
1 1
.- 2 2
1
1
1
1
l + o - g +2 .2
2
2
3
1
1
l o +g 2 (l o- g 2) 1
2
2
1
. + .
4
1 1
- +. . . ..
3 4
S = log2-1/2
3.3. Let us sum up
1+ x
1- x
1 1 1 1 1
- - + . . . . .a. .
4 2 42 3 3 4
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
-m
5 +
m
n
+ .
1
=log (m/n)
+ bo +x
2
2
2
3 x
g
c
=
a
x
+
1
b
x
a
.
+
b
) (
) (
) 2+. a( 3+ b.
)x
.
3
1
1
1
1
- 2 + 3 -4 +..a
...
n 2 n 3 n 4n
4) Show that
1
1
1
1
+
+ 3 + 4 + . . . a. . .
2
3 2 . 3 3 . 3 4 . 3
=
1
1
1
1
- 2 + 3 - 4 + . .a. .
2 2 . 2 3 . 2 4 . 2
1
.
+
.
.
5x +( 52 1 )
1
n +1
6) Show that l o =g 2 +
n
1
1
.
+. 3 . 5 + .
.a
n2 1+ 3 (n 2+ 1 ) n5+( 2 1 )
.
.
.
2
2
2
1 - x
2
1 + x 3 +1 x 5 +
x1
n +1
=
n -1
2n
1 n2 1 n 2
+ 2
+
+
2
n1 + 3 n + 1 2n5+ 1
. . . . .
2 x +
x3 5 x
2x
1 x 2 1 x 2
+ . + . . =. .- . + .
3
5
1
-2 x 1 - x 3
-1x
. .=. . . l oxg
x + 1 2 ( x +1 )2 x3+( 3 1 )
- .
1 1
1+ 1 + . +
2 3
1 1 1 1 1
. + . + . + l
4 4 5 4 6
1 1
+ o + g
7 4
14. PT
1
1
1
1
+
+. a
. . 2= l o -g 2 1
1.22.33.44.5
3.7. References
A Text Book of Algebra by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai
a= 1
Lesson-4
CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE OF SERIES
Contents
4.0. Aims and Objectives
4.1. Convergence and divergence of series
4.2. Example
4.3. Comparison test
4.4. D Alemberts Ratio test
4.5. Examples on Comparison Test
4.6. Problems on DAlemert & Ratio test
4.7. Cauchys Root test
4.8. Examples on Cauchys Root Test
4.9. Let us sum up
4.10. Check your progress
4.11. Lesson End Activities
4.12. Points for discussion
4.13. References
4.0 Aims and Objectives
n -1
1
un; l=i m
2n + 3n a 2
l i m
n a n
Definition 11: If a series does not converge to any finite limit nor diverge to
plus infinite or minus infinity, then the series is said to oscilate.
4.2. Example
Convergent Series
Consider the series
1 1 1
1 + . + .2 + .3 +.
2 2 2
a.
1
2=n
sn =
1
12
1-
2-
As n a ,
2
2n -1
1
0
2n-1
i m
\ln
a ns = 2
where un=n
n =1
s n = 1+2+3++n
=
n( n+1 )
2
l i m l i m
n a n na
s =
n( n+1 )
=
a
n
3. Oscillating series
(a) Oscillating finitely series
a
(- 1
n +1
Sn = 1-1-+1-1+1-1+..n terms
s n=1 if n is odd
= 0 if n is even
\ (- 1 n+)1 oscillates finitely
(- 1
n +1
) .n
s n=1-2+3-4+5-6+. n terms
s n=-1/2 n if n is even
s n=1/2(n+1) if n is odd
Asn a, sn-a if n is even and
s n a if n is odd
Elementary Results
The Geometric series
1+x+x2+.+xn-1+.. is convergent if |x|<1 and diverges if x <-1/
The Geometric series
1+x+x2+x3+..+xn+a
sn =
1 - xn
x
:
1- n
s =
1
1- n
If n 1, sna
If x=-1, the series is
1-1+1-1+1-1+
sn= 1 if n is odd
=0, if n is even
n =0
oscillates infinitely
n =0
The series
n =0
if
l i m
n a n
s =0
1
1
1
S n = 1 +. .+ . + . +.
2 3
n
Sn as n \ SUn is divergent
\ when lxi msn = 0 does not imply
SUn is convergent.
4.3 Comparison test
Form I: Let S an be a series of positive terms. Let an R
bn for all n.
divergent.
Proof: Given an
bn
a1
k b1
a2
k b2
a3
k b3
.
..
an
\
a1+a2++an
k bn
k (b1+b2++bn)
k B
Sn
where x is a constant
Sn is bounded and
Step 2: Given an k
\
an is convergent if
bn is convergent
bn
a1
k b1
a2
k b2
a3
k b3
an
\
k bn
a1+a2+..+an
Sn
(b1+b2+.+bn)
N where n m
m where m is a constant
an and
Proof
an is divergent.
an
If Numbers L and M exists such that L bn M for all n,
FIRM II
then
an
M
bn
an Mbn
an is convergent if
L
an
bn
bn is convergent.
Lbn an
\
an is divergent if
bn is divergent.
FORM III
If
l i m
x
U n
=
V n
(i)
un is convergent if
(ii)
un is divergent if
Vn is convergent
Vn is divergent.
Proof:
u
l i mn =
x v
n
un
<R
vn
where R1
un
< k+
vn
un is convergent if
un is divergent
u n
- k <t , Vn
v n
u
\ n> k-
vn
a
i) If n +1 < k <1 , for all n, an is convergent
an
a
ii) If n +1 1 , for all n, an is divergent.
an
a
an +1
Proof : By data n +1 < k <1 , V n
an
a2
<k
a1
\ a2 <k 1 a
a3
< k \a3 <a2 k
a2
\
a3<k2a1
a4<k2a1
an+1<kna1
ie. an<kn-1a1
\an<kn-1a1
But kn-1=a1(1+k+k2++kn-1)
This is a Geometric series with common Ratio=k<1
\ By Comparison test, an is convergent.
a +n 1
1, V n
a n
\ an+1 an
(ii)
\ a2 a1
a3 a2 a1
a4 a3 a2 a1
\ an+1 a1
\ a2+a3+a4+ an+1
N if n m
an is divergent.
an +1
= k , then
an
Hence if lxi m
divergent if k > 1.
1
is convergent if p > 1 and is divergent if p
np
1
1
1
1
1
1
= p + p+ +p . +. p . +. .
. .
p
n
1
2
3
n
Proof :
1
1p
V2 = V3 =
1
2p
V4 = V5 = V6 = V7 =
\ Vn =
1
p
4
1 1
1
1
1 1
1
+ r + r + +r
+ . .
....
r+
r + r
r
1 2
2
4
4
4 4
1
1
1
+ r -1+ r -1 + .
. . .
r
1
2
4
. . . .
r -1
1 >
1
2
>1
<1
r -1
1
2 r -1
is convergent
\ i.e Vn is convergent
\ By comparison test, un is convergent.
Case (ii)
p=1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
un = 1+ + + + +. . . .
Form Vn such that
V1 = 1
V2 =
1
2
V3=V4=
1
4
V5=V6=V7=V8=
1
8
..
..
1 1 1 1
+ + +
+
2 4 4 8
Vn = 1+
1 1 1
= 1 + . + . + .+
2 2 2
\ Sn = 1+(n-1)x
1 1 1
+ + + . . . .
8 8 8
.
1
2
n
2
Sn+1 = 1+ > N if n m
\ By comparison test,
Case 3
If p < 1
un is divergent.
un = 1p + 2p + p3 + . . .. . .
(1)
1
3
1
4
\ Vn = 1+ + + +. . . . . .
....(2)
1+
1
un =
1
3n 4
1
1 + 3n 4
Choose Vn =
1
n4
n4
n4
\ un =
=
1 + 3n 4 n 4 ( 1 3+ )
n4
1
=
1
+3
n4
l i m
un =
n a
1
0
3
But Vn =
1
which is of the form
n4
1
,p=4 >1, which is convergent.
np
2.
n 4 + n 2- n
un = n 4 + n 2- n
= n 4 +n 2-n x
n 4 + n 2+ n
n 4 + n 2+ n
n 4 + n 4- n
n 4 + n 2+ n
n
4
n + n 2+ n
1
n
Choose Vn =
u
n
n
n
=
x
v n n 4 + n 2+ n 1
n2
n 4 + n 2+ n
n2
1
n 2 1 + 3 +
1
n
1
1
1+ 3 +
1
n
u n
i =m
v n n
1
1
l= i
m
0
2
1
1+ 3 +
1
n
But Vn =
1
is divergent
n
\ By comparison test,
un is divergent
n + 1 -n 1nr
un =
n + 1 -n 1nr
n + 1 -n 1n + 1 +n 1x
p
n
n + 1 +n 1-
n + 1 -n 1+
n n+ 1 +n 1r
2
n r n+ 1 +n 11
Choose Vn =
n
r+
1
2
r+
u
n 2
\ n= r
vn n n+ 1 +n 1
1
2
1 1
n r n 1 + +1 n n
=
1+
r+
1
1
+1 n
n
un 1
i =m 0
vn 2
But
=
n
1
v =
n
1
p+
2
1
p+
2
1
2
1
2
is divergent if p +
1
1
1 i.e., p
2
2
\ By comparison test,
is convergent if p >
and is divergent if p
1
2
1
2
ns
1
un =
1
i n
n
1
1
s i n
n
n
Choose un =
1
n2
un
1
= s
vn
n
n n/2
n2
s
n
1
i
n
1
i n
n
1
= n sin
1
s i n
n
=
1
n
1
=y
n
un s i yn
=
vn
y
Put
u
i n =m
vn y
s yi
n
1
l i A m s { n 0i
y
n
e. y.
0 un
s i qn
= 1 (formula lq 0i qm =1 }
0
But
1
which is convergent
n2
\ By comparison test
is convergent.
Solution:
Consider 2, 3, 4, 5,. nth term = n+1
Consider 3, 5, 7, 9, nth term = 2n+1
un =
2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . .n. +
...(1)
3 . 5 . 7 . . . .n. +. ( 2 1 )
un+1 =
2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . .n. +. . . n. (+1 ) ( 2 )
3 . 5 . 7 . . . . .n.+. . ( 2n 1+ ) ( 2 3 )
un
n+2
=
u n+1 2n + 3
un
n+2
l i m =l i m
n u n
n2 +3
n+1
2
n 1 +
= lni m n
3
n2 +
n
1
<1
2
\ By ratio test,
is convergent.
un =
nn
n( n+1 )
n n +1
un+1 =
(n +
1 )n +( 2 )
un
n
=
.n
un +1 n + 2
u
n
i nm = l i m n .
un +1
n +2
= lni m
2
n 1 +
n
un
\ l i m =n
n
u n+1
\ By Comparison test,
Step 2 :
If n = 1, the test fails
\ un =
n1
n( n+1 )
Choose Vn =
1
n2
n2
=
v n n ( n+1 )
un
un
l i m= 1 0But
n v
n
v = n
n
\ By comparison test,
is convergent.
is convergent.
If ln iun n m= l ,the
l i m
un n = l
n
Pf:
1
n
un- l< n,
1
n
Case 1
If l < 1, choose a number k & t l < k < 1
Then be chosen that l + < k<l
1
\ un n < k
un <k n , n m
But
\
is convergent if k < 1
is convergent.
Case 2
If l > 1, be chosen so that
l>1
1
\ un n > 1
\ un > 1, n m
\ ln iun m 0
nis divergent
1 +
n
an =
1 +
n
an
n2
n2
13
= n
1
1 + n
1
n
1 +
n
3
n2
=
/n
=
1
1 +
n
1
n
< 1
e
{ FORMULA USED :
1
l i m+ ( n 1= e) }
n
n
Solution : an =
1
1
1 +
n
n2
1+ 1
n2
\ a nn=
n 2
1+ 1
n
n2
(1 + 1n )
=
(1 + 1n )
lim
\ nl ai ma =nn
n a
(1 + 1n )
= 1 <1
e
an =
1
( l o ng )
( l o g )
n
an
1 n
=
n
( l o g )
1
n
( l o gn )
1
=
l on g
l i m
\ n l ai man =n
n a
1
l o ng
= 0<1
\ By Cauchys root test
an is convergent.
4) Test the convergence of the series
xn
nn
solution
an =
xn
nn
1
xn n x
\ an n = n =
n n
lim
1
\ nl ai man =n
xx=
n na
n a
1
lim
=0<1
\ By Cauchys root test,
an is convergent.
4.9 Let us sum up
We have so far learnt in how to test the convergence or divergence
of the series using geometric series, comparison test, DAlemberts ration
test, Cauchys root test.
4.10. Check your progress
(1) Test the convergence of
1
+1
(n +1
1
)n +( 2 )
(n1+ ) (n 2+ ) n( 3+ )n . .+ .n. ( )
nn
n =1
2.
(Convergent)
n -1
n =1
3.
n!
nn
(Convergent)
4.
2n (n ! )
nn
(Convergent)
1
1
1
+
+
+ . . . .a. . .
1.32.53.7
(convergent)
b)
1 2 3
+ + + . . .. . .
22 32 24
(divergent)
c)
n2 + 3
n3 + 2
d)
e)
f)
2n 2 +3
5n 3 + 7
(divergent)
(divergent)
n +1
n+2
(divergent)
n + 3 -n
np
g)
n
3
+ 3 n3- 3-
(convergent)
44.74.7.10
+
+
+ . .. . .
55.85.8.11
(divergent)
3 1 3 . 5 1 3 . 5 . 7 1
. + . +.
. .
5 2 5 . 6 22 5 . 63 . 7 2
(convergent)
b) . + .
nn
c)
0 ( n +1 (n )+ 2)
5n5 1+ n41 n
.n
d) 1 2
6n 1+ 4
e)
( n + 2 ) n(+
3 )n
.n
n( n+1 )
4.13 References
A Text Book of Algebra by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai
Lesson - 5
CONDITIONALLY CONVERGENT SERIES
Contents
5.0. Aims and Objectives
5.1. Definition
5.2. Examples discuss the convergent of the following:
5.2.1 Absolute Convergence
5.3. Examples
5.4. Let us sum up
5.5. Check your progress
5.6. Lesson and activities
5.7. Points for discussion
5.8. References
5.0 Aims and Objectives
Our Aim is to learn on Absolute convergence Alternating series
and conditionally convergent.
5.1. Definition
Alternating series is a series in which the terms are alternatively
positive and negative.
Theorem: An alternating series a1-a2+a3-a4+ converges if each term is
numerically less than the proceeding term and the nth term tends to zero as
n
Proof
Let the series be u1-u2+u3-u4+ where u1,u2,. are all >0 and
u1>u2>u3>.un>un+1>.
Let sn denote the sum to n terms of this series
\ S2n=(u1- u2)+ (u3- u4)+ (u5- u6)+.+ (u2n-1- u2n)
As u1> u2> u3>. un> un+1. We have \ s2n >0
S2n+2=s2n+(u2n+1-u2n+2)>s2n
\ S2n is a monotonic increasing sequence
(1)
s 2n+1=s2n+u2n+1
\ l i s2mn =
+2 l+ i2un m 1
+ l 1 is nm
n a
n a
n a
=l+0=l
\ whether n is odd or even,
\l i m
s2=n l
n a
(- 1
1
1
)
n+8
1+ . . .
+1
-1
.....
9 1 0 1 1 1 2
-u1+u2-u3+u4..
The terms are alternatively positive and negative.
u1 = 1 ,u2 = , 1 u3, = 1. 4u . = 1.
9 1 0 1 1 1
.
2
un>un+1
un =
l i m
n a n
1
n+8
u =l
1
i =m
n + 8
\ un is convergent
Note : If any one of the three conditions is not true, then the alternating
series is not convergent.
5.2.1 Absolute Convergence
1. Let
absolutely convergent if
2. If
convergent.
Example :
is convergent.
1-
1
3
1
4
1 1 1 1
+
+ . .. . .
22 32 42 25
1
1
1
2 2 3 2 4 2
= 1 + . + . +. . + .
convergent.
Exercise
Discuss the convergence of the following:1 1 1
- +. . .. .
5 9 1 3
1) 1- +
2) 1-
1
1
1
2 + 3 4- . .+ . . .
2
3
4
3)
( -1)
n -1
4)
( -1)
n=2
n +1
1
.
n+ n
1
n -1
Convergent.
Theorem
An absolutely convergent series is convergent.
.is
Then by definition,
is convergent.
( u + | u |)
n
un|
[u + | u ]| is convergent.
n
is convergent
\ un is also convergent.
Note: (1) When we say that un is absolutely convergent, we assert that the
convergence of another series, (viz)
(2) The series
un + 1
< R, where kunE may, vao day coi co con nho nay ngon lam
un
http://www.freewebtown.com/nhatquanglan/index.html
<k ,
(4) If two series are absolutely convergent they can be multiplied by term
and the resulting series is also absolutely convergent.
5.3 Examples
Test for convergency the series
3
n
n2
n 4
n
nn-1
n+
+. . . +. ( 1- ) . . . .
2
3
4
n
Solution:
un = (- 1 n -)1
nn
n
un+1= (- 1 n )
n n +1
n +1
un +1
n n +1
n
= ( - n1 ) . n -1 n
un
n +n1 (- 1 ) .
=-
=-
un +1
=
un
n. n
n +1
n. n
n 1+ 1
-n
1+ 1
-n
1+ 1
n
1+ 1
un +1
m = n| |
u
n
i
By ratio test un
\ un
is convergent if |n|<1.
1 1 1
is conditionally
+ 22 32 24
convergent
5.6 Lesson and activities
Discuss the convergence of the following series:1) 1-
2
n
n
n
n
+
+. . . . . n( 1+ ) . . . . .
1 + a 1 a+ 2 n +1 a
(Convergent if |n|<1)
1 n13 . n5 3
.+ . +. . .
2 3 2 . 4 5
2) n+ .
1
1+ n
n
+
1 +2 n
2
3
1
nn
n
+ . . . -. (n -11 +) .n . . . .
1+ n
1+ n
(Ans: Convergent)
5.8. References
A Text Book of Algebra by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai
UNIT II
LESSON 6
RAABES TEST
Contents
6.0. Aims and Objectives
6.1. Raabes test
6.2. Cauchys Condensation Test
6.3. Let us sum up
6.4. Check your progress
6.5. Lesson and activities
6.6. Points for discussion
6.7. References
Raabes test
Let un
Then un
v = n
n
u
(n +1 r)
in mn -. n 1 =l i r-m 1
n
un +1n
1p
p
n
(
+
1
)
n
m -1
= ln n i
np
= l i nm
+( 1p-) 1
n
n
1
1
1 + n
= lni m
1
1
1 + n
=p.1p-1=p
u
\ n - n -p1 <
un +1
" m
l- <n
i.e.,
But as p>1,
\
un
v
nn>
vn +1
- 1
un vn
u
v
>
, n<+1 n +1
un +1 vn+1 un
nv
1
v = n
n
is convergent.
is convergent.
n n -1n n< 1 -
un +1 vn +1
un
v
<n
un +1 vn +1
i.e.,
un +1 vn +1
>
un
vn
But as p<1,
\ un
v = n
n
is divergent.
is divergent.
f(
n and
)
f(
n are
) grouped as follows
both divergent.
Proof: The terms of the series
f(
n=
) [ f ( 1+ f) ( +2 f ) .+.n . (]+ ) f ( +1a ) +f( 2+a) .+f . .+a (2 +
)
f(
n =u
) 1+u2+u3+.+un+.
= un
Where un = f (
a+ 1) +f-22(n +.a
n -1
+.) f n .+ a(
\ f ( n) f ( +n1
-1
\ f ( n
)a ( +f1-1n )a ( -1 +f2n ) a .
\ ( a n -a -1n) f
( an -)1 u
a n -1 ( a- 1) -1fn ( a )
1unn
n
n
a( --1 na
1
f
a
.fn . a(
f) n (a
(a )
un is convergent.
Taking: un 1 - a( n f n )a
a
If
un
is divergent.
\ f ( n a
) n d (na fn )a are either both convergent or both divergent.
..
1 . 3 . 5 . n. .-( 2 1n )
n
2 . 4 . 6 . .n. 2
nn
6.7
References
A Text Book of Algebra by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai
Theory of Equations
Lesson 7
THEORY OF EQUATIONS
Contents
7.0. Aims and Objectives
7.1. Relation between
7.2. Examples
7.3. Let us sum up
7.4. Check your progress
7.5. Lesson end activities
7.6. Points for discussion
7.7. References
7.0 Aims and Objectives
We shall study solving equations of 3rd degree, 4th
7.1 Relation between
Roots and coefficients of an equation
Consider the equation of nth degree in n as
a0
n+
an -+1 n2
n -2
+a
S1= a1 + 2a+ 3 +a . +. a. n= -
S2= a1 a2 =
a2
a0
a
a0
S3= a1 a2 a=
-3
3
.
a
a0
n n
Sn= a1 a2 3a. . a=
n . ( -1 )
7.2
Examples
Model 1
1) Solve the equation
n3-12n2+39n-28 = 0 whose roots are in Arithmetic Progression.
Solution: Step 1
The given equation is n3-12n2+39n-28 = 0 \ a0 = 1, a1 = -12;
a2 = 39, a3 = -28
a - d =a1
Since the roots are in AP, let the roots be a-d, a, a+d
a = a2
a + d =a 3
S 1 = a1 + a2 + a3 =
- a1
a0
a - d +a +a +d 1= 2
3a = 12
a=4
Step 2
S3 = a1 a2 a3 =
- a3
a0
(a-d)a(a+d)=-28
4(16-d2)=-28
16-d2=-7
d2=9
d= 3 \ d=3, d=-3
\ When a=4, d=3, the roots are 1, 4, 7
a2 = a
a3 = a r
S3= a1 a2 a3 =
a
a. a =r
- a3
a0
2 4
3
a3=8
\ a=2
Step 2
S1=a/r+a+ar=
2
2
6
+ 2 + 2r =
r
3
-a1
a0
1
2 +1
r
2
+r
6
3
1 + r +1 r2 3
=
r
3
3+3r+3r =13r
b 2 -a4 c
r= -b
2a
3r2 -10r+3=0
r=
1 0 1 0-0 3 6
6
r=3,
1
3
Step 3
When a=2, r=3, the roots are 2 3 , 2 , 6
When a=2, r=
1
2
, the roots are 6, 2,
3
3
3. Model 3 HP
Solve the equation
6n3-11n2+6n-1=0 whose roots are in HP
Proof : Step 1
The equation is
6n3-11n2+6n-1=0
This is of the form
a0n3+a1n2+a2n+a3=0
a0 = 6; a1 = -11; a2 = 6; a3 = -1
let the roots be a , br,
Since the roots are in HP
b=
2a r
a +r
a +b r b= 2 ar
..(1)
- a1 1 1
(2)
=
a0
6
s 1= a + b +r =
s 2 = a +b ra+ br =
a2
=1
a0
2a r + a r1 = , using
3a r =1
1
ar =
3
s 3= a rb =
- a3 1
=
a0
6
But a r =
1
3
.(3)
1
1
\ .b =
3
6
1
b=
2
Step 2
Put b =
1
in (2)
2
1 1 1
a +r + =
2 6
(1)
1 1 1 8 4
..(4)
a +r = - = =
6 2 6 3
4
-a
3
Using in (3)
4 1
a -a =
3 3
4a
1
-a 2 =
3
3
\ 4a - 3a 2 = 1
3a 2 -4 a +1 =0
3a 2 -3a - a1+
3a ( -1a
=0
) -(a1 - )
(a - 1)(a-3
a = 1 a ,= 1
0=
1)= 0
Step 3
4
a = 1 r= a -,
3
4
= 13
1
=
3
1
1
\a =1 b ,= ,r =
2
3
Step 4
1
3
4
3
When a = ; =r a \a
1
1
=b
, = , r= 1
3
2
4
1
= 1- =
3
3
1
3
1
2
4. Model 4
Solve n4-12n3+14n2+132n-135=0 given that the roots are in AP
Solution: a0=1, a1=-12, a2=14, a3=132, a4=-135
Let the roots be a-3d, a-d, a+d, a+3d
S1=a-3d+a-d+a+d+a+3d=
-a1
a0
4a = 12
a = 3
s 4=(a-3d)(a-d)(a+d)(a+3d)=
(a2-9d2)(a2-d2)=-135
(9-9d2)(9-d2)=-135
9(1-d2)(9-d2)=-135
(1-d2)(9-d2)=-15
Put d2=y
\
(1-y)(9-y)=-15
y2-10y+24=0
y=6, y=4
\d
=6, d2=4
d= 6 , d= 2
Step 2 : a=3, d=2
a4
a0
a
a a
. a. r . a3 =r 4
3
r
r
a 0
a4=64/4=16
a=2
Step 2
S1=
a a
+ +a r+ a 3 r= 8 5
3
4
r
r
1 1 3
+ +r +r =8 5
3
4
r
r
1
1
2 r + +r 3 + 3 = 8 45
r
r
1
1
8 5
r + + r + -r 3 + = 8
r
r
r
{Q a
+b
a=( b3 +) a 3-b
(a+ b)}
3 1
1 8 5
r + -r 2 + - 0 8=
r
r
1
r
Put r+ =a
a3-2a- 8 85 = 0
8a3-16a-85=0
a=
5
is a root
2
1
5
1
\r + = r = , 2
r 2
2
1
4
1
4
Model 6
6. Solve : n4-2n3+4n2+6n-21=0 given that it has two roots equal in
magnitude but opposite in sign.
Proof : a0=1, a1=-2, a2=4, a3=6, a4=-21
Let the roots be a , b,r ,d
Given a + b=0 i; a.=e . , -b
- a1
a0
S1= a + b+ r +d =
r+ d = 2 .(1)
s 2= a +b ra+ a +dr b+ br+d d=
a +b ( r+a
) +d r ( b+
a2
a0
d)r+ d = 4
Put r+ d = 2
\a +b2 +
a 2b+ r d=4
a +b r d= 4
(2)
s 3= a br +a b +r d b +dr a =d
a
(br + d) +r d (+a
=b)
- a3
a0
-6
Put r+ d = 2 , a + b = 0
\ 2a = b 6a b= 3-
.(3)
But a + b = 0
\ b = a-
a ( - a2 =
)
using in (3) :
a2 = 3
a = 3
a = 3b= , - 3
Step 2 :
S4= a br d=
r+ d = 2
a4
a0
-3
{Qa +
b = 0}
-3r
d = 2- 1
rd = 7
But d = 2 n\ r ( 2- n ) =7
2r-r2=7
n 2 - 2n + 7 = 0
n=
2 4 -2 8
2
2 2- 4
2
2 2 + 12
2
2 6 x4 x21
2
2 2
2
6i
r=1 i 6
\ r =1
+i6 d=, i 1-
4. Solve the equation n4 -2n3+4n2+6n-21=0 given that two of its roots are
equal in magnitude but opposite in sign.
7.7 References
A Text Book of Algebra by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai
Lesson 8
TRANSFORMATION OF EQUATIONS
Contents
8.0. Aims and Objectives
8.1. Transformation of Equations
8.2. Examples
8.3. Let us sum up
8.4. Check your progress
8.5. Lesson end activities
8.6. Points for discussion
8.7. References
8.0
Our aim is to learn about getting the equations whose roots are
decreased or increased by a given quantity. Further we also study on how to
remove the second term from the given equations.
8.1. Transformation of Equations
8.2 Examples
Model 1
1
1
n=2
1
n=2
n=2
1
1
A0
-5
7
-17 11
2
-6
2
-30
-3
1
-15 -19 = A4
2
-2
-2
-1
-1
-17 = A3
2
2
1
1 = A2
2
3 = A1
Model 2
2. Find the equation whose roots are the roots of 4n5-2n2+7n-3=0, each
increased by 2
Solution : Let the roots be a , b,r ,d t,
To form the equation whose roots are a + 2 ,b+ 2 r+, d2 +, t 2 +, 2
Increase the roots by 2 means that diminish the roots by -2
By synthetic division
n=-2
n=-2
n=-2
n=-2
n=-2
-2
-3
-8
16
-32
68
-150
-8
16
-34
75
-153 A5
-8
32
-96
260
-16
48
-130 335 A4
-8
48
-192
-24
96
-322 A3
-8
64
-32
160 A2
-8
-40
A0
A1
a -1 b -1 n -1
,
,
a +2 b +2 n +2
Solution :
Let y=
n -1
n +1
Imp: replace a by n
y(n+1)=n-1
yn+y=n-1
y+1=n-yn
y+1=n(1-y)
y +1
=n
1- y
1+ y
\n =
1- y
1 + y
1+ y
+ 2
1- y
1 - y
1 + y
-3
- 5 = 0
1 - y
On Simplification
y3-6y2-27y+5=0
4. If a , b , nbe the roots of n3-pn2+qn-r=0 form the equation whose roots are
1
1
b r + a ,r +a ,
a
b
b+
1
r
Solution:
b n+
1 a b1 +n
=
a
a
(1)
a , b, r
a + b + r = p;
a +b ra+ rb = q
a b =
n +
r
.(2)
1 + r1 +
=
a
a
ra +
1
b
a r1b+ r +
1
=
=
b
b
a b+
1
r
a b1 +n
r1+
=
=
n r
\y =
n=
r +1
n
r +1
y
using in (1)
3
r + 1
r+ 1
- p
y
y
r +1
+ q y
r =
On simplification
ry3-q(r+1)y2+p(r+1)2y-(r+1)2=0
5. If
a rb
a
b
r
,
,
b + ra - a
r + b - a + b -n
(2)
..(1)
a b =
n +
r. . . . . . . . . . ( 3 )
a
a
=
b + r a- a
+ r +b - 2a
a
=
p - 2a
b
b
b
=
=
r + a 2- b r + a 2 + b p - b2 - a
IIIrly
\y =
r
r
=
2 + b -r 2 p-
n
p - 2n
y(p-2n)=n
yp-2yn=n
yp=2yn+n
=n(2y+1)
n=
y p
2y +1
Using in (1)
3
y p y
p
y p
+ q r =
- p
2
1
2 y + 1
y2 + 1 y +
On simplification
y3(4pq-8r-p3)+y2(4pq-12r-p3)+y(pq-br)-r=0
6. If a , br, be the roots of n3+qn+r=0, form the equation whose roots are
b + ra 2 a +, rb -2 a +, rb -2
a
a + b +r = 1 =0
a0
b +r a2 = a+3r +b 0- a= 3- a = 3 a
-
IIIrly r + a - 2 b= 3-b
2+ b - 2r= 3-r
\ y=-3n
\ n= - y
3
-y
-y
Using in (1), + q + r = 0
3
3
y3+9qy-27r=0
Model 4: Removal of second term
1. Consider the nth degree equation in n as
a0xn+a1xn+1+a2xn-2++an-1xn-1+an=0
a1
n 0a
- a1
5
= - = 1n 0a 5
\ n=-1
n=-1
n=-1
1 5
0 -1
-4
-2
1 4
-1
-1
2=A5
0 -1
-3
-6
1 3
-4
-7=A4
-2
-6
12=A3
-1
1 2
n=-1
-1
1 1
n=-1
-1
-7=A2
-1
1 0
A0 A1
The transformed equation is
n5-7n3+12n2-7n+2=0
We notice that the second term (viz.,) the term containing n4 is removed.
8.3.Let us sum up
We have studied so far how to get an equation whose roots are
decreased or increased by a given quantity.
3. If a , br, are the roots of n3+pn2+qn+r=0 form the equation whose roots
are a -
1
1
1
b, - , -r
br a r a
b
(Ap.1997)
b ) (Nov.2005)
Lesson-9
RECIPROCAL EQUATIONS
Contents
9.0. Aims and Objectives
9.1. Reciprocal Equations
9.2. Examples
9.3. Character and Position of roots Descartes rule to signs
9.4. Examples
9.5. Symmetric Function of roots
9.6. Examples
9.7. Let us sum up
9.8. Check your progress
9.9 Lesson End Activities
9.10. Points for discussion
9.11. References
9.0 Aims and Objectives
We shall study the completely a reciprocal equation and how to solve
the same and study the nature of roots of a given equation.
9.1 Reciprocal Equations
Definition : An equation in which the reciprocal of every root is also a root,
is called a Reciprocal equation
Eg: Consider the equation
x5+x4+x3+x2+x+1=0.(1)
1
n
Replace x y ,
1 1 1 1
+ + + +
x 5 x4 x3 2x
1
+ +1 =0
x
ie 1+x+x2+x3+x4+x5=0
Which is the original equation
\ If x=a is a root of (1) then
x=
1
is also a root
a
-3
-1
x=1
-1
-3
-1
x=1
1
-3 9 - 4
2
-3 5
2
-3 5
2
2) Solve 6x5+11x4-33x3-33x2+11x+6=0
This is a reciprocal equation of odd degree with like signs
\ x=-1 is a root
\ By synthetic division
11
-33
-33
11
-6
-5
+38 -5
-6
+6
-38
x=-1
1
6 x + 25 + x +3 x
0=
1
1
6 x +2 2 - 5 x + 3 + 8x
x
=0
6 x +1 -2 x +5 +3 - 8 = 0
x
1
6 x + 5 + x 5 +
x
put x +
=0
1
=y
x
\ 6y2+5y-50=0
y=
-b b 2 -a4 c
2a
a=6
b=5
c = -50
y=
-5 2 5 1+ 2 0 0
1 2
-5
1 2 2 5
1 2
-5 3 5
1 2
+3 0- 4 0
,
1 2 1 2
y=
+5 -1 0
,
2 3
1 1- 0
=
x
3
1 5
\x + =
x 2
x+
x2 + 1 5
=
x
2
x 2 + 1 -1 0
=
x
3
2x2 +2=5x
3x2 +3=-10x
2x2 -5x+2=0
3x2 +10x3=-10
x=
5 2 5- 1 6
4
x=
5 9
4
x=
-1 0 1 0 -0 3 6
6
5 3 1
= 2 ,
4
2
-1 0 6 4
6
-1 0 8
6
x=
-2 -1 8
,
6 6
1
= - , -3
3
3) Solve
6x6-25x5-13x4-31x2+25x-6=0
Solve
This is a reciprocal equation of even degree of under signs.
\ x=1 is a root of
By synthetic division
x=1
6
0
-25
6
31
-19
0
-31
+12 12
25
-19
-6
6
-19
12
+12 -19
-19
12
+12 -19
+25 -37
+25 -6
-25
37
-25
1
1
6 x 2 +2 2 -5x +3 +7
x
1
6 x +2
x
-2
=0
x-5 +3 +7
x
=0
put x+1/x=y
\ 6[y2-2]-25y+37=0
6y2-12-25y+37=0
6y2-25y+25=0
2 5 6 2 -5 6 0 0
1 2
y=
2 5 2 5
1 2
=
y=
2 5 5
1 2
3 0 2 0
,
1 2 1 2
5 5
y= ,
2 3
1 5
\x + =
x 2
1 5
\x + =
x 3
x2 + 1 5
=
x
2
x2 + 1 5
=
x
3
2x2+2-5x=0
2x2-5x+2=0
x=
5 2 5- 1 6
4
5 9
4
5 3
4
x=
5 2 5- 8 6
6
5 1- 1
6
=2,
\The solution is
1 5 i 1 1
-1 , 1 , 2 , ,
2
2
The equation cannot have more than three +ve real roots.
Step-2 In f(x)
f(-x) = (-x)6-(-x)5+3(-x)4+4(-x)-1
= x6+x5+3x4-4x-1
The series of charges of sign in f(-x) and
+ + +
- -
- - -
-1
-2
f(x)
\The positive real root is between 2 and 1. These are two negative real
roots is one root between 0 and -1 and -1 and -2.
9.5 Symmetric Function of roots
By symmetric function of the roots, we mean a function consists of all
the roots and which remains unaltered if any two roots are interchanged.
If a 1, a 2, a 3 are the roots of the equation
a0x3+a1x2+a2x+a3=0, then
a 1+ a 2+ a 3 , a 12+ a 22+ a 32 , a 13+ a 23+ a 33
.are all symmetric functions of eth roots.
Result-1
Let a 1+ a2+ a3 ,. a 4 be the roots of the equation xn+p1n-1+ p2n-2+ pnx+pn=0
1
(ii)
1
a1 a2
(iii)
a
= - 1 = -p
a0
a2 a=
q
3
a2 a=
r3
a2 a=
s
3
1
a 12
(i)
-r
s
1
(iii)
1
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
+
+
+
a2 a1 a2 a1 a3 a1 a4 a2 a3 a
a
2
4
1a 4a
=
a2 a
3
a1 a2 a3 a
4
(ii)
1
1
1
1
+ + +
a1 a2 a3
a
4
a 3 a4+ a2 a+
+3 a1 +a4 a
4 a2 a
1 +a
3
2a
a1 a2 a3 a
4
a2
a1 a2 a3 a
4
q
s
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
+ 2 + 2 + 2
2
a1
a2
a3
a
4
1
= 2 a1
2
a
r 2 q2 2 r 2-q
- =2
s2
s
s
a2
Example 2: Find the sum of the fourth powers of the roots of the
equation
Solution
x4-5x3+x-1=0
This is of the form
x4+p1x3+p2x3x+p4=0
p1=-5, p2=0, p3=+1: p4=-1
Let a b n dbe the roots of the given equation
To find a 4 + b4 + n4 + d4
p+
-1 r
.p= 0
Formula
Sr + S
p+
-1 r
where r>n
1
.p= 0
Put r = 5 in (1)
S5+S4p1+S3p2+ S2p3+S1p4=0
S5+99(-1)+19x(-7)15x(+1)+1x6=0
S5-99-133+15+6=0
S5-21=0
\ S5=21
S6+S5p1+S4p2+ S3p3+S2p4=0
S6+211(-1)+99(-7)+19x1+15x6=0
S6+217-693+19+90=0
S6-904+109=0
S6-795=0
S6+795
9.7. Let us sum up
We have so far learnt about solving reciprocal equations, finding the
nature of the roots of a given equation.
9.8. check your progress
(1) Find the nature of the roots of x3-2x2-3x-4=0
(2) Check whether x5+x4+x3+x2+x+1=0 a reciprocal equation
(3) Can x=-1 be a root of the equation 6x6-25x3+31x4 -31x2+25x-6=0
(2) Show that the sum of 20th powers of the roots of the equation
x4+ax+b=0 is 50a4b2-4b5(Ap 97)
(3) Solve
6x6-35x5+56x4 -56x2+35x-6=0
(4) Prove that the equation
x6+3x2-5x+1=0 has atleast four imaginary roots. (Qp 2005)
9.10. Points for discussion
(1) Show that all the roots of the equation
2x3-3x2-12x+1=0 are real and district
(2) If a , b , gbe the roots of x3+px2+qx+r=0
find the values of
(a)
(b)
(a + b -) g
(c) b g + g b
9.11. References
A Text Book of Algebra by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai
UNIT III
Lesson - 10
MULTIPLE ROOTS
Contents
10.0. Aims and Objectives
10.1. Rules for finding the multiple roots of an equation f(x)=0
10.2. Example
10.3. Let us sum up
10.4. Check your progress
10.5. Lesson End Activities
10.6. Points for discussion
10.7. References
10.0 Aims and Objectives
We shall study how to solve an equation whose roots are multiple
roots.
Multiple roots
10.1.Rules for finding the multiple roots of an equation f(x)=0
(1) find f1(x)
4x3-13x2+4x
4x3-16x+16x
3x2-12x+12
3x2-12x+12
0
The other roots of f(x)=0 are given by
x2+4x+3=0
(x+3)(x+1)=0
x=-3, -1
roots of f(x)=0 are 2,2,-1,-3
10.3 Let us sum up
We have studied so far in spring an equation whose multiple roots are
given.
10.4. Check your progress
(1) Solve x3-x2-8x+12=0 has a double root
10.5. Lesson End Activities
(1) Solve
6x6-25x3+31x4 -31x2+25x-6=0
(2) Show that the sum of the 20th powers of the roots of the equation
Examples
(1) Solve 2x4 -12x3+19x2-6x+9=0 given that it has two equal roots
Ans : 3,3,
i
2
(4) If the equation x4+ax3+bx2+x+36=0 has three equal roots show that each
of them is equal to
6c - a b
3a 2 - b
10.7. References
Lesson 11
ROLLES THEOREM
Contents
11.0 Aims and Objectives
11.1. Examples
11.2 Let us sum up
11.3. Check your progress
11.4. Lesson End Activities
11.5. Points for discussion
11.6. References
11.0 Aims and Objectives
Our aim is to study on Rolles Theorem.
Rolles Theorem
Between two consecutive real roots a1 and a2 of the equation f(x)=0
where f(x) is a polynomial, there lies atleast one real root of the equation
f1(x)=0
Results :
(1) If all the roots of f(x)=0 are real, then all the roots of f1(x)=0 are
also real.
(2) If f(x)=0 is a polynomial of degree n, f1(x)=0 is a polynomial of
degree (n-1) and each root of f1(x)=0 lies in each of the (n-1) intervals
between the n roots of f(x)=0
(3) If all the roots of f(x)=0 are real, then the roots of f1(x)=0, f11(x)=0
f111(x)=0 are also real
(4) At most only real root of f(x)=0 can lie between two consecutive roots
of f1(x)=0
(5) If f1(x)=0 has k real roots, then f(x)=0 cannot have more than (k+1) roots
(6) f(x)=0 has at least as many imaginary roots as f1(x)=0
Position of real roots of f(x)=0
11.1. Examples
Find the nature of the roots of the equation 4x3-21x2+18x+20=0
-a
1/2
+a
\ The roots of f(x)=0 if any, will be with internals (-a, 1/2), (1/2, 3) and (3,
a)
In (-a, )
In (1/2,3)
In (3, a)
f(-a) = -
f(1/2)=+
f(3)=-
f(1/2) = +
f(3) = -
f(a)=+
f(x) = 3x4-8x3-6x2+24x-7
f1(x) = 12x3-24x2 -12x+24
= 12[x3-2x2 -x+2]
= 12[x2(x-2)-1(x-2)]
= 12[(x-2)(x2-1)]
-a
-1
+a
In (-1,1)
In (1,2)
f(-a) = +
f(-1)=-
f(1)=-
f(-1) = -
f(1) = +
f(2)=+
In (2,a)
\x : -a
-1
+a
f(2) = +
f(x) : +
f(a) = +
f(x)=0 has a real root lying in (-a,-1) and (-1,1). The given equation is
of 4 degree. \ The equation has two imaginary roots.
th
+1
f(0) = -7
f(1) = +
\ There is a positive real root in (-1,1).
Step 3
In (-a,-1)
There is a negative real root.
11.2 Let us sum up
We have studied so far how to find the roots using Rolles Theorem.
11.3. Check your progress
(1) Show that all the roots of x3-7x+5=0 are real
11.4. Lesson End Activities
(1) Show that the equation
x6-x5+3x4+4x-1=0 has atleast two imaginary roots.
Lesson 12
NEWTONS METHOD OF APPROXIMATION TO A ROOT
Contents
12.0 Aims and Objectives
12.1. Newtons method of approximation to a root
12.2 Examples 1:
12.3 Let us sum up
12.4 Check your progress
12.5. Lesson End Activities
12.6 Points for discussion
12.7. References
12.0 Aims and Objectives
We shall find a root by Newtons method.
12.1. Newtons method of approximation to a root
Consider the equation f(x)=0 let x=a be a real unrepeated root of
f(x)=0.
Let a+h be a the actual root, where h is small
By Taylors Theorem
2
f(a+h)-f(a)+hf1(a)+ h +f11(a)+
2 !
\ f(a)+hf1(a)+ h +f11(a)+=0
2 !
Q h is small, neglect h
f (a)+hf1(a)=0
h=
\a +h a=
- f (a )
f 1 (a )
-
f (a )
f 1 (a )
= a 1(say) is a closer
approximation than a
Repeating the process
a 2 = a1 -
f (a1 )
which is a closer approximation than a 1
f 1 (a1 )
continuing this process, the root can be obtained to any desired degree of
accuracy.
12.2 Examples 1:
Find the positive real not of x3+ 2x2+5x-220=0 correct to two places of
decimals
Solution
f(x) = x3+ 2x2+5x-220
f1(x) = 3x2+4x+5
f(1) = -ve; f(2)=-ve: f(3)=-ve:f(4)=-ve
f(5) = -vef(6)=+ve
There is a root lies between 5 and 6. Take 5 as the appointment value of the
root.
a=5
f(a)=f(5)=-20
f1(a)=f1(5)=100
The second approximation is
f (a ) ( 2 - 0 )
a1 = a - 1 = 5 - 5 =.
f (a ) 1 0 0
a 2 = a1
f (a )
f( 5 . 2 )
- 1 1 = 5 . -2 5 =
. 1 9 3 5
f (a1 ) ( f 15 . 2 )
f(5.1935)
a 3 = 5 . 1 -9 13 5 =
5 . 1 9 4 2
f (5.1935)
Lesson 13
HORNERS METHOD
Contents
13.0. Aims and Objectives
13.1. Horners Method
13.2. Examples
13.3 Let us sum up
13.4 Check your progress
13.5 Lesson End Activities
13.6. Points for discussion
13.7. References
13.0 Aims and Objectives
We shall study the solving of an equation by Horners Method.
13.1 Horners Method
We shall consider the method of finding an approximate value of a
real root of the equation f(x)=0 bying between two positive integers when
there is only one root between those integers.
13.2. Examples
Find the positive root of the equation x3+x2-7x-3=0 correct to two
decimal places by Horners method.
Step 1
f(x) = x3+x2-7x-3
f(2) = -ve
f(3) = +ve
1
2
-7
6
-3
-2
1
x=2 0
3
2
-1
10
-5
x=2 0
70
4
900
296
1
x=4 0
74
4
1196 -216
312
14
x=4 0
78
4
1508
-5000
4784
82
f2(x) = x3+820x2+150800x-216000
f2(1) = -ve
f2(2) = +ve
The root lies between 1 and 2
\ The required root in 2.41
13.3 Let us sum up
So far we have studied the concept of solving an equation using
Horners method.
13.4 Check your progress
(1) Find a positive root of the equation x3+x2-7x-3=0
(2) Find a positive root of the equation x3-5x-11=0
13.5 Lesson End Activities
(1) Using Horners method, find a positive root of the equation x3-3x+1=0
correct to three places of decimals.
(Ans : 1.532)
(2) Find the positive root of the equation x3-2x2-3x-4=0 correct to three
places of decimals (Ans 3.284)
(Nov 2006
Bharathiar)
(3) Show that the equation x3-6x-13=0 has one real root between 3 and 4 and
find it to two places of decimals.
(Ans: 3.18)
(4) Find by Horners method the root of the equation x3+x2-2x-1=0 that lies
between 1 and 2
(Apr 2005)
(5) Find the positive root of the equation x3-2x2-3x-4=0 correct to three
places of decimals using Horners method
(2) Find by Horners method, the positive root of the equation x3-4x2+5=0
correct to two significant places of decimals
13.7 References
A Text Book of Algebra by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai
Lesson-14
RADIUS OF CURVATURE
Contents
14.0 Aims and Objectives
14.1 Curvature in Cartesians form
14.1.1 Radius of Curvature
14.2. Radius of Curates in Cartesian
14.3. Examples
14.4 Let us sum up
14.5. Check your progress
14.6. Lesson End Activities
14.7. Points for discussion
14.8. References
14.0 Aims and Objectives
Our Aim is to learn the concept of finding the radius of Curvature in
Cartesian Coordinates.
14.1 Curvature in Cartesians form
y
P
Oy
O
Let A be a fixed point on the curve y=f(x) let s denote the are along AP
measured from A in the curve y=f(x) where P is a any point on y=f(x) let the
tangent at P make an angle y with the x axis. Then, as P moves along the
curve, s and y vary and the rate of which y increases relative to s is called
the curvature of the curve as r i.e. in symbols dy /ds is called the curvature
of the curve at r . In other words the curvature is the rate of change of the
direction of the tangent at P. Also curvature of a circle is the reciprocal of its
radius.
14.1.1 Radius of Curvature
y
Let P and Q be two points on this curve. Let the tangents at P and Q make
angles y and y +dy respectively with x axis let the normals at r and Q
intersect C as let A be a fixed point on the curve. Let are AP=s
PQ = rs
Arc AQ = &+D&
As Q tends to P, limit of PC is
d s d
\ P =C \
P C
dy
dy
\
P C=
d s
dy
1
d s
=
P C y
d
d s
is called the radius of curvature at p.
dy
The circle with the centre at C and radius=PC has the same tangent
and the same curvature as the curve y=f(x) has at P.
14.2. Radius of Curates in Cartesian
Consider the curve y=f(x). Let A be a fixed point on it. Let P be any
point on it.
Let the tangent at p make an angle y with the x axis
then dy/dx=tany
differentiating with resper to x
d2
y
d y
= s e2 yc
2
d
x
d
x
dy d s
= s e2 y c . .
d s d x
But
\
d x
= c oys
d s
d2
y
d y
1
= s 2ey c . .
2
d
x
d
x c oys
= s e3 yc
dy
d s
d s s e3 yc
= 2
d y
dy
d 2x
3
( s e )c
rp =
3
d y
d 2x
dy
( +1 t 2ay n 2)
=
d2 y
d 2x
d y2
1 +
d x
=
d2 y
d 2x
\p =
2
1
( + 1y )
y2
d y
d x
where
d2 y
y2 = 2
d x
y1 =
14.3. Examples
(1) Find the radius of curvature of the curve xy=30 at (3,10)
Solution
xy=30 ----(1)
diff 10.r.t.x
x
d y
+y . =1 0.(2)
d x
d y y
= d x x
1 0
d y
(3,10)= 3
d x
=
2 0
9
1 0 2 0
y=
2 ,
3
9
y1 =
(1 + y =)
r=
2
1
1 0 03
1 + 2
9
2 0
9
y2
1 0 ) 92
(
=
9
x
2 7 2 0
3
(1 0 ) 92
r=
6 0
d y
s ip =n 0
d x
s pi n= 1
2
u=4
\ The point is p 2 , 4
y1 =
d y
=4x c o-s 2 xc o s 2
d x
y2 =
d2 y
= x 4- s i n+ 4x s i n 2
d 2x
y1 ) p , 4 =4 cp ox-s 2 c po s 2
2
2
2
cosB = -1
= 2- ( -1 )
=2
y2 ) p , 4 =4 sp -ix n 4+ s pi n 2
2
2
2
= -4
\ y1 = 2
3
y 2 = 4-
(1 + y )= (1 + =4)
r=
2
1
-4
y2
-5
4
52
In magnitude r =
4
5
5
4
(3) Find the radius of curvature of the curve at x=a cos q , y=b sin q at
a b
,
2 2
If: Step 1
x=a cos q
y=b sin q
d x
= a- s i qn
d v
d y
= b c oq s
d v
d y bc oq s
= d x as i qn
d2
y
d
o
= +b c oe sc 2qu
2
d
x a d
x
b
= - c oq s
a
b
= - 2 c oe s2qc
a
x=
a
a\ c o=q s a\ q
p
2
= p
y=
b
a\ s i=qn a\ q
p
2
=p
b
b
\ A =t p v =, 1y c - o = qs -.
4
a
a
y2 =
b 3
e-( c =cqo s - )eb c2 q o c s
a
a2
b
= -2 x
a
3
(1 + y =)
r=
2
1
2
2
-a 2 ( a + b
=
b
a 3
( 2)
b 2
1 + a 2
b
- 2 2
a
y2
r=
1= -b
p
4
b
= 2- 2 2
a
1
2
1
- ( a+2 b2
2 2a b
\ In magnitude r =
1
2
+( a 2
2a b
b2
(4) Prove that the radius of curvature at a point (a cos3v, a sin3v) on the
curve x2/3+y2/3=a2/3 is 3 a sinv cosv
Proof
x2/3+y2/3=a2/3.
Solution
x=a cos3v
d x
= 3-ac o 2vs s iv n
d v
y=a sin 3v
d y
= 3as i 2nv c ov s
d v
d y
d y d v
=
d x d x
d v
=
3as i 2nv c ov s
-3ac o 2vs s iv n
d y
= t- av\ n 1 =y0t -a vn
d x
d2 y
d
v
= -s i 2 nv
2
d
x
d
x
1
= s -i 2 nv 2
3ac o vs s iv n
1
v s i3 n
3as i nv c ov s
y2 =
(1 + y1=)
p=
2
1
t + ( a2 v
s i nv
3a s i vn
y2
(s
=
i 2 nv ). 2 3as i nv c ov s
s i 3 nv
( 2 2)
(b) y = a
(c) y3=x(x+2y)at(1,-1);
(1/2)
1 2a5
l o xg
t=x 1
x
(2) Find the radius of curvature for the curve x=a (cost+sint) ; y=a(cost-sint)
(3) Find the radius of curvature of the curve y2=4ax at (at2,2at)
14.8. References
A book of Calculus by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai
Lesson-15
RADIUS OF CURVATURE IN POLAR FORM
Contents
15.0 Aims and Objectives
15.2. Example
15.3. Evolutes and Involutes
15.4. Examples
15.5. Pedal Equation
15.6. Examples 1:
15.7. Let us sum up
15.8. Check your progress
15.9. Lesson End Activities
15.10. Points for discussion
15.11. References
15.0 Aims and Objectives
Our Aim is to learn the method of finding the radius curvature of a
curve given in polar form, the p-r equation of a curve, evolutes and involutes
of a given curve.
p
rq
Oq
q +r q
Let r=f( q ) be the equation of the curve let r be any point on it.
Let OP=r. Let OP make an angle o with the initial line OA.
We have
tan f =r
df
dq
= r.
t a fn=
1
d r
dq
r
d r
dq
differentiating w.r.t. q
d r d r d2 r
.
- .r
dq dq dq dq 2
sec
s e22fr
=
2
dq
d r
dq
2
d r d
- r.
dq dq
2 dq
ssece fr
=
2
dq
d r
dq
2
d r d
-r
d4
1
dq dq
=
.
2
dq s e 2r4
d r
dq
2
d r d
-r
1
dq dq
=
.
2
1 +t a 2 nf
d r
dq
r
2
r
2
r
2
1
1+
d
dq
d r d
-r
dq dq
.
2
2
d r
dq
r
r
2
2
d r d r
r
d r dq dq 2
=
2
dq
d r
r2 +
dq
using in (1)
2
2
d r d r
-r
d4
dq dq 2
=1 +
2
dq
d r
2
+r
d
q
d r
r + 2 r-
d4
dq
=
dq
d
r2 +
dq
2
d
dq
2
r
r
2
dq
dq
d s d s
(incomplete)
\p = =
dq dq
2
d 2r d
r + x +r
dq dq
l=
d r d
r 2 + 2 r-
dq dq
2 d r2
r +
dq
l=
r
2
d r d
r + 2 . r-
dq dq
2
r
2
15.1. Example
(1) Find the radius of curvature of the curve r2=a2 sec22
Solution
r2=a2 sec22
logr2=loga2+logsec22
2 log r = log a2+log sec 2 2
1 d r1
\ 2 . s =e c 2 . t qa n q2 . 2
r dq s eq c 2
1d r
= t a nq 2
r qd
d r
= r t a nq 2
dq
d2
r
d
r
= 2r s e2+cq2 t aqn 2 .
2
dq
dq
\r
d2 r
= 2r s e2 +cqr 22 t 2av n 2
dq 2
r4
= 2r 2 . 4( +r2 s e 2 c- q2 1 )
a
2r 6
22
+
r
- 1
4
4
a
a
2r 6
= 4+
a
r6 3 2 6r
- r =4
a4
a
r2-
d r
r + 2r =
dq
2
+r
t a nq2
=r2(1+tan222)
= r2.sec222
q 4 q6
= r 2 . 4= 4
a
a
3
2
6
2 9
d r r r
\ r 2 + = 4 = 6
dq a a
r 2 + 2 & r2 -2
&r &
tr2= a r2+n
2q2r
3r 6
2+ ( 2s r-e cq 22 -1 )r 42+
a
= r2
r 4 r6 3
= 2r + r2 - 4 1 - 4
a a
2
= 2r 2 + 2
r6 2
-r 2
a4
r6 3
-4
a
r6
= -4
a
r 9 r6 r9
\ p = 6 - 4 = 6 a a a
a
.6
r
r3
= -2
a
r 2r
= -2
a
= r-
a 2 s e2 qc
a2
=-4sec22
\ In magnitude, p=rsec22
r = a2
r& = a
&r =&0
3
r 2 + &r2 2
p= 2 2
r +r2 & r & r&
3
a 2q 2+a 2 2
= 2 2 2
a q + a2 - 0
3 / 2
a 2 ( + 21q )
= 2
a ( +22q )
p=
3r 62
+r
a4
a 3 ( 2+ 1q3 / ) 2
a 2 ( +22q )
a ( + 1q 2 3)/ 2
( +2q 2 )
y1 ( + 1y1
y2
1+ y 2
y = y + 21
y
y=2at
d x
= 2a t
d t
d y
= 2a
d t
d y
d y d t 2a
y1 =
=
=
d x d x 2a t
d t
=
y2 =
1
t
d2 y d t
1 1
=2 t - -2 2 = -.
d x d x t a2 t
1
= - 3
2a t
x= x-
y1 ( + 1y1
y2
1 1
1+
t t 2
2
=a t
1
2a 3 t
1 t 2 +1
= a 2 t+ 2a3 t x 2
t t
= a 2 +t 2 a2(+ 1t )
= a 2 +t 2 a+2 2a
x = 3a 2+t 2 a.(1)
step-2
1 + y12
y= y+ 2
y
1
t2
= 2a +t
-1 a 3t
2
1+
= 2a -t2 a
(t t
+ 1)
t2
=2at-2at(1+t2)
=2at-2at-2at3
=-2at3(2)
Eliminate t between (1) and (2)
from (1) x-2a=3at2
x - 2a 2
=t
3a
x - 2 a
\
=
3a
t6
( x -2 a 3) 6
= t ..(3)
2a 3
y
6
\
= t
2a
y2
= t 6 .(4)
4a 2
\ 4(x-2a)3=27ay2
\ The locus of (x,y) is
x 2 y2
Which is the evolute of the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1
a
b
\ x=acos2
d x
= a- s i qn
dq
y=b sin2
d x
= b c oq s
dq
d y
d
y
b c oq s
y1 =
= dq =
dx x -a s i qn
d
dq
b
= - c on s
a
b
d q
y2 = + c oq s q2 .
a
d
x
b
= - 2 c oq s q3
a
step-2
y ( + y1
X= x - 1 1
2
2
2
-b c oq t +1b cq o 2 t
a2
a
= a c oq
-s
-b
c oe s3qc
a2
a 2 + b2 c 2o qt
a 2
b
a 2
=a c qo - s qc ox t .
a
b
e c oc s3q
=a c oq s-
a c qo. t s3 i q n2 c22 oq s
+ a 2 b
a2
s i nq
1 c q o s saq2 i 2n b+c2 q o 2 s
n2
=a c qo - s s qi n3
a s qi n s q i
\ c o3 q=
s
a x
a - b2
2
Step 3
..(1)
Y=y+
1 + y12
y2
b2 2
1 + ac 2 o tq
= b s i qn+
b
- 2 c oe s3qc
a
a 2 3 2b
s
i
q
n
s qi +n 1
=b
b
a
=b s i qn-
2
2
c
s
o qs
i2 nq
1
= b 2 s iq -n2 as i q(n2 + s bi q2n -( 1 2 sq i n ) )
b
1
Y= b 2 s iq 2-na s 2iq +nb 2( sq-i2b n s2q i n )
b
\ s i 3 qn=
-b Y
(2)
a 2 - b2
Step 4
We have
a x
= c o3 qs
2
a -b
2
b Y
= s i 3 qn
2
a -b
2
But c o2 q s+ 2s qi = n 1
\(c
oq ) +3s
( sq i=) n
3
a x 3 b - Y
+
=
2 2
2
2
a-
b
a - b
a x 3 b
2 2 +2
a-
a - b
2
( a ) 3x
(a
- b2)
\( a
+
a2-(
y3
=
2
b
(3 y) =
) +3x ( b3 )= y
32
( a-
b2
2 / 3
x 2 b2
+ =1
a2 ar
O
let the equation of the curve be v=f(v)
let o A be the initial line
let O be the pole
let p be any pt in the curve
o Y
r
\ oy=r sin f
\ r =rsin f
1
1
=
r r s fi n
1
1
1
= 2
= 2
2
2
r
r sf i n r
c oe s2fc
1
1
= 2 (1+ c o es 2.fc.) . ( 1 )
2
p
r
But tan f =
cot=
1d r
r qd
1d r
r d v
using no(1)
2
1
1 d r
= 1+
r 2 r2 q d
2
1
1
1 d r
= 2 +4
...(2)
2
r
r rq d
1
u
d 1r d r
dr u 2rd
d r
qu d
d
+
q d
15.5 Examples 1:
Find the -r equation of the cardiod r=a(1-cos2)
Solution
r=a(1-cos2)
The p-request ion is
d r
= a s i fn
dq
1
1
1 d r
= 2 +4
2
r
r rq d
=
1 1 2 2
+ .a s i nq
r 2 r4
r 2 + a2 s 2i nq
r4
=
4
r
2
a 2 (1 -c oq2s)+ s i qn- 2 cq o s
=
4
r
a 2 [ 2 -2 c oq s]
r4
2a 2 r 2 a
x=
r4 a 3 r
1 2a
=
p 2 r3
r2 =
r3
2a
d r
= a-[ -c oqs] c oq s
dq
= a cos 2 cot2
we know
2
1
1
1 d r
= 2 +4
2
r
r rq d
=
1
1
= 2
2
r
r
1 1 2
+ 4 .a c o 2sq c 2 oq t
2
r
r
1 2
.a+c o 2sq ( -2c qo s 1 )
r
1 1 r 2 - a2
+
r 2 r2 a2
1
1 r2 1
+
. -.
1
r 2 r2 a2 2r
1
1
=2
2
r
a
\ 2=a2
(2) l/r =1+ecos2..(1)
l
\r =
1 + c o qs
=l(1+ecos2)-1
d y
= l -1 e( +1 ce o -s2 e) s i qn
d x
=+l(1+ecos2)-2esin2
=
l se i qn
( +
1 c oq s2 )
2
2
2
2
d r l e s i nq
=
2
dq (e +1q c o s )
l 2 e2s i2 nq
, using (1)
l 2 / r2
= e2r2sin22
we know
2
1
1
1 d r
= 2 +4
2
r
r rq d
But
1 1 2 2 2
+ .e s r i nq
r 2 r4
1 1 2 2
+ .e s i nq
r 2 r4
1
1+ se 2i nr2 . .2 q. ). . . ( 2 )
2 (
r
l
= 1 +ce o qs
r
l
- 1 =ce o qs
r
2
l
2
- 1 =c e o
r
sq
=e2(1-sin22)
2
l
2
2
- 1 = se -ie
r
2
e s
qei =
n2 q
l
n- -1
r
using in (2)
1
1
l
= 2 +
1 e 2 - 1-
2
r
r
r
l2 l
2 - 1+
1
r2
2
+1 e 2r
1
r2
l2
2
1
+
e
r2
1 1
=
p2
r
l
+2 - 1
r
2l 2 l
2 + r e -2 r
r =r
d r
dr
A
r
Let OA be the initial line. Let /o be the pole and be any point on it.
let the tangent at make an angle with the initial line on let AOP=0. Draw
ON the tanget at . let ON=
let O =r
Also we know
dq d
r
s iy =n r; c o= qs
d s d s
t a yn= r
dq
d r
p=r sin 2
d
p
d q
= s i qn+ 1r cqo s
d
r
d
r
dq d s
=s q
i + nr cq o s .
d s d r
=r
dq dq
+r
d s d s
=r
d
(+
q 4
d s
d r dy
=r
d r d s
1 d s d r
=
r yd dr
d s d r
=r
dy d r
\l = r
d r
dr
Note : For some curvest = f(v), sometimes it is not easy to find radius of
d r
dr
dq
r
2
2
= a s i nq
we know
2
1
1
1 d r
= 2 +4
2
r
r rq d
r 2 + a2 s 2i nq
r4
2
a 2 (1 + c oq2)+
s s iq n
=
4
r
a 2 ( 2 +2 c oq s)
r4
a 2 2 ( +1 c qo s )
r4
2a 2 2 2a
x =
r 4 a r3
1 2a
=
p 2 r3
p2 =
r3
...(1)
2a
dr
1
2p = . = r 3
d r2 a
dr 1r 32
= .
d r 2 a 2r
3r 2
=
4ar
\
d r 4 ar
=
d r 3r 2
d r 4 ar
= r2 .
dr 3
r
\r =
4a r
3r
1 a62 r 2
r =
9r 2
2
r2 =
1 a62 r 3
x , using (1)
9r 2 2a
r2 =
2a r
9
r 2 8a
=
= a constant
r
9
2a
that p2=ar
= 1 -c o v s show
,
r
r3
Hence show
a2
a2
3r
(3) Prove that the radius of curvature of the curve rcos2(v/1)=a is 2asec3(v/2)
(4) Show that the radius curvature of the curve r2=a2 cos 2v is
a2
3r
1
p
1 1
r2
+
a2 b2 a2 2b
curvature A n s2 =
(7) For the curve r=asinv, show that the p-r equation is ap=r2
15.10. References
A book of Calculus by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai
Lesson-16
TOTAL DIFFERENTIATION
Contents
16.0 Aims and Objectives
16.1. Definition
16.2 Example
16.3 Eulers Theorem on homogeneous functions
16.4. Examples (1) verify Eulers theorem for
16.5. Let us sum up
16.6. Check your progress
16.7. Lesson End Activities
16.8. Points for discussion
16.9 References
16.0 Aims and Objectives
Our aim is to learn the total differentiation of a function with respect
to a veritable using partial derivatives.
16.1. Definition(1) : Let u be a function of namely where x and y are
functions of some other variable t.
Then
d x u d x u d y
is called total differentiation.
=
+
d t x d t y d t
u
t
x
y
d x n d x u d y
=
+
d t x d t y d t
we replace t by x
\
d u u n d y
=
+
d x x y d x
Definition 3
Implicit functions
Let the relation between x and y be with form f(x,y)=c where c is a
constant then the total differential coefficient with respect to x is zero.
f f d y
\o = +
x y d x
f
d y o x - fx
\
=
=
f
d
x
f y
o y
16.2 Example
Find
d u
if u = xyz where x=e-t ; y=e-tsin2t; z=sint
d t
Solution : u=xy2
u
=y z
x
u
=x z
y
u
=x y
z
x=e-t
y=e-tsin2 t
d x -t
= ed t
d y -t
= e x 2 s ti n tc+ o t s2- s e i -n t ( )
d t
=e
[t2 s i tn -c ot s s2 ti n ]
Z=sint
d z
= c ot s
d t
d u u d x u d y u d z
=
+
+
d t x d t y d t z d t
= y ( )z- t-( )e (-2 t 2x +s ei n tc2- o t s st +i nx ) yc o ts
= e- t s ti2 n- ts- t i ne s +-iet n 2(e 2 -st -t i nt c- tot +s2 st i- t ne ) s e i n t c o t s
= e -2t s ien +2s i tt n- ( 2 2t -s it n2t c -o +ts 2 st i en )2 s ti n c to s
= e -2 [ s-t i n3 2t +s i 2 nt c-o t3s s +it n2 s it n c to s ]
= e -2t [ 3 st i-2 n c t o 3s 2 ts i n ]
c ot s
= e -2t s 3 t i -n 3 2
s i t n
d u -2t
= e s i tn 3- [ 3t c o t 2 ]
d t
(2) Find
d u
if u=x2+y2+a2; x3+y3=a3
d x
solution
d u u u d y
=
+
.......(1)
d x x y d x
u=x2+y2+a2
u
u
= 2 x := y2
x
y
x3+y3=a3
diff. both sides w.r.t.x
3x2+3y2
3y2
d y
=0
d x
d y
= 3-x 2
d x
d y-3 x2
=
d x 3 y2
using in .(1)
x- 2
d
u
= 2x + 2 y 2
d
x
y
= 2x -
2x2
y
1
( x-2 y 2 2x )
y
2x
( yy
(3) Find
x)
d y
if x and y are related as
d x
y2=4ax
f(x,y)=y2-4ax
f
= 4-a
x
f
= 2y
y
d y- f
= =
d x f
=
(4) Find
-x 4 a
y2 y
2a
y
d y
if ax2+2bxy+by2+2gu+2gy+c=0
d x
Solution
f=ax2+2bxy+by2+2gx+2fy+c
f
= 2a +x2 b + 2g g
x
f
= 2b +x2 b+ 2y f
y
f
d y x
= d x f
y
2a +x2 b + 2y g
= 2b +x2 b +y g
(a +x h )+y g
= 2h +x2 b+ 2y f
u(x,y)
= ax2+2hxy+by2
u (t x, ty) = at2x2+2ht2xy+bt2y2
= t2(ax2+2hxy+by2)
=t2u(x,y)
u (x,y) is a homogeneous function of 2nd degree in x and y
Eules theorem on homogenous function
If u be a homogeneous function of nth degree in x and y then
x
u u
+y
n=
x y
= x n +0 a
y
1+ a
x
y2
+2a 3
x
3 y
y
a . +.a . n
+
3
x
x
y2
y
= x n 0+ a 1 + a 2 +2 a3
x
x
n
n
y3
+ a +. a. . n y
3
x
x
( )
u = xnf(y/x)
u
y
= x n1 ( f /y xx) - 2 + f y x n nx-1
x
x
x
= y
\x
u
x=
x
( )
-x ( fy +)n x y f(
)
x
x
- f ( y n+) x y f (
)
x
x
n-2
yn -1
1 n-
=xn-1f1(y/x)
\y
n
=x
y
\x
u u
y+ x
x y
n -1
( x)
f y
= yn -1
( )
f -y n1n
x
( )
+ x- y1 nf + x1 y f
x
x
= n nx (f y/ x)
=nu
16.4. Examples (1) verify Eulers theorem for
u=x3+y3+z3+3xy2
Solution
u
= 3 x 2 + x3
x
( )
\x
u
= 3 y 2 + z3
y
u
= 3 z 2 + x3
z
u
u
u
+y z + x = y 3 z+3 3x +3 y3 +z3 3 y+ 33 x + 3y
x
y
z
=3x3+3y3+3z3+9xyz
= 3(x3+y3+z3+3xyz)
= 3u
\x
u u u
+ y + z = x3
x
y
z
y2
, show that
y
u u
+ y = t xa n
x y
Solution
x 2 + y2
x + y
given u=sin-1
x 2 + y2
\ sin u =
x+ y
let f = sinx
x 2 + y2
\f=
x+ y
f (t x, t =
y)
t 2 x2+ t2 2y
x+ y
t 2 ( x2 + 2y )
x+ y
f (tx,ty)=t2f(x,y)
\ f is a homogeneous function of 2nd degree in x and y.
\ By Eulers
f
f
+ y = 2f
x y
( s iy) +n s i( n= )2 s i n
x
y
u
u
x c o sy+ c o s= 2 s i n
x
y
u u
s
ox xs +y 2y =
u u
c ox s x+
; 2 =
yt a xn
x y
d u
if u=xyz ; where x=t, y=t2, z=t3
d t
(2) Find x
u u u
+y + z
x
y
z
if u=x+y+z
x1 / +4 y1
x1 / +3 y1
/ 4
/ 3
(c)u=x3-3x2y+3x2 y+y3
2) If u = s
x
-1
x + y
n , prove that
i
x + y
u u
1
+ y = tn a n
x y
2
3) If u = t
-1
x 2 + y2
a
n , show that
x + y
(b) u=ax2+2hxy+by2
(d) u =
x 2 ( x2 - 2 y) 3
( x 2 + 2y) 3
u u
1
+ y = sn i n
x y
2
u u
+y
n=
x y
x3 +
x-
5) If u=tan-1
x
2
2u
2 2u
u
x
+
2
y
+
(
y
=n 1
2
2
x
x
y
y
y3
, prove that
y
u u
1
+ y = s ni n 2
x y
2
6) Find
d u
2
3
i f =u 3x 4y 2 zwhere x=t , y=t ; z=4
d t
7) Find
d u
x=log t; y=et
i f= su i xn 2y( where
)
d t
8) Find
d u
2
2
2
i f =u 3x 2ywhere x -xy+y =a
d t
d y
if (a) xy=e2
d x
x 2 y2
(b) 2 - 2 = 1
a
b
x 2 y2
(c) 2 - 2 = 1
a
b
(d) x2+y2=a2
(f) (x+a)2+(y+b)2=r2
(g) x2/3+y2/3
(h) (y-k)2=4a(x-h)
(i) ax2+2hxy+by2=0
(j) (x-h)(y-k)=c2
16.9 References
A book of Calculus by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai
n- ) n
Lesson-17
INTEGRATION
Contents
17.0. Aims and Objectives
17.1. Integrals
17.2. Examples
17.3. Let us sum up
17.4. Check your progress
17.5. Lesson End Activities
17.6 Points for discussion
17.7. References
s i dn x
ox s
put cosx = t
\ -sinxdx=dt
sinxdx=-dt
I =
=
s i xn d x
c oxs
-d t
t
=-logt+c
=-logcosx+c
= +log(cosx)-1+c
1
=l o g+ c
c oxs
= log sinx+c
(2)
e x - ex e x + ex- d x
put ex+e-x=t
f 1 (x d) x
Method proof f(x) = t
f ( x)
(ex-e-x)dx=dt
l
e x - exe= t x I x- d
e +e
d t
= l o t+g c
t
= log (ex-e-x)
(3)
x d x
1+ x
put 1+x2=t
2xdx=dt
xdx=
\ I =
=
=
d t
2
x d x
1 + x2
d /t 2
t
1 -1 / 2 1
t =d t
2
2
t1 / 2
+c
1 / 2
= t+ c
= 1 + x2 + c
( p +x ) q
M e t h o d d 2
dx
= A a+( x +b ) x +c B
2
x+ b +x c
p +x q d x
Important formulas
(1)
(2)
(3)
d y 1
= t a-n x1 (+a/ ) c
+ a2
a
d
y 1 x -a
=
l o g+
2
+ a 2a + x a
d
y 1 a -x
=
l o g+
2
+ x 2a + a
x
(1) Example
x d x
+ x +1
d
d x
let x = A +( x2 +1 x )+ B
x=A(2x+1)+B (1)
compose the coefficient of x
1=2A \ A=1/2
put x= out (1)
0=A+B \ B=-1/2
\ x=1/2 (2x+1) -1/2
let I =
x d x
+ x +1
1
( 2x +1 )= 1 / 2
=2 2
d x
x + x +1
=
1
2x + 1
1
- d x
2
2 x +1x + 2
1
1
l +o x 2g +x( 1 - )
2
2
1
1
l +o x 2g +x( 1 - )
2
2
1
1
l +o x 2g +x( 1 - )
2
2
d x
+ x +1
d x
1
( x 2 + 2 x + . 1 - ) 1 +1
4
4
2
( x 1+
d x
2
/ 2+
)3
d x
2
( x 1+ / 2+
) 3
4
1
1
1
1
/ x+2
= l ox 2+g ( 1 +) 1x. t a- -n c +
2
2
3
3 /
2
2
1
1
2
1x +
= l o x+2g ( 1 + ) 1x t a --n c +
2
3
3
(2)
3x
3x + 2
d x
-4 x + 2
I =
3x + 2
dx(1)
3 x -4 x + 2
2
Let 3x+2= A
d
( x 32 - 4x +2 B
+)
d x
3x+2=A(6x-4)+B
put x = 0
2=-4A+B (2)
put x=1
5=2A+B.(3)
solve (2) and (3)
A=1/2; B=4
\ 3x+2=1/2(6x-4)+4
using in (1)
1
( x6+ 4 +) 4
2
I =
dx
3 x 2 -4 x + 2
=
1
6 x -4
d
x
+ d 2 x 4
2
2 x3 - 4x + 2 x 3
4x + 2
1
d x
= l o- gx 2 ( +3x 4 +2 ) 4 2
2 3 ( 4 / 3 x 2- x/ + 3
1
4
= l o- gx 2 ( +3x 4 +
2 )
2
3
1
4
l o- gx 2 ( +3x 4 +2 )
2
3
1
4
= l o- gx 2 ( +3x 4 +
2 )
2
3
d x
2
- 2x + x 4 - 4 + 2
3
9
9
3
d x
2
( x - 23 ) + 29
d x
x-2
+ 2
3
3
x- 2
1
11
2 4
-
= l o xg- ( 3 4 +2 x) . t +a n c + 3
2
3
2
2
1
2 4
13
- 2x -
= l o g-x ( 3 4+ 2 x) t a+ n c +
2
3
2
3
1
3
2 x-
= l o gx-2( 3 4 2+ ) x12 2 t+a - n c +
2
2
(3)
x +1
d x
- x2
1- x
let x+1 = A
d
( - x1 - x2 ) + B
d x
x+1 = A(-1-2x)+B
put x=0, 1= -A+B
put x= - : = B
\A=-
\ x+1 = - (-1-2x)+
I =
x +1
dx
1 - x - x2
1
-1 ( 1 - 2x +)
2
2d x
=
2
1- x - x
=
d x
1- l o- g x -( x12 +) 1
2
2 1- x - x2
d x
1- l o- gx -( x12 +) 1
2
2 1 - ( x - x2 )
1- l o- gx -( x12 +) 1
2
2
1- l o- gx -( x21 +) 1
2
2
d x
1 1 1
1 - x22 + . x+. 2 4 4
d x
2
1 1
1 - x +
2 4
d x
1- l o- gx -( x12 +) 1
2
2 3 - x +1
4
2
d x
1- l o- gx -( x21 +) 1
2
2
2 3
4 - x 2+ 1
3 + x +1 / 2
1
1
( - 1 ) lx- o g + 2 c +
2 2 . 3 / 2 3 - x -1 / 2
2
1 l
2
3 + x +1 / 2
1 l -o gx ( -21 ) 1l -xo g 2+
c +
2
2
3
3 - x -1 / 2
-o xg
(a)
x -a
in where b > a
b -x
Example (1)
x-2
d x
5- x
5-x = 5-(2cos22+5sin22)
= 5-2cos22-5sin22
= 5(1-sin22)-2cos22
= 5cos22-2cos22
5 - 3x =c o 2 sq
x-2
I = d
x
5- x
=
=
3 s i 2 nq
6 s iqn c qo ds q
3 c o2 qs
s i qn
. 6 s iq n cqo ds q
c oq s
= 6 s i2 qnd q
= 32 s i2 q
nd q
{ \ 1 cos2q = 2sin2q}
= 3 ( -1 c o qs 2d q)
= 3 cdq o qs d 2 q
s i nq 2
= 3 q - + c
2
= 3 q
2 s iqn c q
os
+
c
=3[2-sin2cos2]+c
But x-2 = 3sin22
x-2
= s i 2 nq
3
sinv =
2= sin-1 =
Also cos2 = =
x-2
3
x-2
3
5- x
3
using in (1)
x-2
I = 3 s i -1n 3
x-2
c
3
5-x
+
3
x-2 1
= 3 s -1-i n -( 2 x )- ( x 5 + ) c
3
3
(x -a
) x b-( d ) x
Method As in (a)
problem ( x -2 x) -( d5 )x
I= ( x -2 x) -( d5 )x
= 3 s i2 nq 3 c2 qo s 6qs i nqc o dsq
= 1 8 s i2 qn c qo ds q
1 8
4 s i2 qn c2 qo sd q
4
9
2
( s i qn c oq )s dq
9
2
( s i qn) dq
9
s i 2 nq2d q
1 -c o sa2
2
Hea
r e= 2q
9 1 -c o sq4
=
dq
2
2
\ s i na=2
9
(1- c o sq 4) d q
4
9
d-q
4
9 s i n q4
q - +
4
4
9 s i n 2x q2
q +
4
4
9 2 s i n 2 xc o sq 2
q
+
c
4
4
9 2 2 sx i n 2x c o sq2
q
+
4
4
9
[q s i-qn c oqs c +oqs 2] . c. . . ( 1 )
4
cq od s 4q
But sin2=
x-2
5x
c oq s=
3
3
cos22=2cos22-1
5 - x
= 2 -1
3
=
1
[1- 0 x-2 ]3
3
1
[ 7- 2x ]
3
using in (1)
I=
9
s
4
-1
2 x - 2 x- 3 -x
-i x n - 7
3
3
3
1
c (2+
3
I=
9 -12 x - 1
s -ix n 2- x(
4
3
9
( 3- )
x (- 7
2c+ )
d x
( x - a) b-x(
Method as in (a)
problem
d x
(x 2 ) -x( 5 )
I=
x-2=3sin2v
5-x=3cos2v
dx=6sinvcosvdv
I=
6 s i vn cv ods v
=
=
d x
(x 2 ) -x( 5 )
( 3 s iv 2n ) ( 23v c o s )
6 s i vn cv o ds v
3 s i vn c ov s
= 2 d v
=2v+c
x - 2
= 2 s i n +
3
-1
s i vn=
\ 3 s = vi n x-2 2
c
x-2
s i nv 2=
3
x-2
3
(a c
1
d x
ov +
s bs i v+n c
2t
1+ t2
1- t2
cosx =
1+ t2
where t = tan(x2)
Problem (1)
d x
i xn+ c ox s
1 +s
put sinx =
cos x=
2 t ax n ( / 2t ) 2
=
1 +t a n 2x ( +/ 2 t) 1 2
1 -t a nx ( /- 2 t) 1 2
=
1 +t a 2n x( /+ 22 )t 1
t= tan (x/2)
et=sec2(x/2) dx
d =x
2d t
s e cx( / 2 )
2
2d t
1+ t2
d =x
2d t
1+ t2
Let I =
d x
1 +s i n+2 c ox s
2d t
1+ t2
=
2t 1 -t
1+
+
1 + t 2 1 + 2t
d x
2t +2 t + 21 -t
d t
2t + 2
d t
t+2
= log (t+1)+c
= log [tan(x/2)+1]+c
(2)
d x
5 +4 c o -xs 3 s xi n
I =
d x
5 +4 c o -xs 3 s xi n
2d t
1+ t2
=
4 x ( - 1t 2 ) x 3 t2
5+
+
1 + t 2 1 + 2t
= 2
d t
5 (+ t1 +) t4 2 -( f 1 -) t
= 2
d t
5 + 5+t 4+t 2 -4 f - t
= 2
d t
t -f t+9
= 2
d t
(t -3 2 )
( t - 3)-1
= 2
+
-1
1
= 2 - + c
t - 3
1
= 2 c
+
t a nx ( / -2 ) 3
(e
+ ex-
x-
(1)
(3)
2x
e +e
2
).d
d x
- x1+
d x
- x +1
(2)
(4)
1- x
d x
-2 x2
ex d x
e2 x + 1
(2)
(3)
d x
x( l ox gx )
s i n ( l xo g )
d x
x
(tan-1(e x)+c)
(-cos(logx)+c)
1
n -1
(n1- ) ( lx o g )
2
1
+ x1: 2 ln o+ g ( s1 2- 2 )x l o+g x
+ c
2 2 2 (- x1- )
(4)
5 - 4x
1 + 2x - xx d x
(5)
3x + 1
2 x 2 + x3- d x
1
2
3 4 l o xg +( 2 3 +) x l o
2 2
2
g+
2
+ x1c +
(- x1- )
1
3+ x 7 2
2
c +
- l o xg- ( 6 7- ) x l o +g
2 2 2 - x +3
2
(6)
6 x - 7 -x
(7)
d x
1 -3 c o+xs 2 s xi n
1 2 t a n x(
l o g
2 3 2 t a n x(
(8)
d x
1 +3 c o+xs 4 s xi n
1
3 ( t a xn ( /) +2 ) 2 2
l o g
+c
/ )2 ) 2 2
2 3 6 3 1 (t -a n x( +
d x
/ +
2 ) - 1 3
+c
/ +2 )- 1 3
17.7. References
A book of Integral Calculus by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai
Lesson 18
INTEGRATION BY PARTS
Contents
18.0 Aims and Objectives
18.1. Integration by parts
18.2. Examples
18.3. Let us sum up
18.4 Check your progress
18.5. Lesson end Activities
18.6. Points for discussion
18.7. References
d
d
u
(u )v= v
d x d x
d(uv) = udv+vdu
\ d ( u =v) u d+ u v d u
\ u v=u v- v d u
\ u d= v u- v v d u
18.2. Examples
(1) x s xi n d2 x
u=x; dx=sin2xdx
dv=dx d =v sxi nd 2 x
v= -
c o sx 2
2
I = x sx i nd 2 x
=uv- v d u
-x c o sx 2 c o x s 2
d x
2
2
- x c o xs 2 1
c o sx 2d x
2
2
- x c o s x2
2
2
- x c o xs 2 1
( s +i nx 2 )c
2
2
1 s ix n 2
+ c
2
(2) t a 2 nx d x
u=x ; dv=tan2xdx
du=dx
=v t xa 2 nd
v= ( s 2ix n- d1 )x
v = x ( sdi2 n-x d
v = tanx x
I = x tx a 2 dn
=uv- v d u
= x( tx- a xn -)x ( xt -a dn )x
= x( xt -ax n x)- xt ad-n x x d x
2
I = (x t a- nx ) l -ox g s xe+ c x
(3) l o xg d x
u=logx ;
d u 1
=
d x x
1
d =u d x
x
I = x l od g x
=uv- v d u
dv=dx
=v d x
=xlogx- x d x
I=xlogx-x2/2+c
(4) x 2 t xa1- nd x
u=tan-1x
dv=x2dx
1
d =u d2
1+ x
=
v x 2 d x
v=x3/3
I = x
tx a1- dn
=uv- v d u
=
x3
x3
1
t a -1nx d 2 x
3
3
1 +x
x3
1x3
t a--1 xn . . d . . 2 .x . ( 1 )
3
3
1 +x
But x2+1)x3 (x
x3 + 1
-1
\
x3
=
x3 + 1
1
x2x +1
using in (1)
I=
x3
1 1
lx o- g x - d 2 x
3
3
x1 +
x3
d1
x
l oxg x d- x 2
3
3
1x +
x3
= l
3
I=
(5)
1 2
ox- g x t-x a n-1+c
3 2
x3
x2
1
l x-o g xt+ a n-1+c
3
6
3
l o xg
d x
+1x 2 )
1
u = l xo gd= ; v d 2 x
( +1x )
1
d =x d x
x
=v
d x
+1x 2 )
v = -(1+x)-1
1
= 1+ x
l o xg
I = d
x
( x +1 2 )
= u v- v d u
1
1
1
- l o-xg - d x
x +1
x +1 x
1
1
- l o+x g . d . . x. ( 1 )
( x + 1) x ( + x1 )
To find
x(
1
d x
x+1 )
1
A B
= +
...(3)
x( +x 1 x )+ x 1
1 ( A 1 +x ) B+ x
=
x( +1x ) x +
( x1 )
1=A(x+1)+Bx ..(2)
Put x=-1 ; B=-1
Put x=0 ; 1=A
\ A =1 B= : -1
using in (3)
1
1
1
= x( +x 1 x )+ x 1
x(
1
1
1
d =x d x d
+ x 1 x )+ x 1
= logx-log(x+1)+c
x
= log
+c
x + 1
using in (1)
I=
1
(x +
x
l x+
o g l o g+c
1
x)+ 1
du=2(x+1)dx
=
v e x d x
v=ex
I = e x( + x1 2d) x
= u v- v d u
= ( x 1+e2 ) x -2 e (x x+ 1 d ) x
I = (x 1 +)e2 1x (e-1x x) .+ .d . .x . ( 1 )
To find e x ( x+1 d ) x
u=x+1
dv=exdx
dv=dx
=
v e x d x
v=ex
\ e x (x+ d1 x)=u v v d u
= ( x 1+ e )x -e x d
= (x+1)ex-ex
using in (1)
I = ( x 1+ e) x -2 x( 2x+ e1) -x e + c
Hint. uv s i 2 nx =
1 -c o s x2
2
x s i -1nx
1- x
1
(3)
x - 1 -x s 2 i 1x-n
x 3 s i1-xn
1- x
1
a
d x
x
1
ax
- 2
l o ag ( lao g )
ea x
[ a c bo xs+ sb i bn ]x
a 2 + b2
(2) ea bxs ix n d x
ea x
a 2 + b2 [ a s bi nx- cb o b s ]s
ex
x
18.7. References
A book of Integral Calculus by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai
Lesson 19
REDUCTION FORMULAS
Contents
19.0. Aims and Objectives
19.1. Reduction Formula
19.2. Examples
19.3. Let us sum up
19.4. Check your Progress
19.5. Lesson end activities
19.6. Points for discussion
19.7. References
19.0 Aims and Objectives
We are going to study about the evaluation of integrals
parts.
19.1. Reduction Formula
19.2. Examples
Find a reduction formula for ea xx nd x
In= ea xx nd x
Integrate by paris
u=xn
dv=eaxdx
dx = nxn-1dx
=v e a dx x
v=
ea
a
In = uv - v d u
==
un =
x n a e x ae x n -1
- n. x d x
a
a
x n ae x
- n / a Un -1
a
ea x
x+ c
a
a x
=d
ca ox s d x
Prove let In = x n ca ox s d .
x (1)
In regret by parts
u=xn; dv=cosaxdx
n-1
dv=nx dx ;
=v ac ox sd x
v=
s i an x
a
(1) because
In=uv- v d u
=
x n s ai nx s ai n x n -1
-
n x d x
a
a
x n s ai nx n n -1
x as ix n d x
a
a
=
v as ix n d x
v=
- c oa s x
a
n -1
as xi nd x =u v- v d u
=
=
=
- c oa sn --x1 ( c a o xns-2 )
x- n
-x ( d1 ) x
a
a
-c
c
a o nx-+1 s n 1n -2
+x
x - a x c do s x
a
a
a o x s n -1
- x n -+1
I
a
a
n-2
I =
x s n i a nx - nc ao n --x1 s n 1
n - x +
I
a
a
a
a
n-2
Integrate by parts
u=x
dv = cosaxdx
du=dx
=v ac ox sd x
v =
s i an x
a
I1 =uv- v d u
=
x s ai n x s ia n x
-
d x
a
a
x s ai xn 1
s i an x d x
a
a
x s ia n x1 c-a o sx
- 2
+
a
a a
s i an x
+x
c
a
sa i xn d x
Proof un = x n sa i xn d x
Integrate by parts
u=xn ; dv = sinaxdx
dv = nxn-1dx
=
v as ix n d x
v=
- c oa s x
a
In =uv- v d u
- x n c a o x-s c o s n -1
2 n x d x
2
- x cn o as x n n -1
+
x ac ox sd x..(1)
a
a
=v ac ox sd x
s i an x
a
n -1
ac xo ds x =u v- v d u
x n -1 sa i nx s ai n x
-
- (n 1 x )n -d2
a
a
x n -1 sa ix nn- 1 n - 2
x as ix nd x
a
a
x n s a i xn (n-1 )
I n-2
a
a
using in (1)
In =
- x n c a ox n ns x--s1 ai x n n 1
+
nI
a
a
a
a
- x n c a o x sn -n-1 ( n 1 n
+
x s- ia n2 x
2
a
a
a
-2
n-2
as= i
nx
- c oa s x
=d
x+ c
a
u=x ; dv=sinaxdx
du = dx ; d =v as ix n d x
v=
- c oa s x
a
I1 =u v -v d u
- x c ox s 1
+
c oa sx d x
a
a
- x c o x s 1 as i nx
+ +
a
a a
- x c ox s 1
+
s +
i an x c
a
a 2
i n nx d x
Let In = s i n nx d x
= s i n -n1 xs xi nd x
Integrate by parts
u=sinn-1x ; du=sinxdx
du=(n-1)sinn-2 xcosxdx ; d =v sx i dn x
v=-cosx
Let un = x s idn n x
= u v- v d u
1
= c o-x s sn -ix+
n ( n1- 2n -) sx i n2 dc o s x
un =
1
n11
xc -o s sxnn -i+
n . u. . . - 2. . ( 1 )
n
a
U1 = xs =id n xc o x +s c
s i nnnxxdx
d x
Proof :
Un =
-1
-1 p
xc o -s ns i nn 1+x]0 2
n
a
n
U
Un =
n -1
Un
n
-2
-2
n -1 n - 3 n - 5
. . . U. 1. .if n is odd
n n- 2 n- 4
p
U1 = x 2 s =di n0 xc ox s=2 ) 1
0
\U n =
n -1 n - 3 n - 5
. . . . 1 if n is odd
n n- 2 n- 4
If n is even
Un =
n -1 n - 3 n - 5
U
. . . .0 .
n n- 2 n- 4
p
\U 0 =d
p
x0= x) 2= p
\ If n is even, U n =
n -1 n - 3 n - 5
. . . .p. . .
2
n n- 2 n- 4
\U n
n
Un =
s ix n nx-c1 o n s- 1
+ Un
n
n
-2
....(1)
c on xs d x
c on -s x( 2 1-n ) 1
Un = s i n x + n U
n
0 n
-2
n -1
U n-2
n
n -1 n - 3 n - 5
.U
. 1. if n is odd
n n- 2 n- 4
\ when n is odd
Un =
n -1 n - 3 n - 5
....1
n n- 2 n- 4
U 0 = d
\U n =
=
x p
n -1 n - 3 n - 5 p
. . . .
2
n n- 2 n- 4
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
0
p
0
p
7 5 3 1p
ix dn=x . . . .
8 6 4 2 2
4 2 8
i x nd =x. . =1
5 3 1 5
7 5 3 1p
ix dn=x . . . .
8 6 4 2 2
4 2 8
i x nd =x. . =1
5 3 1 5
Book work
(8) Find a reduction formula for
i mn cx oxn s d x
=v s ni mn xc od s x
Put sinx = t
cosxdx = dt
\ v t= md t=
t m +1 ms+1xi n
=
m +1 m +1
Um,n = uv- v d u
s im +1 nx s m +i1 xn
o x s + ( n 1 ) nx--2 c
m +1 m +1
=c
n -1
=c
n -1
ox s
s m +i1 x n n- 1
o x s+ sxm+2 i nx cn-2 do
m +1 m +1
sd i
nx
s x
s m +i1 xm n2n--1 n
= c o xs +s i x n c xo s 2 ( d s i nx )
m +1 m +1
n -1
s m +i1 x n n- 1
= c no-1 xs s +im x n 2 c- oxn s- ( 2 1d c o xs )
m +1 m +1
s
o xs
n -1
=c
m +1
i x n n- 1
s xm+ i nd-2c [n ox -s xsm i xn
m +1 m +1
U m, = c non -x1s ,
m +1
i x n n- 1
m U, +
U 2n
m
m +1 m +1
s m +1 xi
U m, = c x n -1 on U
+ s
m +1
U m, +
n -1
n U
m +1
-nn
mm, ,m+ 1
(Un - 1)
1
x n. c on, -1 s+ xsmm+i1 n
m+
n
+ m
sx
-1 n - 1
n2 n U
n+1
n -1
sx
i - mnn+1
1
U m , = c onn-x1s , + m U 2 n
m +1
m +1
m +1
U m, =
c do
sx
i - mn+n1
1
=m c on -x1s n , + m U 2
m +1
m +1
s i mnx c nxo sd x
Proof Um,n =
s i mnx c nxo sd x
1
1
x nc on -,1s s+mx+i1mn
m+
n
m
+
n -1
U m,
m+ n
n- 2
]0 2
nUn
n
similarly
U m, =
U m,
n-3
=n 2 Um ,m + n -2
n4
U m,
n-5
=n 6 Um ,m + n -3
n6
U m,
n-7
=n 6 Um ,m + n -6
n8
n -1 n - 3 n - 5
xn ,
Um 1
. . . .
m + n +m -n 2 m
+ n4p
n is odd U m, 1=x0 m2 s xi n dc o sx
when
cos xdx = dt
1
t m +1
1
= t d= t
=
0
m + 1 0 m + 1
1
\ when n is odd,
U m , n=
n -1
n-3
n-5
1
x
x
x. . . . . .
m + n m + n -2 m + n -4
m +1
U m , 0=x 2 sdi mn x
0
m -1 m - 3 m - 5
x
x
x . . . .is1m is odd
m
m-2 m-4
m -1 m - 3 m - 5
x
x
x . . p. . is m is even
2
m
m-2 m-4
a n nx d x
U n = x t adn n x
= t an -n2 xt a2x nd x
= t an -n2 x(- s2 x e cd 1 )x
= t an - 2nx s-x e2 dnc- tx 2a x n d
-2
t n -1
- U n-2
n -1
U1 = xt a nd=l ox g s+xe c c
x+ c
=
=
n-2
n
d-
t -U
-2
-t n -1
- U n-2
n -1
1
- c on -1t-x
n -1
Un - 2
= log sinx+c
If n is even, the ultimate integral is U0
U1 =d =x
x+ c
Integral by parts
U = secn-2x
dx = (n-2)sec n-3 x sec x tan x dx
= (n-2)sec n-2 x sec x tan x dx
dv = sec2xdx
=v sx e2 dc
v = tanx
\U n =u v v- d u
= s en -c2 xt -a xn t ax -nn- 2 (n 2 )x s ex c t da n x
= s en - 2c-x t a xn -(2n -n2 ) xs e 2 cx t( ad n
)x
-2
Un =
1
2
nx s en -c2+ xt n a n U
n -1
n -1
-2
-2
x+ c
Book work 13
Obtain a reduction formula for c oe scn x d x
proof U n =e cc o xsn d x
= c oe snc- 2 cx eo 2cs x d x
Integral by parts
u= c oe sn -c2 n
du=-(x-2) cosecn-3x cosecxcotxd x
=-(x-2)cosecn-2x cot x dx
dv=cosec2xdx
=
v ec oc sx2 d x
v=-cotx
\ un u= v -v d u
=-cotxcosecx-2x- ( x 2- e) cc o nxs- 2 cx 2o dt x
=-cotxcosecn-2x-(x-2) c oe nsc- 2 (x c e2 o c s -x 1 d ) x
=-cotxcosecx-2x-(x-2) c oe xcs x c-d xox es c -2x d x
=-cotxcosecx-2x-(x-2)(ux-ux-2)
=-cotxcosecx-2x-(x-2)ux+(x-2)ux-2
\ un
-2
(+n 2 u-) cnn =o et -cc on+
(n- 2 u) - 2
nn s
(x-1)ux=-cotxcosecx-2x+(x-2)ux-2
ux= -
1
(
2
c o xt c+oe sx - 2 c
x -1
x -1
x -)
x
u x-2
s i 6 nx d x
s i 6 nx c 4xo sd x
(2)
(4)
c o7 xs d x
s i 3 nx c 2xo sd x
p
0
d x
(x
+ 1)
2x.ux+1=
, show that
(x
+ 1)
+ ( 2 x- 1)u x
2 x 2a
ux - 1
2x + 1
2x
u x -1
2x + 1
5. If um,x= 0 2 c om xs xc no d s x prove
that
,
(1 - x ) d
0
xwhere m is a
um,x=
m
um -1 x,- 1
m+ x
p
2n +1
19.7. References
A book of Integral Calculus by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai
Lesson 20
Double and Triple Integrals
Contents
20.0. Aims and Objectives
20.1. Double Integrals
20.2. Examples
20.3. Triple Integrals
20.4. Examples
20.5. Let us sum up
20.6. Check your progress
20.7. Lesson end activities
20.8. Points for Discussion
20.9. References
parts.
20.1 Double Integrals:
When a function f(x) is integrated with respect to n between the limits
b
a and b, we have the definite integral a f ( x ) d .x If the integral is a function
x and y
i.e., f(x,y) and if it is integrated between the limits a and b for x and c and y
for y, we get a double integral and is denoted by the symbol
y = dx = b
f (x ,y )d
x d y
y= c =
x a
y=c x=a
Evaluation of Double integrals
y = dx = b
To evaluate
f (x ,y )d
y= c =
x a
y
f (x y, d) n d evaluated.
c
f (x y, d ) x d y
20.2 Examples :
2 1
1.
4x y d x d y
0
2 1
I= 4x y d x d y
0
=4 x d x d y
n2
=4 d y
2
2
=2 d y
0
=2(y)02=2(2-0) = 4
p s iqn
2.
r d rq d
s qi n
= r d rqd
q
r2
=
2 0
s i -1nq
dq
p
1 1 -c o 2qs
dq
=
2 2
= dq - cq od s 2q
4
1 s i n q2
= q )p -
4
2
1
1
= p - ( 0 )
4 2
=p 4
20.3 Triple Integrals
Extending the concept of the double integral to one more variable
z = f y= dx = b
f(x y, z ,d x) d y d z
z = e y= c =x a
y= d
f (x y, d ) x d y
y= c
=
x a
z= e
20.4 Examples
1 2 3
1.
x yz d x d y d z
0 0 0
1 2 3
I=
x yz d x d y d z
0 0 0
3 2
x d x y d y d z
= ( x2y2 )z d y d z
0
0 0
1 2
9
= y d y z d z
2
1
9 y2
= z d z
2 0 2 0
z2
2
9
2
9
2
=9 z d =z9 ( =10) ( - 1 0 = )
a b c
2.
( x +y z +)d z d y d x
0 0 0
( x +y z +)d z d y d x
0 0
=
0
x +z y +z2 2d y d x
= ( x c+ y +c) c2 2d y d x
0
y2
= x c+ y +c c2 2 y d x
2
0
0
a
= x
0
b2
+b
2
c 2c b
c+ d x
2
x2 b 2 c
= b + c
2
2
2c b
+
x2 x
a 2 b c 2a b c2 a c b
+
+
2
2
2
a b c
( a + b + c)
2
1. Evaluate
x y d y d x
0
2. Evaluate
x t z d z d y d x
1. Evaluate
dxdy
y
1
logalogb
x
1
2. Evaluate
Ans:
s i(q n+ )4d
q d y
1 z y+ z
3. Evaluate
a2 - x2
4. Prove that
p a3
a -x y d- x d= y
6
2
1 -1n 1- n - y
5. Prove that
1
2
d z d y d x
2
x y z d x d y =d z7
0
2 0
l o gn 2x +l o y g
6. Show that
e
0
8 1 9
d z d y d =x l o -g 2
3
9
x+ y + z
2x+3y=6
8. Evaluate
(Ans. 3/2)
v is the region bonded by x=0,
z
( x y+y z )+z x d x d, y d where
20.9
(Ans. 33/2)
References
Lesson 21
AREAS AND VOLUMES
Contents
21.0. Aims and Objectives
21.1. Applications to Calculations of areas and volumes
21.2. Examples
21.3. Areas in Polar Coordinates
21.4. Examples
21.5. Let us sum up
21.6. Check your Progress
21.7. Lesson end activities
21.8. Points for discussion
21.9. References
21.0 Aims and Objectives
We shall study on the applications of to calculations of areas and
volumes.
21.1 Applications to Calculations of areas and volumes
21.2 Examples
1. Evaluate
x y
+ =1
2 1
y
B
C
x y
+ =1
2 1
p(x0,y)
Q(x,y)
R
A
O
\ we can choose
We have to find the variation of the line PQ. So that the region R
is fully covered. To sweep the entire area of R, PQ has to start from the
position where y=0, more parallel to itself and should go up to the position
BC where y=1.
\ y=0 to y=1
1 2 - 2y
I=
x y d x d y
2 - 2y
x2
= y d
2 0
0
1
= y ( -2y 2d2 ) y
20
1
=2 y ( -y1 d2) y
0
=2 y ( 2y+1 y-2 d ) y
0
=2 ( y 3 +y2 -2y )d y
0
=2 y3 d +y y 2-d y y 2 d y
y 4 y2 3y
=2 + -2
2 3
4
1
6
x 2 y2
+
= 1 by double integration.
a 2 b2
d x d y
=4
b 1-
x =0 y =0
x2
a2
d y d x
b 1-
x2
a2
=4 [ y ]0 d
x =0
=4b
0
a 2 - 22
d x
a2
4b
= a 2 -x 2 d x
a 0
4b 2a
x
= s i -1n
a 2 a
4b p a2
=pa b
a 4
2
x a - x
+
2
a
3. Find the volume of the tetra hedron bounded by the coordinate planes
x y z
+ + =1
a b c
and
Solution :
Volume =
d x d y d z
Put z=0
y=ab|| - x/a
2y
b
x
a
y
b
z= c(1- - )
z=0 to z=c 1
x
a
x c 1- x - y
a b
a b 1- a
v=
n =0
y=0
z =0
x
a b 1- a
x =0 y =0
( z)
(d
y
-
b
)
dzdydx
c 1- x - y
a b
x y z
+ + =1
a b c
x
a b 1- a
=c
x =0
1 - x a - b
x
b 1-
a
y 2
- b2d
x
=c b 1 - y
a
0
dydx
0
x
0
2b
1b
=c b (1 - x a )(-1 d x a)- 1 (x-ax ]
a
1b
=c b 1 - x a -d1 x -a
0
2b
a b c x 3
1-
a
6
=-
2
b c
x d x
1
a
2 0
x
b c 1 - a
=
2 1- /a
a b c
{-0
6
1}
a b c
6
r
suitable limits for r and q
r d o dwith
21.4 Examples
1. Find the area of the curve r=a(1+cos q ) by double integration
Proof: Area= r qd d r
r=2acos2
=2 x upper area of the diagram shown
p a (1+c oq s)
=2.
0
r d rq d
q = 0tq o= p
c o qs )
r =t0 o(= r1 a+
a ( 1+ c oq s
r2
=2
2 0
0
.dq
a2
=2 ( +1 c oq s2 d)q
2
0
p
=a
(2
c o2 q s / ) 2qd
q = Q \q =
Q2
Put 2
dq =d2 Q
q = 0 Q 0=
q = p Q =p
2
p
o4 Q
s . d2 Q
\ Area = 4a
=8a
o4 Q
s d Q
3 1p
4 2 2
=8a2x . . d.3
Area =
3p 2
a
2
2. Find the area of the circle by double integration, using polar coordinates.
Solution :
We shall take the equation of the circle of radius a as r=2a c oq s
Area = 2 x upper area
q = 0tq o= p
r=0 to 2a c oq s
p
2 2 ac oq s
=2
0
r d rq d
2 ac oq s
2
2 0
=2
0
dq
=4a2 c o2 qsd q
0
1 p
.
=4a x 2 2
= p a2
2
21.9. References
A book of Integral Calculus by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai
4p a 3
)
3
UNIT 5
Lesson 22
IMPROPER INTEGRALS
Contents
22.0 Aims and Objectives
22.1 Notion of Improper integrals
22.2 Beta Gamma Integrals
22.3 Properties of Beta function
22.4 Let us sum up
22.5 Check your Progress
22.6 Lesson end Activities
22.7 Points for discussion
22.8 References
f (x
)d ;x a x b
(iii) third kind : An improper integral is of third kind if it is of first kind and
second kind.
22.2. Beta Gamma Integrals
Definition 1 : the Gamma function
\ ( x +1 e )=x
-x
dx x
Integrate by parts
u=xx; dv=e-xdx
du=nxn-1dx d =v e - x d x
v=e-n
\ ( x +1u )=v v- d x
n -n ]0
=-n e
+ -e. n x- x 1d x
0
=x.(x)
\ (x+1)=x(x)
Note : 1. (x+1)=x1 ifx is a positive integer.
Proof : We have (x+0=x
=x(x+1)
(x)
(x-1)
=x(x-1)(x-2)
(x-2)
=x(x-1)(x-2)----3.2.1 (1)
But
(1)= e- x d x
0
=-e-x )0 =( 0- 1- ) = 1
\ (x+1)=x(x-1)(x-2)----3.2.1
(x+1)=x1.
22.3 Properties of Beta function
1. Prove that B(m, n)=B(n, m)
1
By using :
f ( x d )=
x f ( a- x) d x
0
x -1
= ( - 1x m-)1x x -(1d ) x
0
= x x -1 ( x-m1-1d) x
0
=B(n, m)
y m -1
d y
m+ n
(
+
1
y
)
0
Put n=
y
in (1)
1+ y
(1 + y. ) d-1 y y
\d = n
( +1y 2)
\ 1-n=1-
y
1+ y
1
d y
( +1y 2)
1+ y - y
1+ y
1
when n=o, y=0, n=1, y=
1+ y
Using in (1)
m -1
n -1
y
1
B(m, n) =
1 + y 1 + y |
0
(1 + y )
d y
y m -1
d y
( +1y m)+ n-2 +2
0
y m -1
d y
=
( +1y m)+ n
0
3. Prove that
p
Proof : By definition
1
Put x= s i 2 nq
dn=2x 2 s iqn cqo ds q
\ when x=0 q =0
s 2i q n= 1
x=1,
q =p
2
\ q =0 to q = p 2
p
m -1
2
n -1
n -1
\ If Im,n= s i mnq c n oq sd q ,
0
m1+ n +1
,
2
then Im,n= B
2 2
( m )( n)
( m + n)
Put x=t2
dx=2tdt
m -1
-n
\ (m)= 2 e ( t )t d t
0
=2 e-t t2-m 2 +d 1 t
0
\ (m)=2 e- n 2x m2- d1 x
0
2
\ (m)(n)=4 e- n x 2
0
-m
d
0
p 2
1
-y 2
x e
yn- 1 d
- x +y
=4 e ( x )y 2 m-d1 n2-x 1 d y.(1)
0
Then x2+y2=r2
q = 0t po=; r 0t o
2
q = p =r
2
q =p
\ (m) (n) =4
2n- 1
2 r=
-r
q = 0 r= 0
e ( r c
2 m -1
oqr ) s rs( qi d n ) r q d
qd
-r2
= 2 e 2
0
p
+m( ) -n 1 2 2 m- 1
cr o ds s r iq
n q1d
2n-
= (m+n) B(m,n)
\ B(m,n)=
(m) (n )
(m + )n
2. (n) (1-n)=
p
s i nnp
(1/2)
2. Evaluate
s i qnd q
3. If x>0, prove that (n+1)=n (n) Deduce the value of (n+1), n is a positive
integer
p
4. Find
t a qnd q
1
5
x (
x- 11 d)0 x
22.8 References
A book of Integral Calculus by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai
Lesson-23
CONVERGENCE OF IMPROPER INTEGRALS
Contents
23.0. Aims and Objectives
23.1 Convergence of Improper Integrals
23.2. Simple Examples
23.3. Let us sum up
23.4. Check your progress.
23.5. Lesson End Activities
23.6. Points for discussion
23.7. References
23.0. Aim and Objectives
Example :The intervals (a,), (-a,b) and (-a,) are Infinite intervals
Definition: Proper integral. The definite integral
f ( x )d is
x called a proper
s i xn d ax proper integral
integral if (1) the interval (a,b) is not finite or (2) the interval is finite but f(x)
is not bounded or (3) neither the interval (a,b) is finite nor f(x) is bounded.
There are two kinds of improper integrates (viz) of first kind and
second kind.
First Kind: When the range of integration is infinite and f(x) is bounded.
Eg :
d x
is an improper integral.
1 + x2
f ( x )d in
x which the range of integration
is finite but the integrate f(x) is unbounded at one or more points of the
interval a x b.
For example
(ii)
d x
is an improper integral of second kind.
(x 2 ) x -( 3 )
1
is an improper integral of second kind.
x2
chose possible number , however small but not zero these exists a
corresponding positive number |N such that |
f ( x )d |<
x for all values of
b N
d x
x
d x
x
= x 2d x
1
=l i m
x 2d x
x 1
x
=l i m
x 1 1
2
x
= l i m x2 1x( )
x
=l i m
- x2 ( =1 )a
x
d x
( x -2 2)
x
d x
= l i m-x ( 2d-2) x
2 3 x
( x -2 )
1
= -xl im
x - 2
1
= - l i -m 1
x x - 2
4a d x
x + 4a2
2
Solution
4a d x 4 ax d x
=l i m
2
x + 4 a20 x +x2 4
a
2
x
1
= 4al i m t a -1n x
2a 0
x 2 a
( )
( 2a )
= 2 l i m t a-1 n x
x
= 2 t
-1
x
a- n
2a
= 2p = p
2
x
0
d x
is not convergent
( +1x 2 )/ 3
Solution
we have
d
x
dx
x
=/ l i3 m 2 / 3
2 0
( + x1 ) x +x( 1 )
= l i m+x( 1d-2)/ 3 x
x 0
= l i m+x3 ( 11 /)3
0
x
x
= 3 l i +xm ( 11 /)3
0
x
= 3 l i+xm ( 1-1/ 3 ) 1
x
=a
x d x
1 + x2
e- x d x
d x
converges if n<1
( x - a) x
d x
x ( +x21 )
2
s i 2 nx
d xis convergent.
x2
d x
x 1 +x 2
s i 2 nx
d x
x2
d x
x3 + 1
d x
2 x 2 - 1x -
23.7. References
A book of Integral Calculus by Vasiswha and Sharma
Lesson 24
APPROXIMATE INTEGRATION
Contents
24.0. Aims and Objectives
24.1. Simpsons rule:
24.2. Examples
24.3. Let us sum up
24.4. Check your progress
24.5. Lesson End Activities
24.6. Points for Discussion
24.7. References
24.0 Aims and Objectives
We shall study to find out the area of curve y=f(x) between x=a and
x=b by using (1) simpsons rule
Approximate Integration
We know that the area between the curve y=f(x), the x axis and the
ordinates x=a, x=b is given by
f ( x )d x
Divide the interval [a,b] into n equal parts let the length of each sub-interval
be h. Let y1,y2,y3,.y2n+1 be the values of the function to be integrated at
2n+1 equitant points applying the parabolic rule to the white area
1
f ( )x =( d) [ 2+1 x ( n+
.2+h . 1.+y . 3.y+ .- 5n .y +. 2 y. +) 1 y4 +(2ny . 4.+y . 2.y . ] )
3
x1
y
M
-h
y d x
b 2x c3 x
= a +x
+
2 3 - h
b 2 h c 3 h b2 h 3c h
= a + h + a - h +
-
2
3
3
2
b 2 h c 3 h b2 h 3c h
=a + h + a + h +
2
3
2
3
c 3h
= 2 a +h
3
2
= h [3+a cch22h]]
3
y1 + 3y
= y 2 +c 2 h
2
\
c2 h=
y1 + 3y
22
2
3
2 1
h 3+ 2y ( 1y
3 2
h
[ 6+y2
3
h
[ y1+ 4y2 + 3y
3
y1-2
2y +
y2 + 3y
y)
y d x
p1 p2
p
A x1 x2
xn-1 B
\ Area of ABQP = a y d x
=
1
h [+( 1 y) + ( y2 )+ y. 2 + . y . +3 y. n+. 1 yn( + ])
2
1
h [ (+ 1 )y +n21+ y ( 2+ .y 3.+n y. +
. y.
2
])
24.2. Examples
Evaluate
d x
taking 6 equal intervals. Hence find log2 to 5 decimal
x
b - a 4- 1 3
=
=
= 1
6
2
n
6
1.5
2.5
3.5
1/x
0.66666 0.5
0.4
1
1
d = x [+h(
x
2
=
y+ 7) y +2 y 23+y
+
y(
y+ 6) y
1
x0 . 5[ (+1 . 2 5 ) 2 ( 2 . 1 8 5] 7 )
2
log4=1.358925
log22=1.358925
\ 2 log2 = 1.358925
\ log2 = 0.6794625
(b) Using simpsms rule
1
1
d =x
x
3
[ (+h 1
)y+7 2y +
3 y( 5 + y)
+
y4
1
[ ( 1 . 2 +5 ) 2 ( 0 . 8 +3 3 3 3 ) 4 ( 1 . 3 5 2 3] 7 )
6
1
[ ( 1 . 2+ 5 ) 1 . 6 6+ 6 6 6 5 . 4 0 9]4 8
6
y +( 6 y ) ]
log4 = 1.38769
log22 = 1.38769
2 log2 = 1.38769
log2=0.693845
24.3. Let us sum up
We have seen how to find area of a curve y=f(x) between specified
limits using simpsons rule and Trapezoidal rule.
24.4. Check your progress
(1) Evaluate
s i xn d by
x simpsons rule for x=0, p
, 2p , . . .p. . .
1 0 1 0
(Nov 2000)
(2) Evaluate
1 + xd
0
(3) Compute
x d x
by simpsons rule taking eight intervals
1 + x2
1 2
d ,xTaking 4 equal intervals, using simpsms rule.
x
(Ans : 16.70)
(2) Evaluate
1 1
(Ans : 3690)
24.6. Points for Discussion
(1) Applying simpsons rule to find
d x
1+ x
0
2000).
(3) Complete
x d x
by Simpsons rule taking eight intervals
1 + x2
Lesson 25
CHANGE OF ORDER OF INTEGRATION
Contents
25.0 Aims and Objectives
25.1. Change of order of integration in double Integral
25.2. Examples 1.
25.3. Let us sum up
25.4. Check your progress
25.5. Lesson End Activities
25.6. Points for discussion
25.7. Improper Integral
25.8. References
25.0 Aims and Objectives
In this lesson we shall study the evaluation of double integral using
change of order of integration.
25.1. Change of order of integration in double Integral
When the limits for inner integration are functions of a variable, the
change in order of integration will result in changes in the limit of
integration i.e. the double integral
g ( x ,
f2( y )
f 1( x )
g (x y, d) y d x
x
2
+ y2
the same.
Solution : The region of integration is
y x a and 0 y a
y
y=x
x=0
M
x=a
(x,y)
x
o
N (x,0)
y=0
Let R denote the region bounded by the lives x=y, x=a, y=0, y=a.
\ I =d
xy + yd
2
y2 x
y =0
\ I = d
x
y
d
x 2 + y2
x
y= x
a
= x l + y o x g+ 2 y( 2 )d
x
0
y =0
a
= x l+ xo gx+ (2 y )2 -lx o dg
0
a
( x + 2x
= x l o gd
0
x
)
x
= x l o+ gd ( 1 2x )
0
=l o +
g ( 1 2 )x d x
0
( 2)
2
=l o +
g ( 1 2 x)
a
0
a2
l o+ g ( 1 2 )
2
2
2
a a+ a - y
nxydxdy
y d n d and
y then evaluate the
0 a - a 2- y2
same
Solution :
We shall fix the region of integration R as x = a a2 - y2
i.e.
x - 1 =a 2 y- 2
(x-a)2=a2-y2
\ (x-a)2+(y2)=a2
Which is a circle with the centre at (9,0) and radius a unit.
y
M(x,y)
(x-a)2+y2=a2
R
o
C(x,o)
2a
a2 x - x2
x =0 y =0
xydydx
2a- x
2
= x y
x =0
2 0
2a
1 2a
x(-a 2x x2 )d x
0
2
1 2a
( -a 22x x3 ) d x
0
2
1 x3
x4
2
a
3 4
2
1 a2 1
= 8-a 3
2 3
=
1 41 6
a - 4
2 3
2 4
a
3
a 6
4
2a
0
4
2a
2a - x
x2
x y d x dand
y
(x 2 +
y 2d) y d x
(Ap 2003)
(3) By changing the order of integration evaluate
e- y
y d y d x
Ap 2005
25.5. Lesson End Activities
Change of order of integrals and convergence of Improper Integrals.
(1) Change the order of integration
1
x
xdxdy
and then evaluate the same
2
+ y2
(Ans : log 2)
(2) Change the order of integration
b
ab ( -y )
b
a2
x y d x dand
y evaluate
2
b2
2
0
(x 2 +
y 2d) y d x
(Ans 16/3)
y2
ydxdy
2
+ y2
(Ans : log 2)
Exercise : Convergence of
25.7. Improper Integral
(1) Show that
(2) Show that
(3) Show that
d x
is convergent
x3 / 2
d x
is divergent
x3 / 2
e - md n x( m>0
e 2 k d x(divergent)
(a)
(c)
(e)
(g)
Answer
-a
0
-a
a
-a
-a
ex d x
(b)
s i nxh d x
(d)
e- x d x
(f)
-a
0
-a
e- x d x
c oh sx d x
d x
-a 1 + x 2
a
d x
x + 2x + 2
2
(a) Convergent
(b) Divergent
(c) Divergent
(d) divergent
(e) divergent
(f) convergent
(g) convergent
25.8. References
Lesson 26
JACOBIANS
Contents
26.0. Aims and Objectives
26.1. JACOBIANS
26.2. Three variables
26.3. Change of variable in case of Two variables
26.4. Three variables
26.5. Examples Two variables
26.6. Let us sum up
26.7 Lesson End Activities
26.8. Points for discussion
26.9. References
26.0. Aims and Objectives
Our aim is to determine Jacobians using partial derivatives and the
concept of a determinant.
26.1. JACOBIANS
Two Variables
If u=f(x,y), v=(x,y) be two continuous functions of the independent
u
x
variables x and y, then
v
x
u / v
u
y
is called the Jacobian of u and v w.r.t x and y
v
y
(u , v )
and is denoted by
o r
( x , y )
x, y
26.2. Three variables
Let u,v,w be functions of x,y,z the Jacobica of u,v and w w.r.t. x,y,z is
defined by
u
x
u
y
u
z
v
x
v
y
v
z
u , v ,w
x, y , z
and is denote = ed by J
w w
x y
w
z
or =
(u , v , w )
( x , y , z )
( x , y ) (u , v )
=
..(1)
(a , b ) (a , b )
(u , v ) ( x , y )
=1
( x , y ) (u , v )
But
(u , v ) u
=
(u , v ) x
u
v
v
u
v
u
v
=0
x
using in (2)
\
(u , v )
=
(u , v )
(u , v )
( x , y )
=1
( x , y )
=1
(u , v )
we have
x
x
d =x d + u d .v. . . ( 1 )
y
y
d =y
y
y
d + u d .v. . . ( 2 )
x
v
y
y
d +u d v
x
v
y
y
\ + x= -d . v
x
v
-
y
d x
u
y
d x
v
\ using in (1)
y
d x
x
u u
d =x d -x
y
u
v
u
x y y u
d -x . d . x
v v v
=
y
v
( x , y )
(v , u )
=
d x
y
x
( x , y )
(u , v )
f ( x y=, d x) d y( 1d ,y f )y u . d u
y
v
= d
( x , y )
(u , v )
x1 ( f, )y . u. . d. . y. ( 3 )
y
v
\ from (2) d =y d. v
\ (3) becomes d
f 1 fu( ( v, )x ( y, ) y
x
d
. u
y
(u , v) v
v
( x , y )
= f 2( u , v ) d u d v
(u , v )
u
x
v
x
u
x
u
y
v
y
w
y
u
z
v
z
w
z
u , v ,w
(u , v , w )
J
is also denoted by
( x , y , z )
x, y , z
v( u, v)
=
=
y( x, y)
u
x
v
x
u
y
v
y
( x , y ) 1
= (u , v ) 2
( x , y )
=
(u , v )
x
u
y
v
x
v
y
v
u = x+y
v = x-y
Add u+v=2x; x=1/2 (u+v)
subtract, u-v=2y y=1/2 (u-v)
x
=1/2
u
y
=1/2
v
x
=1/2
v
y
=-1/2
v
x, y 1
J
=
u , v 2
1
2
1
2
1
2
=-1/4
=-1/2
Show that
( x , y , z ) 2
=u v
(u , v , w )
Solution
u=x+y+z .(1)
uv=y+z(2)
uv=y+uvw
uvw =z (3)
y=uv-uvw
x=u-uv
y=uv-uvw
z=uvw
x
=1-v
u
y
= v -u w
u
z
=v w
x
x
= uv
y
= u -u w
v
z
=u w
v
x
=0
w
y
= u- v
w
z
=u v
w
1-v
v-vw
vw
u-uw
uw
-uv
uv
uw
+u
uv
v-vw vw
-uv
+u.uv
v-vw vw
-1
=(1-v)u2 v+u2v2
= u 2 v- 2 u 2 v + u 2 v2
= u2 v
uv
( x , y )
=r
(u , v )
( x , y )
(Ans :u)
(u , v )
( x , y )
=u, then find the value of
(u , v )
( x , y )
(u , v )
(6) If u =
y z z x x
v, = ,w =
x
y
z
find
(u , v , w )
( x , y , z )
(Apr. 2006)
(u , v )
( x , y )
26.9. References
A book of Integral Calculus by T.K. Manickavasagam Pillai