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Wire Ropes: Diagram of Wire Rope Components
Wire Ropes: Diagram of Wire Rope Components
Figure 1
Diagram of wire rope components.
Wire Ropes
Table 1
Standard steel wire rope identications.
Characteristic
Description
Designation
Length
Linear length
meters (feet)
Diameter
centimeters (inches)
Construction
e.g., 6 25
None
W
S
FW or F
Lay
Right regular laystrands laid right and strand wires laid left
Left regular laystrands laid left and strand wires laid right
Right lang laystrands laid right and wires laid right
Left lang laystrands laid left and wires laid left
Alternate layregular and lang lay strands alternate
RRL or sZ
LRL or zS
RLL or zZ
LLL or sS
RAL/LAL
Grade
Traction steel
Plow steel
Improved plow steel
Extra-improved plow steel
Extra-extra-improved plow steel
TS
PS
IPS
EIPS or XIPS
EEIPS or XXIPS
Finish
B
G
Core
Fiber core
Wire strand core
Independent wire rope core
FC
WSC
IWRC
Lubrication
Special requirements
Adapted from Wire Rope Technical Board (1993) and ASTM A 1023 (2002).
Wire Ropes
Figure 3
Diagrams of several standard wire rope lays: (a) right
regular lay, (b) left regular lay, (c) right lang lay, (d) left
lang lay, and (e) right alternate lay. Each depiction is a
single rope lay.
Figure 2
Typical wire rope constructions: (a) 7 7 WSC,
(b) 6 19 Warrington construction with a ber core
(W FC), (c) 8 19 Seale construction with a ber core
(S FC), (d) 6 21 Filler wire construction with an
IWRC (FW IWRC), (e) 6 26 WarringtonSeale
construction with an IWRC (WS IWRC), and (f) locked
coil tramway cable. Shading is representative of a ber
core.
easily, removing the protective zinc. Polymeric coatings are also available.
Core. The outer strands of a wire rope are laid
about a core. The core acts primarily as a foundation
for the outer strands, which carry most of the load.
The type of core has a substantial inuence on the
properties of a wire rope. Cores are identied as ber
core (FC), wire strand core (WSC), or independent
wire rope core (IWRC).
Fiber cores do not add any mechanical strength to
wire ropes, only modest support for the outer strands
to prevent crushing. The natural materials used for
these cores include manila, sisal, cotton, hemp, and
jute. Synthetic ber cores from extruded petrochemical resin are also used, predominantly polypropylene
Wire Ropes
improve heat degradation resistance, prevent drying,
and other properties.
The most important lubrication is added during
rope assembly, when all strands and individual wires
are accessible. Ropes are frequently relubricated to
replace the material that physically exudes out due to
exure, or is affected by thermal degradation or
chemical reaction. Some types of service are not
conducive to adequate, perpetual lubrication. Service
in soil and rock, such as dredging, will accumulate
dirt and wear particles that enter the rope and cause
wear. Ropes in this type of service must be replaced
frequently.
An example of wire rope specication is as follows:
100 m 25 mm 6 25 RRL EIPS Galv IWRC. This
would indicate 100 m of 25 mm rope, 6 25 construction, right regular lay, extra improved plow
steel, galvanized wires, with an independent wire rope
core. Rope does not always lend itself to manufacturer identication markings; however, some manufacturers use color-coded ber cores or strands to
identify their product.
Strength
Table 2
X-chart showing the general relationship between abrasion and bending fatigue resistances.
Construction
67
6 19 S
6 21 FW
6 26 WS
6 25 FW
6 31 WS
6 36 WS
6 41 SFW
6 46 SFW
Relative comparisons
Least bending
fatigue
resistance
Greatest
abrasion
resistance
Least
abrasion
resistance
Greatest
bending
fatigue
resistance
Metallic
area (in2a)
Outside
wires per
strand
Reserve
strength
(%)
Minimum
sheave
ratio (D/d b)
0.451
0.470
0.478
0.476
0.483
0.481
0.485
0.491
0.492
6
9
10
10
12
12
14
16
18
8
32
36
36
43
43
49
54
58
42
34
26
30
26
30
20
21
18
Wire Ropes
characteristics are qualitatively comparable through
service evaluation and historical experience. For
specication use, a design or safety factor is always
applied. This factor is the ratio of nominal rope
strength to the service load, and is rarely less than 5
for normal service.
3.2
Fatigue Resistance
3.3
Damage Resistance
3.4
Crushing Resistance
Reserve Strength
Additional Considerations
Wire Ropes
The Youngs (elastic) modulus of metals is microstructure insensitive, meaning that the modulus is
similar, regardless of mechanical and thermal processing. As an assembly, however, wire rope can exhibit
a varying modulus, dependent upon the construction,
grade, and loading. The modulus will gradually
increase in heavily loaded ropes. Ropes that are
overloaded in service can exhibit permanent elongation and an accelerated reduction in useful life.
The elastic or proportional limit of wire rope, the
point at which permanent deformation takes place, is
B5565% of the breaking strength.
Table 3
(b) Sheave design. Proper sheave selection is essential for maximizing rope life. Suitable rope diameters
for existing sheaves and suitable sheaves for selected
ropes have been studied at great depth. Sizing
recommendations are usually expressed as D=d, or
the ratio of sheave to rope diameter, and some are
included in Table 2. Bending fatigue failure is very
often a direct result of undersized sheaves and drums.
When small radii of curvature are used, the foreshortened underside strands cannot move sufciently
to accommodate the compressive forces, resulting in
buckling. In addition, improper reeving design may
not effectively distribute loading between multiple
rope sections.
The radial pressure between rope and sheave is
another variable considered in sizing decisions.
Equations for radial pressure have been published by
many sources. Drums for highly stressed ropes have
grooves machined to match the rope diameter, for
better construction support. The contours of sheave
grooves are abraded in service, requiring periodic
sheave inspection to prevent accelerated rope wear.
FC
IWRC
100
n.r.
9092
8090
7580
80
100
100
9095
8090
7580
80
Wire Ropes
Wire ropes degrade in service, through the oftensynergistic processes of wear, corrosion, and fracture.
The rate of degradation is dependent upon the
severity of the service environment and the loading
conditions. Degradation and fracture result in a loss
in breaking strength (LBS) up to the point of
catastrophic failure. Degradation can be loosely
categorized as rope damage, corrosion, wear, and
fracture.
5.1
Corrosion
5.3
5.4
Wear
Fracture
Wire Ropes
6. Inspection
Due to the myriad potential degradation phenomena,
wire ropes cannot be considered permanent pieces of
machinery. Economic factors dictate that prudent
and frequent inspection of wire ropes be performed
so that maximum service life may be attained prior to
costly, and possibly inconvenient, replacement. It is
often recommended that retired wire ropes be
destroyed or cut into unusable short lengths to
prevent inadvertent reuse.
Critical rope locations, such as attachments, regular
sheave stopping points, and drum crossovers, may
require special scrutiny. Sometimes inactive portions
of rope lengths are not subjected to inspection. The
inspection frequency and formality of documentation
is dictated by the severity of service. Records can be
evaluated to discern any changes in the rate of
degradation that may suggest that the inspection
frequency should be changed.
6.1
Visual Inspection
Inspection Criteria
Wire Ropes
experience has shown varying damage tolerance
levels for specic rope constructions and service
conditions. Proper inspection is often a governmental
mandate in dangerous applications where fatalities
may result from wire rope failure.
7. Failure Analysis
The investigation of failed wire ropes is an important
part of future failure prevention. These engineering
investigations are not always straightforward, as
many service factors can be contributory and many
postfracture conditions can be confusing (Miller
2000). If the nature and cause of a failure are not
determined, decisions on rope replacement or substitution may be arbitrary or potentially dangerous.
The engineering investigation of a failed wire rope
includes evaluation of the rope service. The loading,
sheaves and attachments, environment, and all other
potentially contributory extrinsic variables must be
qualied, or quantied wherever possible. Computer
simulation and failure recreation may conrm a
mechanical failure hypothesis. Systematic metallurgical failure investigation is often necessary to identify
the causes of a wire rope failure. To a large extent,
failure analysis is a reverse analog of the material
selection process (Miller 2002). Destructive physical
analysis typically includes visual examination, dimensional evaluation, chemical analysis, mechanical
testing, scanning electron microscope (SEM) fractography, microhardness testing, and metallography.
Thorough visual examination should assess the
state of the rope, at the failure location and
surrounding regions. The fractured ends of a wire
rope often exhibit important telltale features from
overloading, fatigue, or abuse. Individual wires that
failed via fatigue are characteristically at, whereas
ductile overload results in necked, cup-and-cone
fractures. Abrasion fractures are usually angular
and shear fractures are usually at. It is quite
common for wire breaks of many types in a single
failure: abrasive wear followed by fatigue, corrosive
thinning followed by ductile overload, and so on. It is
also not unusual for outer strands and outer strand
wires to separate by differing mechanism(s) than the
core or internal wires.
8. Concluding Remarks
This article is an overview and is not intended to be
exhaustive. It does not provide the level of requisite
Bibliography
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B. A. Miller
Wire Ropes