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Sustainability in Fashion and Textiles: Values, Design, Production and Consumption
Sustainability in Fashion and Textiles: Values, Design, Production and Consumption
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Introduction*
Miguel Angel Gardetti and Ana Laura Torres
The Sustainable Textile Centre, Argentina
* Our special thanks go to the review panel for their outstanding work. This book would not
have been possible without their dedication and commitment.
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Around 70% of clothing workers are women (Hernndez 2006). In the garment
industry, women typically sew, finish and pack clothes. Supervisors, machine operators and technicians tend to be menwho earn more. In the past five to ten years,
employment in the sector has increasingly been concentrated in China, Pakistan,
Bangladesh, India, Mexico, Romania, Cambodia and Turkey. All of these countries,
apart from India, have shown increases in clothing and textile employment from
1997 to 2002 (Allwood et al. 2006).
However, for many smaller developing countries, which are small exporters on a
global scale, clothing and textiles exports are their dominant form of external earnings. In Bangladesh, Haiti and Cambodia, clothing and textiles account for more
than 80% of total exports. Similar high figures apply to the proportion of the countrys manufacturing workers employed within the clothing and textiles sector.
Setup and switch-over times and costs have traditionally led to large batch manufacture of clothing with long lead timesfashion shows for summer clothing are held
in the autumn to allow six months for manufacture. However, this pattern is rapidly
changingwith customer demand for so-called fast fashion where stores change
the designs on show every few weeks, rather than twice per year. This emphasis on
speeding up production has led to concentration in the industry with fewer larger
suppliersto take advantage of economies of scale (for instance in purchasing) and
to simplify the number of relationships that must be maintained by retailers.
This trend is now more noticeable in the clothing sector with the growth of full
package companies that are able to supply quick time delivery orders to big retailers (Allwood et al. 2006). Downstream textile finishing and dyeing processes are
being integrated into textile weaving factories and further integrated with clothing
manufacture and the distribution networks. Such integration supports rapid servicing of the demand for fast fashion by avoiding the build up of stock characteristic of long supply chains and providing shorter lead times. There is also a trend
towards investing in increased capacity and introducing new industrial robotics:
substituting expensive labour with novel technologies. A variant of such single
company vertical integration also in evidence is the development of clusters of
businesses supporting each other through regional integration (FIAS 2006).
Given this panorama, there is no doubt that the textile (and fashion) industry
is significant to our economy. However, within the context of sustainability, this
industry commonly operates to the detriment of environmental and social factors
(Gardetti and Torres 2011).
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Introduction 3
Intro.indd 3
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The clothing industry is intensive and offers basic level jobs for unskilled labour
in developed as well as developing countries. Job creation in the sector has been
particularly strong for women in poor countries, who previously had no income
opportunities other than the household or the informal sector. Moreover, it is a
sector where relatively modern technology can be adopted, even in poor countries,
at relatively low investment costs. These technological features of the industry
have made it suitable as the first rung on the industrialisation ladder in poor countries, some of which have experienced a very high output growth rate in the sector
(Nords 2004).
At the same time, the textile and clothing (and fashion) industry has high-value
added segments where design, research and development are important competitive factors. The high end of the fashion industry uses human capital intensively in
design and marketing. The same applies to market segments such as sportswear
where both design and material technology are important.
Textiles provide the major input to the clothing industry, creating vertical linkages between the two. At the micro level, the two sectors are increasingly integrated
through vertical supply chains that also involve the distribution and sales activities.
Indeed, the retailers in the clothing sector increasingly manage the supply chain of
the clothing and textiles sectors.
The textile and clothing industry includes:
Obtaining and processing raw materials, i.e. the preparation and production
of textile fibres. Natural fibres include, among others, cotton, wool, silk, flax
and hemp. Manufactured fibres include fibres resulting from the transformation of natural polymers (cellulosic fibres such as viscose, modal, Lyocell)
or synthetic polymers (fibres from organic material such as oil, i.e. polyester,
nylon, acrylic, polypropylene) and fibres from inorganic materials (such as
glass)
Production of yarns
Production of fabrics
Finishing activities which give textiles visual, physical and aesthetic prop
erties that consumers demand, such as bleaching, printing, dyeing and
coating.
Transformation of textiles into garments that can be either fashion or nonfashion garments (the so-called clothing industry)
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Introduction 5
Textile industry
Disposal/Re-use
Use/Consumer
Retail
Distribution centres
Fashion shows***
Fashion design
Tailoring
Finishing**
Weaving
Dyeing (yarn)
Textile design
Spinning
Fibre production*
Transport
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Basically, fashion is the way in which our clothes reflect and communicate our
individual vision within society, linking us to time and space (Fletcher 2008).
Clothing is the material thing that gives fashion a contextual vision in society
(Cataldi et al. 2010).
Fashion is something that always changes, while its meaning remains unaltered.
Fashion, which is a deep cultural expression and aims directly at who we are and
how we connect to other people, frequently suggests a passing trend, something
transient and superficial.
As Walker (2006) points out, these negative connotations of fashion pertain only
to the way in which it is manifested and used. Change itself is inherently neither
positive nor negativeit is the nature of the change that matters. Sustainability, by
contrast, has to do with long-term perspective. Fashion can be defined as the discarding of clothes that are fully functional for purely semiotic or symbolic reasons
(Koefoed and Skov undated). The fact that the production and use of fashion garments generate a great amount of waste, would make it appear as an impediment
for sustainability.
But, beyond these contradictions, fashion should not necessarily come into conflict with sustainable principles. Indeed, it has a role in the promotion and achievement of sustainability and it may even be a key element in working towards more
sustainable ways of living (Walker 2006)
According to Hethorn and Ulasewicz (2008), fashion is a process, is expressed
and worn by people, and as a material object, has a direct link to environment. It
is embedded in everyday life. So, sustainability within fashion means that through
the development and use of a thing or a process, there is no harm done to the people or the planet, and that thing or process, once put into action, can enhance the
well-being of the people who interact with it and the environment it is developed
and used within.
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Introduction 7
Textile industry
CO2 emissions
Waste
Pesticides
Water
Genetic
conditions
and fair
prices
Artificial
fibres (oil)
Chemical
products
Water
Energy
Waste
Labour
conditions
Human rights
Sustainability as
an obstacle
Disposal/Re-use
Use/Consumer
Retail
Distribution
centres
Fashion shows
Fashion design
Tailoring
Finishing
Weaving
Dyeing (yarn)
Spinning
Textile design
Fibre production
Transport
Landfills
Detergent
Water
Energy
Bulimia
Anorexia
Stress
Price
pressure
Subsidies
Suppliers
Energy
CO2
emissions
Packaging
Regarding the obtaining of fibre as raw material, the use of pesticides during
this process leads to health problems for workers, causes soil degradation and the
loss of biodiversity. Water is such a necessary element in the processing of cotton
in particular, that this crop has been called the thirsty crop. While the use of agrochemicals tends to be reduced, the use of genetically modified organisms for such
purposes could lead to another type of impact.
Abuses of working conditions are also commonly seen in other stages of these
industries; many times, human rights are violated in so-called sweatshops which
are characterised by low wages and excessive working time. The risks are even
greater if health and safety systems are not appropriate.
In turn, many of the synthetic fibres are derived from a non-renewable resource
such as oil. In general, environmental abuse combines with ethical issues when
there is an excessive use of water and when land for food production is usurped.
Considering the whole textile chain, from spinning to finishing, it cannot be
ignored that the use of chemicals may have carcinogenic and neurological effects,
may cause allergies and may affect fertility. During these processes, large amounts
of water and energy are used and, in general, non-biodegradable wastes are
produced.
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In the marketing and sales processes, subsidies and quotas with great impact
on developing countries arise. The lack of international regulation on these issues
creates a winlose scenario. In addition, prices should allow a fair distribution
of profit throughout the supply chain. These stages also involve the use of energy
and lots of packaging as well as the generation of carbon emissions (CO2). The
paradox, in this case, is that for its survival, the workforce depends on a system
that seems to be destroying the worlds capacity to withstand such a force. In both
textile and fashion design, sustainability is, in general, perceived as an obstacle.
Finally, major impacts derived from transport, are carbon emissions and waste
generation.
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Introduction 9
It is also important to consider the large amount of waste caused through consumption.
According to Kate Fletcher (2008), the process of transforming the industry into
something more sustainableand more sensitive to our needstakes time. It is a
long-term commitment to a new way of producing and consuming that requires
widespread personal, social and institutional change. In the shorter term, there
exist other, more easily won, opportunities to tackle consumers patterns, such as
those that come from subverting well-recognised social and psychological mechanisms that induce blind consumption such as: the pressure to compare themselves
to others, such as through the accumulation and display of possessions; the continuous replacing of things with their updated versions; the cultural obligation to
experience everything and buy things accordingly; and the constant consumption
as part of a continuous process of identity formation.
Intro.indd 9
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Some years later, in 2005, R.S. Blackburn as editor, published Biodegradable and
Sustainable Fibres, while in 2006, Youjiang Wang published Recycling in Textiles. In
2007, M. Miraftab and A.R. Horrocks, both as editors, published Ecotextiles: The
Way Forward for Sustainable Development in Textiles, which presents a selection of
23 works, submitted at the EcoTextile 2004 Conference (University of Bolton, UK)
while in the same year, the publishing house Earth Pledge released Future Fashion:
White Papers, which was the first book to integrate the issue of fashion in relation
to sustainability.
In January 2008, Kate Fletcher published Sustainable Fashion and Textiles:
Design Journeys, a work in which she presents information about sustainable
impacts of fashion and textiles, alternative practices for global sustainability,
design and social innovation concepts. Fletcher challengesholisticallyexisting
ideas about the essence of sustainability in the fashion and textile industry. Also at
the beginning of 2008, more precisely in February, two books were published: EcoChic: The Fashion Paradox by Sandy Black, who shows the relationship between
fashion and the environment, and Sustainable Fashion, Why Now? A Conversation about Issues, Practices, and Possibilities, edited by Janet Hethorn and Connie
Ulasewicz.
By 2009, R.S. Blackburn, again as editor, presented Sustainable Textiles: Life Cycle
and Environmental Impact, a book which reviews the different path to obtain more
sustainable textile materials and technologies, and Liz Parker and Marsha A. Dickson published Sustainable Fashion: A Handbook for Educators, which presents
practical ideas on how to teach and integrate environment and social aspects in the
fashion industry. Also in the same year, V. Ann Paulins and Julie L. Hillery presented
Ethics in the Fashion Industry, which addresses the complex aspects of the fashion
industry, and Marsha A. Dickson, Suzzanne Loker and Molly Eckman presented
Social Responsibility in the Global Apparel Industry, which introduces the reader
to the social and environmental aspects of the clothing industry accompanied
by an analysis of how enterprises can improve their (social) responsibility across
their value chain. A year later, in 2010, Sass Brown presented those companies that
are making the difference in the field of sustainable fashion design in her book
Eco-Fashion.
Alison Gwilt and Timo Rissanen published, in 2011, Shaping Sustainable Fashion: Changing the Way We Make and Use Clothes, which illustratesdivided into
four areascreative solutions along the life-cycle of garments, while Marion I.
Tobler-Rohr, also in 2011, presented the Handbook of Sustainable Textile Production, which contains an important compilation of economic, technical and
environmental data in the manufacturing textile chain, becoming a key piece to
integrate sustainable development into textiles.
In 2012, Fashion & Sustainability: Design for Change was published by Kate
Fletcher and Lynda Grose, a book which examines how sustainability has the
potential to transform the fashion system and introduces innovative people that
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Introduction 11
work on it. Also in the same year, Gardetti and Torres were guest editors for a special
issue of The Journal of Corporate Citizenship on Textiles, Fashion and Sustainability, which presents six academic works on the subject.
The Global Compact is a joint initiative of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
(ECLAC) and the International Labour Organisation (ILO), aimed at fostering the
development of corporate social responsibility, promoting human rights, labour
standards, environmental stewardship and anti-corruption. The main objective of
the Global Compact is to facilitate the alignment of business operations and strategies with ethical objectives universally agreed and internationally applicable, in
order to achieve a global and inclusive economy (Kell 2003). This process allows the
United Nations to know in which way to work with other sectors, particularly the
private sector (Annan 2004).
Table 1 shows the UN Global Compacts ten principles and the application areas.
The principles are inspired by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the
International Labour Organisations Declaration on Fundamental Principles and
Rights at Work, the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development and the
United Nations Convention against Corruption.
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Areas
Principles
Human rights
Labour
Environment
Anti-corruption
10. Businesses should work against corruption in all its forms, including
extortion and bribery
Miguel Angel Gardetti and Ana Laura Torres have been founders and are currently coordinators of the Sustainable Textile Centre,4 which is the first initiative
with an academic and research profile in Latin America promoting a holistic,
multidimensional and more sustainable vision of the textile and fashion sector,
through knowledge generation and transfer, education and capacity building, and
the development of strategic partnerships. The Centre adheres to the Principles
for Responsible Management Education,5 principles that have been agreed with
different schools of business and academic associations from around the world,
which are intended to be a guiding framework on which the bases of a common
and integrated education settle, within an increasingly globalised society, which
requires new values for a more sustainable development of the world. These principles are shown in Table 2.
4 For further information: www.ctextilsustentable.org.ar
5 For further information: www.unprme.org. Within this frameand based on a mailing
exchange between Jonas Haertle, Head of the Principles for Responsible Management
Education (PRME) secretariat of the United Nations Global Compact Office, and Miguel
Angel Gardetti from the Sustainable Textile Centrethere exists an initiative for the creation of a working group on textiles, fashion and sustainability, that could be pursued if
the Schools of Business adhering to the Principles express interest in this and if financial
resources to sustain the activities are obtained.
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Introduction 13
Principle 1
Principle 2
Values: We will incorporate into our academic activities and curricula the
values of global social responsibility as portrayed in international initiatives
such as the United Nations Global Compact
Principle 3
Principle 4
Principle 5
Principle 6
The book
This book is a complement to the special issue of The Journal of Corporate Citizenship on Textiles, Fashion and Sustainability. As with the call for papers for the
special issue, the call for papers for this book intended to explore the different
dimensions of the textile, clothing and fashion industry. This call attracted 60 submissions, 53 of which were invited to the second round for full manuscript review.
Finally, and with the help of the review panel throughout this process, 23 top-
quality papers were selected which deal with the essential aspects in these areas.
For a better understanding, the book has been divided into four sections, which
are presented below:
1. The systemic vision and the value chain in the textile and fashion industry,
which includes chapters dealing with a broad vision of the industry, the supply chain, processes, design and the disposition phase.
2. Marketing, brands and regulatory aspects in the textile and fashion industry, involves chapters about brands, retailers, communication strategies and
regulatory aspects.
Intro.indd 13
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3. The practice in textiles and fashion, section in which several cases related to
the industry are presented.
4. Consumer: purchase, identity, use and care of clothing and textiles
The first section, The systemic vision and the value chain in the textile and fashion industry, begins with a chapter by Carlotta Cataldi, Crystal Grover and Maureen Dickson called Slow fashion: Tailoring a strategic approach for sustainability
which explores a strategic approach to move the fashion industry towards sustainability. Instead of focusing on the unsustainable mainstream fast fashion model,
the authors took an appreciative look at the Slow Fashion movement. Further on,
Lynda Grose, in her chapter Wisdoms from the fashion trenches, gives voice to the
insights of individuals working in the fashion trenches. She maintains that, as a
collective, they quietly challenge fashion industry norms and open up more opportunities to inspire change for sustainability.
The next chapter, From principle to practice: Embedding sustainability in clothing supply chain strategies, by Alison Ashby, Melanie Hudson Smith and Rory
Shand, undertakes to understand how firms can address their responsibilities
across the supply chain.
Kristin Fransson, Yuntao Zhang, Birgit Brunklaus and Sverker Molander then
present a chapter describing the information flows regarding chemicals in textile
supply chains, entitled Managing chemical risk information: The case of Swedish
retailers and Chinese suppliers in textile supply chains. Harrie W.M. van Bommel,
in his chapter based on quantitative research among fashion/clothing companies in the Netherlands, Innovation power of fashion focal companies and participation in sustainability activities in their supply network, poses the question
of the extent to which the innovation characteristics of the focal company (the
innovation power) itself and the cooperation characteristics of its supply network
can explain the sustainability strategy in its supply network. The sixth chapter that
composes this first part bears the title Sustainable colour forecasting: The benefits of creating a better colour trend forecasting system for consumers, the fashion
industry and the environment, written by Tracy Diane Cassidy. Her chapter refers
to the benefits of changing the colour forecasting process and the implications that
this proposal has for the industry. It sets out the theory of planned obsolescence
and explains how the current process contributes to product waste within the fashion retail sector. A better system is then given with an overview of how this could
promote style rivalry to provide a longer-term solution.
In relation to design, two chapters are presented. One of them, Fashioning use:
A polemic to provoke pro-environmental garment maintenance by Tullia Jack,
argues that a consideration of the way clothes are used allows designers to embed
pro-environmental practices in garments with vast resource conservation potential, and this is supported by examples of garment design that shape the way people
wash clothes. The second one, by Lynda Grose, focuses on the educational aspect.
She wonders how a designer of material goods is to practise responsibly. The
author looks reflectively and critically at the undergraduate Sustainable Fashion
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Introduction 15
Design classes taught at California College of the Arts. The chapter, entitled Fashion design education for sustainability practice: Reflections on undergraduate level
teaching, aims to note successes and continued challenges, including institutional
inflexibility, societys perception of design and mounting economic pressures on
students.
Closing this first section, two chapters dealing with the disposal phase are presented. The first one, Upcycling fashion for mass production, is written by Tracy
Diane Cassidy and Sara Li-Chou Han. Here, the authors explore the concept of
upcycling fashion on a mass industrial scale as a potential long-term solution to
the textile waste issue. The upcycling process is then described in a fashion context. The challenges that the industry would need to address are highlighted and
some suggestions for a way forward are given. The second one, Creating new from
that which is discarded: The collaborative San Francisco Tablecloth Repurposing
Project, is by Connie Ulasewicz and Gail Baugh. This chapter chronicles the challenges and innovations of industry professionals in the San Francisco Bay Area
sewn products trade association, PeopleWearSF as they design, manufacture and
market new products from the repurposed tablecloths.
The second part of the book, Marketing, brands and regulatory aspects in the
textile and fashion industry, opens with a chapter written by Ines Weller called
Sustainable consumption and production patterns in the clothing sector: Is green
the new black? This chapter first presents the way in which supply and demand in
ecological clothing has developed over the last 20 to 30 years in Germany. It then
goes on to give an overview of the important ecological and social hot spots in the
textile chain and presents the requirements for sustainable consumption and production patterns in the clothing sector based on the ecological hot spots identified.
Later, Cameron Neil, Eloise Bishop and Kirsten Simpson present the chapter
Redefining Made in Australia: A fair go for people and planet. This chapter discusses the challenge (and opportunities) for Australian fashion brands of becoming ethical and green and also the authors briefly discuss the state of the Australian
fashion industry, the local and global context of ethical and sustainable fashion,
and introduce Ethical Clothing Australia. The third chapter presented in this part
of the book is by Iain A. Davies and Carla-Maria Streit, and is titled Sustainability
isnt sexy: An exploratory study into luxury fashion. The authors wonder if there is
room for sustainability in the high-end luxury fashion market and discuss the role
of ethics in luxury fashion markets.
Ilaria Pasquinelli and Pamela Ravasio then present Ethical fashion in Western
Europe: A survey of the status quo through the digital communications lens. The
authors argue that from fast fashion to couture, the sustainability agenda can no
longer be ignored by the fashion industry. The acknowledgement and reputation of
efforts, however, is fully dependent on the style and content of a companys communications. In this chapter the communication strategies of 42 European fashion
brands and retailers with respect to their sustainability commitments are analysed.
Closing this part, Claude Meier presents his chapter, Effectiveness of standard
initiatives: Rules and effective implementation of transnational standard initiatives
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Intro.indd 16
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Introduction 17
objective of this research is to explore identity constitution processes of entrepreneurial ecodesigners. More specifically, with a sociomaterial approach, this chapter considers the constitutive interaction of meaning and material in processes of
identity formation of ecodesigners. Last, Helen Goworek, Tom Fisher, Alex Hiller,
Tim Cooper and Sophie Woodward make their contribution with the chapter Consumers attitudes towards sustainable fashion: Clothing usage and disposal, which
explores consumers views in relation to the sustainability of clothing maintenance
and divestment and the potential impact of these views on the clothing and textiles
industry.
Figure 3 shows the relationship between the chapters in this book and the different components of the textile, clothing and fashion industry.
Fachin
Ashby et al.
Neil et al.
Cataldi et al.
Fransson et al.
Poldner
Textile industry
Pasquinelli et al.
Davies et al.
Perry
Grose
Weber et al.
Jack
Disposal/Re-use
Use/Consumer
Retail
Distribution
centres
Tailoring
Fashion design
Ulasewicz et al.
Cassidy
Weller
Fashion shows
Meier
Finishing
Weaving
Dyeing (yarn)
Spinning
Textile design
Fibre production
Transport
Goworek et al.
Heidebrech et al.
van Bommel
Larsson et al.
Cassidy et al.
Grose
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Jensen et al.
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Introduction 19
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