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CHAPTER 15. Electrical Systems

Avionics and other aircraft systems require electrical power to operate. Typically the aircraft engines have electrical generators incorporated in them to provide this power.

15.1. Basic equations:

Power = Voltage x Current
Voltage drop in a wire = Current x wire resistance
Power dissipated in a wire = (Current)2 x wire resistance OR (Voltage)2/wire resistance

current
Generator Voltage (gen)

Voltage (load) Load

Figure 84:
General Power Circuit

In the diagram above the voltage at the load is less than the voltage at the generator due to the voltage drop in
the wire. Thus the power received by the load is less than the power produced by the generator by an amount
equal to the power dissipated in the wire.

15.2. Types of Aircraft power

DC (direct current)
DC power is standardized at 28 volts. It is relatively easy to generate but, because of the low voltage large
currents are required to transfer significant amounts of power. E.g. A one kilowatt load would draw about
35 amperes which is more than double the capacity of a normal house circuit.
To minimize the power loss through the wire, the wire must be of large diameter which increases the
weight.
One advantage of 28VDC is that there is less danger of electrical shock or arcing
AC (alternating current)
Aircraft alternating current operates at 400 Hz rather than the 60 Hz of the domestic system. The reason
for the higher frequency is that smaller (and lighter) transformers are needed at this frequency.
The voltages used are 115 V (for power transmission) and 26 V (for synchro excitation)
Alternating current has the advantage that the voltage can be altered easily with transformers.
It has the disadvantage that there is more danger of electrical shock and that it generates electromagnetic
fields which can interfere with the operation of some equipment.

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Comparison of power requirements of MIL-STD 704 and DO160

Voltage

MIL-STD-704

DO160

ac voltage (volts)
Normal

108.0 - 118.0

104.0-122.0

Over/Undervoltage

100.0-125.0

97.0-134.0

Emergency

108.0-118.0 (steady state)

NA

ac frequency (Hz)
Normal

393-407

380-420

Abnormal

375-425

(Same as Normal)

Emergency

360-440 (steady state)

350-440

dc voltage (volts)
Normal

20.0-29.0 (28.0 nominal)

22.0-29.5 (27.5 nominal)

Emergency

18.0-29.0 (steady state)

18.0

Starting

12.0-29.0 (steady state)

10.0 for 15 seconds

15.3. Power Generation

The main source of power are the generators on the aircraft engines. These convert mechanical power to electrical
power by using the principle that by changing the amount of magnetic flux passing through a loop of wire will
cause a current to flow in that loop and a voltage to appear at the terminals

15.3.1 DC generation
If the output were taken directly from the terminals of the loop, the resulting voltage would be AC at a frequency determined by the rate of rotation of the loop. If, however a commutator is added, then the voltage will always be of the same sign since the commutator changes the sign just as the voltage reverses direction. Thus the
resulting voltage and current have a non-zero (DC) average. Although such a simple generator would provide
useful power through the use of a filter to get rid of the alternating component, it is more efficient to use several
loops and several commutators to provide a smooth current flow.
The magnetic field may be provided by a permanent magnet (which makes the generator heavy) or it may be
provided by the output voltage itself. Note that prior to starting there will be a residual magnetic field in the
electromagnet so that it will be self-starting.

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15.3.2 AC generation
AC generation is simpler than DC generation in that commutation is not required. However, since the frequency of the output voltage is determined by the rate of rotation of the shaft, the power generated is not usually at
400Hz. This is usually called wild AC.
One way around this problem is to devise a mechanical constant speed drive between the engine and the generator. These are usually hydro-mechanical devices which are usually complex, expensive and prone to failure.
They are, however used in most large aircraft
The latest approach is to live with the variable frequency and to design the electrical equipment to tolerate the
varying frequency. This development is in conjunction with the trend to more electrical systems including control surface actuators which combine of electrical and hydraulic devices in
electrohydrostatic actuators (EHAs)
Another approach is to convert the wild AC to DC in a transformer/rectifier. The transformer changes the voltage down to 28 Volt and the rectifier converts the AC to DC.
+

3
-

4
FILTER

GENERATOR

AC

LOAD

Figure 85:
Full Wave Rectifier
In the diagram the rectifying diodes conduct current only in the direction of the arrow. Thus when the polarity
of the generator output is as shown, the current flow will be through diode 1, through the load from left to right
and back to the generator through diode 3. When the polarity is reversed the current will flow through diode 4,
through the load from left to right and back to the generator through diode 2. Thus the current flow through
the load is in the same direction for both polaritites. The resulting current flow still has a high AC component
(called ripple) and this is removed by the use of a filter .
The resulting output can then be used to service the DC devices in the aircraft.
For the AC equipment, a device called an inverter is used. Older inverters were simply a DC motor mounted
on the same shaft as an AC generator with a governor to maintain the correct speed to generate 400 Hz. More
modern inverters use a solid state design in which the DC drives a 400 Hz oscillator.

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15.3.3 Auxiliary Power Units (APU)

To provide power to operate aircraft systems on the ground most larger aircraft are equipped with an APU.
This is simply a small engine (usually turbine) which drives a generator. It is usually installed in the tail. This
unit can generate enough power to run the air conditioning system, the lighting and most of the avionics (especially the INUs if installed)
Note: some from of reverse current protection is required so that the engines do not drive the APU.
Some APUs can be operated in the air in an emergency

15.3.4 Ground power Units

Most large airports and maintenance facilities have ground power units which are capable of providing both
AC and DC power. The aircraft has a standard design socket into which the ground power unit can be plugged

15.3.5 Batteries
Batteries are used primarily to provide power to start the APU (if any) or to start the engines if an APU or GPU
is not available. They can be used in an emergency but the capacity would probably not be sufficient to run very
much for very long.
Almost all aircraft batteries are of the Nickel Cadmium (NiCd). These have the advantage of not emitting flammable gases when being charged. (Lead Acid batteries emit hydrogen during the charging cycle). Another advantage of the NiCd battery is that it maintains its output voltage throughout most of its discharge cycle though
this characteristic makes it difficult to determine the state of charge.
One problem with NiCd batteries is that of thermal runaway. During recharge (for example after engine start)
it is possible for the battery to heat up. The batterys internal electrical resistance decreases with increased temperature and thus the charging current increases which leads to further heating etc. etc.. If left unchecked, the
battery may explode or set fire to its surroundings. For this reason battery temperature sensors are installed and
the pilot can monitor the temperature during the period after a start.

15.4. Wiring
15.4.1 General
In order to transmit power from the sources to the user equipment it is necessary to provide wiring. Because
of the critical nature of the wiring in aircraft, MIL specification wire is usually used (MIL-W-22759)

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15.4.2 Wire types and sizes

Wire usually consists of a centre conductor covered by and one or more layers of insulation and/or protection.
Since the temperature where the wire has to be installed may vary considerably, several types of conductor are
available:
a) - ordinary copper is suitable for temperatures up to about 105 C
b) - silver coated copper is used for temperatures up to 200 C
c) - nickle coated copper is used for temperatures up to 260 C

15.4.2.1 Insulation
As well as insulating the wire from contact with other wires and the airframe, the covering also must be
able to withstand abrasion (from vibration), hydraulic and other fluids. It also must not support
combustion.
It also must not produce toxic fumes if it is heated to high temperatures.
Typical coverings are:
a) - Polyvinylchoride (PVC) which is good up to 105 C
b) - Silicone rubber is good to 200 C and is highly flexible
c) - TFE Fluorocarbon is used for high temperature applications and is resistant to most fluids

15.4.2.2 Sizes
Wire sizes are designated by the American Wire Gauge (AWG) system in which smaller wires are assigned
larger numbers
e.g. AWG 22 has a diameter of 0.025 in.
AWG 14 has a diameter of 0.064 in.

15.4.2.3 Selection of wire.(free air, bundling)

The selection of wire for a particular application starts with the electrical requirements:
a) what current is going to be carried?
b) what is the length of the run?
c) what is the allowable voltage drop?
for 28 V system - 1 Volt
for 115 V system - 4 volts
From this information the wire gauge can be determined.
Note that different gauges are required for single wires and wires in bundles. This is due to the power
dissipation vs temperature requirement.
Once the wire gauge has been determined, the type of conductor and insulation can be chosen for the
expected temperatures in the area of installation.

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15.4.2.4 Identification of wire

All wire over 3 inches in length installed in an aircraft must bear an identification number to aid in
installation and maintenance.
Normally the convention followed is as in the following example.:
2NAV152B22
where the 2NAV indicates navigation system number 2, 152 indicates the numerical sequence of the wire,
B indicates it is the second segment in the run and 22 indicates the wire gauge.
On a wiring drawing it would be indicated as shown in

VOR
2

2NAV152A22

2NAV152B22

33

FLIGHT
MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM

Figure 86:
Example of Wiring Drawing

Twisted shielded wire is indicated as follows. The shield must be continuous electrically through connectors

VOR
2

6
7
8

2NAV152A22

66
77

2NAV152B22

88

1
2
3

Figure 87:
Wiring Drawing for Twisted, Shielded Pair

15.4.2.5 Circuit Protection

Malfunctions in equipment can cause them to draw much more current than the wiring was originally
designed for. To prevent wires overheating and possible causing a fire, circuit protection devices are
installed in all circuits. There is usually one circuit protector for each unit. In order to protect the wiring
protection devices are installed as close to the source of power as possible.

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15.4.2.5.1 Fuses
Fuses are essentially a strip of metal or wire which has a relatively low melting point such that it
will melt or fuse when the current exceeds a specified value. There are two main type called
slow blow and fast blow. Slow blow fuses are designed for use in circuits where there may be
momentary surges in current that do not pose a threat to the wiring. In these cases having the
fuse blow for each surge would be an unnecessary nuisance. Fast blow fuses are used where
surges are not expected or where they would cause damage.
The main problem with fuses is that once they have blown they have to be replaced (once the
cause of the high current has been removed). This means that spares must be available.
Fuses are mainly used in line replaceable units (LRUs) such as ILS receivers, communications
transceivers etc. i.e. black boxes. This is because malfunctions in these units can not be rectified in flight and thus replacing a fuse would be useless.

15.4.2.5.2 Circuit Breakers

Circuit breakers isolate the circuit by means of a mechanical trip device which is activated by
the heating of a bimetallic element. They have the advantage that they can be reset once the
fault has been remedied for instance the failed item could be turned off and the circuit breaker
reset in flight.
Circuit breaker panels are usually located in the cockpit so that the pilots have direct control
over the system. In some cases a circuit breaker can be pulled or activated manually to isolate
an LRU which does not have a direct switch control.

15.4.2.5.3 Connectors
Connectors are a necessary evil in aircraft wiring. They are used to carry electrical power and
signals through pressure bulkheads and to removable parts of the aircraft and to the LRUs themselves.
Most aircraft connectors are of the Mil Spec variety and come in a bewildering array of types,
sizes and configurations. They are typically very expensive and have long lead times.
As shown in the diagram connectors can have a variety of numbers and arrangement of pins and
sockets. Also they come with bulkhead, panel and cable fittings. The inserts can be pins or sockets and the outer shell can have exterior threads or have a ring with mating interior threads.
Some connector types have a bayonet or push and twist type of locking mechanism instead of
screw threads. these are usually keyed to ensure that the cables are mated to the correct connectors.

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Figure 88:
Types of Aircraft Connectors

15.4.2.5.4 Reliability
In spite of the many years of development and the use of miltary specifications, connectors still
remain a weak link in the avionics systems.
In a recent study the USAF estimated that 40% of all avionics faults were caused by connectors

15.4.2.6 Busses and Interconnects

As with the example of the control system of the A320, electrical systems are organized to provide
redundant services in the case of a failure of parts of the system.
The power feeds to equipment are organized as busses and are designated as follows:

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Emergency: absolutely necessary in the case of a crash or wheels-up landing etc.

Essential: Required to ensure safe flight in the event of an in-flight emergency

Non-essential: those items which can be shut down in an in-flight emergency

Figure 89:
Typical Aircraft Power Distribution

Note: in the above diagram vital means emergency.

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